CHAPTER 5

Compressible Fluid Flow

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 Outline
• Concept of compressible fluid
• Mach number – a criteria for compressible fluid flow
characterization.
• Processes of compressible fluid flow:
• Isentropic flow
• Adiabatic flow with friction
• Isothermal flow with friction

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• Compressibility, Z
– A measure of the change in density that will be
produced in the fluid by a specified change in
pressure.
• Gases – highly compressible.
• Liquid – very low compressibility.

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 In fluid flow, there are usually occur changes
in pressure associated with changes of other
parameters of the flow

For example, changes in the velocity in the

flow.

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 These pressure changes will, in general,
cause density changes which will
have an influence on the flow

 in other words – the compressibility of

the fluid involved will have an
influence on the flow.

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 When density changes are important,
temperature change in the flow that may arise
due to the kinetic energy change (velocity change)
also influence on the flow

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  In other words
when compressibility is important,
the temperature changes in the flow
are usually important.

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 Although the density changes in the flow field
can be very important, there exist many situations
of great practical importance in which the effects
of these density and temperature changes
are negligible.

 Example: Flow of incompressible fluid

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 Incompressible fluid flow

The pressure and kinetic energy changes are so small

 the effects of the consequent density and
temperature changes in the fluid flow
are negligible

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 There are however, a number of flows that are of great
practical importance in which this assumption is not
adequate.

The density and temperature changes being so large

that they have a very significant influence on the flow.

In such cases, it is necessary to study the

thermodynamics of the flow simultaneously
with its dynamics.

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 The study of these flows in which
the changes in density and temperature are important
is known as
compressible fluid flow or gas dynamics.

 This chapter will focus on gas flows where

compressibility effects are important.

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 Applications

Although most obvious applications of

compressible fluid flow theory are
in the design of high speed aircraft,
a knowledge of compressible fluid flow theory
is required in the design and operation
of many devices commonly encountered in
engineering practice.

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• Gas and steam turbines
– the flow in the blading and nozzles is treated as compressible.

• Reciprocating engines
– the flow of the gases through the valves and in the intake and
exhaust systems.

• Natural gas transmission lines

– compressibility effects are important in calculating the flow through
such problems.

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Processes of Compressible Flow

Convergent Divergent

Reservoir Flow Receiver

Thermal insulation

Isentropic flow
(Steady, frictionless, adiabatic flow)
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 Isentropic Friction section

Reservoir Flow Receiver

Thermal insulation

Adiabatic flow with friction

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 Isentropic
Friction section

Reservoir Receiver
Flow

Isothermal flow with friction

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 Speed of Sound, c

Small pressure disturbance that move through a

continuous medium
(the speed at which an infinitesimally small pressure
wave (sound wave) propagates through a fluid)

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 Sound
A series of small air-pressure disturbances oscillation in
sinusoidal fashion in the frequency range from
20 – 20,000 cycles per second.
More rigid material, speed of sound greater.
Note: Other text use the notation a for speed of sound.

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 A property of a material / compound.
1 1
 P 
2  kP 
2
……..(1)
c        kRT
  S   

• Where:
k = specific heat ratio, Cp/Cv
P = absolute pressure of the fluid (kPa, psi or equivalent)
 = density of the fluid (kg/m3 or equivalent)
R = specific gas constant (kJ/kg·K or equivalent)
T = absolute temperature of the fluid (K or oR)

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 Mach Number, Ma
• For incompressible fluid, Reynolds number, Re is
useful in characterizing the flow (laminar or turbulent).
• In compressible fluid, Mach number, Ma is useful in
characterizing the flow.
• Mach number, Ma
– Ratio of fluid velocity and speed of sound.
– Dimensionless.

