ATOMIC STRUCTURE

SESSION -1
AIM
1) To introduce Fundamental particles
2) To introduce Thomson’s and Rutherford Atomic model
3) To introduce terms like atomic number, mass number and isotopes,
isobars, isotones
John Dalton coined the term atom.The atom is the fundamental
particle of matter and considered to be indivisible and
indestructible.
Infact, the atom as the whole is electrically neutral as number of
protons in it is equal to number of electrons.
The electron, proton and neutron are the main fundamental particles
of an atom.
* Discovery of electron – study of Cathode rays:
J.J. Thomson observed that, when a high voltage is applied between
the electrodes fitted in discharge tube,at a very low pressure,some
invisible radiations are emitted from the cathode. At this stage
wall of the discharge tube near cathode starts glowing.
Gas at low Discharge tube
Pressure
Faint green glow

Cathode rays

To vacuum pump

Discharge tube experiment – production of cathode rays

Glowing is due to the bombardment of glass wall by the cathode rays.
It may be noted that when the gas pressure in the tube is 1 atm,
no electric current flows through the tube. This is because the gases
are poor conductor of electricity.

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Origin of Cathode rays:

Cathode rays are first produced in cathode due to bombardment of
the gas molecules by the high speed electrons emitted first from
the cathode.
Properties of Cathode rays
i. Cathode rays travel in straight lines with high speed.
ii. Cathode rays are made up of material particles.
iii.Cathode rays carry negative charge,the negatively charged
material particles constituting the cathode rays are called electrons.
iv. Cathode rays produce heating effect.
v. They cause ionization of the gas through which they pass.
vi. They produce X-rays when they strike against the surface of hard
metals like tungsten, molybdenum etc.
vii.They produce green fluorescence on the glass walls of the discharge
tube exp : zinc sulphide.
viii. They affect the photographic plates.
ix. They possess penetrating effect (i.e., they can easily pass through
thin foils of metals).
x. The nature of the cathode rays does not depend upon the nature
of the gas, taken in the discharge tube and the nature of cathode
material.
xi. For each cathode rays, the ratio of charge (e) to mass (m) is
constant
*Discovery of proton – study of Anode rays:
Goldstein discovered the presence of positive rays.
He performed discharge tube experiment in which he took perforated
cathode and a gas at low pressure was kept inside a discharge
tube.

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On applying high voltage between electrodes ,new rays were coming

from the side of anode and passing through the hole in the cathode
gives fluorescence on the opposite glass wall coated with zinc
sulphide.
These rays were called anode rays or canal rays or positive rays.
Perforated cathode
H2 gas at low pressure
Anode rays

 ZnS coating

To vacuum pump
H. V
. Production of anode rays
Origin of anode or positive rays:
In the discharge tube the atoms of gas lose negatively charged
electrons. These atoms, thus, acquire a positive charge. The
positively charged particle produced from hydrogen gas was called
the proton.
H H+(proton)+ e-
Properties of Anode rays:
i) They travel in straight lines. However, their speed is much less
than that of the cathode rays.
ii) They are made up of material particles.
iii) They are positively charged,hence they called as canal rays or
anode rays.’
iv) The nature of anode rays depends on the gas taken in the
discharge tube.
v) For different gases taken in discharge tube the charge to mass
ratio (e/m) of the positive particles constituting the positive rays is
different.

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Fundamental particles:
1) Electron: Electron is a universal constituent discovered by the
J.J. Thomson.
* Charge: It was determined by Mullikan by oil drop experiment as -
1.602x10-19coulombs or 4.803x10-10 e.s.u.
* Mass:9.11x10-28g (nearly equal to 1/1837th of mass of hydrogen atom).
* Specific charge:e/m ratio is called specific charge & is equal to
1.76x108 coulombs/gm.
* Mass of one mole of electrons: It is 0.55 mg.
* Charge on one mole of electron is approx. 96500 coulombs or 1
faraday.
* Density: 2.17x1017 g/cc.
2. Proton: (+1p0 or 1H1)
* It was discovered by Goldstein.
* Charge:It carries positive charge i.e.1.602 x 10-19coulombs or 4.803x10-10
esu.
* Mass:1.672x10-24g or 1.672x10-27kg.It is 1837 times heavier than an
electron.
* Specific charge (e/m):9.58x104coulomb/gm.
3. Neutron ( 0n1 )
* It was discovered by Chadwick by bombarding Be atom with high
speed -particles.
4 Be9 + 2He 4 ⎯⎯
→ 6 C12 + 0n1

* Charge: Charge less or neutral particle.

* Mass:1.675x10-24 g or 1.675x10-27 kg.
* Density:1.5x1014 g/cm3 and is heavier than proton by 0.18%.
* Specific charge: It is zero.
* Among all the elementary particles neutron is the heaviest and least
stable.

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Properties of Electron, Proton and Neutron

Properties Electron Proton Neutron
Discovery J.J.Thomson Goldstein Chadwick
Charge -1.6022x10- 1.6022x10- Zero
19 C 19 C

Mass 9.109x10-31 1.672x10- 1.675x10-

kg 27 kg 27 kg

Mass relative to the 1 1836 1839

electron
Spin ½ ½ ½
Charge relative to -1 +1 0
proton
Location Outsidethe Inthe nucleus Inthe
nucleus nucleus
Classical Models of Atom:
1)Thomson’s Atomic Model
According to Thomson, an atom is a sphere of positive charge having a
number of embedded electrons in it and sufficient enough to
neutralize the positive charge.This model is compared with a water
melon in which seeds are embedded or pudding in which raisins are
embedded. Therefore, this model, sometime called watermelon model
or raisin or plum pudding model.

Thomson’s model of an atom

Limitation:
This model failed explain the results of scattering experiment of
Rutherford and the stability of atom.

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2)Rutherford’s Atomic Model:

Rutherford, performed -ray scattering experiment in which he
bombarded thin foils of metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with
a beam of fast moving radioactive particles originated from a lead
block. The presence of 𝛼 particles at any point around the thin foil
of gold after striking it was detected with the help of a circular zinc
sulphide screen. The point at which a𝛼 particle strikes this screen, a
flash of light is given out.
 particles ZnS screen

Beam of 
particles + Nucleus

Gold foil (100 nm thickness)

Observations and Conclusions

i. Most of the -particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection from their original path.
Bcz atom has largely empty space as most of the -particles
passed through the foil undeflected.
ii. A few of the alpha particles are deflected fairly at large
angles while some are deflected through small angles.
Bcz there is heavy positive charge at the centre of the atom
which causes repulsions.
The entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
iii. A very few -particals are deflected back along their path.
According to Rutherford,
1. Atom is spherical and mostly hollow with a lot of empty space in it.
2. It has a small positively charged part at its centre known as
nucleus.

