Modified Johnson Cook

PHYSICS BASED PROCESS MODELING OF SERRATED CHIP
FORMATION IN PRECISION MACHINING OF DUCTILE ALLOYS
By
SURIL SHAH
A thesis submitted to the
School of Graduate Studies
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
Master of Science
Graduate Program in Industrial and Systems Engineering
Written under the direction of
Dr. Tuğrul Özel
And approved by
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
New Brunswick, New Jersey
May 2019
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
PHYSICS BASED PROCESS MODELING OF SERRATED CHIP
FORMATION IN PRECISION MACHINING OF DUCTILE ALLOYS
by SURIL SHAH
Thesis Director:
Dr. Tuğrul Özel
Ductility of the material can be defined as a limit until which a material can be
plastically deformed without fracture. Ductile metals and alloys have the ability to
withstand the deformation in their specific plastic region. Some of the common
ductile metals are aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium and silver. Precision cutting
of these metals has wide ranging applications in industry, however it presents
challenges due to formation of serrated chips and resulting in process irregularities
and instabilities. In this research, specially designed orthogonal cutting tests are
utilized on copper 10100 and titanium alloy Ti6Al4V at meaningful combination of
cutting conditions (feed, speed and depth of cut). Formation of serrated and
segmented chips from these experiments are investigated with digital optical
microscopy to study morphology and degree of serration. An analytical model is
developed to calculate shear stress, shear strain, and shear strain rate from the
measured forces and chip dimensions. Finite element (FE) simulations are
designed to compare the simulated output data (forces, stress, strain) with the
analytical model and the experimental data. Specifically, constitutive material
modeling using Johnson-Cook model, flow softening and/or ductile failure are
employed where suitable in FE simulations. We developed a methodology to
identify a proper set of Johnson-Cook material constitutive model parameters, flow
softening behavior, failure and damage models for the purpose of simulating
ii
serrated chip formation process in orthogonal cutting conditions. It is demonstrated
that, segmentation of chip, cutting forces, shear stress and shear strain rate can
be predicted from the simulations of the machining process rather than conducting
actual experiments.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude towards my M.S. thesis advisor,
Dr. Tuğrul Özel for his endless research work support, insightful guidance and
motivation throughout this study. I feel myself lucky to have an opportunity to work
with him during my master’s coursework.
I appreciate the advice and constructive suggestions I received from my M.S.

thesis committee members, Dr. David Coit and Dr. James Luxhøj. I would also like
to thank Dr. Melike-Baykal Gursoy and Dr. Myong K. Jeong, who served as ISE
graduate directors at Rutgers, for all their support.
I cannot thank enough my colleagues, Mr. Kaushalendra Patel and Mr. Guoliang
Liu. Their help and technical support was significant at different parts of this
research work.
I appreciate the support I received from the administrators of ISE department at

Rutgers, Ms. Cindy Ielmini, Ms. Barthi Ponnuraj, and Ms. Laura Kasica.
Finally, I want to thank my family and close friends for having faith in me and their
constant motivation.
iv
DEDICATION
To my parents and “Karina”
For their constant support and love from long distance
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS ............................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. x
LIST OF SYMBOLS.............................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
1.1 Basics of Metal Cutting ................................................................................... 3
1.2 Orthogonal Cutting ......................................................................................... 4
1.3 Chip Formation Mechanism ............................................................................ 6
1.4 Shear Zones in Orthogonal Cutting ................................................................ 8
1.5 Field Variables in Orthogonal Cutting ............................................................. 9
CHAPTER 2 ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR SERRATED CHIP

FORMATION ........................................................................... 12
2.1 Shear Strain and Strain Rate in Primary Deformation Zone ......................... 12
2.2 Specific Cutting Forces and Shear Yield Stress ........................................... 14
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ........................................................ 15
3.1 Work Material ............................................................................................... 15
3.2 Orthogonal Cutting Experiments................................................................... 16
vi
3.3 Force and Chip Measurements .................................................................... 17
3.4 Analytical Model Results............................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 PHYSICS-BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR

TITANIUM ALLOY TI6Al4V...................................................... 20
4.1 Finite Element Modeling – An Introduction ................................................... 20
4.2 Serrated Chip Formation Simulation Model using Abaqus/Explicit ............... 21
4.2.1 Friction Consideration in Simulation Model................................................ 22
4.3 Work Material Constitutive Models ............................................................... 24
4.3.1 Johnson-Cook Material Constitutive Model ............................................... 25
4.4 Material Failure and Damage Theory ........................................................... 26
4.5 Damage Initiation and Damage Evolution using Abaqus .............................. 28
4.6 Johnson-Cook Failure and Damage Model .................................................. 29
4.6.1 JC failure model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V ............................. 29
4.7 Results and Discussions............................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 5 PHYSICS BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR

COPPER 10100....................................................................... 34
5.1 Finite Element Simulations using Deform-2D ............................................... 34
5.2 Designing Serrated Chip Formation Simulation using Deform-2D ................ 35
5.3 Constitutive Material Model for Copper 10100.............................................. 36
5.3.1 Identification of JC material model parameters for copper 10100.............. 37
5.3.2 Modified material model with temperature dependent parameters and

strain softening ........................................................................ 39
vii
5.4 Consideration of Friction and Damage ......................................................... 41
5.5 Results and Discussions............................................................................... 42
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND CONTRIBUTIONS .................................. 46
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 48
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................. 52
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Turning of a metal alloy using lathe tooling (a) (Source: Wikipedia), precision
turning of copper (b) (Source: University of Cambridge, Centre for Doctoral Training
in Ultra Precision Engineering). .................................................................................. 2
Figure 1.2 The basic cutting geometry a) orthogonal cutting, b) oblique cutting
(Boothroyd, 1981). ...................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.3 Geometry of orthogonal cutting model (continuous chip)................................. 5
Figure 1.4 Types of chip formation in orthogonal cutting; a) continuous, b) discontinuous,
c) continuous with built-up edge, d) serrated chips (continuous). (Childs et al., 2000)
.................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 1.5 Deformation zones in orthogonal cutting. ........................................................ 8
Figure 1.6 Force diagram in orthogonal cutting. ............................................................... 9
Figure 1.7 Velocity diagram in orthogonal cutting. .......................................................... 10
Figure 2.1 Serrated chip formation model (Özel & Ulutan 2014). ................................... 13
Figure 3.1 Chip measurements from microscope image; minimum and maximum chip
thickness (tmin and tmax), pitch (p), and shear angle (). ........................................ 18
Figure 4.1 An example for metal cutting simulation using the Lagrangian approach with
Abaqus/Explicit (Özel et al., 2007)............................................................................ 21
Figure 4.2 Finite element simulation model of orthogonal cutting defined in
Abaqus/Explicit. ........................................................................................................ 22
Figure 4.3 Material ductile failure process. ..................................................................... 27
Figure 4.4 Comparison of experimental and simulated forces for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V
cutting conditions. ..................................................................................................... 31
Figure 4.5 Comparative studies of experimental and simulated chips. ........................... 33
Figure 5.1 Workpiece and tool mesh using Deform-2D. ................................................. 35
Figure 5.2 Graphical representation defining the methodology to obtain JC parameters.
.................................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 5.3 Flow stress curve for given JC parameters at room temperature (20 ˚C). ..... 39
Figure 5.4 Thermal softening flow stress curves at temperature. ................................... 40
Figure 5.5 Comparison of experimental and simulated forces for copper 10100. ........... 43
Figure 5.6 Comparative study of experimental and simulated chips for copper 10100... 45
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Chemical composition of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. ........................................ 15

Table 3.2 Chemical composition of copper 10100. ................................................... 15
Table 3.3 Cutting conditions for copper 10100 ......................................................... 16
Table 3.4 Cutting conditions for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. ............................................. 17
Table 3.5 Force and chip measured for copper 10100. ............................................. 18
Table 3.6 Force and chip dimensions measured for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. ................ 18
Table 3.7 Calculated shear strain and shear yield stress for copper 10100. ................ 19
Table 3.8 Shear strain and shear yield stress for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. .................... 19
Table 4.1 Thermal and mechanical properties (at room temperature 20°) ................... 24
Table 4.2 The Johnson-Cook material model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. ... 26
Table 4.3 The JC material failure model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V............ 30
Table 4.4 The results of measured and simulated thicknesses and pitch values of
serrated chips. ................................................................................................ 32
Table 5.1 Thermal and mechanical properties (at room temperature 20°). .................. 36
Table 5.2 The Johnson-Cook material model parameters for copper 10100. ............... 38
Table 5.3 Thermal softening parameters determined for copper 10100. ..................... 41
Table 5.4 The results of measured and simulated thickness values for serrated chips of
copper 10100. ................................................................................................ 44
x
LIST OF SYMBOLS
γ Rake angle []