V
Ma 
c

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 February 18, 1838
Born Brno, Austrian Empire

February 19, 1916(1916-02-19) (aged 78)

Died Munich, German Empire

Ernst Mach (1838–1916)

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• Characteristic of compressible fluid flow:
• Ma < 1 : Subsonic flow
• Ma = 1 : Sonic flow
• Ma > 1 : Supersonic flow

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 Boeing 747, Ma = 0.85 – 0.95 Concorde, Ma = 2
(high speed, subsonic aircraft) (supersonic aircraft)

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 MIG 29 – Ma 2.25
Sukhoi 30 MKM – Ma 2.3

F 18 – Ma 1.8 Hawk – Ma 0.84

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 Analysis of compressible fluid flow

• The gas (compressible fluid) is transferred from a very

large supply called RESERVOIR at:
– temperature, TR
Properties of fluid at reservoir are
– pressure, PR
called reservoir (stagnation)
– velocity, VR = 0 conditions.

RESERVOIR Receiver

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• Stagnation conditions are those that would exist if the
flow at any point in a fluid stream is isentropically
brought to rest (velocity = 0)

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• Assumptions:
– Flow is steady
– Flow is one-dimensional
– Velocity gradients within a cross section are
neglected
– Friction is restricted to wall shear
– Shaft work is zero
– Gravitational effects are negligible
– Fluid is an ideal gas of constant specific heat

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 Steady, frictionless, adiabatic
flow

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 Convergent Divergent

Reservoir Flow Receiver

Throat
Thermal insulation

• Provided the reservoir conditions (TR and PR) how

one can determine the conditions at point / state of
interest?
– Need for relation between reservoir condition and
point of interest.
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• From THERMODYNAMICS, open-system energy balance
from reservoir (R) to point/state of interest (1):

 V2   V2 
 h  gz     h  gz  
 2 R  2 1

• Earlier, VR = 0, gDz = 0  the equation is simplified to:

V12  2 hR – h1   2CP TR – T1  …………..(2)

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• For ideal gas: CP  R  C v
CP
k
Cv
Rk
 CP 
k  1
• Then Eq. (2) V12  2 hR – h1   2CP TR – T1  will become;

V  22Rk
TR – T1 
1
k  1
2  TR 
V  RkT1
2
 – 1
1
k  1  T1 
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• Taking the term RkT1 to the left hand side:
V12 2  TR 
  – 1
RkT1 k  1  T1 
• From Eq. (1), for condition at point 1  c1  kRT1
1 1
 P   kP 
 c  kRT1
2 2 2
c        kRT
  S    1

V12 2  TR 
  – 1 ………….(3)
• Then; 2
c1 k  1  T1 

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 V
Ma 
c
• From Eq (3), substitute Ma and rearrange:
TR Ma12 k  1
 1 …………..(4)
T1 2

• Relation between reservoir

temperature, temperature and Mach number at
point of interest for a given fluid.

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• For compressible fluid, pressure and density change
accordingly to the change in temperature:
• The isentropic (frictionless, adiabatic) relation is given
by:
k
PR  TR  k 1
   ………(a)
P1  T1 

1
R  TR  k 1
………(b)
  
1  T1 

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• Substituting Eq. (4) into (a) and (b):

k
PR  Ma12 k  1  k 1 ………..(5)
   1 
P1  2 
1
R  Ma12 k  1  k 1 ………..(6)

  1 
1  2 

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 Reservoir Flow Receiver

• Steady, frictionless, adiabatic flow can be achieved if

fluid flow in a variable cross sectional area  nozzle.
• Then, there is a need to find relation between area
perpendicular to the flow with respect to the area of
the reservoir.
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 Reservoir Flow Receiver

• In any flow, mass is conserved.

• From continuity equation: AV R  AV 1
A R 1V1

A1 R VR
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 AR 1V1

A 1 R VR
• Using equation above is not practical since:
– AR is very large
– VR = 0 From previous assumptions

• Therefore other reference point is needed apart from

the reservoir

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• In any such flow there will be a state where Ma = 1.
• This is called the critical state.
• Properties related to critical state is called critical
conditions or asterisk (*) condition.
(Don’t confuse yourself with definition of Pcr or Tcr)

• Then the relation is written as:

 
A1  V


A 1V1
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• Relation between area perpendicular to the
flow and area at critical state:
k 1
 Ma12 k  1  2k 1
 1 
A1 1  2 

A  Ma1  k  1  1 
 
 2 

• At subsonic  to get the fluid go faster, one must reduce the

cross sectional area perpendicular to the flow.
• At supersonic  to get the fluid go faster, one must increase
the cross sectional area perpendicular to the flow.
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• Similarly, mass flow rate of fluid can be determined
from continuity equation with respect to the critical
state: 1
 k 2
 PR  
m
  TRR 
 k 1
 k  1
A
 2k 1
  1
 2 

PR A 

• For air with k = 1.4: m  0.6847
TRR

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• When the gas is blown down, there will be a decrease
in the amount of gas in the reservoir.
 