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3. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons. The electrons revolve round

the nucleus with very high speeds in circular paths called orbits.
4. The number of extra nuclear electrons is equal to the number of
units of positive charge in the nucleus.Therefore the atom is
electrically neutral. Electrons and the nucleus are held together
by electrostatic forces of attraction.
5. Rutherford’s model has resemblances with solar system. Hense also
known as planetary model of the atom.
6. There is an empty space around the nucleus called extra nuclear
part. In this part electrons are present. As the nucleus of the
atom is responsible for the mass of the atom, the extra nuclear part
is responsible for its volume.
Drawbacks:
1. According to the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, when a
charged particle moves under the influence of attractive force it
loses energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Therefore an electron in an orbit will emit radiation.
As a result of this, the electron should lose energy at every turn
and move closer and closer to the nucleus following a spiral path.
The ultimate result is that it will fall into the nucleus thereby
making the atom unstable.
i.eRutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of the atom.

2. If the electrons lose energy continuously, the spectrum is expected

to be continuous but the actual observed spectrum consists of well-
defined lines of definite frequencies. Here the loss of energy by
the electrons is not continuous in an atom.

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Atomic number (Z): Atomic number denotes the number of protons

or the number of electrons in the neutral atom.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom or ion
= Number of electrons in a neutral atom.

Mass number (A):The mass number is the total number of protons

and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element and
indicated as A.
Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom are collectively
known as nucleons. Therefore the mass number is also known as nucleon
number.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons (Z) + Number of neutrons (n)

The number of neutrons (n) in an atom is equal to the difference

between the mass number and the atomic number.
n=A–Z
Mass Number A
X OR XA
Atomic Number Z Z

Symbol of Element

where X is the symbol for the element with superscript A and subscript
Z, both on the left hand side.

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Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones:

Isotopes: The atoms of the same element which have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
Exp- 6 C12 , 6 C13 , 6 C14 1 H1, 1H2 , 1H3

8 O16 , 8 O17 , 8 O18 17 Cl35 , 17 Cl37

Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons present in the

nucleus. But they have the same number of protons and electrons.
Bcz of same number of electrons they show same chemical
properties.They have different number of neutrons, so they will have
different masses and hence different physical properties.
Isobars:The atoms of different elements which have the same mass
number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
Exp: Ar , K , Ca 40
18
40
20𝐶𝑎19
40
20
40

They have same number of nucleons. But they are differ chemically
because the chemical characteristics depend upon the number of
electrons which is determined by the atomic number.
Isotones:Isotones are the atoms of different elements which have the
same number of neutrons.
Eg: i. C , N , O (n = 8)
6
14
7
15
8 ii. Si , P , S
16
14
30
15
31
16
32
(n = 16)

Isotones show different physical and chemical properties.

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SESSION – 2 AND 3
AIM-To understand nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
Nature of Light (Electromagnetic Radiation): Electromagnetic
radiation do not need any medium for propagation e.g visible, ultra
violet, infrared, x-rays, -rays, radio waves, radiant energy etc.
Two theories were proposed to explain the nature and the
propagation of light
i. Corpuscular theory: This theory was proposed by Newton.
According to this theory light is propagated in the form of
invisible small particles. i.e.light has particle nature.
The particle nature of light explained some of the
experimental facts such as reflection and refraction of light
but it failed to explain the phenomenon of interference and
diffraction.Therefore, was discarded and ignored.
ii. Wave theory of light (electromagnetic wave theory): was
explained by James Clark Maxwell in 1864 to explain and
understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
Features of this theory are:
a. The light is a form of electromagnetic radiations.
b. The light
radiations consist
of electric and
magnetic fields
oscillating
perpendicular to Components of radiation
each other.

iii) The vertical component of wave, ‘E’ indicates the change in the
strength of the electric field and the horizontal component of the

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wave ‘H’ indicates the change in the strength of the magnetic

field.
iv) These radiation do not require any medium for propagation.
v) The radiations posses wave character and travel with the velocity
of light i.e. 3x108 m/sec because of the above characteristics, the
radiation are called electromagnetic radiations or waves.
Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by the following
characteristics:
1. Wave length:
The distance between two successive crests, troughs or between any two
consecutive identical points in the same phase of a wave is called wave
length.It is denoted by the letter (lambda).
The wave length is measured in terms of meters (m), centimeters (cm),
angstrom units (A0) nanometers (nm), picometers (pm) and also in
millimicrons (m).
The S.I. unit of wavelength is meter, m
1A0 = 10–10 m or 10–8 cm
1nm = 10–9 m or 10–7 cm = 10𝐴0
1pm = 10–12m or 10–10 cm =10−2 𝐴0

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2.Frequency:
The number of waves that pass through a given point in one second is
known as frequency of radiation. It is denoted by the ‘v’(nue).
Crest  Crest
a
a 
Trough Trough
Wave motion of the radiation
SI unit of frequency is per second(s–1) or Hertz (Hz). A cycle is said
to be completed when a wave consisting of a crest and a trough passes
through a point.
3.Velocity:
The distance travelled by the wave in one second is called velocity or
speed of the wave (C).
SI unit is meters per second (ms–1).
C of electromagnetic radiation in vaccum is a constant commonly called
the speed of light and is denoted by ‘c’.It is equal to 3 × 108ms–1.
4.Wave number:
The number of waves that can be present at any time in unit length
is called wave number.
It is denoted by  (nue bar).
It is the reciprocal of wave length.
Wave number =  = 1
It is expressed in per centimeter (cm–1) or per meter (m–1).
The SI unit of wave number is m–1.
Wave length, wave number𝝂̅ , frequency 𝝂 and velocity c are related as
c = 

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5.Amplitude:
The height of the crest or the depth of the trough of the wave is
called amplitude of the wave. It is denoted by A.
The amplitude determines the strength or intensity or brightness of
radiation.
6.Time period:
It is the time taken by the wave for one complete cycle or vibrations.
It is denoted by T. It is expressed in second per cycle.
1
T=
1

( where  = frequency)
𝑉
Electromagnetic spectrum:
The arrangement of different types of electromagnetic radiations in
the order of increasing wavelengths or decreasing frequencies is known
as electromagnetic spectrum.
 increases
 10-16 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-4 10-2 101 106
 decreases
Rays Cosmic - x- Ultra Visible Near Far Micro Radio Long E decreases
rays rays rays violet IR IR wave waves RW

V I B G Y O R

Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

3800 Å 4300 4800 5300 5800 6300 6900 7600 (in Å)

Limitations of Electromagnetic Wave Theory :

Electromagnetic wave theory was successful in explaining the properties
of light such as interference, diffraction etc.
But it could not explain the following:
(i) The phenomenon of black body radiation.
(ii) The photoelectric effect.
(iii) The change heat capacity of solids as a function of T.