𝛾 Shear strain rate [1/sec]
𝛿 Shear band thickness [mm]
∅seg Segmented shear angle []
µ Friction coefficient [-]
b width of cut [mm]
f Feed rate [mm/rev]
Fc Cutting force [N]
Fp Force parallel to shear plane [N]
Fs Force normal to shear plane [N]
Ft Thrust force [N]
p Pitch distance in serrated chips [mm]
R Fracture toughness [N/mm2]
S Spindle speed [rev/min]
t Undeformed chip thickness [mm]
tavg Average chip thickness [mm]
tc Chip thickness [mm]
tmax Maximum chip thickness [mm]
tmin Minimum chip thickness [mm]
vc Cutting velocity [m/min]
vch Chip velocity [m/min]
vs Shear velocity [m/min]
𝛼 Clearance angle []
𝛾 Shear strain [-]
𝜎 Normal stress [N/mm2]
𝜏 Shear stress [N/mm2]
𝜏y Shear yield stress [N/mm2]
𝜙 Shear angle []
xi
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Metal cutting is the process where unwanted material of the metal is removed in
form of chips with the use of proper cutting tools to get workpiece in required
dimensions and surface finish. Metal cutting results in two products, unwanted
material (namely chips) and finished material (final product). As per cutting tool
market report (CTMR), in USA, there is solid increase of 12.9% in consumption of
cutting tool in 2018 than the previous year (Source: U.S. Cutting Tool Institute and
The Association for Manufacturing Technology). The increasing demand of
machine tools reflects flexibility and highly precise nature of metal cutting
processes. Turning, drilling and milling are the three main type of metal cutting
processes heavily used in many industries every year.
Turning is a versatile process where cutting of cylindrical shaped workpiece is

done with the use of single point wedge shaped cutting tool. In this process,
workpiece is rotated on the spindle and cutting tool moves forward radially, axially
or in both directions. A sample of turning process is shown in Figure 1.1.
2
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.1 Turning of a metal alloy using lathe tooling (a) (Source: Wikipedia),
precision turning of copper (b) (Source: University of Cambridge, Centre for
Doctoral Training in Ultra Precision Engineering).
A lathe or computer numerically control (CNC) turning center is a type of machine

which rotates workpiece held in a chuck rigidly, so that when cutting tools are
exerted on the workpiece, it can be manufactured in a shape which has rotational
symmetry about axis of rotation. These types of machines consist of mainly four
parts: bed, tool carriage, headstock and tailstock. The headstock of the machine
holds the workpiece with required amount of pressure with the help of suitable
3
number and type of jaws. The high-speed rotation of the workpiece with the spindle
provide energy to cut the material. Tool carriage consists of different types of
required tool for the machining of a workpiece. It can be moved precisely, parallel
or perpendicular to the axis of rotation as per required cutting. The bed gives rigid
support to the machine, making sure that movement of workpiece and tool is
precise. Tailstock of the machine is centered same as the rotational axis of spindle,
which provides external support to the long cylindrical bars. In modern CNC
machines, other machining operations can also be executed by using proper jigs
and fixtures.
1.1 Basics of Metal Cutting
There are two basic configurations of cutting can be defined; (i) orthogonal cutting
and (ii) oblique cutting as illustrated in Figure 1.2. These simplified configurations
enable analytical modeling of the cutting processes. In orthogonal cutting, often
refers to two dimensional (2D) cutting, cutting edge is perpendicular (at 90°) to the
direction of motion (or cutting velocity direction). The chips are generated in a
direction normal to the cutting edge of the insert (cutting edge). While in oblique
cutting (3D cutting), cutting edge is inclined at an angle which is called an acute
angle to the direction of feed. The chip flows in a direction at an angle with normal
to the cutting edge. In orthogonal cutting, heat developed per unit area is more in
contrast with oblique cutting, which results in smaller life of tool in orthogonal
cutting. Orthogonal cutting represents only a small part of machining process.
However, it is widely used in theoretical and experimental work due to its simplicity
and 2D nature as many of the independent variables can be eliminated during
calculation.
4
Figure 1.2 The basic cutting geometry a) orthogonal cutting, b) oblique cutting
(Boothroyd, 1981).
1.2 Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal metal cutting is the most basic metal cutting processes which allows
the basic chip formation mechanism to be studied. The following process
parameters define the orthogonal cutting process.
i) Cutting speed, vc, is the relative speed between workpiece and tool in the
direction of cutting.
ii) Undeformed chip thickness, t, is the thickness of the workpiece that needs
to be removed. It is measured in orthogonal direction to the feed.
5
Chip Tool
tc γ1
vvc
Shear plane
t ø 
Workpiece
Figure 1.3 Geometry of orthogonal cutting model (continuous chip).
iii) Clearance angle, , is defined as the angle between clearance face of the
tool and work surface.
iv) Shear plane is defined as the plane along which shearing takes place when
tool is forced into work material and chip is formed.
v) Shear angle, is defined as the angle between shear plane and cutting
speed vector.
Workpiece materials used in metal cutting falls into two major categories; i) ferrous
metals, and ii) nonferrous metals. Nonferrous metals such as copper alloys,
aluminum alloy, and titanium alloys and have a wide range of applications. For
example, titanium and its alloys are extensively used lightweight applications due
to their high strength to weight ratio. Copper and its alloys are used in electrical,
automotive, and telecommunication industries. Despite having high malleability
and good resistant to corrosion, some of the nonferrous materials are considered
difficult-to-cut. Titanium and its alloys are difficult-to-cut due to formation of
serrated chips or chips with built up edge and their work hardening nature. Though
it is easy to cut cooper alloys such as brass with added lead, the toxic nature of
lead has raised environmental concerns. This research is concerned with
investigating the cutting process for ductile metal alloys i.e. copper alloy 10100
and titanium alloy Ti6Al4V with suitable cutting tools to obtain predictive physics
6
based cutting models. An adequate simulation model for orthogonal cutting could
provide benefits in revealing mechanisms of the cutting process as end-users may
easily assess machining quality without having to conduct expensive and time-
consuming physical or computational experiments.
1.3 Chip Formation Mechanism
Modeling of chip formation has been of interest to researches and scientists for
decades. Microscopic images of chips have been used heavily to observe the
different types of metal cutting processes. High speed motion photographs are
used in addition to microscopic images, to distinguish four types of chips which are
continuous, discontinuous and continuous with built up edge (see Figure 1.4).
The type of chip formation depends upon properties of workpiece material, cutting
conditions (speed, feed and depth of cut), tool geometry and ambient temperature
of process.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 1.4 Types of chip formation in orthogonal cutting; a) continuous, b)

discontinuous, c) continuous with built-up edge, d) serrated chips (continuous)
(Childs et al., 2000).
Continuous chip formation is produced during cutting of ductile materials such as

brass, copper, low carbon steel and aluminum alloys at high cutting speeds. The
tool moves forward to the material which is deformed plastically. In continuous chip
7
formation model, the workpiece material is accounted to both compression and

shear.
Discontinuous chip formation is occurred ahead of the tool and the chip has the
appearance of being made of many segments (Figure 1.4(b)) the resulting
machined surface is rough and irregular. There is a crack formation in the
deforming zone ahead of cutting edge. The crack travels with further advancement
of tool and results in formation of small lumps of chip. These lumps start moving
up with the chip. The friction force blocks the motion of crack and lumps. The
fragment of chip gets detached. The heat generated in cutting area is mostly
carried by the chip and thus it results in increasing tool life due to maintained
temperature in cutting zone. This type of chip usually occurs when machining brittle
materials, however, under certain conditions, for example slow cutting speeds and
high negative rake angles, it can occur while machining ductile materials also.
Continuous chip formation with built up edge, tends to occur at intermediate cutting
speeds when machining ductile materials but it is difficult to specify any rules for
its occurrence. This is the built-up edge which can sometimes be observed welded
to the cutting edge after a machining operation. It was shown that built-up edge
formation is cyclic in nature with the edge building up to a certain size before
becoming unstable and then breaking off.
Serrated chip formation, also known as segmented chip formation, is formation of

semi-continuous chip segments, with zones of low and high shear strain. These
chips have sawtooth like appearance. They generally occur in metals with low
thermal conductivity and strength that decreases sharply with temperature, such
as titanium alloys. In some materials, crack initiation due to severe shearing is also
observed.
Here, only continuous chips generated while machining can be taken as steady
state process. Therefore, it is the process which is assumed to apply in most
machining analysis. When the built-up edge formation or serrated chip is occurred,
they are difficult to analyze due to their non-steady state nature.
8
1.4 Shear Zones in Orthogonal Cutting
There are mainly two types of deformation zones formed, primary shear zone and
secondary shear zone in orthogonal cutting as shown in Figure 1.5. Though size,
shear angle value and other parameters in figure are not accurate, we can have a
basic idea about the location of two deformation zones.
Figure 1.5 Deformation zones in orthogonal cutting.
The primary deformation zone is where the workpiece undergoes major