• Then, minitial  mmax

• Mass flow rate can also be determined using:


m  1A 1V1  2 A 2 V2

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 Example 1
• Air flowing through an insulated, frictionless nozzle is
supplied from a large supply tank at 500 kPa, 400 K.
Determine:
– The Mach number, Ma,
– The temperature, T
– The density, 
– The air velocity, V
at a location in the duct where the pressure is 430 kPa.

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 Solution
• Assumption:
– Frictionless, insulated duct  adiabatic
– Air is an ideal gas 
k = 1.4, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K,
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK

• Given: TR = 400 K, PR = 500 kPa

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 Solution
• For isentropic gas flow: k
k
PR  TR  k 1
PR  Ma k  1 
2 k 1   
   1 
1
P1  T1 
P1  2 
k 1
 k 1
  P1  k
2  PR   T1  TR  
   1
k
Ma1 
k  1  P1    PR 
  1.4 1
 430 
 400 
1. 4
 1.4 1
 
2  500   500 
 1
1 .4
  
1.4  1  430 
   383 K
 
 0.469

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 Solution
P1
• Density, 1  The speed of sound
RT1 c  kRT
430
 1

0.287 383  
 1.4  0.287
kPa  m3 
 383 K 
2

kg  kg  K 
 3.91 3
m 1
 kPa  m3  2
 12.41  
• Fluid velocity, V1  kg 
m
V1  Ma  c  12.41
s
 0.469  12.41
m
 5.82
s
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 Example 2
Gas flow through a Converging-Diverging Duct

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a

varying cross-sectional area duct such as a
nozzle shown in the figure at a mass flow
rate of 3.00 kg/s. The carbon dioxide
enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa
and 200oC with a low velocity and it
expands in the nozzle to a pressure of 200
kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow
can be approximated as isentropic.
Determine the density, velocity, flow
area, and Mach number at each location
along the duct that corresponds to a
pressure drop of 200 kPa.

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 Adiabatic Flow with Friction
Isentropic Friction section

Reservoir Flow Receiver

Thermal insulation

• Occurs when a gas flows through a length of pipe at

high velocity.
• If pipe is insulated or flow is fast, heat transfer is
considered negligible  adiabatic.
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 Adiabatic Flow with Friction
Isentropic Friction section

Reservoir Flow Receiver

Thermal insulation

• Effect of friction due to the flow will cause the entropy

of flowing gas to increase (entropy is not constant)
• Therefore isentropic relation cannot be applied in the
analysis.
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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the momentum balance:

Net pressure force – Force due to wall shear stress
= Mass flow rate x (Velocity out – Velocity in)


 m V  dV   V   AP  dP   P  dFfriction

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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the continuity equation:

AV = constant
V = constant (since A is constant)
 V = ( + d)(V + dV)

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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the energy balance:

CP T 
V2
 CP T  dT  
V  dV 
2

2 2

• Equation of state: (P = RT)

P + dP = ( + d) R (T + dT)

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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Also from Mach number definition:

2
V V
Ma   Ma2 
c kRT

Ma  dMa2  V  dV 2

kR T  dT 

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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• The equations represents a set of equations with

unknown dP, dT, d, dV and dMa

• Have to be solved accordingly to obtain appropriate

expressions.

