Activity -1

Name: Madhav Tiwari

Roll No.: 17110079

Q1. Because of lockdown in my area I wasn’t able to find a masonry wall in my nearby area.

Q2.

i. Frog is an indentation made on one face of the brick which usually represents the initials of
the manufacturer. The purpose of frog is to keep a bond between mortar and the brick.
ii. Perforated bricks are those bricks in which the small holes/perforations exceed 25% of their
volume. The limit on water absorption of perforated bricks is 15% by weight when immersed
for 24 hours.
If brick absorbs significant amount of water then it may affect the hydration of mortar
which will result in poor bonding between bricks and mortar. (Ref.: Bakar, B. H. A., & Brook,
J. J. Influence of Unit Water Absorption on Deformation of Masonry.)
iii. Hollow bricks are those on which the holes are larger than 20mm wide, which exceed 20% of
its volume but in perforated bricks holes are not allowed to exceed 15mm except for circular
holes in which holes are allowed up to 20mm.
Cellular bricks are those in which holes are closed at one end, exceeding 20% of its volume
but in case of hollow bricks no open holes are closed.
iv. Facing bricks are rectangular shaped bricks with sharp straight right angles edges and are
thoroughly burnt of uniform colour. These bricks are used in exposed face of the brickwork
without any plaster.
v. Clay brick consists of chemical compounds: silica (50-60%) and alumina (20-30%) with
varying amounts of metallic oxides like iron and magnesium and lime.
vi. Presence of alkali (Lime) prevents the shrinkage of raw bricks. Sand alone is infusible at kiln
temperature but in presence of lime sand slightly fuses and acts like a hard-cementing
material for brick particles. For a good brick a small amount of alkali should be present in a
finely powdered state if alkali is present in large amount then it will cause the brick to melt
and it will lose its shape.
vii. According to IS: 2117-1975 [5] a quick filed test for selection of soil for manufacturing of
brick is:
First the soil is ground to fine powder and then mixed with sufficient water. Then it is
kneaded into a plastic mass of sufficient consistency. Now with this lump of soil, balls of 8cm
are formed using hands and then these balls are dried in sun. If the ball has deformed on
drying and gets crumbled on applying little pressure then it means that the soil content is
excessive and if ball becomes hard but shows crack then it may have less soil content.
Depending upon the observation soil is modified and tested again.
viii. Manufacturing of bricks consists of basically five stages:
a. Selection of site: A site is selected from which the raw material is taken from ground.
b. Preparation of clay: In this method the top layer of soil is removed around 200 mm
and then it is made free from particles like gravel, coarse sand etc., then soil is left in
heaps to exposed weather so the soil can develop homogeneity. Then the blending
of soil is done after adding some ingredients. And at last tempering of soil is done by
adding enough water for easy mixing and workability.
c. Moulding: There are two ways of moulding:
 i. Hand-moulding: These moulds are rectangular boxes open at the top and
bottom are made of wood or steel.
ii. Machine moulding: The bricks are manufactured using machines and the
bricks are mould by two main method stiff-mud process and dry-press
process.
d. Drying: The bricks are dried to reduce the moisture content to an equilibrium under
atmospheric conditions.
e. Firing: In this stage brick is burnt properly to give hardness and strength to bricks.
Three important stages in burning of bricks are:
i. Water smoking: most of the water is given off
ii. Oxidation: combustion of carbonaceous matter and the conversion of iron
pyrites
iii. Vitrification: At temperature above 800o C, the finest particle of brick melts
and fills pores and binds the brick particles together.
ix. The following tests should be conducted to check the suitability of brick for construction:
a. Water absorption
b. Compressive strength
c. Efflorescence
d. Warpage
e. Flexural strength
f. Shape and size
g. Hardness
h. Soundness
x. Drying Shrinkage: The difference between the length of specimen which has been immersed
in water and then subsequently dried to constant length, all under specified conditions;
expressed as a percentage of the dry length of the specimen. (Ref.: Cl. 3.3 IS 2185 -2005)