deformations and shearing, and as a result a chip begins to form. The secondary
shear zone along the tool rake face is divided into two regions; i) sticking region
and ii) sliding region. In the sticking region, chip material tends to adhere to the
tool rake face and additional shearing of the chip is observed. In the sliding zone,
the chip material slides along the tool rake face. Both shear zones are observed
by temperature rise due to severe plastic deformation in primary shear zone and
due to friction in secondary zone. Strain hardening due to deformation and
softening due to temperature alter the chip formation characteristics in every step
of its formation.
9
1.5 Field Variables in Orthogonal Cutting
In the deformation zones, there are field variables can be defined such as strain,
strain rate, stress, and temperature. These are the results of forces in orthogonal
cutting process.
Figure 1.6 Force diagram in orthogonal cutting.
The forces can be represented in two components of the resultant cutting force
as, cutting force and thrust force respectively (Fig. 1.6),
𝐹 (1.1)
∅ ∅
𝐹 (1.2)
∅ ∅
Where,  is the shear stress in the shear plane assumed uniform over this plane
and equal to shear yield stress of the workpiece material. In these equations, ϕ is
the shear angle, γ1 is tool rake angle, t is the undeformed chip thickness, b is the
width of cut and β is the friction angle.
From the force diagram, forces normal and parallel to shear plan are given by,
𝐹 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ (1.3)
𝐹 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ (1.4)

10
While shear stress and normal stress can be obtained with the help of following
equations.
∅ ∅ ∅
𝜏 (1.5)
∅ ∅ ∅
σ (1.6)
Shear strain and shear strain rate are given respectively by the following
equations,
𝛾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∅ 𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ (1.7)
𝛾 (1.8)
∆ ∅ ∆
where, ∆𝑦 is the thickness of shear zone.
Figure 1.7 Velocity diagram in orthogonal cutting.
From the velocity diagram in Fig. 1.7, chip velocity and shear velocity can be
obtained by using the following equations,
∅
𝑣 𝑣 𝑟𝑣 (1.9)
∅
𝑣 𝑣 (1.10)
∅
The contact between the tool and the chip is defined with a friction coefficient and
the following formula can be obtained from the force diagram shown in Fig. 1.6.
11
μ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 (1.11)
Where Fv is the friction force on the rake face, Fn is the normal force on the rake
face.
12
CHAPTER 2
ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR SERRATED CHIP FORMATION
This chapter focuses on description of analytical modeling for serrated chip

formation. The orthogonal cutting model given previously is limited to the
continuous chip formation (without chip serration) scenario in machining. Many
researchers investigated the mechanics and dynamics of serrated chip formation
when cutting ductile alloys such as copper and titanium alloys. Cotterell & Byrne
(2008) have investigated the dynamics of chip formation and the relation between
cutting parameters and chip formation in titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. Fang et al. (2004)
provided a segmented chip formation model and investigated chip formation
mechanics in machining of aluminum alloys. In this thesis, we will utilize a
segmented chip formation model that is similar to model used by Özel & Ulutan
(2014). This model is combination of the model presented by Cotterell & Byrne
(2008), Pawade et al. (2007), Fang et al. (2004), and Subbaih & Melkote (2007).
2.1 Shear Strain and Strain Rate in Primary Deformation Zone
In this model, the serration of the chip creates a saw-tooth shape. Some
parameters such as the pitch of these chips and the shear band thickness plays
crucial role in determining the shear strain at the adiabatic shear band. Also, the
chip morphology will have peaks and valleys, which makes measurement of chip
thickness more difficult. Instead, the minimum chip thickness and maximum chip
thickness of a sample is measured, and the arithmetic average of these two is
accepted to be the experimental chip thickness.
13
Figure 2.1 Serrated chip formation model (Özel & Ulutan 2014).
The chip ratio (rc) is defined by the ratio of undeformed chip thickness (t) (or feed
in orthogonal cutting) to the average thickness of the segmented chips (tavg) that
are measured experimentally,
𝑟 (2.1)
Hence, the shear angle can be obtained from measured chip ratios using following
equation,
𝜙 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2.2)
Following this equation, the shear strain in primary zone (Fig. 1.5) can be found
and the calculation based on continuous chip formation model becomes
𝛾 (2.3)
In addition, average strain rate based on segmented chip calculations becomes

as,
14
𝛾 (2.4)
2.2 Specific Cutting Forces and Shear Yield Stress
The cutting forces in machining of ductile alloys depend on the cutting conditions
such as cutting speed and feeds. The highest forces are encountered at lower
cutting speeds and feeds. The essential result for this observation is the increasing
specific energy for shearing and the material separation as suggested by Subbaih
& Melkote (2007) as an extension to Atkins model (Atkins 2005), which will be
utilized to find the shear yield stress.
In this model, the cutting force is assumed to be equal to a linear trend with an
intercept and slope as given in the following equation,
𝐹 t (2.5)
Here, the parameter Q is the common denominator presented by,
𝑄 1 (2.6)
Where,
𝛽 𝛾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2.7)
Then, various meaningful combinations of R and 𝜏 are created, and all of the
𝑅𝑏 𝜏𝑦 𝛾 𝑏
combinations are subjected to calculation of 𝐼 and 𝑆 which are the
𝑄 𝑄
intercepts and slopes of the force graphs. When the ratio of 𝐼⁄𝑆 calculated this
way is equal to the ratio calculated from the force measurements, the calculation
is ended and fracture toughness (R) and shear yield stress (𝜏 ) of the material are
obtained, as well as the shear angle (𝜙). The calculated shear yield stress and
shear strain can be obtained which will be used as input to the Finite Element
simulations.
15
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
3.1 Work Material
In a research related to manufacturing processes, experimental results are of great

value. It is difficult and time consuming to set up and conducting experiments. For
these reasons, it is important to utilize some experimental results already gathered
by other researchers in modeling studies rather than designing and conducting all
experiments within the same study. In this thesis, experimental results from
qualified researchers were utilized in addition to the experiments conducted within
the scope of this project.
This experimental work includes orthogonal cutting tests, where the tool and
workpiece interaction results in chip formation that can be assumed in two-
dimensional plane. The deformations in the third dimension are often negligible in
this configuration, such that measured forces in the third dimension are usually not
even reported. This type of machining is not frequently used in industry, but force
and temperature measurements are gathered from these experiments that can be
utilized in developing physics-based analytical process models.
Before describing details of experimental procedures and results, chemical
composition of metal alloys has been studied, and their compositions are given in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2.
Table 3.1 Chemical composition of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.

Element Ti Al V Fe O C N H Others
% Balance 6 4 0.25 0.13 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.4
Table 3.2 Chemical composition of copper 10100.

Element Pure Copper Oxygen Content
% 99.99 0.0005
16
3.2 Orthogonal Cutting Experiments
Orthogonal cutting experiments are very easy to understand in most cases, where
machining occurs by removal of material due to coupled motion of the tool and
workpiece in orthogonal directions. The third dimension does not affect the
machining process significantly as forces in experiments are divided by the width
of cut in these experiments, which is the thickness of machined workpiece in third
dimension. A three-dimensional illustration of the process is not necessary, since
the process is symmetric in the third dimension. Depth of cut is equivalent to feed
rate, the tool motion in that direction. Cutting speed (vc) is a result of workpiece
rotation, but since this is a relative motion, one can also consider the workpiece as
constant and the tool moving towards the workpiece with cutting speed. The force
component in this direction is called the cutting force (Fc), while the force
component in the direction of width of cut is called thrust force (Ft).
The experiments obtained for cutting copper 10100 were performed with cutting
tools from synthetic diamond material with an edge radius of 0.1 µm. In the cutting
tests, a neutral rake angle (1 = 0º) tool holder was used and cutting speeds of vc
=1.98 m/min, vc = 3.96 m/min and vc =10.02 m/min at uncut chip thickness values
of t = 30 µm and t = 50 µm were applied as given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Cutting conditions for copper 10100.