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(iv) The line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.

These phenomena could be explained only if electromagnetic waves are
supposed to have particle nature.
Black body radiation:
When a radiant energy falls on the surface of a body, a part of it is
absorbed, a part of it is reflected and the remaining energy is
transmitted.
An ideal body is expected to absorb completely the radiant energy
falling on it is known as a black body. A black body is not only a
perfect absorber but also a perfect emitter of radiant energy.
A hollow sphere coated inside with a platinum black, which has a small
hole in its wall can act as a near black body.
The radiation emitted by a black body kept at high temperature is
called black body radiation.A black body radiation is the visible glow
that the solid object gives off when heated.
A graph is obtained by plotting the intensity of radiation against
wave length gives the following details.

1. The nature of radiation depends upon the T of the black body.

2. If the energy emitted is continuous the curve should be as shown by
the dotted lines.

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3. At a given temperature the intensity of radiation increases with

the wave length, reaches maximum and then decreases.
4. The intensity of radiation is greatest at the medium wave lengths
and least at highest and lowest wave lengths.
5. As the temperature increases the peak of maximum intensity shifts
towards the shorter wave lengths.
Planck’s quantum theory:
In order to explain black body radiation, Max Planck proposed
quantum theory of radiation.
Postulates
1. The emission of radiation from a body is due to the vibrations of
the charged particles in the body.
2. The energy is emitted or absorbed by a body discontinuously in the
form of small packets of energy called quanta.
3. The energy of each quantum of light is directly proportional to the
frequency of the radiation.
E  or, E = h
Where ‘h’ is known as Planck’s constant.
The value of ‘h’ is 6.6256 × 10–34 Jsec- or 6.6256 × 10–
27ergssec-
3. In case of light, the quantum of energy is called a photon.
The total amount of energy emitted or absorbed by a body will
be some whole number multiple of quantum,

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E = nh  , where n is an integer such as 1,2,3 . . . . .

This means that a body can emit or absorb energy equal to hv,
2hv, 3hv . . . . . Or any other integral multiple of h. This is
called quantization of energy.
5. The emitted radiant energy is propagated in the form of waves.
PhotoElectric Effect:
When radiations with certain minimum frequency (𝑣𝜈0 ) strike the
surface of a metal, the electrons are ejected from the surface of the
metal. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. The electrons
emitted are called photoelectron.
Incident light

Detector
Metal Surface
Evacuated glass tube
Electrons
− +

− +

Photoelectric effect
For each metal a certain minimum frequency is needed to eject the
electrons called as threshold frequency ( o 𝜈0 )which differs from metal
to metal.
K. E. of photoelectron

K. E. of photoelectron

K. E. constant

o
Intensity of Incident
Frequency of absorbed radiation
photon K.E. as a function of intensity
K.E. as a function of frequency

Photoelectric effect was explained by Einstein by using Planck’s

quantum theory. When light of suitable frequency falls on a metal

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surface, the light photon gives its energy to the electron of metal
atom and the electron is ejected from metal surface by absorbing
this energy. The minimum energy of a photon required to eject an
electron from a metal is called work function () of the metal.
The remaining part of the energy (h  - ) of photon is used to
increase the kinetic energy of the ejected electron. If  is the
o

threshold frequency and  , the frequency of incident light then

Work function,  = h  . o

 According to Einstein, E = h 
 Kinetic energy of photo electron Ek = E -  = h − h o

(Einstein’s photoelectric equation)

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SESSION - 4
AIM
To introduce Atomic Spectra
THEORY-ATOMIC SPECTRA
Spectrum is the impression produced on a screen when radiations of a
particular wavelengths areanalyzed through a prism or diffraction
grating. Spectra are broadly classified into two.
(i) Emission Spectrum.
(ii) Absorption Spectrum.
1. Emission Spectrum:When the radiation emitted from some source,
e.g., from the sun or by passing electric discharge through a gas
at low pressure or by heating some substance to high temperature
etc. is passed directly through the prism and then received on the
photographic plate, the spectrum obtained is called ‘Emission
spectrum’.
The spectrum of a radiation emitted by a substance in its excited
state is an emission spectrum.
Emission Spectrum is of two types:
a) Continuous Spectrum and b) Discontinuous Spectrum
a. Continuous Spectrum:When white light from any source such as sun,
a bulb or any hot glowing body is analyzed by passing through a
prism, it is observed that it splits up into seven differentcolours
from violet to red,(like rainbow), as shown in fig .

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7-colours

White light
Beam
•

VIBGYOR
Slit Prism
Photographic
plate

These colours are so continuous that each of them merges into the next.
Hence, the spectrum is called continuous spectrum.
It may be noted that on passing through the prism, red colour with the
longest wavelength is dedicated least while violet colour with shortest
wavelength is deviated the most.
b. Discontinuous Spectrum:When gases or vapours of a chemical
substance are heated in an electricArc or in a Bunsen flame,
light is emitted. If the ray of this light is passed through a prism,
a line spectrum is produced.
• A discontinuous spectrum consisting of distinct and well defined
lines with dark areas in between is called line spectrum. It is also
called atomic spectrum.
• The emission spectrum consisting of a series of very closely spaced
lines is called bandspectrum.
Band spectrum is the characteristic of molecules. Hence it is also
known as molecular spectrum. The band spectrum is due to vibrations
and rotations of atoms present in a molecule.

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Differences between line and band spectrum

Line spectrum Band spectrum
1. The line spectrum has 1. The band spectrum has
sharp, distinct well many closed lines.
defined lines.
2. The line spectrum is 2. The band spectrum is
the characteristic of characteristic of molecules
atoms and is also called and is also called
atomic spectrum. molecularspectrum.
3. The line spectrum is 3. The band spectrum is due
due to transition of to vibrations androtations of
electrons in an atom. atoms in a molecule
rotations of atoms in a
4. The line spectrum is 4. The band spectrum is given
given by inert gases, by hot metals and
metal vapours and molecular nonmetals.
atomised nonmetals.

