A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.

Naseer Al-Janabi 83

CHAPTER SIX
RAYLEIGH FLOW

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we consider the consequences of heat crossing the
boundaries of a system. To isolate the effects of heat transfer from the
other major factors we assume flow in a constant-area duct without
friction. At first this may seem to be an unrealistic situation, but actually it
is a good first approximation to many real problems, as most heat
exchangers have constant-area flow passages. It is also a simple and
reasonably equivalent process for a constant-area combustion chamber.
Naturally, in these actual systems, frictional effects are present, and what
we really are saying is the following:
In systems where high rates of heat transfer occur, the entropy
change caused by the heat transfer is much greater than that caused by
friction, and the frictional effects may be neglected. There are obviously
some flows for which this assumption is not reasonable and other methods
must be used to obtain more accurate predictions for these systems.
We first examine the general behaviour of an arbitrary fluid and will again
find that property variations follow different patterns in the subsonic and
supersonic regimes. The flow of a perfect gas is considered with the now
familiar end result of constructing a table. This category of problem is
called Rayleigh flow.

6.2 ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID

We shall first consider the general behaviour of an arbitrary fluid. To
isolate the effects of heat transfer we make the following assumptions
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…
…………………………………..….…Lecturer:
Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi
Al 84

We proceed by applying the basic concepts of continuity, energy, and

momentum.
Continuity
const
but since the flow area is constant, this reduces to
ρV = const
From previous chapter
hapter we know that this constant is G, the mass velocity
velocity,
or mass flux and thus
ρV = G = const
Energy
We start with
h01 + q = h02 + ws
which for no shaft work becomes
bec
h01 + q = h02
Note!! This is the first major flow category for which the total enthalpy has
not been constant. By now you have accumulated a store of knowledge
knowledge—all
based on flows for which h0 = constant.
Momentum
We now proceed to apply the momentum eequation
quation to the control volume
shown in Figure 6.1.
.1. The xx-component
component of the momentum equation for
steady, one-dimensional flow is

F m V , V ,
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…
…………………………………..….…Lecturer:
Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi
Al 85

Figure 6.1 Momentum analysis for Rayleigh flow.

.1 we see that this becomes

From Figure 6.1
V V
Canceling the area, we have
V V V V
Show that this can be written as
!"#$.
Alternative forms are

!"#$.

& !"#$.
As an aside we might note that this is the same relation that holds across a
standing normal shock. Recall that for the normal shock:
& !"#$.
In both cases we are led to equivalent results since both analyses deal with
constant area and assume negligible friction.
If we multiply by the constant area, we obtain:
obtain
!"#$.
m !"#$.
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…
…………………………………..….…Lecturer:
Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi
Al 86

The constant is called the impulse function or thrust function by various

authors. Note that the thrust function remains constant for Rayleigh flow and
across a normal shock.

Figure 6.2 Rayleigh line in p–v plane.

The addition of heat causes the entropy of the fluid to increase since

From our basic assumption of negligible friction,

Thus it appears that the real limiting condition involves entropy

entropy (as usual).
We can continue to add heat until the fluid reaches a state of maximum
entropy. It might be that this point of maximum entropy is reached before
the point of maximum temperature, in which case we would never be able
to reach point 3 (of Figure
igure 6.2).
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 87

We must investigate the shape of constant entropy lines in the p–v diagram.
This can easily be done for the case of a perfect gas that will serve to
illustrate the general trend.
For a T = constant line,
pv = RT = const
Differentiating yields
p dv + v dp = 0
and
'
'( (
For an S = constant line,
() !"#$.
Differentiating yields
()' *( )+ '( 0
and
'
*
'( (
Comparing two equations and noting that γ is always greater than 1.0, we
see that the isentropic line has the greater negative slope and thus these
lines will plot as shown in Figure 6.3.
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 88

Figure 6.3 Rayleigh line in p–v plane.

We now see that not only can we reach the point of maximum
temperature, but more heat can be added to take us beyond this point. If
desired, we can move (by heating) all the way to the maximum entropy
point. It may seem odd that in the region from point 3 to 4, we add heat to
the system and its temperature decreases. Let us reflect further on the
phenomenon occurring. In a previous discussion we noted that the effects
of heat addition are normally thought of as causing the fluid density to
decrease. This requires the velocity to increase since ρV = constant by
continuity.
This velocity increase automatically boosts the kinetic energy of the fluid
by a certain amount. Thus the chain of events caused by heat addition
forces a definite increase in kinetic energy. Some of the heat that is added
to the system is converted into this increase in kinetic energy of the fluid,
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 89

with the heat energy in excess of this amount being available to increase
the enthalpy of the fluid.