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 dFfriction
P P + dP
T T + dT
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• In momentum balance, there exist the term wall

shear stress, twall.
• In pipeline system, this is expressed as dimensionless
value  friction factor, f

• Most compressible gas flows in duct involve turbulent

flow

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• Solving from the equation (for circular pipe):
  1 2 
 2 1  k  1 Ma2  
4 f Dx 1  1 1  k  1  Ma1  2  

  2  2   ln 2  
D k  Ma1 Ma2  2k  Ma2  1 2 
 1  k  1 Ma1
  2  

• The equation describe the change of Ma over a given

length.
• When friction is involved, flows tend to reach sonic
condition – Ma  1.

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• When friction is involved, flows tend to reach sonic
condition  Ma  1. (Ma2 approaching 1)

• By setting Ma2 = 1, the length of duct required to give

the value of Ma1 is obtained as maximum length, Lmax
(or critical length, L*)

4 f L *  1  Ma12  k  1
   ln
k  1 Ma12
2 
D  kMa1  2k 2  1  1 k  1 Ma2 
1
 2 

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 Example
Air flows in a 5 cm diameter pipe. The air enters
at Ma = 2.5 and is to leave at Ma = 1.5. Determine
the length of pipe required. What would be the
maximum length of pipe?
Assume f = 0.002 and adiabatic flow.

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Solution
• Flow is adiabatic.
  1 2 
 2 1  k  1 Ma2  
4 f Dx 1  1 1  k  1  Ma1  2  
  2  2   ln 2  
D k  Ma1 Ma2  2k  Ma2  1 
 1  k  1 Ma1  
2
  2  
  1 2 
 1  1.4  11.5   
40.002  L 1  1 1   1.4  1   2.5 2 2 
  2  2     ln 2  
0.05 1.4  2.5 1.5   2(1.4)  1.5  1
 1  1.4  12.5 2 

  2  
L  0.185 m

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• Maximum pipe length, L*:

4 f L *  1  Ma12  k  1
   ln
k  1 Ma12
2 
D  kMa1  2k 2  1  1 k  1 Ma2 
1
 2 
40.002  L *  1  2.5   1.4  1 1.4  12.5 
2 2
   ln
 1.42.5   21.4  2  1  1 1.4  12.5 2 
2 
0.05
 2 
L*  2.7m

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• Pressure relation:
 k  1 2 
1  Ma2 
P1 Ma2  2 

P2 Ma1  k  1 2 
1  Ma1 
 2 
• Temperature relation:

 k  1 2 
1  Ma2 
T1  2 

T2  k  1 2 
1  Ma1 
 2 

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• Density relation:

 k  1 2 
1  Ma1 
1 P1 T2 Ma2  2 
  
2 P2 T1 Ma1 1
k  1 2
Ma2
2

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 Isothermal Flow with Friction
Isentropic
Friction section

Reservoir Flow Receiver

• Occurs in long, small, uninsulated pipe in contact with

environment transmit sufficient heat to keep the flow
isothermal.
• E.g.: flow of natural gas through long distance pipelines.

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 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the continuity equation:

AV = constant
V = constant (since A is constant)
V = ( + d)(V + dV)

dV d

V 
MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the momentum balance:

Net pressure force – Force due to wall shear stress
= Mass flow rate x (Velocity out – Velocity in)



m V  dV   V   AP  dP   P  dFfriction

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Applying the energy balance:

 
dQ  mCP T  dT  
V  dV 
2
V2 
 CP T  
 2 2

• Since T constant and dQ = m dq

 dq = V dV

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• From ideal gas EOS (P = RT)

P + dP = ( + d) RT

 dP d

P 

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• Also from Mach number definition:

V
Ma 
c
V  dV (since T constant, c  constant)
Ma  dMa 
 c
dMa dV

Ma V

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• The equations represents a set of equations with

unknown dP, dT, d, dV and dMa
• Have to be solved accordingly to obtain appropriate
expressions.

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 dQ
dFfriction
P P + dP
V V + dV
  + d

dx

• In momentum balance, there exist the term wall

shear stress, twall.
• In pipeline system, this is expressed as dimensionless
value  friction factor, f

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Isothermal Flow with Friction
Q

P1 P2
V1 V2
1 2
Ma1 Ma2

Dx

V2 1 P1 Ma2
  
V1 2 P2 Ma1

2fL 1 1 1   Ma2 
  2  2   ln  
D 2k  Ma1 Ma2   Ma1 
MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Q

P1 P2
V1 V2
1 2
Ma1 Ma2

Dx

1
• For isothermal flow with friction, Ma tend to reach
k
1
• When Ma ~ k , dq ~ infinity.