Rake angle, Cutting speed, Feed
No. Tool Material γ1 [degree] vc [m/min[ t [mm/rev]
1 Diamond 0 1.98 0.03
2 Diamond 0 1.98 0.05
3 Diamond 0 3.96 0.03
4 Diamond 0 3.96 0.05
5 Diamond 0 10.02 0.03
6 Diamond 0 10.02 0.05
In this study, previously conducted orthogonal cutting tests are utilized. Orthogonal
cutting experiments for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V were performed using carbide tools
(WC/Co) as uncoated with an edge radius around r = 5 µm and coated with TiAlN
material with an edge radius around r = 10 µm (Sima and Özel 2010). In the cutting
17
tests, a neutral rake angle (1 = 0º) tool holders was used and cutting speeds of vc
= 121.9 m/min and vc = 240.8 m/min at uncut chip thickness (feed) values of t =
0.1016 mm/rev and t = 0.127 mm/rev were employed under dry cutting conditions
(no lubricant or coolant applied). The specific experimental design is shown in
Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Cutting conditions for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.

No. Tool Material Rake angle, Cutting speed, Feed,
γ1 [°] vc [m/min] t [mm/rev]
1 Uncoated WC/Co 0 121.9 0.102
5 TiAlN coated WC/Co 0 121.9 0.102
6 TiAlN coated WC/Co 0 121.9 0.127
3.3 Force and Chip Measurements
The cutting forces were measured as replicated twice by using Kistler type
dynamometer equipped with charge amplifiers and a proper data acquisition
system. These measured forces for both materials are listed in Tables 3.5 and 3.6
and they will be used to develop an analytical model which can compute shear
strain and shear yield stress along with chip dimension measurements.
The chips are collected during the test, placed in an epoxy compound, polished
and chemically etched for a cross-sectional view to inspect the chip dimensions
and chip morphology. Chip dimensional measurements typically involve using
metallurgical grade digital optical microscopy images as shown in Fig. 3.1.
18
Figure 3.1 Chip measurements from microscope image; minimum and maximum
chip thickness (tmin and tmax), pitch (p), and shear angle ().
Force and chips data measured for orthogonal cutting of copper 10100 are given
in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 Force and chip measured for copper 10100.

Maximum
Cutting Feed, Cutting Thrust Minimum chip
chip
speed, t Force, Force, thickness
thick ness,
vc [m/min] [mm/rev] Fc [N] Ft [N] tmin [mm]
tmax [mm]
1.98 0.03 116.5 5.3 0.0130 0.0150
1.98 0.05 255.5 34.9 0.0175 0.0275
3.96 0.03 140.9 19.6 0.0260 0.0330
3.96 0.05 230.5 28.0 0.0440 0.0570
10.02 0.03 125.9 11.3 0.0280 0.0330
10.02 0.05 240.0 34.0 0.0360 0.0580
Force and chips data measured for orthogonal cutting of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V are
given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Force and chip dimensions measured for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
Cutting Feed, Cutting Thrust Minimum chip Maximum chip
speed, t Force, Force, thickness, thickness,
vc [m/min] [mm/rev] Fc [N/mm] Ft [N/mm] tmin [mm] tmax [mm]
121.9 0.102 189.15 79.6 0.130 0.192
121.9 0.127 225.01 92.72 0.104 0.177
240.8 0.102 193.48 122.47 0.087 0.160
240.8 0.127 227.16 166.83 0.102 0.186
121.9 0.102 202.29 107.06 0.137 0.182
121.9 0.127 234.2 109.18 0.140 0.216
19
3.4 Analytical Model Results
Through the experiments, force and chip measurements were obtained which are
used to develop an analytical model as described in previous sections. Below are
the results for copper 10100 (Table 3.7) and titanium alloy Ti6Al4V (Table 3.8).
Table 3.7 Calculated shear strain and shear yield stress for copper 10100.
Cutting speed, Feed, Shear strain, Shear stress, Strain rate,

vc [m/min] t [mm/rev] 𝛾 [mm/mm] 𝜏 [MPa] 𝛾 [1/s]
1.98 0.03 1.158 5149.69 27907.5
1.98 0.05 1.195 4628.92 26332.3
3.96 0.03 1.186 4448.99 51402.9
3.96 0.05 1.158 4522.47 33971.8
10.02 0.03 1.165 3126.44 271569.5
10.02 0.05 1.155 2986.96 214532.4
Table 3.8 Shear strain and shear yield stress for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
Cutting speed, Feed, Shear strain, Shear stress, Strain rate,

vc [m/min] t [mm/rev] 𝛾 [mm/mm] 𝜏 [MPa] 𝛾 [1/s]
121.9 0.102 1.578431 689.41 3996056.2

121.9 0.127 1.106299 997.22 3189232.0
240.8 0.102 1.210784 766.07 6634037.9
240.8 0.127 1.133858 803.01 6386822.4
121.9 0.102 1.563725 763.16 3969525.7
121.9 0.127 1.401575 868.68 3682120.8
20
CHAPTER 4
PHYSICS-BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR TITANIUM ALLOY TI6Al4V
4.1 Finite Element Modeling – An Introduction

Early work of using Finite Element (FE) modeling in cutting processes was carried
out beginning with Klamecki (1973) and Tay et al. (1974). Since then FE modeling
of machining process has evolved into useful simulation tools. Recent literature
review on the FE modeling work can be found in Arrazola et al. (2013) and Melkote
et al. (2017).
The FE based simulation models use numerical solution methods including

Eulerian and Lagrangian approach. The Lagrangian numerical method is widely
used for simulating the chip formation from incipient state to the steady-state with
a pre-defined chip geometry assumption. In this type of analysis, mesh grid
deforms with the material, while in Eulerian approach the mesh grid is fixed, and
the work material flows through it. However, a pre-defined chip geometry is
assumed in Eulerian approach. The Lagrangian approach simulates incipient,
steady-state, intermittent, and discontinuous chip formation phases while with
Eulerian approach this is not possible. In this study, we have used the Lagrangian
approach to model orthogonal cutting process with FE simulations and by using
Abaqus/Explicit software package (Fig. 4.1).
The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software is very important to determine the
accuracy of simulation results. Among these FEA software, Ansys/LS-Dyna,
Abaqus Standard/Explicit, Deform 2D/3D, MSC Marc, and Thirdwave AdvantEdge
have been widely used in academia as well as in industry for machining processes.
In this study, Abaqus/Explicit and Deform 2D has been used due to its wide
acceptance over machining simulations and its nature of providing detailed output
for field variables.
21
Figure 4.1 An example for metal cutting simulation using the Lagrangian approach
with Abaqus/Explicit (Özel et al., 2007).
4.2 Serrated Chip Formation Simulation Model using Abaqus/Explicit
In the serrated chip formation simulations conducted in this study, the workpiece
is defined as a rectangular shape, where the cutting length (and speed) is
symbolized as an accelerated thermo-mechanical process in the horizontal
direction, and the feed is symbolized as the cutting thickness in the vertical
direction (uncut chip thickness). The elements that are defined closer to the tool
tip are smaller, allowing them to exhibit finer calculations, since the thermal and
mechanical process is mostly observed in that region. The elements that are
defined far from the tool tip are larger, allowing a smaller number of total elements
both in the tool and the workpiece, leading to a significantly decreased simulation
time.
The workpiece is created, and then divided into three sections as “Chip”, “Joint”,
and “Base”. The thickness of the “Chip” layer is equal to the feed (or uncut chip
thickness), “Joint” is modeled as the thin layer to be removed during machining
process to generate new surface and chip from workpiece. “Base” is modeled as
22
the bottom section of the workpiece which is the section left after machining as the
machined surface. High density meshing, and failure criterion are only applied to
the “Chip” and “Joint” sections to improve the simulation accuracy and speed up
the simulation meanwhile (Fig. 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Finite element simulation model of orthogonal cutting defined in