Figure 6.4 Rayleigh line in h–s plane.

Noting that kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity,

we realize that as higher velocities are reached, the addition of more heat is
accompanied by much greater increases in kinetic energy. Eventually, we
reach a point where all of the heat energy added is required for the kinetic
energy increase. At this point there is no heat energy left over and the
system is at a point of maximum enthalpy (maximum temperature for a
perfect gas). Further addition of heat causes the kinetic energy to increase
by an amount greater than the heat energy being added. Thus, from this
point on, the enthalpy must decrease to provide the proper energy balance.
Perhaps the foregoing discussion would be more clear if the Rayleigh
lines were plotted in the h–s plane. For any given fluid this could easily be
done, and the typical result is shown in Figure 6.4, along with lines of
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 90

constant pressure. All points on this Rayleigh line represent states with the
same mass flow rate per unit area (mass velocity) and the same impulse (or
thrust) function. For heat addition, the entropy must increase and the flow
moves to the right. Thus it appears that the Rayleigh line, like the Fanno
line, is divided into two distinct branches that are separated by a limiting
point of maximum entropy.

Limiting Point
Let’s start with the equation of a Rayleigh line in the form

!"#$.

Differentiating gives us
'
' - . 0

' / /
'

Thus we have for an arbitrary fluid that

'
/ /
'
which is valid anyplace along the Rayleigh line. Now for a differential
movement at the limit point of maximum entropy, ds = 0 or (s = const).
Thus, at this point equation becomes

/-0 ./1234516.
0
This is immediately recognized as sonic velocity. The upper branch of the
Rayleigh line, where property variations appear reasonable, is seen to be a
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 91

region of subsonic flow and the lower branch is for supersonic flow. Once
again we notice that occurrences in supersonic flow are frequently
contrary to our expectations.
Another interesting fact can be shown to be true at the limit point
' /' /
Differentiating equation (ρV = G = const.), we can show that
'
/ /
'

Combining last equations, we obtain

' '
This can be introduced into the property relation

To obtain:
7'# '8 '
At the limit point where M = 1,
0 '8 '
If we neglect potentials, our definition of stagnation enthalpy is

89 8
2
which when differentiated becomes
'89 '8 '
Therefore, comparing last equations, we see that equation really tells us
that
'89 0 ;$ $8< => >$ !>"$
and thus the limit point is seen to be a point of maximum stagnation
enthalpy. The stagnation enthalpy increases as long as heat can be added.
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…
…………………………………..….…Lecturer:
Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi
Al 92

At the point of maximum entropy, no more heat can be added and thus h0
must be a maximum at this location.
Figure 6.5
.5 shows the Rayleigh line (which represents the locus of static
states) together with the corresponding stagnation reference lines
lines. Notice
that there are two stagnation curves, one for subsonic flow and the other for
supersonic flow.

Figure 6.5 Rayleigh line in h–s plane (including stagnation curves).

You might ask how we know that the supersonic stagnation curve is
the top one. We can show this by starting with the differential form of the
energy equation:

Or

Knowing that
A course in Gas Dynamics…………………………………..….…Lecturer: Dr.Naseer Al-Janabi 93

And

We have for Rayleigh flow that

dh0 = T dse = T ds
or
'89
7
'#
Note that this equation gives the slope of the stagnation curve in terms of
the static temperature.
Now draw a constant-entropy line on Figure 6.5. This line will cross the
subsonic branch of the (static) Rayleigh line at a higher temperature than
where it crosses the supersonic branch. Consequently, the slope of the
subsonic stagnation reference curve will be greater than that of the
supersonic stagnation curve. Since both stagnation curves must come
together at the point of maximum entropy, this means that the supersonic
stagnation curve is a separate curve lying above the subsonic one. In which
direction does a cooling process move along the subsonic branch of the
Rayleigh line? Along the supersonic branch? From Figure 6.5 it would
appear that the stagnation pressure will increase during a cooling process.
This can be substantiated from the stagnation pressure–energy equation:
' 9
'#? 79 7 79 '#@ AB1 0
9
With the assumptions made for Rayleigh flow, this reduces to
' 9
'#? 79 7 0
9

Now (T0 − T ) is always positive. Thus, the sign of dp0 can be seen to depend
only on dse.
For heating,