– An infinite amount of heat must be transferred or removed to keep

the temperature of the gas constant.
– Limiting value for Ma = 1
k

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Isothermal Flow with Friction
1
• By setting Ma2 = , maximum length Lmax or L*
is obtained: k

4 f L *  1  kMa12 
D
 
kMa 2 
  lnkMa1
2

 1 

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Example
Air flows through a 5 cm diameter pipeline. The flow
enters at a temperature of 20oC, Ma = 0.1 and
pressure of 900 kPa, and exit at Ma = 0.5. Determine:
– Length of the pipe.
– Maximum pipe length and the corresponding
pressure.
– Mass flow rate of the air.

The specific heat ratio for air and the mean friction
factor may be taken as 1.4 and 0.004 respectively.

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Solution
• Length of pipe:
20.004 L 1  1 1   0.5 
  2  2   ln  
0.05 21.4   0.1 0.5   0.1 
L  204.2 m

• Maximum pipe length:

40.004 L *  1  1.4 0.1 

 
2
  2 
  ln 1.4 0.12

0.05  1.4 0.1 

L*  233.43 m

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
• Pressure at the maximum length:

P2 Ma1
From 
P1 Ma2
1
at L*, P  P * and Ma2 
1.4
0.1
P*   900  106.5 kPa
1
1.4

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
• At T = 293 K,c = kRT = 10.85 m/s
V1 = Ma1  c = (0.1)(10.85) = 1.85 m/s

1 
P1

900 kPa  kg
 10.7 3
RT  kPa  m 
3
m
 0.287 293K 
 kg  K 

m  1AV1
 
 10.7 0.05  1.85 
2

4
kg
 0.0389
s
MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Example
• Natural gas flows through a 0.075 m diameter pipeline
which has a length of 750 m. The flow can be
assumed to be isothermal with a temperature of 15oC.
The Mach number and pressure at the inlet are 0.09
and 900 kPa, respectively. If the mean friction factor
for the flow is 0.002, determine the Mach number at
the pipe exit. Also find the maximum possible length
of the pipe and the exit pressure with this length of
pipe.
Assume the flow is steady and the specific heat ratio
for the natural gas is 1.3.

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Solution
• Assumption: Isothermal, steady flow, ideal gas

2fL 1 1 1   Ma2 
  2  2   ln  
D 2k  Ma1 Ma2   Ma1 
20.002 750  1  1 1   Ma2 
   2   ln  
0.075  21.3   0.09 Ma2 
2
 0.09 
1  1 1   Ma2 
40    2   ln  
2.6  0.0081 Ma2   0.09 

• Unknowns Ma2  solve through trial-and-error

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Ma2,guess LHS RHS Error
0.1 40 8.916 -31.084
0.2 40 37.068 -2.932
0.25 40 40.3 0.300

• Plot graph Ma vs Error

0.5
y = 64.76x - 15.88
0
-0.5 0.2 0.25
At Error, y = 0 
-1 Ma, x = 0.245
Ma

-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
Error

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 P2 Ma1

P1 Ma2
0.09
P2   900  330.6 kPa
0.245

• Maximum possible length:

4 f L *  1  kMa12 
D
 
kMa 2 
  ln 
kMa 2
1 
 1 

40.002 L * 1  1.3 0.09  


 
2
   ln 1.3 0.09 
2
 2 
0.075  1.3 0.09  
L*  838.2 m
MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 P2 Ma1
From 
P1 Ma2
1
at L*, P  P * and Ma2 
1.3
0.09
P*   900  92.4 kPa
1
1.3

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
 Choking
• Condition of flow at location where Ma = 1 (sonic flow)
• Normally occurs in throat area of the nozzle.
• No more mass can get through the nozzle (constant
mass flow rate) as flow is choked, without changing
the upstream (reservoir) condition.

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech