OPEN CHANNEL

FLOW
Group 4 (Ice² Babies)
Edited By: ENGR. EMELIE E. ALVAREZ
-Defined as fluid flow with a free surface open to the
atmosphere.
-Assumes that the pressure at the surface is constant
and the hydraulic grade line is at the surface of
fluid.
-It is driven entirely by gravity.
-Cross-section can vary with location and time and is
often irregular.
-For design purposes in roadside channels, hydraulic
conditions are usually assumed to be uniform
and steady.
TYPES OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
(1)SUB-CRITICAL FLOW
-The depth of flow will be higher whereas the
velocity will be lower.
-Is characterized as tranquil and has deeper,
slower velocity flow.
-In a small channel, subcritical flow can be
observed when a shallow wave moves in
both the upstream and downstream
direction.
(2)CRITICAL FLOW
-Flow over a free over-fall.
(3)SUPER CRITICAL FLOW
-The depth of flow will be lower but the velocity
will be higher.
-Flow may create surface waves whose height
approaches the depth of flow.
-For very steep channel gradients, the flow may
splash and surge in a violent manner and special
considerations for freeboard are required.
Freeboard
-The freeboard of a channel is the vertical distance
from the water surface to the top of the channel at
design condition.
-The importance of this factor depends on the
consequence of overflow of the channel bank.
-In a permanent roadway channel, about 0.15 m (0.5
ft) of freeboard should be adequate, and for
transitional channels, zero freeboard may be
acceptable.
Freeboard…continuation
-Steep gradient channels should have a freeboard
height equal to the flow depth.
-This allows for large variations to occur in flow
depth for steep channels caused by waves, splashing
and surging. Lining materials should extend to the
freeboard elevation.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
•STEADY
In steady flow, no change in discharge occurs over
time. In steady flow, no change in discharge occurs
over time.
•UNSTEADY
Flow is said to be unsteady when the discharge
changes with time.
•UNIFORM
Flow is said to be uniform when both the depth and
discharge is same at any two sections of the channel.
Discharge of uniform flow in a channel is computed
using the Manning's equation combined with the
continuity equation:
𝑎
Q = A𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛
Q = discharge, m³/sec (ft³/sec)
n = roughness coefficient, dimensionless
A = cross-sectional area, m² (ft²)
R = hydraulic radius, m (ft)
S = friction gradient, m/m (ft/ft)
α = unit conversion constant, 1.0 (SI), 1.49 (CU)
Values of n
CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW…continuation
•NON-UNIFORM
If flow characteristics is not constant along the
channel.
--gradually varied flow
--rapidly varied flow
Gradually Varied Flow
-The flow is classified as gradually varied flow when
the change of the fluid depth along the channel
dy/dx is much less than one.
dy/dx = So - Sf / 1- Fr²
So = the slope of the channel bed
Sf = the slope of the energy grade line (EGL)
Fr = Froude number (ratio of inertial forces to
gravitational forces in the system)
Fr >1 for supercritical flow
Fr <1 for subcritical flow
Rapidly Varied Flow
-Is another type of non-uniform open-channel
flow where the fluid depth changes rapidly over
a small reach of the channel.
-Occurrences in
a. Sluice gates
b. Weirs
c. Waterfalls
d. Abrupt changes in crossed sections
Table 2.3 provides typical examples of permissible shear stress for selected
lining types.
Channel Cross Section Geometry
-Most highway drainage channels are trapezoidal or
triangular in shape with rounded corners.
-Design of roadside channels should be integrated
with the highway geometric and pavement design to
insure proper consideration of safety and pavement
drainage needs.
-If available channel linings are found to be
inadequate for the selected channel geometry, it
may be feasible to widen the channel.
Channel Cross Section Geometry…continuation
-The width of channels is limited however to the
ratio of top width to depth less than about 20.
-It has been demonstrated that if a riprap-lined
channel has 1:3 or flatter side slopes, there is no
need to check the banks for erosion.
CHANNEL SLOPE
•It is the valley between the peaks of elevation
created by a stream. It is how far a channel drops
over a horizontal distance.
•Slope or Gradient is the vertical distance divided by
horizontal distance. The steeper the slope, the faster
the stream velocity.
•Channel patterns are influenced by the flow of the
streams and the accumulation of sediment.
Channel Slope…continuation
•The slope of a roadside channel is usually the same
as the roadway profile and so is not a design option.
•If channel stability conditions are below the
required performance and available linings are
nearly sufficient, it may be feasible to reduce the
channel slope slightly relative to the roadway profile.
•For channels outside the roadway right-of-way,
there can be more grading design options to adjust
channel slope where necessary.
Channel Slope…continuation
•Channel slope is one of the major parameters in
determining shear stress.
•Roadside channels with gradients in excess of
about two percent will usually flow in a supercritical
state.
Channel Slope…continuation
Critical slope (Sc)
is the channel
bottom slope that
will result in
critical flow
condition.
Classification of Lining Materials:
(1) Rigid Lining – permanent,
long duration installation,
useful in flow zones where
high shear or non-uniform flow
conditions exist.
Classification of Lining Materials…continuation
(2) Flexible Lining – can be
long term or transitional
or temporary installation,
able to adjust to some
change in channel shape,
best suited to conditions of
uniform flow and moderate
shear stress.
Flexible Lining Materials…continuation
(a) Long Term Flexible Lining
– are used where roadside channel requires
protection against erosion for the service life of
the channel. (Vegetation Lining, Coble Lining,
(a) Long Term Flexible Lining …continuation
(Rock Riprap, Wire Enclosed riprap, Turf
Reinforcement Mat)
Flexible Lining Materials…continuation
(b)Transitional & Temporary Flexible Lining Materials
– are intended to facilitate establishment of the long
term flexible lining. (bare soil, open mulch, open
weave textile, erosion control blanket)
DESIGN OF CHANNEL
The basic design
procedure for flexible
channel linings is quite
simple. The computations
include a determination
of the uniform flow depth
in the channel, known as
the normal depth, and
determination of the
shear stress on the
channel bottom at this
depth.
Example:
Evaluate a proposed gravel mulch lining on a
trapezoidal channel for stability.
Given:
Q=0.42 m³/sec
B=0.4m
Z=3
So=0.008 m/m
D₅₀=25mm d