2. Absorption spectra: When white light from any source is first

passed through the solution or vapours of a chemical substance and
then analysed by the spectroscope, it is observed that some dark lines
are obtained.Further, it is observed that the dark lines are at the
same place where coloured lines are obtained in the emission spectra for
the same substance.
Difference between emission spectra and absorption spectra
EMISSION SPECTRA ABSORPTION SPECTRA
1. Emission spectrum is 1. Absorption spectrum is obtained
obtained when the when the white light is first
radiation from the passed through the substance
source are directly and the transmitted light is
analyses in the analysed in the spectroscope.

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spectroscope.

2. It consists of bright 2. It consists of dark lines in the

coloured lines otherwise continuous spectrum.
separated by dark
spaces.
3. Emission spectrum can 3. Absorption spectrum is always
be continuous spectrum discontinuous spectrum of dark
(if source emits white lines.
light) or discontinuous,
i.e., line spectrum if
source emits some
coloured radiation.

Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen:

When hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in the discharge tube and
the light emitted on passing electric discharge is examined with a
spectroscope,the spectrum obtained is called the emission spectrum of
hydrogen which contain large number of lines which are grouped into
different 5 different series,
• Lyman series,
• Balmer series
• Paschen series
• Brackett series
• Pfund series.
• Humpry series
The wave numbers of all the lines in all the series can be calculated
by the Rydberg equation.
1 1 1
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅Z2 ( 2 − )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛22

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Where n1 and n2 are whole numbers, n2> n1.

For one electron species like He+, Li2+ and Be3+, the value of R is
109677 cm–1× Z2, where Z is the atomic number of the species.

Different series of spectral lines in hydrogen emission spectrum

Name of the n1 n2 Spectral region
series
Lyman series 1 2,3,4,5,6,7….. Ultraviolet
Balmer series 2 3,4,5,6,7… Visible
Paschen series 3 4,5,6,7…… Near infrared
Brackett series 4 5,6,7…. Infrared
Pfund series 5 6,7…. Far infrared
The wave number for any single electron species like He+, Li2+ and
1 1
Be3+ can be calculated from the equation 𝜈̅ = 𝑍 2 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2)
𝑛1 𝑛2

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SESSION – 5 AND 6
AIM-To introduce Bohr’s and Sommerfeld’s Atomic models
To overcome the objections of Rutherford model and to explain the
hydrogen spectrum,Bohr proposed a quantum mechanical model.
POSTULATES OF BOHR’S THEORY
1. The electrons revolve round the nucleus with definite velocity in
certain fixed closed circular paths called orbits (or) shells (or)
stationary state. These shells are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 or
termed as K, L, M, N from the nucleus.

2. Each orbit is associated with a definite amount of energy. As long

as an electron is revolving in an orbit it neither loses nor gains
energy. Hence these orbits are called stationary states or stable
orbits.
3. The centrifugal force of the revolving electron in a stationary
orbit is balanced by the electrostatic attraction between the
electron and the nucleus.
4. Electron can revolve only in orbits whose angular momentum are an
integral multiple of the factor h/2 𝜋.
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
Where m = mass of electron,
v = velocity of electron,
r = radius of the orbit and

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‘n’ is the integral number like, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . , is called principal

quantum number and h = Planck’s constant
5. The energy of an electron changes only when it moves from one
orbit to another. Outer orbits have higher energies while inner orbits
have lower energies.
The energy is absorbed when an electron moves from inner orbit to
outer orbit. The energy is emitted when the electron jumps from
outer orbit to inner orbit.
6. The energy emitted or absorbed in a transition is equal to the
difference between the energies of the two orbits (E2 – E1).
Energy emitted or absorbed is in the form of quanta.
E=E2 – E1 = hv
Here E1 and E2 are the lower and higher allowed energ
states.
• Expressions for radius of orbit:
Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e–’ revolving round the
nucleus of charge ‘Ze’ in a circular orbit of radius ‘r’.
Let ‘v’ be the tangential velocity of the electron. As per coulomb’s
law, the electrostatic force of attraction between the moving electron
andthenucleus is –Ze2/r.

For the atom to be stable an equal centrifugal force must act away
from the nucleus. This centrifugal force is equal to –mv2/r, where ‘m’
is the mass of electron and ‘r’ is the radius of the orbit.

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In a stationary orbit
–Ze2 −𝑚𝑣 2 Ze2
= or = mv2
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑛ℎ
As per Bohr’s quantum condition, mvr =
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ 𝑛2 ℎ2
∴v= or v2=
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 4𝜋2 𝑚2 𝑟 2

Substituting the value of v2, we get

Ze2 𝑚𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛2 ℎ2
or = 𝑜𝑟 r =
𝑟 4𝜋2 𝑚2 𝑟 2 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2

𝑛2 ℎ2
Radius for ‘nth’ orbit, rn =
4𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
Substituting the standard values, of h, , m and e, we get radius of
0.529×𝑛2
th
n orbit 𝑟𝑛 = 𝐴°
𝑍
For hydrogen, Z=l and n=1 for first orbit,
The radius of the first orbit of hydrogen is 0.529 A0 or 0.0529
nm or 52.9 pm. This value is known as Bohr’s radius. As the value of n
increases, the radius of the orbit will increase.
𝑛2 ℎ2
In S.I units, 𝑟𝑛 = 4𝜋2𝑚𝐾𝑍𝑒 2
1
Where,𝐾 = (𝜖0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒)
4𝜋∈0

• Expression for Energy of electron:

The total energy of electron is the sum of kinetic and potential
1
energies.Kinetic energy due to motion of electron is mv2, where m is
2
the mass of electron and v is its velocity.
1 Ze2 Ze2
K.E = mv = 2 ∵ 𝑚𝑣 =2
2 2𝑟 2𝑟
−Ze2
P.E of electron =
𝑟

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Total energy of electron, En = K.E + P.E

Ze2 Ze2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
En= − =−
2𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟

Substituting the value of r, we get energy of electron in nth orbit,

−𝑍𝑒 2 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 2 −2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
En = or E n=
2𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛2 ℎ2