Abaqus/Explicit.
The coupled temperature-displacement plane strain elements CPE4RT element

type is adopted for workpiece, which is characterized with four-node, thermally
coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, and temperature, and reduced
integration. Work material constitutive models, boundary conditions and
simulations controls were implemented as per each cutting condition to the
simulation model.
4.2.1 Friction Consideration in Simulation Model
Frictional condition at the tool-chip interfaces is another important factor to be

considered for successful Finite Element simulation of metal cutting. As commonly
accepted, the shear stress distribution on the tool rake face can be represented as
two distinct regions:
23
1) Along the tool–chip contact area and near the cutting edge, a sticking region
forms, and the frictional shearing stress at the sticking region, f, becomes equal
to the average shear flow stress at the tool–chip interface on the chip, kchip, f
kchip; (See Eq. 4.1a)
2) Over the remainder of the tool–chip contact area, a sliding region forms, and the
frictional shearing stress, f, can be determined by the normal stress distribution
over the rake face, n, and coefficient of friction,  (See Eq. 4.1b) (Pang and Zhao
2017).
(i) In the sticking region:

f x kchip, when  σn x ≥ kchip, 0 x ≤ lp (4.1a)
(ii) In the sliding region:

f x  σn x , when  σn x kchip, lp x ≤ lc (4.1b)
where lp is the length of the sticking region and lc is the chip–tool contact length.
In the FE simulation model, sticking and sliding regions are defined by utilizing the
limiting shear stress as kchip and a friction coefficient as  so that sticking zone
ends as soon as shear stress f reaches to the limiting shear stress and sliding
contact becomes effective automatically according to the simulation condition.
In the previous work, the friction coefficient of μ = 0.5 was used for both coated
and uncoated carbide tools (Sima and Özel 2010). In fact, the TiAlN coating has
the function of reducing friction coefficient at higher cutting speeds. Therefore, a
friction coefficient of μ = 0.6, proposed by Obikawa et al. (1996), is used in this
work for uncoated carbide tool, while a friction coefficient of μ = 0.3, proposed by
Calamaz et al. (2008), is adopted for TiAlN coated carbide tool.
24
In this work, temperature dependent thermal and mechanical properties for

workpiece materials (e.g. titanium alloy Ti6Al4V and copper 10100) and tool
material (WC/Co tungsten carbide and diamond) are assigned as shown in Table
4.1.
Table 4.1 Thermal and mechanical properties (at room temperature 20°).
Titanium alloy, Carbide tool,
Material Properties Ti6Al4V WC/Co
Young's modulus [MPa] 113390 56e6
Poisson's ratio 0.31 0.3
Thermal expansion [mm.mm .°C ]-1 -1 7.06e-006 6.4e-06
Conductivity (W.m-1.°C-1) 7.2 60
Density (kg/mm ) 3 4.43e-09 1.3e-08
Specific heat (N.mm kg °C )
-1 -1 5.263e08 1.85e08
4.3 Work Material Constitutive Models
The advancement in FE modeling and simulation of machining processes has

reached to a capability to predict process outputs such as cutting forces, stresses,
strains, strain rates, and temperatures generated. However, the accuracy of these
predictions relies on the work material constitutive model describing the flow
stress, at which work material starts to plastically deform.
Several researchers have proposed specific flow stress material modes in metal
cutting. Oxley (1989) proposed that flow stress can be expressed as work
hardening behavior as given in Eq. (4.2) where initial yield stress (𝜎 ) and strain
hardening exponent (n) are written as a function of the velocity modified
temperature (TMOD) and provided such data for carbon steels. Here, temperature
and strain rate are combined into a single function.
𝜎 𝜎𝜖 (4.2)
𝑇 𝑇 1 𝑣 log (4.3)
Where 𝜎 is initial yield strength, n is the strain hardening index, T is temperature,

𝑣 is constant, 𝜀̅ is strain and 𝜀 is strain rate.
25
Oxley’s model has been utilized in modelling of orthogonal cutting for low and
medium carbon steels in conjunction with slip-line field analysis as an analytical
approach to predict forces, average strain, strain rate and temperature in primary
shear zone (Özel and Zeren 2006; Karpat and Özel 2007).
In recent studies, the Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) tests and orthogonal
cutting tests in combination with an inverse analysis method have been adopted
by researchers to obtain the flow stress data under various strain, strain rates and
temperature regimes and further to compute the unknown parameters of the
material constitutive models.
Among many other material constitutive models, Johnson-Cook (JC) material

model is widely used for high strain rate applications in which models describe the
flow stress of a material as functions of strain, strain rate and temperature effects.
4.3.1 Johnson-Cook Material Constitutive Model
The Johnson-Cook model describes the flow stress as the product of strain, strain
rate and temperature effects. i.e. work hardening, strain rate hardening, and
thermal softening (Johnson & Cook 1983).
𝜎 𝐴 𝐵 𝜀̅ 1 𝐶 ln 1 (4.4)
where, A is initial yield strength of the material at room temperature, 𝜀̅ is equivalent

plastic strain rate, 𝜀 is reference strain rate, 𝑇 is room temperature, 𝑇 is melting
temperature, n is strain hardening effect, m is thermal softening effect, C is strain
rate sensitivity.
The Johnson-Cook model assumes that the slope of the flow stress curves
independently affected by strain hardening, strain rate sensitivity and thermal
softening behaviors. Each of these sets is represented by the brackets in the
consecutive equation. Several model parameters are available in the literature for
titanium alloy Ti6Al4V as given in Table 4.2.
26
Table 4.2 The Johnson-Cook material model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
JC model Lee & Lin Lee & Lin Meyer & Kleponis Kay Seo et al.
parameter (1998) (1998) (2001) (2002) (2005)
A 782.7 724.7 862.5 1098 997.9
B 498.4 683.1 331.2 1092 653.1
n 0.028 0.035 0.012 0.014 0.0198
C 0.28 0.47 0.34 0.93 0.45
m 1 1 0.8 1.1 0.7
While, JC parameters given by Lee & Lin (1998) for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V were
utilized for the titanium cutting simulations, an analytical approach was used to
obtain JC parameters for copper 10100.
4.4 Material Failure and Damage Theory
As mentioned earlier, the capabilities of simulation software reached to the point

that they can predict the deformation behavior of materials with high complexity.
These models lack failure models which are required in design of engineering
components. The reason is that failure is physically a very complicated process.
Failure of ductile and brittle materials, both are different and depends on
parameters such as strain, temperature etc.
Often times, there are two approaches that are utilized to simulate chip serration
in the finite element cutting simulations. The first approach is modeling by
considering and using material failure models (Chen et al., 2011, Wang et al. 2016,
Childs et al., 2018). The second approach is modeling by considering for
temperature-dependent flow softening based material behavior for adiabatic
shearing (Calamaz et al., 2008, Sima & Özel 2010) To adopt the first approach, it
is important to employ proper material failure models. In recent studies, material
ductile failure criteria have been widely implemented by researchers in metal
cutting simulations. In recent studies, ductile failure criteria have been widely
implemented by researchers in machining simulations (Chen et al., 2011).
27
The theory of damage mechanics considers the process of material degradation

due to the initiation, growth and coalescence of micro-cracks/voids in a material
element under monotonic or cyclic impact, or with thermo-mechanical loading. A
valid material failure criterion should be taken in to account in the process of
progressive material degradation/damage under either static or dynamic/fatigue
loading.
Figure 4.3 Material ductile failure process.
As shown in Fig 4.3, the material ductile failure process has two stages: i) the
damage initiation stage and ii) the damage/failure evolution stage as it is related
to material separation and chip serration during cutting process. That can be
captured and explained through an integrated formulation by using JC constitutive
material model, JC material failure model, cumulative damage law and
failure/damage evolution.
28
4.5 Damage Initiation and Damage Evolution using Abaqus
Finite element modeling software, Abaqus/Explicit, offers a general framework for

material failure modeling (Zetterberg 2014) that allows the combination of multiple
failure mechanisms acting simultaneously on the same material. Material failure
refers to the complete loss of load carrying capacity that results from progressive
degradation of the material stiffness. The stiffness degradation process is modeled
using damage mechanics.
The software also offers a variety of choices of damage initiation criteria for ductile
metals, each associated with distinct types of material failure. They can be
classified in the following categories:
- Damage initiation criteria for the fracture of metals, including ductile and shear
criteria (e.g. ductile damage, or Johnson - Cook damage).
- Damage initiation criteria for the necking instability of sheet metals. These include
forming limit diagrams intended to assess the formability of sheet metal material.
In continuum mechanics the constitutive model is normally expressed in terms of

stress-strain relations. When the material exhibits strain-softening behavior,
leading to strain localization, this formulation results in a strong mesh dependency
of the finite element results in that the energy dissipated decreases upon mesh
refinement. In Abaqus, all available damage evolution models use a formulation
intended to alleviate the mesh dependency. The damage evolution law describes
the rate of degradation of the mesh element stiffness once the corresponding
initiation criterion has been reached. For damage in ductile metals, Abaqus/Explicit
assumes that the degradation of the stiffness associated with each active failure
mechanism can be modeled using a scalar damage variable. The value of scalar
damage variable (displacement at failure) should be related to minimum element
size defined in mesh and can be determined by the trial and error method
(Zetterberg 2014).
29
Among many other material constitutive models, Johnson-Cook (JC) material

model is widely used for high strain rate applications in which models describe the
flow stress of a material as functions of strain, strain rate and temperature effects.
4.6 Johnson-Cook Failure and Damage Model
According to the classical cumulative damage law, expressed in Eq. (4.5), the
material reaches the failure initiation stage at point c when 𝜔 =1.
∆
𝜔 ∑ (4.5)
where 𝜔 is the state variable, ∆𝜀̅ is the increment of equivalent plastic strain that
occurs during an integration cycle and 𝜀 is the equivalent plastic strain at failure
initiation.
Johnson & Cook (1985) proposed the general expression for the equivalent failure
strain, i.e. the JC failure model as expressed by Eq. (4.6) by utilizing torsion tests
over a range of strain rates, Split-Hopkinson bar tests over a range of temperatures,
and quasi-static tensile tests with various notch geometries. The JC failure model
has been widely adopted by researchers as the damage initiation criterion in the
metal cutting simulations using Abaqus Explicit.
𝑚
𝑝1 𝜀̅ 𝑇 𝑇𝑟
𝜀 𝑑1 𝑑2 exp 𝑑3 1 𝑑4 𝑙𝑛 1 𝑑5 (4.6)
𝜀̅0 𝑇𝑚 𝑇𝑟
In this equation, 𝑝 is the average of three normal stresses (the hydrostatic