REQUIRED: B

d=? Stability=?
Example..continuation
SOLUTION:
Step 1. Channel slope, shape, and discharge have
been given.
Step 2. Proposed lining type is a gravel mulch with
D50 = 25 mm.
Step 3. Assume that the depth of flow (di) in the
channel is 0.50 m.
A = Bd+Zd²________
= (0.4)(0.5)+(3)(0.5)² = 0.95 m²
________

P = B+2d√Z²+1 = 0.4+2(0.5)√3²+1 = 3.56 m

R = A/P = 0.950/3.56 = 0.267 m
Example Solution...continuation
Step 4. Calculate the discharge by Manning’s
formula:
𝑎 2/3 1/2 1 2/3 1/2
Q = A𝑅 𝑆 = (0.95)(0.267) (0.008)
𝑛 0.033

= 1.07m³/sec
Step 5. Since the value is > 5% than the design flow,
go back to Step 3.
Step 3 (2nd iteration). Estimate a new depth.
𝑄 . 0.42
d = (di)[ ]⁰ ⁴ = (0.5)[ ] ⁰. ⁴ = 0.344 m
𝑄𝑖 1.07
Example Solution…continuation
Compute new hydraulic radius
A = Bd+Zd²_________
= (0.4)(0.344)+(3)(0.344)²
_________ = 0.493 m²
P = B+2d√Z²+1=(0.4)+2(0.344)√3²+1 = 2.58 m
R = A/P = 0.493/2.58 = 0.191m
from table 2.2, n=0.035 (by interpolation)
Step 4 (2nd Iteration). Calculate discharge using
Manning’s formula.
𝑎 2/3 1/2 1 2/3 1/2
Q = A𝑅 𝑆 = (0.493)(0.191) (0.008)
𝑛 0.035
= 0.42 m³/sec
Example Solution…continuation
Step 5. Compare this value with design discharge
flow. Q = Qi = 0.42 m³/sec. Perfect!
Step 6. Calculate the shear stress at max depth:
τd = γdSo = 9810(0.344)(0.008) = 27 N/m²
From Table 2.3, the permissible shear stress
τp = 19 N/m². For this channel, a SF=1
Step 7. Compare calculated v.s. permissible shear.
τp > SF τd
19 > (1)(27) No. Lining is not stable! Select a
lining type with greater permissible stress.
Example Solution…continuation
Step 2 (3rd Iteration). New proposed lining type is a
gravel mulch with D50 = 50 mm.
Step 3 (3rd Iteration). Assume that the depth of flow,
di in the channel is 0.40 m.
A = Bd+Zd²_________
= (0.4)(0.4)+(3)(0.4)² = 0.64 m²
_________