Substituting the values of m, e, h and𝜋 in the equation, we get

−13.6 ×𝑍 2
En = eV per atom
𝑛2
−313.6×𝑍 2
or En = k cal mol–1
𝑛2
−1312×𝑍 2
or En = kJ mol–1
𝑛2
−2.18×10−11 𝑍 2
or En = erg per atom
𝑛2
−2.18×10−18 𝑍 2
orEn = j/atom
𝑛2
2𝜋2 𝑚𝐾 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4
In S.I units: 𝐸𝑛 = −
𝑛2 ℎ2
1
Where𝐾 = and 𝜀𝑜 beingpermittivity of air and is equal to
4𝜋𝜖0
8.854 × 10–12 Farad metre–1
• Derivation of Rydberg equation:
When a gas is subjected to electric discharge or heated by a flame,
the electrons in the ground state of the atom absorb energy and they
are promoted to higher quantum states. As theyare not stable in
these states, they emit energy and return to ground state or any
other lower energy states.If E2 is the energy of the higher energy
state, E1 is the energy of the lower energy state and 𝜈 is the
frequency of emitted radiation E2 – E1 = h𝜈

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If the numbers of the higher and lower energy states are n2 and n1
2 4 1
respectively, 𝐸𝑛2 = −2𝜋ℎ𝑚𝑍𝑒
2 . 2
𝑛 2
−2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 4 1
𝐸𝑛1 = .
ℎ2 𝑛12
−2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 4 1 1
𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 = [ − ]
ℎ2 𝑛12 𝑛22
𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1
But 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 = ℎ𝑐𝜈̅ and 𝜈̅ =
𝑐ℎ
1 −2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒 4 1 1
𝜈̅ = = [ − ]
𝜆 𝑐ℎ2 𝑛12 𝑛22

This equation is similar to Rydberg equation.

1 1 1
[𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 × ( 2 − 2 )]
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
Rydberg constant R should be equal to
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 𝑒 4
R=
𝑐ℎ3
Substituting the values, we get
RH= 1,09,681cm-1.This value is almost equal to Rydberg’s constant
1,09,677 cm–1.
The frequencies of the spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum
calculated by using Bohr’s equation are in excellent agreement with
the experimental values. This is a concrete proof of the validity of
Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom.
• Expression for velocity of electron:
As per Bohr’s quantum conditions,
𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ
mvr = or v =
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚𝑟
𝑛2 ℎ 2
∵r=
4𝜋2 𝑚 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑛ℎ 4𝜋2 𝑚 𝑍𝑒 2
∴v = ×
2𝜋𝑚 𝑛2 ℎ 2

2𝜋𝑍𝑒 2
v= cm𝑠 −1
𝑛

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Substituting the values of 𝜋, e and h in the above expression

2.18×108 ×𝑍
vn= cm s–1
𝑛
Thus the velocity of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is
2.18 ×108 cm s–1. As the number of the orbit increases, the velocity of
the electron decreases.
Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum by Bohr’s Theory:
Bohr’s theory successfully explains the origin of lines in hydrogen
emission spectrum. Hydrogen atom has only one electron. It is present
in K shell of the atom (n = 1). When hydrogen gas is subjected to
electric discharge, energy is supplied. The molecules absorb energy
and split into atoms. The electrons in different atoms absorb different
amounts of energies. By the absorption of energy the electrons are
excited to different higher energy levels.

Atoms in the excited state are unstable. Therefore the electrons

jump back into different lower energy states in one or several steps.
In each step the energy is emitted in the form of radiation and is
indicated by a line.

Each line has a definite frequency and thus the emission spectrum of
hydrogen has many spectral lines.
• Lyman series are obtained in UV region, when electron returns to
the ground state from higher energy levels 2, 3, 4, 5 ......... and
so on.
• Balmer series are obtained in visible region when electron returns
to second energy level from higher energy levels 3, 4, 5, 6 and
so on.

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• Paschen series are obtained in near infrared region, when electron

returns to third energy level from higher energy levels 4, 5, 6....
And so on.
• Brackett series are obtained in mid infrared region when electron
returns to fourth energy level from higher energy levels 5, 6, 7 .
. . and so on.
• Pfund series are obtained in far infrared region when electron
returns to the fifth energy level from higher energy levels 6, 7.
. . . And so on.
The maximum number of lines produced when electrons jumps from nth
𝑛(𝑛−1)
level to ground level is equal to, Or ∑(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
2
Where,
n2 = higher energy level.
n1 = lower energy level.
n = difference in the two energy levels.
Merits and demerits of Bohr’s Atomic model:
1. Bohr’s model explains the stability of the atom. The electron
revolving in a stationary orbit does not lose energy and hence it
remains in the orbit forever.
2. Bohr’s theory successfully explains the atomic spectrum of hydrogen.
3. This theory not only explains hydrogen spectrum but also explains
the spectra of one electron species such as He+, Li2+ and Be3+
etc.

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4. The experimentally determined frequencies of spectral lines are in

close agreement with those calculated by Bohr’s theory.
5. The value of Rydberg constant for hydrogen calculated from
Bohr’s equation tallies with the value determined experimentally.
Limitations of Bohr’s model:
1. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the spectra of multielectron atoms.
2. It could not explain the fine structure of atomic spectrum.
3. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines into a group of
finer lines under the influence of magnetic field (Zeeman Effect)
and electric field (Stark effect).
4. Bohr’s theory predicts definite orbits for revolving electron. It is
against the wave nature of electron.
5. Bohr’s theory is not in agreement with Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Sommerfeld’s Atomic Model:
It is an extension of Bohr’s model. In this model, the electrons in an
atom revolve around the nuclei in elliptical orbit. The circular path
is a special case of ellipse. Association of elliptical orbits with
circular orbits explains the fine line spectrum of atoms.

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Radial Velocity
Tar velocity
•
Avg Velocity
• major axis
focus

Minor axis
n=4,k=4
n=4,k=3
n=4,k=2

• n=4, k=1, k  0

Sommerfeld’s orbits in hydrogen atom

The main postulates are:

i) The motion of electron in closed circular orbits is influenced by its
own nucleus and is set up into closed elliptical paths of definite
energy levels.
ii) The nucleus is one of the foci for all these orbits.
iii) The angular momentum of electron in closed elliptical paths is also
quantized i.e. k (h/2), where k is another integer except zero.
n length of major axis
iv) The ratio =
k length of min or axis
suggests for the possible number of

subshells in a shell.
Possible values of k for n = 4 are 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively. For any
given value of n, k cannot be zero as in that case, the ellipse would
degenerate into a straight line passing through the nucleus. When n
= k, path becomes circular.