𝑝1
pressure), 𝜎 is the equivalent von Mises stress, and is the stress triaxiality. The
parameters d1, d2, d3, d4, and d5 are the JC material failure model parameters which
are determined by material testing and experiments.
4.6.1 JC failure model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V
For the simulation of orthogonal cutting titanium alloy Ti6Al4V, it is assumed that
both material separation and chip serration are caused by material failure and
30
damage evolution. The failure and damage evolution models are employed in finite
element simulations of 2D orthogonal cutting with plane strain analysis using
Abaqus/Explicit software. The values of the JC failure model parameters for
titanium alloy Ti6Al4V that are reported as given in Table 4.3. In this study, the
failure model parameters obtained by Johnson & Holmquist (1989) have been
adopted in the cutting simulations.
Table 4.3 The JC material failure model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
JC failure model parameter Johnson & Holmquist (1989) Kay (2002)

d1 -0.09 -0.09
d2 0.25 0.014
d3 -0.5 0.27
d4 0.014 3.87
d5 3.87 0.48
4.7 Results and Discussions
All cutting conditions in the orthogonal cutting tests were simulated by using the
FE model describe in the previous section. Predicted forces from these FE
simulations are compared with measured results as shown in Fig. 4.4, Almost all
cutting parameters (cutting speed and feed) and coating condition (uncoated
WC/Co or TiAlN coated WC/Co) have important effects on the cutting forces. The
cutting forces generally increased with the cutting speed and feed. It was observed
that measured thrust forces are increased sustainably at the higher cutting speed
at both levels of feed.
31
V 121.9 m/min f 0.102 mm/rev Uncoated V 121.9 m/min f 0.127 mm/rev Uncoated
250. 250.
200. 200.
Experimental Experimental
150. Ft_E 150. Ft_E
100. Experimental 100. Experimental

Fc_E Fc_E
50. 50.
Simulated Ft_S Simulated Ft_S
. .
Ft_E Fc_E Ft_S Fc_S Ft_E Fc_E Ft_S Fc_S
Simulated Fc_S Simulated Fc_S
Experimental Simulated Experimental Simulated
Cutting(Fc) and Thrust(Ft) forces Cutting(Fc) and Thrust(Ft) forces
V 240.8 m/min f 0.102 mm/rev Uncoated V 240.8 m/min f 0.127 mm/rev Uncoated
250. 250.
200. 200.
150. Ft_E 150. Ft_E

Fc_E Fc_E
50. 50.
. .
V 121.9 m/min f 0.102 mm/rev TiAlN V 121.9 m/min f 0.127 mm/rev TiAlN
Coated Coated
250. 280.
200. 240.
200.
150. Ft_E Ft_E
160.
Fc_E 80. Fc_E
50.
40.
. .
Figure 4.4 Comparison of experimental and simulated forces for titanium alloy
Ti6Al4V cutting conditions.
32
From the comparison of simulated and measured cutting forces in Fig. 4.4, it is
obvious that cutting forces are in close agreements within not more than 15%
prediction error in most cutting conditions, which proved that this proposed FE
simulation model possesses a good accuracy. However, the simulated thrust
forces are not all in close agreements with the measured ones. The error between
the measured and predicted thrust forces under the cutting speed of 121.9 m/min
is mostly not more than 15%, while the error under the cutting speed of 240.8
m/min is rather larger. It has been observed that the higher thrust forces under the
high cutting speed are mainly produced by the adhered titanium alloy material at
elevated temperatures on the rake face as the heat generation increases, which
cannot be easily modeled in the FE simulation and thus this situation results in
rather larger prediction error. A detailed comparison of simulated serrated chips
with microscopic chip images is shown in Fig. 4.5. The results of measured and
simulated serrated chip thicknesses and serration pitch distances are given in
Table 4.4. It is observed that almost all simulated chip geometries investigated
depict periodic formation of serrated and uniform sized chip segments after a large
single segment. In addition, close agreements between the simulated and
captured serrated chip shapes and morphologies are observed. It should be noted
that the cutting conditions used in these comparisons included the effects of cutting
speed, feed and tool coating on the formation of serrated chips.
Table 4.4 The results of measured and simulated thicknesses and pitch values of
serrated chips.
Cutting Experimental Simulation

Rake Feed,
speed,
Tool material angle, tu
vc tmin tmax P tmin tmax P
γ1(°) (mm)
(m/min) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Uncoated WC/Co 0 240.8 0.102 0.087 0.16 0.08 0.093 0.14 0.055
Uncoated WC/Co 0 240.8 0.127 0.102 0.186 0.095 0.09 0.18 0.086
TiAlN coated WC/Co 0 121.9 0.102 0.137 0.182 0.075 0.09 0.16 0.07
TiAlN coated WC/Co 0 121.9 0.127 0.14 0.216 0.1 0.095 0.19 0.075
33
(a) Uncoated WC/Co, (b) Uncoated WC/Co,

vc = 240.8 m/min vc = 240.8 m/min
t = 0.102 mm t = 0.127 mm
(c) TiAlN coated WC/Co, (d) TiAlN coated Insert,

vc = 121.9 m/min, vc = 121.9 m/min
t = 0.102 mm t = 0.127 mm
Figure 4.5 Comparative studies of experimental and simulated chips.

34
CHAPTER 5
PHYSICS BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR COPPER 10100
5.1 Finite Element Simulations using Deform-2D
Finite Element simulation software Deform-2D is utilized for physics-based

simulation modeling for orthogonal cutting copper 10100. Two-dimensional
mechanics of orthogonal cutting process using Deform-2D follows the
configuration given in Figure 1.3 in which the cutting tool and workpiece positioned
against each other. Gradual movement of workpiece towards cutting tool models
cutting motion during thermal-mechanical workpiece deformations. Assuming
plane strain deformation, vertical location of the cutting tool in 2D simulation
signifies the feed or undeformed chip thickness. The deformation behavior of the
elements and their interactions during the simulation of the cutting process,
ascertains the field output parameters through elastic-plastic deformation behavior
of the work material such as displacement, strain, strain rate, stress, and force,
and through the thermal solution the temperature. Having satisfactory progress in
simulation and appropriate quantities of reliable outputs, the Finite Element
modeling results is compared to experimental results for validation purposes. The
two-dimensional Finite Element simulations were developed using updated
Lagrangian method in which chip separation from workpiece is achieved with
continuous remeshing. Deform-2D software is capable of handling global
remeshing where needed through displacement boundary conditions defined for
the workpiece. Therefore, in the model with Deform-2D, the left side of the
workpiece boundary nodes is fixed in x-direction, and the bottom size of the
workpiece boundary nodes is fixed in y-direction.
35
Work‐piece mesh windows
Tool mesh windows
tool
Work - Piece
f β = 7˚
Figure 5.1 Workpiece and tool mesh using Deform-2D.