For burnt clay bricks the commonly used drying shrinkage limit is from 0.008% to 0.10%
(Walker, 1995, 1999; Walker & Stace, 1996).
(Ref.: F.V. Riza, I.A. Rahman,17 - The properties of compressed earth-based (CEB) masonry
blocks, Editor(s): F. Pacheco-Torgal, P.B. Lourenço, J.A. Labrincha, S. Kumar, P. Chindaprasirt,
Eco-Efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks,
Woodhead Publishing,2015,Pages 379-392,ISBN 9781782423058,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-305-8.00017-6.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781782423058000176))
Drying Shrinkage of Calcium Silicate Bricks (Ref.: Cl. 7.2 Table -1 IS: 4139 – 1989)
Class Designation Drying Shrinkage ( % of wet length)
7.5 0.06
10 0.0
15 0.04
20 0.04

Q3.

i.
a. Twenty (or more according to the size of stack) whole bricks shall be selected at
random from the sample selected.
 b. All blisters, loose particles of clay and small projections shall be removed. They shall
then be arranged upon a level surface successively as indicated in below figure in
contact with each other and in a straight line.

Source: Brick and Reinforced Brick Structures by P. Dayaratnam

c. The overall length of the assembled bricks shall be measured with a steel tape or
other suitable inextensible
d. If for any reason it is found impracticable to measure bricks in one row, the sample
may be divided into rows of 10 bricks each which shall be measured separately to
the nearest millimetre. All these dimensions shall be added together.
(Ref.: Cl. 6.2.1 IS 1077 -1992)

ii. Faced Wall- A wall in which facing and backing of two different materials are bonded
together to ensure common action under load. (Ref. : Cl. 2.21.2 IS 1905 -1987)
Veneered Wall - A wall in which the facing is attached to the backing but not so bonded
as to result in a common action under load. (Ref.: Cl. 2.21.3 IS 1905 -1987)
iii. The maximum minimum 28 days strength possible for H2 mortar is 7.5 N/mm2. (Ref.:
Table 1 Cl. 3.2.1 IS 1905 -1987)
iv. Quantification of strength of masonry mortars is done on the basis of compressive
strength achieved by the mortar after 28 days and for different mix proportion it has
different strength and has been divided into different grades like H1, H2, M1, M2 etc.
(Ref.: Table 1 Cl. 3.2.1 IS 1905 -1987)
While the common burnt clay bricks have been classified on the basis of average
compressive strength and class designation has been given to each value.
(Ref.: Table 1 Cl. 4.1 IS 1077 -1992)
v. Masonry Column: An isolated vertical load bearing member, width of which does not
exceed four times the thickness. (Ref.: Cl. 2.3.1 IS 1905 -1987)
vi. For solid walls or faced walls stiffened effective thickness shall be the actual thickness.
by cross walls, appropriate stiffening coefficient may be determined from Table 6 on the
assumption that the cross walls are equivalent to piers of width equal the thickness of
the cross wall and of thickness equal to three times the thickness of stiffened wall.
For e.g. if thickness of pier, tp = 460 mm, thickness of wall, wp = 230 mm, thickness of
cross wall, tw = 230 mm and C-C spacing of pier, Sp = 1380 mm then Sp/wp = 6 and
tp/tw=2 then stiffening coefficient=1.4
vii. Permissible compressive stress in masonry shall be based on the value of basic
compressive stress (fb) as given in Table 8 and multiplying this value by factor known as
stress reduction factor (ks). As the height-to-width ratio increases the basic compressive
stress increases i.e. the permissible compressive stress also increases.
(Ref.: Cl. 5.4 IS 1907-1987)
viii. Traditional brick: Permissible mortar thickness = 0.25 inch (0.635 cm)
Modular Brick: Permissible mortar thickness = 1 cm
(Ref.: Cl. 3.1 IS 2212-1991)
ix. Cavity Wall - A wall comprising two leaves, each leaf being built of masonry units and
separated by a cavity and tied together with metal ties or bonding units to ensure that
the two leaves act as one structural unit, the space between the leaves being either left
 as continuous cavity or filled with a non-load bearing insulating and waterproofing
material. So, cavity walls are desirable in severe exposure conditions.
(Ref.: Cl. 2.22.1 IS 1907-1987)
x. For masonry in buildings’ subject to vibration of machinery, the grade of mortar shall not
be less than MM 3. (Ref.: Cl. 7.1.4 IS 2250-1981)