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SESSION- 7

AIM
1) To introduce de Broglie’s theory
2) To introduce Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.
DUALNATURE OF MATTER(DE BROGLIE’S WAVE THEORY)
Light exhibits different properties such as diffraction, interference,
photoelectric effect, compton effect, reflection and refraction. The
phenomenon of diffraction and interference can be explained by the
wave nature of the light. But the phenomenon of photoelectric effect
and Compton Effect can be explained by the particle nature of the
light.Thus light has dual nature.DeBroglie proposed that matter like
radiation, should also exhibit dual behaviour.
ℎ𝑐
Einstein’s generalization of Planck’s theory is given as, E = h𝜈 =
𝜆
Einstein’s mass energy relationship is E = mc2
Equating above two equations, we get
ℎ𝑐 ℎ ℎ
= mc2 or = mc or 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑐
𝜆 𝜆
Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light. If the velocity of micro particle is
ℎ
‘v’ then, 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑉
This is de Broglie’s equation,
Where ‘𝜆’ is the de Broglie’s wave length, ‘m’ is the mass of the
moving particle and ‘h’ is Planck’s constant.
ℎ
P = mv or 𝜆 = .
𝑃
Here 𝜆 signifies wave nature andP signifies particle nature.

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This is applicable to microparticles like electron, proton, etc., and not

applicable for macrobodies like cricket ball, bullet etc.
The electron moving with high speed possesses both the particle nature
and the wave nature. The waves associated with material particles are
known as matter waves or particle waves.
The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

“It is impossible to determine simultaneously and accurately the exact

position and momentum or velocity of a sub-atomic particle like electron
in an atom”.
One can determine the position of a particle very accurately, and
then the determination of its velocity becomes less accurate. Similarly
one can determine the velocity of a particle very accurately, and
then the determination of its position becomes less accurate. The
certainty in one factor introduces the uncertainty in another factor.
If the uncertainty in the determination of the position of a small
particle is given by Δx and uncertainty in its momentum is Δp, then
ℎ
(Δx) (Δp) ≥
𝑛𝜋
Where n = 1,2,3,4.........
For an electron revolving around the nucleus in an atom the value of n
is nearly 4.
Thus Heisenberg’s principle can also be stated as the product of
uncertainty in position and momentum of an electron like micro
particle moving with high speed cannot be less than h/4.

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Heisenberg’s equation can also be written as,

ℎ
(Δx) (Δv) ≥
4𝜋𝑚

Where m is the mass of the particle and Δv is uncertainty in velocity.

If the position of the particle is known exactly (Δx = 0), Δv becomes
infinity (∞) and vice versa. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is not
applicable to those objects which cannot change their position by
themselves when a light falls on them. It is applicable for micro
particles like electrons.
Significance of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
Like de Broglie equation, although Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
holds good for all objects but it is significance only for microscopic
particles. The reason for this is quite obvious. The energy of the
photon is insufficient to change the position and velocity of bigger
bodies when it collides with them. For example, the light from a torch
falling on a running rat in a dark room, neither change the speed of
the rat nor its direction, i.e., position.
This may be further illustrated with the following examples:
For a particle of mass 1 mg, we have
ℎ 6.625×10−34 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠−1
Δx.Δ𝜐 = = = 10−28 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
4𝜋𝑚 4×3.1416×(10−6 𝑘𝑔)
Thus, the product of Δx and Δ𝜐 is extremely small. For particles of
mass greater than 1 mg, the product will still smaller. Hence, these
values are negligible.
For a microscopic particle like an electron, we have
ℎ 6.625×10−34 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −1
Δx.Δ𝜐 = = ≈ 10−4 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
4𝜋𝑚 4×3.1416×(9×10−31 𝑘𝑔)

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SESSION –8 AND 9
AIM
1) To introduce wave mechanical model of atom.
2) To introduce Quantum numbers.
3) To understand shapes of orbitals and Probability distribution.
THEORY
Classical mechanics, based on Newton’s laws of motion, was successful in
explaining the motion of macroscopic bodies like falling stones or motion
of planets around the sun etc. But it failed when applied to
microscopic particles like electrons, atoms, molecules etc.Hence new
branch introduced called as ‘Quantum mechanics’.
Schrodinger Wave Equation:
Quantum mechanics, as developed by Erwin Schrodinger is based on the
wave motionassociated with the particles. The Schrodinger differential
wave equation is given by
𝜕2 ψ 𝜕2 ψ 𝜕2ψ 8𝜋2 𝑚
+ + + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦 2 ℎ2
Here x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates of the electron
m = mass of electron
h = Planck’s constant
E = total energy of the electron (KE + PE)
V = potential energy of the electron (PE)
ψ= wave function of the electron.
Significance of ψ:ψ is the wave function. It gives the amplitude of
the electron wave.ψ is expressed in termsof coordinates x,y and z.The
wave function may have positive or negative value depending upon the
values of coordinates.

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The intensity of light is proportional to the square of amplitude

(ψ2).Just as 𝛙2 indicates the densityof photons in space, 𝛙2 in case of
electron wave denotes the probability of finding an electron in the
space or probability of finding the electron is also maximum.
Quantum numbers:
The behaviour of an electron in an atom is described mathematically
by a wave function or orbital.They are principal quantum number,
azimuthal quantum number,magnetic quantum number and spin quantum
number.
‘Set of numbers used to describe energy,size,shape of orbitals in an
atom’ called as quantum numbers.
1.Principal quantum number:
• The principal quantum number was introduced by Niels Bohr.
• It is denoted by ‘n’.
• ‘n’ can be any whole number value such as 1,2,3,4, etc.The
energy shells corresponding to these numbers are K, L, M, N, etc.
• Principal Quantum no. indicates the main energy level to which
the electron belongs. It also indicates the average distance of an
electron from nucleus and also the speed of the atomic electron.
• As the ‘n’ value increases the distance of electron from the
nucleus increases and its energy also increases.
• The maximum no. of electrons that can be present in an orbit is
given by 2𝑛2. The maximum no. of electron in K, L, M, and N
shells are 2,8,18 and 32 respectively.
• The radius of the orbit is given by the expression:
0.529×𝑛2 o
rn = A.
𝑍

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• The energy of the electron/orbit is given by the expression.