In the simulation with Deform-2D, the tool is moved to penetrate through the
workpiece to create first deformation and a chip formation through the rake face of
the cutting tool. However, the formation of chip is somewhat different in Deform-
2D simulations. While the tool penetrates the workpiece, the workpiece elements
around the tip of the cutting tool that are severely distorted are replaced via
remeshing whenever they reach a critical strain value.
5.2 Designing Serrated Chip Formation Simulation using Deform-2D
In this case, a synthetic diamond cutting tool with nearly sharp cutting edge (tool
edge radius r = 0.0001 mm) was utilized. The properties for synthetic diamond
material were taken from the Deform software database for the tool “Diamond”
(see Table 5.1). While thermal properties of copper 10100 were taken from the
Deform software database and left unchanged, elastic and plastic properties were
modified according to the quasi-static tensile test data obtained and material
constitutive model parameters identified respectively. There was no coating layer
36
assigned on the cutting tool. Tool geometry such as a rake angle of γ = 0˚ and a
clearance angle of 𝛼 = 7˚ were assigned as per experimental cutting conditions
considered. Workpiece dimensions included a range of workpiece width between
0.8 mm and 1 mm and workpiece height between 0.08 mm and 0.10 mm. These
were implemented in FE simulation model depending upon the feed value in that
cutting condition.
Table 5.1 Thermal and mechanical properties (at room temperature 20°).
Material Properties Copper 10100 Single crystal diamond

Young's modulus [MPa] 91937 9e5
Poisson's ratio 0.396 0.2
Thermal expansion [mm.mm-1.°C-1] 1.70e-05 1.18E-06
Conductivity (W.m .°C )
-1 -1 390.987 2000
Density (kg/mm3) 8.89E-09 3.52E-09
Specific heat (N.mm kg-1 °C-1) 0.385e6 0.508e6
Mesh definition and design is one of the essential parameters affecting output field
variables in finite element simulations. Total of 4000-5000 elements were used to
mesh workpiece and various mesh windows were used to define dense mesh
along the tool-workpiece contact as shown in Fig. 5.1. The relative tool mesh size
was defined between element size of 0.00833 and 0.04 while relative workpiece
mesh size was defined between 0.004 and 0.012, starting from tool-workpiece
contact area to the outer surface respectively. Cutting conditions defined in Table
3.3 were assigned to generate each simulation.
5.3 Constitutive Material Model for Copper 10100
In thermal-mechanical processing of workpiece material during machining process,

localized flow softening phenomenon can occur which can be described as offering
less resistance to local plastic deformations due to rearrangement of dislocations
caused by subsequent cycling or dynamic recrystallization in the material. This
phenomenon is usually observed during an increase in strain beyond a critical
strain value together with a rapid rise in material’s temperature. Flow softening is
believed to cause adiabatic shearing within the primary shear zone. Thus, chip
37
segmentation with shear bands are formed as the deformed material leaves this
zone (Calamaz et al., 2008; Sima & Özel 2010).
For this reason, modified material constitutive models with flow softening resulting
from strain softening and temperature softening have influence on chip formation
shape. In previous studies, several researchers (Calamaz et al., 2008; Sima &
Özel 2010), were able to develop such a constitutive model and implemented it in
FE simulation software (Forge-2D and Deform-2D respectively) to simulate
serrated chip formation during cutting of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V.
5.3.1 Identification of JC material model parameters for copper 10100
A combined methodology defined in (Johnson & Cook 1983; Özel & Ulutan 2013;
Wang et al., 2015,) was used to identify JC material model parameters for copper
10100. On this methodology, the flow stress data obtained from quasi-static tensile
tests and combined from flow stress data calculated in orthogonal cutting tests.
Shear strain, shear strain rate and shear stress identified from orthogonal cutting
tests (Table 3.7), was utilized to calculate true strain, true strain rate and true shear
stress. The stress-strain data was taken from separately performed quasi-static
tensile tests at various tensile test apparatus crosshead speeds (0.2 in/min, 2
in/min, 5 in/min) and at different temperature 72 °F, 135 °F, 200 °F.
Both true stress-strain data from tensile tests and cutting experiments were used
in a Matlab script defining and solving unknown Johnson-Cook material model
parameters using least square method (Appendix A) to identify JC material
parameters for copper 10100.
38
Figure 5.2 Graphical representation defining the methodology to obtain JC

parameters.
Therefore, the Johnson-Cook material model parameters given in Table 5.2 were
obtained using this methodology and adopted for the copper 10100 simulations.
The flow stress curves at room temperature and at various strain rates using this
Johnson-Cook material model are shown in Fig. 5.3.
Table 5.2 The Johnson-Cook material model parameters for copper 10100.
Johnson-Cook material model parameters
A 543 [MPa]
B 1146.81 [MPa]
C 0.04498 [-]
n 0.52052 [-]
m 0.04056 [-]
39
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
4900.00
4400.00
3900.00
FLOW STRESS (MPA)
3400.00
2900.00
2400.00
1900.00
1400.00
900.00
400.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
STRAIN (MM/MM)
Figure 5.3 Flow stress curve for given JC parameters at room temperature (20 ˚C).
5.3.2 Modified material model with temperature dependent parameters

and strain softening
Further modifications to the strain hardening part of the JC material model by

including flow softening at higher strain values are proposed and the model is given
in Eq. (5.1).
𝜎 𝐴 𝐵 𝜀̅ 1 𝐶 ln 1 𝑀 1 𝑀 tanh (5.1)
This model is almost identical to the model modified by Calamaz et al. (2008) and
the model modified by Sima & Özel (2010). Here an exponent “S” is introduced to
further control hyperbolic tangential function for thermal softening.
40
Again, the JC model parameter values defined in Table 5.1 were taken as the base
for this modified Johnson-Cook material model (Calamaz et al., 2008). In this
modified model a multiplicative term is added to the strain hardening part, causes
dependency of flow softening phenomenon not only upon temperature, but also on
strain, as it can be seen in Fig. 5.4. This additional term affects the softening
behavior of flow stress at a controlled range of strain.
0.01 0.1 1 0.01 0.1 1

10 100 1000 10 100 1000
10000 100000 1000000
10000 100000 1000000
2000
190
1800
170
Flow stress (MPa)
1600
Flow stress (MPa) 150
1400
130
1200
1000 110
800 90
600 70
400 50
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
(a) 20˚C (b)100˚C

0.01 0.1 1 0.01 0.1 1
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
10000 100000 1000000 10000 100000 1000000
140
Flow stress (MPa)
80
Flow stress (MPa)
120
100 60
80
40
60
40 20
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
(c) 200˚C (d) 400˚ C
Figure 5.4 Thermal softening flow stress curves at temperature.

41
In order to identify the flow softening model parameters in this model, the effects
of parameters M, S, p and r on the flow stress curves at high strain ranges and
high temperatures were studied, while maintaining a good agreement between the
model generated flow stress curves from analytical model values and quasi-static
tensile tests values.
In order to study the effects of the parameters used in the flow softening terms
(either the ones added to thermal softening part or strain hardening part), one
parameter is varied while other parameters are held constant. After several trials
with Deform-2D simulations, the following parameters were adopted.
Table 5.3 Thermal softening parameters determined for copper 10100.

M 0.4
S 5
p 0.1
r 5
The values derived from the flow stress curves (Fig 5.5) were altered with the
existing flow stress values for copper 10100 in Deform-2D software database.
5.4 Consideration of Friction and Damage
A scientific approach of how one can define coefficient of friction in finite element
(FE) simulations is defined in section 4.2.1. A gradient based friction method (Eq.
5.2) which takes experimental forces (cutting and thrust forces) in consideration
was used to identify value of coulomb friction used in simulations.
𝜇 𝑡𝑎𝑛 tan 𝛾 (5.2)
The average value of 𝜇 = 0.2 was taken for all copper 10100 simulations.
42
In Deform-2D, different damage models can be defined and among those

maximum principal stress to ultimate tensile stress criteria (Eq. 5.2) was used to
initiate the replacement of distorted elements for separating the chip from the
workpiece. A critical damage value, Cd, is used as 0.781 which was found from the
data obtained from the tensile testing of copper 10100.
𝐶 (5.3)
5.5 Results and Discussions
All cutting conditions in the orthogonal cutting tests were simulated by using the
Deform-2D FE model describe in the previous sections. Predicted forces from
these FE simulations are compared with measured results as shown in Fig. 5.5.
Almost all cutting parameters (cutting speed and feed) have important effects on
the cutting forces. The cutting forces slightly increased with the cutting speed and
majorly increased with the feed. It was observed that measured thrust forces are
increased sustainably at higher feed. From the comparison of simulated and
measured cutting forces in Fig. 5.5, it is obvious that cutting and thrust forces are
not in close agreements as simulated forces are half in values as of experimental
forces.
43
Vc = 1.98 m/min, f = 0.03 mm/rev Vc = 1.98 m/min, f = 0.05 mm/rev
140 300
120 250
100 Experimental Experimental
Fc_E 200 Fc_E
80
150
40 Ft_E 100 Ft_E
20 Simulated Fc_S 50 Simulated Fc_S
0 0
Fc_E Ft_E Fc_S Ft_S Fc_E Ft_E Fc_S Ft_S
160 250
140
120 Experimental 200 Experimental
100 Fc_E 150 Fc_E
80
Experimental 100 Experimental
60
Ft_E Ft_E
40 50
20 Simulated Fc_S Simulated Fc_S
0 0
140 300
120 250
Fc_E 200 Fc_E
80
150
40 Ft_E 100 Ft_E
20 Simulated Fc_S 50 Simulated Fc_S
0 0
Figure 5.5 Comparison of experimental and simulated forces for copper 10100.
44
A detailed comparison of simulated serrated chips with microscopic chip images is

shown in Fig. 5.6 for four of these cutting conditions. The results of measured and
simulated serrated chip are given in Table 5.4. It is observed that almost all
simulated chip geometries investigated depict periodic formation of serrated and
uniform sized chip segments after a large single segment. A further investigation
could be done to develop a simulation model with less error of margin with the
experimental model.
Table 5.4 The results of measured and simulated thickness values for serrated
chips of copper 10100.
Experimental chip Simulated chip