Q4.

i. Types of failure mechanisms in masonry prism loaded perpendicular to the bed joint
under axial compression:
a. Conical type shear compression failure
b. Vertical cracking
ii. In figure 5.5(c)-point A represents uniaxial tensile strength of the unit and point F
represents the stress in the mortar. The line EC represents the ideal failure envelope of
mortar under triaxial compression and line AB represents the idealized failure of unit
under axial compression- biaxial lateral tension.
iii. Prism with height to thickness ratios around two usually exhibits conical shear
compression failure. It is observed that the strength of prism decreases with increasing
height in hollow block masonry, grouted block masonry and clay brick masonry.
iv. Both the compressive and tensile strength of unit brick has significant effect on the
strength of prism because prism fails when the unit are sufficiently weakened by
cracking. From the plot it can be seen that the prism compressive strength increases as
brick compressive strength increases but saturates after a point.
v. Generally, the full-scale wall tests have lower compressive strength than prism strength
because of the factors like slenderness or uneven distribution of load over the wall. But
in case of short masonry will uniformly distributed load it is observed that it has higher
compressive strength than corresponding unconfined prism strength.
vi. Failure mechanism in masonry prism loaded parallel to the bed joint:
The below figure shows the failure mode in masonry prism loaded parallel to the bed
joint.
 Source: Masonry Structures: Behaviour and Design by R. Drysdale, and A. Hamid

It has been observed from previous research that the compressive strength of masonry
parallel to bed joint is less than compressive strength of masonry normal to bed joint.
When the parallel stresses are applied on the bed joints it has been observed that
ungrouted and grouted prism shows similar mode of failure in which the vertical
splitting across the central webs occurs due to tensile stresses developed within the
bricks. Mortar strength and the head joint plays a significant role on the behaviour of
prism.
Ref.: Kaaki , T. (n.d.). BEHAVIOR AND STRENGTH OF MASONRY PRISMS LOADED IN
COMPRESSION. Retrieved from
https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/34593/Kaaki-Tamara-MASc-
CIVL-July-2013.pdf?sequence=3
vii. In combined axial compression and flexure that wall is subjected to in-plane and out-
plane bending because of eccentrically applied load, lateral wind etc. and in axial
compression the wall is under vertical compression only.
In the failure mechanism of prism under combined axial compression and flexure an
assumption is made that unit exhibits linear elastic behaviour and zero tensile strength.
In prism made of solid units, the maximum stress at extreme fibre at failure is
significantly higher than the compressive strength for concentric loading and this is
because of the strain gradient effect. A significant strain gradient effect has been
observed in grouted concrete blockwork but hollow masonry shows very little strain
gradient effect.
viii. Method to test the flexural tensile strength of out-of-plane bending of masonry are:
a. ASTM E518: In this test a stack bonded prism of height at least 450mm and either
third-point loading or uniform loading using air bag is beam tested. The beam test
gives bias result as it fails at the joint with critical combination of high bending
moment and low joint strength.
b. ASTM C1072: This test is called bond wrench test and in this test all the joints of the
prism are tested which eliminates the bias in test results. In this test a lever arm of
1.2m or longer have been used for laboratory and field test.
c. ASTM E72

The modes of failure in flexural tensile are:

a. Cracking along the bed joint

b. Cracking through head joints and masonry units in alternate courses
 c. Cracking in a toothed pattern along a combination of head and bed joints
d. Diagonal cracking

ix. There is no standardized method to measure the shear strength of masonry along
mortar bed joints. Some of the methods developed are:
a. Triplet
b. Modified Triplet
c. Couplet
d. Off-Axis Compression

For first 3 method the idea was to minimize the bending stresses on the mortar joint and
to produce uniform shear deformation along the joint. And the fourth method produces
different combinations of compressive forces normal and shear forces parallel to the
bed joint.