−13.6×𝑍 2
En= cm/sec
𝑛
• The velocity of the electron is given by the expression.
2.18×108 ×𝑍
V n= cm /sec.
𝑛
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number:
• Azimuthal Quantum number was introduced by Sommerfeld’s to
explain the fine spectrum.
• It is also called as secondary quantum no. or orbital angular
momentum quantum number or subsidiary quantum number.
• It is denoted by l.
• ‘l’ can have the values from 0 to (n-1), a total of ‘n’ values.
‘l’ values 0,1,2,3 indicates s,p,d,f. s,p,d and f are spectroscope
terms which indicates sharp. Principle, diffuse and fundamental
respectively.
• Azimuthal Quantum number indicates the sub-shell to which the
electron belongs. It also determines the shapes of the orbital in
which the electron is present.
• Each main energy shell can have ‘n’ number of sub-shells.
n l

1 0 (1s)

2 0 (2s), 1 (2p)

3 0 (3s), 1 (3p), 2(3d)

4 0 (4s), 1(4p), 2(4d), 3(4f)

• The orbital angular momentum (L) of an electron is given by the
ℎ
expression: L = √𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2𝜋

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3. Magnetic Quantum number:

• Magnetic quantum number was introduced by Lande to explain
Zeeman Effect.
• It is denoted by m or ml.
• This quantum number refers to different orientations of electron
could in a particular subshell. These orientations are called the
orbitals.
• An electron due to its orbital motion around the nucleus generates
an electric .This electric field in turn produces a magnetic field
which can interact with the external magnetic field. Thus, under
the influence of the external magnetic field, the electrons of a
subshell can orient themselves in certain preferred regions of
space around the nucleus called orbitals. The magnetic quantum
number determines the number of preferred orientations of the
electron present in a subshell.
Since each orientation corresponds to an orbital, therefore, the
magnetic quantum number determines the number of orbitals
present in any subshell.
• ‘m’ can have values from – 𝑙 to +𝑙 including zero, a total
(2 𝑙+1) values.
Subshell 𝒍 m values No. of orientations
(Orbitals)
s 0 0 1
p 1 -1, 0, +1 3
d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5
F 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, 7
+3

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• When l = 0, m has only one value, m = 0. The sub-level‘s’ has

one orbital called s orbital.
• When l =1, m can have 3 values m = –1, 0, +1. The sub-level
‘p’ has three space orientations or three orbitals. The three
orbitals are designated as px, py and pz.
• When l = 2, m can have 5 values m = –2,–1, 0, +1, +2. The
sub-level‘d’ has fivespace orientations or five orbitals. The five
orbitals are designated as dxy, dyz, dzx, 𝑑𝑥2 −𝑦 2 and𝑑𝑧 2 .
• When l = 3, m can have 7 values m = –3,–2,–1,0,+1,+2,+3.
The sub-level ‘f’ has seven space orientations or seven orbitals.
The magnetic quantum number gives orientation of orbitals in
space. All the orbitals present in a sublevel have same energy
and shape. They are called ‘degenerate orbitals’, which differ in
their spatial orientation.
• Each value of ‘m’ constitutes an orbital in the sublevel.
• Maximum no. of electrons in subshell : 2(2𝑙+1) or (4 𝑙+2).

4. Spin Quantum Number:

• Spin Quantum number was proposed by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmith.

• It is denoted by ‘s’ or ‘ms’.
• It indicates the direction of spinning of electron present in any
orbital.
• Since the electron in an orbital can spin either in the clockwise
direction or in anti-clockwise direction, hence for a given value of
m, s can have only two values, i.e., +1/2 and -1/2 or these are

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very often represented by two arrows pointing in the opposite

direction, i.e.,↑and ↓.
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of
the substances. A spinning electron behaves like a micro magnet
with a definite magnetic moment. If an orbital contains two
electrons, the two magnetic moments oppose and cancel each other.
Thus, in an atom, if all the orbitals are fully filled, net magnetic
moment is zero and the substance is diamagnetic (i.e., repelled by
the external magnetic field). However, if some half-filledorbitals
are present, the substance has a net magnetic moment and is
paramagnetic (i.e., attracted by the external magnetic field).
• The spin angular momentum (𝜇s) of an electron is given by
h
μs = √s(s + 1)
2π

Atomic Orbital:
The three dimensional space around the nucleus where the probability
of finding the electron is maximum is called an atomic orbital.
Differences between orbit and orbital:
Orbit Orbital
1. n orbit is a well-defined 1. An orbital is the region of
circular path 1.
spaceAnaroundthe
orbital isaround the of space
the region
around the nucleus in which nucleus where theprobability
the electronrevolves. of finding the electron is
maximum (95%)
2. An orbit represents the 2. An orbital represents the
movement of electron in one movement of electron in
plane. three dimensional spaces.
3. An orbit means the position 3. In an orbital it is not
as well as thevelocity of the possible to find theposition

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electron can be known with as well as velocity of the

Certainty. electroncan be known with
certainty.
4. Orbits are circular or 4. They have different
elliptical shaped. shapes like
spherical,dumbbell etc Orbita
5. Orbits do not have 5. Except ‘s’ orbitals, all
directional characteristics. other orbitals have
directional characteristics
6. An orbit can have a 6. An orbital can accommodate
maximum number of2n2 a maximumof only two
electrons. electrons.

Node- The three dimensional space around the nucleus where the
probability of finding the electron is minimum or zero.
y
z
Nucleus
node
x

(2s)

(1s)

Types of Nodes:
Nodes are of two types: a) Radial Node b) Angular Node
A radial node is the spherical region around then nucleus, where the
probability if finding the electron is zero (Ψ2 = 0).
Similarly,nodal plane(angular plane) have zero probability of finding
electron.
Calculation of no. of nodes:
No. of Radial nodes = n−𝑙 − 1
No. of angular nodes = 𝑙

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Total no. of nodes = n-1

Ex: In a 3p -orbital
No. of Radial nodes = 3-1-1 = 1
No. of angular nodes = 1
Total no. of nodes = 2.
Shapes of Orbitals:
• s –Orbitals:
s- Orbital can accommodate electrons with l = 0 and these orbitals are
present in every orbit starting from 1st orbit.
z
y

Shape of s-orbital

Orbital in which e s with n = 1 , l = 0 are present is called 1s -

-

orbital.
All s-orbitals are spherical in shape and the size of sphere increases
with ‘n’ value. s - Orbitals are spherically symmetrical because the
probability of finding the electron around the nucleus is same in all
directions.
• p – Orbitals:
p- Sublevel begins from 2nd orbit. For p - sublevel l = 1, indicates
that each p - sub level contains three orbitals with ‘m’ values –1, 0,
+1. These are designated as px, py and pz, depending on the axis in
which electron density is present.