Rake thickness thickness
Cutting Feed,
Tool angle,
speed, f
material γ1
vc [m/min] [mm/rev] tmin tmax tmin tmax
[degree]
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
Diamond 0 3.96 0.03 0.026 0.033 0.034 0.047

Diamond 0 3.96 0.05 0.044 0.057 0.058 0.077
Diamond 0 10.02 0.03 0.028 0.033 0.033 0.046
Diamond 0 10.02 0.05 0.036 0.058 0.057 0.074
45
(a) Diamond Insert, (b) Diamond Insert,

vc = 3.96 m/min vc = 3.96 m/min
t = 0.03 mm t = 0.05 mm
(c) Diamond Insert, (d) Diamond Insert,

vc = 10.02 m/min vc = 10.02 m/min
t = 0.03 mm t = 0.05 mm
Figure 5.6 Comparative study of experimental and simulated chips for copper
10100.
46
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND CONTRIBUTIONS
Finite Element simulations of orthogonal metal cutting operations have been

performed and verified with experiments during this work. The following can be
concluded according to the observations made during the thesis, which may be
seen as a summary.
In this research work, a material ductile failure based finite element simulation
modeling for high speed cutting of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V and a modified
constitutive material model-based FE simulation for copper 10100 are proposed.
Material separation to form chips and chip serration are modelled by utilizing both
ductile failure and damage models for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V simulations while
thermal softening parameters were utilized to model chip serration for copper
10100 simulations. The effect of cutting parameters such as cutting speed, feed,
coating condition on cutting forces was studied. Following specific conclusions can
be made from the study.
 The cutting parameters (cutting speed and feed) and tool coating (uncoated
and TiAlN coated) have important effects on the cutting forces. The cutting
forces generally increased with feed for both the materials. The experimental
forces were verified with the FE simulations.
 Physics based process simulation model was developed for both the materials,
titanium alloy Ti6Al4V and copper 10100. Constitutive material model, ductile
failure model parameters and friction coefficient were identified for both copper
10100 and titanium alloy Ti6Al4V using finite element simulations.
 The cutting and thrust forces were found to be higher when cutting with coated
tools in titanium alloy Ti6Al4V experiments which can be explained with a larger
edge roundness created by the coating layer.
 Simulation results are more likely to match with the high cutting speed
experiment (titanium alloy Ti6Al4V) results. There are some disagreements
between experimental and simulated forces for copper 10100. The important
parameters affecting the simulated forces are flow stress curve and the
47
coefficient of friction. A further investigation to identify an unprecedented flow

stress curve for copper 10100 can be done to gain more similarity between
experimental and simulated results.
48
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52
APPENDIX A
Least Square Method
Least squares method was used in estimating the unknown coefficients in the
flow stress equation given defined in section 4.3
𝜎̄ 𝐴 𝐵𝜀 1 𝐶𝑙𝑛 1 (A.1)
𝜎̄ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 𝐵𝜀 1 𝐶𝑙𝑛 1 (A.2)
Two important approximations that we are going to use in the equation

development are,
𝑎 1 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑎
𝑙𝑛 1 𝑥 𝑥
We get,
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑚 𝑙𝑛
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
and,
𝜀 𝜀
1 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝜀 𝜀
and,
𝐵 𝐵𝑛
𝑙𝑛 𝐴 𝐵𝜀 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 𝑙𝑛 𝜀
𝐴 𝐴
While Johnson-Cook flow stress model is not linear, by a log transformation, the
model becomes,
𝑙𝑛 𝜎̄ 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 𝑙𝑛 𝜀 𝐶𝑙𝑛 𝑚 𝑙𝑛 (A.3)
where, T=20 C (room temperature) can used from the room temperature, and 𝜀̄
= 1 sec-1 can be used for reference strain.
The linear model with the error associated results in,
𝑌 𝛽 𝛽𝑋 𝛽𝑋 𝛽𝑋 𝜀 (A.4)
53
Where, the coefficients are,

𝐵
𝛽 𝑙𝑛 𝐴
𝐴
𝐵𝑛
𝛽
𝐴
𝛽 𝐶
𝛽 𝑚
and independent variables are;
𝑋 𝑙𝑛 𝜀
𝜀
𝑋 𝑙𝑛
𝜀
𝑇 𝑇
𝑋 𝑙𝑛
𝑇 𝑇
The least squares method is aimed at finding estimates of 𝛽 , 𝛽 , 𝛽 , 𝛽 .
The solution can be written using a matrix notation where, 𝑌 is a matrix of
measured flow stress values, X is the matrix of independent variables such as
temperature, strain, strain rate
𝑌 1 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
⎡𝑌 ⎤ ⎡1 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
𝑌 ⎢. ⎥, and 𝑋 ⎢. . . . ⎥ (A.5)
⎢. ⎥ ⎢. . . . ⎥
⎣𝑌 ⎦ ⎣1 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 ⎦
The solution is found by differentiating the squared error with respect to the model
parameters. Setting the resulting linear equations equal to zero leads to final
solution,
𝛽 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 𝑌 (A.6)
where, 𝑋 is the transpose of the matrix X and 𝑋 𝑋 is the inverse of the matrix
𝑋 𝑌.

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PHYSICS BASED PROCESS MODELING OF SERRATED CHIP

FORMATION IN PRECISION MACHINING OF DUCTILE ALLOYS

A thesis submitted to the

School of Graduate Studies

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of

Graduate Program in Industrial and Systems Engineering

Written under the direction of

Dr. Tuğrul Özel

New Brunswick, New Jersey

PHYSICS BASED PROCESS MODELING OF SERRATED CHIP

FORMATION IN PRECISION MACHINING OF DUCTILE ALLOYS

I appreciate the advice and constructive suggestions I received from my M.S.

I appreciate the support I received from the administrators of ISE department at

To my parents and “Karina”

For their constant support and love from long distance

ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS ............................................................................... ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1

1.1 Basics of Metal Cutting ................................................................................... 3

1.2 Orthogonal Cutting ......................................................................................... 4

1.3 Chip Formation Mechanism ............................................................................ 6

1.4 Shear Zones in Orthogonal Cutting ................................................................ 8

1.5 Field Variables in Orthogonal Cutting ............................................................. 9

CHAPTER 2 ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR SERRATED CHIP

2.2 Specific Cutting Forces and Shear Yield Stress ........................................... 14

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ........................................................ 15

3.1 Work Material ............................................................................................... 15

3.2 Orthogonal Cutting Experiments................................................................... 16

3.4 Analytical Model Results............................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 4 PHYSICS-BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR

4.1 Finite Element Modeling – An Introduction ................................................... 20

4.2 Serrated Chip Formation Simulation Model using Abaqus/Explicit ............... 21

4.2.1 Friction Consideration in Simulation Model................................................ 22

4.3 Work Material Constitutive Models ............................................................... 24

4.3.1 Johnson-Cook Material Constitutive Model ............................................... 25

4.4 Material Failure and Damage Theory ........................................................... 26

4.5 Damage Initiation and Damage Evolution using Abaqus .............................. 28

4.6 Johnson-Cook Failure and Damage Model .................................................. 29

4.6.1 JC failure model parameters for titanium alloy Ti6Al4V ............................. 29

4.7 Results and Discussions............................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 5 PHYSICS BASED PROCESS SIMULATION FOR

5.1 Finite Element Simulations using Deform-2D ............................................... 34

5.2 Designing Serrated Chip Formation Simulation using Deform-2D ................ 35

5.3 Constitutive Material Model for Copper 10100.............................................. 36

5.3.1 Identification of JC material model parameters for copper 10100.............. 37

5.3.2 Modified material model with temperature dependent parameters and

5.5 Results and Discussions............................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND CONTRIBUTIONS .................................. 46

Table 3.1 Chemical composition of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. ........................................ 15

γ Rake angle []

Turning is a versatile process where cutting of cylindrical shaped workpiece is

A lathe or computer numerically control (CNC) turning center is a type of machine

1.1 Basics of Metal Cutting

1.2 Orthogonal Cutting

Figure 1.3 Geometry of orthogonal cutting model (continuous chip).

1.3 Chip Formation Mechanism

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.4 Types of chip formation in orthogonal cutting; a) continuous, b)