Some of the mode of failure are:

a. Bed joint slip: when shear force parallel to bed joint is greater than normal
compressive force then this failure occurs
b. Combined bed joint slip and splitting: higher compressive forces normal to the
bed joints produce vertical splitting along with the joint slip.
c. Splitting failure: this is a typical failure because of compression
x. The failure mode of diagonal tension test is usually through the formation of diagonal
cracks parallel to the line of action of compressive force. This test is performed on the
masonry walls because this helps to understand the factors affecting-in-plane tensile
strength of masonry.

Q5.

i. In confined masonry construction, the masonry walls carry the seismic loads and RC
confining elements are used to confine the walls.
In RC frame buildings with infills where the concrete frames are needed to carry the load. RC
confining elements are critical for the earthquake safety of a confined masonry building.
ii. FALG bricks were used for the construction of wall and burnt clay bricks were used for
foundation of structure. Higher compressive strength bricks were required for grade
confined masonry construction, but lower strength bricks were acceptable for foundation
construction and masonry infills in RC frame buildings.
iii. FALG bricks were used with strength of 9.0 MPa as per CPWD Specifications and burnt clay
bricks were used for foundation with strength of 5.0 MPa.
iv. Reinforcement ratio:
a. tie-beams = 0.55 %
b. tie-columns = 0.55 %

According to Cl. 26.5.1.1 IS 456 minimum reinforcement ratio = 0.17% and maximum
reinforcement ratio = 4%
 v. For FALG bricks maximum 12% water absorption were used for construction, while for burnt
clay bricks maximum 15% water absorption was used.
For FALG bricks average water absorption not more than 20 percent by mass up to class 12.5
and 15 percent by mass for higher classes. ( Ref.: Cl. 7.4 IS 12894-2002)
For burnt clay bricks water absorption shall not be more than 20 percent by weight up to
class 12'5 and 15 percent by weight for higher classes. ( Ref.: Cl. 7.2 IS 1077-1992)
vi. Brick masonry construction was performed using 1:1:6 cement: lime: sand mortar. The
advantage of lime in mortar is that it provides high water retention ability and also makes
the sand and cement mixture strong.
Ref.: Benefits of cement-lime mortar. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.graymont.com/en/markets/building-construction/mortar/benefits-cement-
lime-mortar#:~:text=Lime provides high water retention, lime mortar increases bond
strength.
vii.

Source: (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjt6oa0oevpAhX8ILcAHVMsC2oQjB
16BAgBEAM&url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stress-strain-curve-of-confined-concrete-
10_fig1_333609703&psig=AOvVaw317-K0ojJR0Kc6I_4fmwfY&ust=1591466649111264

viii. The typical dimension of tie column is:

a. cross-sectional dimensions :350 mm square
b. reinforcement consisted of six 12 mm diameter longitudinal reinforcing bars and 8
mm closed ties at 100 mm spacing c/c with 135-degree hooks.
The minimum dimension of column is 300 x 300 mm2 according to IS456
ix.
a. Toothing size. Initially, the goal was to achieve a toothing size of more than 5 cm,
but after several attempts it was concluded that 5 cm is the maximum that can be
achieved while still ensuring that the toothed interface is filled with concrete
b. Footing for RC tie-columns. The project team debated whether the RC tie-columns
require column footings similar to RC frame construction, or whether it would be
adequate to start tie-column construction at the RC plinth band level. The latter
alternative was pursued to expedite the construction process and minimize
foundation costs. For that reason, the size of the RC plinth band was more robust
than what it would have been otherwise.
c. Masonry construction is labour-intensive. It was challenging to recruit both the
required number of unskilled and skilled labourers. The total required number of
workers varied. On average 1,400 workers per day were required continuously for
the first eight months.
d. The project required a significant brick supply (about 100,000 bricks/day). The
required properties were a compressive strength of 9 MPa and water absorption of
 less than 14%. A preliminary survey showed that traditional burnt clay bricks
manufactured in the Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad districts and nearby areas
generally did not possess these characteristics. Therefore, a plant for manufacturing
Fly Ash Lime Gypsum bricks was set up at the construction site.
e. Lintel band. After the lintel band was completed (concrete was cast and hardened
for 3 to 4 days), a few more courses of masonry had to be laid before the RC tie-
beams were constructed on top of the wall. This slowed down the construction
progress. It would have been more efficient to construct this portion in reinforced
concrete
x.
Area Cost in Rs. Per unit area
Faculty and Staff Housing 25,776
Hostels 21,979
Academic Buildings 42,478

Reference: Jain, S. K., Ghaisas, K. V., Basu, D., Brzev, S., Bhargava, L. K., Ghosh, I., & Rai, D. C. (2015).
Confined Masonry: For Residential Construction. Retrieved June 4, 2020, from
https://campus.iitgn.ac.in/pdf/ConfinedMasonry.pdf

Q6.