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For exp,in px-orbital,electron density is concentrated along thex-axis.

p-Orbitals have dumb-bell shape. Each p -orbital has two lobes
separated by one nodal plane. The probability density function is zero
on the plane where the two lobes touch each other. The nodal planes
for px, py and pz - orbitals are YZ, ZX and XY - planes
respectively.
The three orbitals present in a given p - sublevel will have same shape,
size and energy but different orientations (differ in m value). These
three orbitals are perpendicular to each other and the angle between
any two p - orbitals is 90o.
• d - Orbitals:begins from 3rd orbit (n = 3). For d- sub level l =
2, indicates that each d - sublevel contains five orbitals with ‘m’
values –2, –1, 0, +1, +2. These are designated as dxy,dyz,dzx,
𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦2 and d𝑧 2 .

All the d-orbitals (except d𝑧 ) have double dumb-bell shape. Each d-

2

orbital has four lobes separated by two nodal planes.

In case of dxy, dyz and dzxorbitals, lobes are present in between the
corresponding axes. i.e.,between x and yaxis in case of dxy orbital.
Whereasin d𝑥2−𝑦2 and d𝑧 orbitals lobes are present along the axes. dxy
2

Orbital contains yz and zx as nodal planes. dyz and dzx contain

(xy,zx) and (xy,yz) planes respectively. d𝑥2−𝑦2 orbitalcontains two
nodal planes perpendicular to each other and which make an angle of
45o with respect to x and y axes. 𝑑𝑧 2 orbital does not contain nodal
planes.
5 dorbitals present in a given d- sublevel will have same energy in the
ground state.

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SESSION – 10
AIM-To introduce Electronic Configuration
THEORY
ENERGY OF ORBITALS
The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined only by
the principal quantum number. Within a shell, all hydrogen orbitals
havethe same energy, independent of the other quantum numbers.
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f
Although the shapes of 2s and 2p orbitals are different, an electron
has the same energy when it is in 2s orbital or 2p orbital. The
energy of an electron in a multielectron atom depends, not only on its
principal quantumnumber, but also on its azimuthal quantum number.
The s, p, d and f orbitals within a given shell have slightly different
energies in a multi electron atom.
Electronic configuration of multi electron atoms:
The distribution and arrangement of electrons in the main shells,
subshells and orbitals of an atom is called electronic configuration of
the element.
• Aufbau Principle:
“In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of
their increasing energies”.

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In other words electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available
to them and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the lower
energy orbitals are filled.
The relative energy of an orbital is given by
(n +l )rule. As(n+l) value increases, the energy of orbital increases.
• The orbital with the lowest (n + l) value is filled first.
• When two or more orbitals have the same (n +l) value, the one
with the lowest ‘n’ value (or) highest ‘l ’ value is preferred in
filling.

Exp-Consider two orbitals 3d and 4s.

The n + l value of 3d = 3 + 2 = 5 and of 4s = 4 + 0 = 4.
Since 4s has lowest (n +l) value, it is filled first before filling taking
place in 3d.
Consider the orbitals 3d, 4p and 5s
The (n + l) value of 3d = 3 + 2 = 5
The (n +l) value of 4p = 4 + 1 = 5
The (n +l) value of 5s = 5 + 0 = 5
These three values are same. Since the ‘n’ value is lower to 3d
orbitals, the electrons prefer to enter in 3d, then 4p and 5s.
The order of increasing energy of atomic orbitals is:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s and
so on.
The sequence in which the electrons occupy various orbitals can be
easily remembered with the help of Moeller’s diagram as shown in Fig

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1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4s 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 7p

• Pauli’s Exclusion principle:stated as “No two electrons in an

atom can have the same set of values for all the four quantum
numbers”.This means that two electrons in an orbital may have
the same n, same l and same m but differ in spin quantum
number. In an orbital if one electron has clockwise spin, the other
has anticlockwise spin. It follows that an orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons with opposite spins.
For example helium atom has two electrons in its 1s orbital. Quantum
numbers for first electron are n =1, l = 0, m = 0 and s = +1/2.
Quantum numbers for second electron are:
n =1, l = 0, m =0, s = –1/2.
The two electrons have the same value for n, same value for l and
same value for m but differ in s.
• Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity:
According to this rule, when electrons are filled in degenerate orbitals
of a subshell, pairing of an electron takes place only when each

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orbital of the subshell is filled with one electron each.It can be also
stated that, in ground state of an atom, the configuration which has
more number of unpaired electrons is most stable.
Thus in s, p, d and f subshells, pairing starts from 2nd, 4th, 6th and
8th electrons respectively.
Ex: Electronic configuration of N (7) is 1s2 2s2 2p3.
The electrons in 2p subshell are occupied sing ally. i.e., 1s2 2s2 2𝑝𝑥1 2𝑝𝑦1 2𝑝𝑧1

Electronic configuration of elements from 1 to 30

1 H 1s1 1s1
2 He 1s2 1s2
3 Li 1s2 2s1 [He] 2s1
4 Be 1s2 2s2 [He] 2s2
5 B 1s2 2s2 2p1 [He] 2s2 2p1
6 C 1s2 2s2 2p2 [He] 2s2 2p2
7 N 1s2 2s2 2p3 [He] 2s2 2p3
8 O 1s2 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p4
9 F 1s2 2s2 2p5 [He] 2s2 2p5
10 Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 [He] 2s2 2p6
11 Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 [Ne] 3s1
12 Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 [Ne] 3s2
13 Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 [Ne]3s2 3p4
17 Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 [Ne] 3s2 3p6
19 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 [Ar] 4s1
20 Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 [Ar] 4s2
21 Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 [Ar] 3d1 4s2
22 Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2 [Ar] 3d2 4s2
23 V 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2 [Ar] 3d3 4s2
24 Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
25 Mn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 [Ar] 3d5 4s2
26 Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 [Ar] 3d6 4s2

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27 Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2 [Ar] 3d7 4s2
28 Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 [Ar] 3d8 4s2
29 Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
30 Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 [Ar] 3d10 4s2

Stability of atoms
Extra stability is associated with atoms in which degenerate orbitals
are either half-filled or completely filled due to
(1) Symmetrical distribution of electrons

(2) Exchange energy. The amount of energy released when two

electrons with similar energy and same spin exchanges their position
without the change in electronic configuration is called exchange
energy.Greater the exchange energy greater is the stability.
The presence of half-filled and completely filled degenerate orbitals
gives greater stability to atoms.
It is for this reason the electronic configurations of Cr and Cu are
represented as [Ar] 4s1 3d5 and [Ar] 4s1 3d10 respectively.

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