P = B+2d√Z²+1 = 0.4+2(0.4)√3²+1 = 2.93 m

R = A/P = 0.64/2.93 = 0.218 m
Step 4 (3rd Iteration).
. Calculate discharge using
Manning’s formula. From table 2.2, and by
interpolation, n = 0.046.
Example Solution…continuation
Recalculate the discharge
𝑎 2/3 1/2 1
Q = A𝑅 𝑆 = (0.64)(0.218)2/3 (0.008)1/2
𝑛 0.046
= 0.45 m³/sec
Step 5(3rd iteration). Compare design Q. ok!
Step 6(3rd iteration). Calculate the shear stress at
max depth:
τd = γdSo = 9810(0.4)(0.008) = 31.39 N/m²
From Table 2.3, the permissible shear stress
τp = 38 N/m². For this channel, a SF=1
τp > τd ; 38 > 31.39 Good! Use D50=50mm d=0.4m
 SIDE SLOPE STABILITY
Shear stress is generally reduced on the channel sides compared
with the channel bottom. The maximum shear on the side of a
channel is given by the following equation:
The value K1 depends on the size and shape of the channel.
For parabolic or V-shape with rounded bottom channels there is no sharp
discontinuity along the wetted perimeter and therefore it can be assumed
that shear stress at any point on the side slope is related to the depth at that
point using Equation of straight channels.
For trapezoidal and triangular channels, K1 has been developed relative to
the value of Z.
The Z value represents the horizontal dimension 1:Z (V:H). Use of side slopes
steeper than 1:3 (V:H) is not encouraged for flexible linings other than riprap
or gabions because of the potential for erosion of the side slopes. Steep side
slopes are allowable within a channel if cohesive soil conditions exist.
Channels with steep slopes should not be allowed if the channel is
constructed in non-cohesive soils.
COMPOSITE LINING DESIGN
• Composite linings use two lining types in a single channel rather than one. A more shear
resistant lining is used in the bottom of the channel while a less shear resistant lining
protects the sides. This type of design may be desirable where the upper lining is more
cost-effective and/or environmentally benign, but the lower lining is needed to resist
bottom stresses.
• The following equation is used to determine the equivalent roughness coefficient.
The procedure for composite lining design:
Step 1. Determine design discharge and select channel slope and shape.
(No change.)
Step 2. Need to select both a low flow and side slope lining.
Step 3. Estimate the depth of flow in the channel and compute the
hydraulic radius. (No change.) Step 4. After determining the Manning’s n for the
low flow and side slope linings, use Equation 3.5 to calculate the
effective Manning’s n.
Step 5. Compare implied discharge and design discharge. (No change.)
Step 6. Determine the shear stress at maximum depth, τd (Equation ), and
the shear stress on the channel side slope, τs (Equation ).
Step 7. Compare the shear stresses, τd and τs, to the permissible shear
stress, τp, for each of the channel linings. If τd or τs is
greater than the τp for the respective lining, a different
combination of linings should be evaluated.
STABILITY IN BENDS
• Flow around a bend creates secondary currents, which impose
higher shear stresses on the channel sides
• At the beginning of the bend, the maximum shear stress is near the
inside and moves toward the outside as the flow leaves the bend.
The increased shear stress caused by a bend persists downstream of
the bend.
• the maximum shear stress in a bend.
• The maximum shear stress in a bend is a function of the
ratio of channel curvature to the top (water surface) width,
RC/T. As RC/T decreases, that is as the bend becomes
sharper, the maximum shear stress in the bend tends to
increase. Kb can be determined from the following
equation.
The design procedure for channel bends is summarized in the following
steps:

• Step 1. Determine the shear stress in the bend and check whether or not an
alternative lining is needed in the bend.
• Step 2. If an alternative lining is needed, select a trial lining type and compute the
new hydraulic properties and bend shear stress.
• Step 3. Estimate the required length of protection.
• Step 4. Calculate superelevation and check freeboard in the channel.
Cont. step 4.
STEEP SLOPE DESIGN
• channel lining design. Furthermore, inspection of Equation of
straight channels reveals that applied shear stress is directly
proportional to channel slope. Therefore, it is appropriate to address
the question of what, if any, additional consideration should be given
to flexible channel lining design on steep slopes.
• First, “steep” must be defined. From a hydraulic standpoint a steep
slope is one that produces a supercritical normal depth (as opposed
to a mild slope). Steep may also be defined as a fixed value such as
10 percent. Neither definition is appropriate for all circumstances
and a single definition is not required. Two general questions arise
when considering steep slopes for channel design.
MAXIMUM DISCHARGE APPROACH
• As the discharge increases along a channel, the shear
stress may at some point reach the permissible shear for
the channel lining selected indicating the need to
proceed with the design of another lining for the next
section of channel or provide a relief inlet or culvert to
divert the flow out of the channel.
• Combining Equations of straight channel and side slope
stability in the following form can derive the maximum
depth a channel lining can withstand:
The analysis approach is applied as follows:
Step 1. Select a candidate lining and determine its permissible shear
value and an appropriate safety factor.
Step 2. Use Equation of straight channels to calculate the maximum
depth. Check that this depth does not exceed the depth (including
freeboard) provided in the typical roadway section.
Step 3. Determine the area and hydraulic radius corresponding to the
allowable depth based on the channel geometry
Step 4. Estimate the Manning’s n value appropriate for the lining type
and depth.
Step 5. Solve Manning's equation to determine the maximum discharge
for the channel. The length of roadway and/or contributing
drainage must be limited to an area generating less than or equal
to this amount.
“Whoever gets sense loves
his own soul; he who
keeps understanding will
discover good.”
Proverbs 19:8