Tests to evaluate the bond strength of masonry are:

i. Four Point Bending Test: In this test the subject is simply supported and there is two-point
loading because of which a uniform maximum moment and an area of tension at the bottom
of the specimen is achieved. It has been observed that the failure always occurs at the brick
mortar interface.
ii. Bond Wrenching Test: In this test a lever is used to create a moment in a specific mortar
joint and then mortar fails where there is maximum tensile stress.

Reference: Lab 3- Evaluation of Bond Strength (n.d.). Retrieved June 4, 2020, from
https://masonrysociety.org/Masonry Lab/Lab 3/Lab-3.html

Test to evaluate the compressive strength of masonry:

In compression testing of masonry two different tests were conducted one on a single unit of brick
and other on a 6-unit prism.

First the test was conducted on a single unit of brick, a compressive load was applied on the brick
and it got crushed after a point.

The second test was conducted on 6-unit prism as the load was applied vertical cracks were
generated in the brick this is because of the internal forces generated in the brick and the mortar.

References: Lab 4- Evaluation of Compressive Strength. (n.d.). Retrieved June 4, 2020, from
https://masonrysociety.org/Masonry Lab/Lab 4/Lab-4.html
Test to evaluate the masonry arches:

In arch testing different types of arches were tested like semi-circular arch, gothic etc. these arches
were placed in the loading frame and then a vertical load was applied and it was observed when and
at which point the arch fails.

References: Lab 5- Evaluation of Arches. (n.d.). Retrieved June 4, 2020, from

https://masonrysociety.org/Masonry Lab/Lab 5/Lab-5.html

Flat Jack Test:

This test is used to determine the properties like compressive strength and in-situ stress of the
masonry structures.

The setup of this test consists of:

i. Flexible steel envelope (very thin so that it fits within the masonry mortar joint)
ii. Hydraulic jack

In this test flexible steel envelope is fit within the masonry mortar joint and then it is hydraulically
pressurized to apply stress on the masonry structure. Flat jack test works on the principle of stress
relief within the masonry. For performing this test, a small amount of mortar is removed from the
joint, then a flat jack is inserted into the slot and pressurized to restore the slot to its original size.
Then the compressive stress in the masonry element is measured as the pressure required to restore
the original slot dimension.

References: [1] Non-Destructive Testing of Masonry Structures. (2017, November 11). Retrieved
from https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/ndt-testing-of-masonry-
structures/9489/#:~:text=Impact Echo Testing of Masonry Structures,A displacement transducer.

Impact echo test: In this test propagation of stress waves and flaws in masonry structures are
detected.

The setup of this test consists of three components:

i. An impact source
ii. A displacement transducer
iii. A waveform analyser

In this test a stress wave is induced on the surface of masonry structure with the help of impact
source and then stress propagation at the other end of the masonry element. The time of travel
and speed of wave propagation is analysed with the help of wave analyser.

Reference: [1] Non-Destructive Testing of Masonry Structures. (2017, November 11). Retrieved
from https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/ndt-testing-of-masonry-
structures/9489/#:~:text=Impact Echo Testing of Masonry Structures,A displacement transducer.

References:

[1] Masonry Structures: Behaviour and Design by R. Drysdale, and A. Hamid

[2] Brick and Reinforced Brick Structures by P. Dayaratnam

[3] Jain, S. K., Ghaisas, K. V., Basu, D., Brzev, S., Bhargava, L. K., Ghosh, I., & Rai, D. C. (2015).
Confined Masonry: For Residential Construction. Retrieved June 4, 2020, from
https://campus.iitgn.ac.in/pdf/ConfinedMasonry.pdf