[ 1]

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

The Meaning and the Nature of Indian Philosophy (Darsana):

Philosophy literally means ‘love of wisdom’ or ‘pursuit of

k n o w le d g e It is an attempt to arrive at a rational conception
of the reality as a whole. It inquires into the nature of the
universe in which we live, the nature of the human soul, and
its destiny, and the nature of God or the Absolute, and their
relation to one another. Indian philosophy implies a theoretic
persuit of ultimate reality, ultimate truth and ultimate end or
summum bonum of life. It holds in its own way that there can
be a direct apprehension of truth or reality (tattva-darsana).lt
inquires into the nature of matter, time, space, causality, evo­
lution, life and mind and their relation to one another. At the
present day, philosophy has for its main branches
metaphysics,epistemology,logic,ethics,aesthetics, axiology. It is
the art of thinking all thing logically, systematically and persis­
tently. It is the rational attempt to have a world-view.

There is innate in human heart a metaphysical hunger to

know and understand what lies beyond the mysterious and il­
lusive veil of nature. Philoisophy is a congruent system of
 [2]

thought which is backed by logic or reason and arguments, and

manifests itself as an essence. In Indian, philosophy is not an
intellectual pursuit for pleasure, but a spiritual striving for direct
experience of the Absolute.

Philosophy is termed as ‘Darsana’ ( ‘the vision of truth’) in

India as it aims at knowledge of truth. In its widest etymological
sense,darsana is a subtle and pervasive branch of knowledge,
which implies a theoretic pursuit of ultimate truth.The purpose
of philosophy is an insight into the nature of the whole reality,
that is why philosophy is termed as ‘Darsana’. The term
‘Darsana is derived from the root Vdrs which
*
means‘vision’
and also ‘instrument of visionf, which stands for the direct,
o
immediate and intuitive vision of Reality . The actual perception
of truth and it also includes the means which lead realization.
The key-note of Indian philosophy is ‘see the s e iflQ. The word
‘Darsana’ in the sense of true philosophic knowledge has its
earliest use in the Vaisesika-sutras of Kanada1
•
4. Darsana is not
3
2 •

a mere speculative or intellectual pursuit of pleasure, it is a

1. d rsya te tv a g ry a y a b u d d h y a s D k sm a y a
s O k s m a d a rs ib h ih . K ath . I. 3.12.

2. d rsyate y a th a rth a ta ttv a m a n e n a iti d a rsa n a jjf. S K D .

3. atm a v a are d ra sta vya h . Br. U. , II. iv 5.

4. V S . , IX. ii. 13.

 [3]

direct God intuition (isvaranubhuti) or it is to see God face to

face. So, philosophy in India means to see God to get a
Darsana of God, the Absolute and to have a direct experience
of the Brahman or Atman. In Indian tradition Darsana function
as a system of knowlege of reality. A system is a set of ideas
or concepts which are interrelated so as to serve as an ad­
equate explanation of reality. Generally it stands for critical ex­
positions, logical inquiry or insight of soul. When Darsana is
understood as a system of knowledge {Jnana-sadhanam sastram)
it implies critical inquiry. There are different types of Darsana;
each school is unique in its structure uniqueness of a particular
Darsana is due to its conceptual autonomy.56A Darsana as
system is expected to deal with the areas of epistemology,
metaphysics or ontology, logic and ethics.

It can not be denied that all philosophies of both the East

and the West are unanimous about achieving the highest value
of philosophy. But their conceptions and interpretations of the
ultimate value differ from one another. Even, there are different
interpretations of different systems in Indian philosophy about
the highest achievement of life.ln the Upanisad, we have an
c
interpretation as- ‘tarati sokam atmavit- , i.e. those who realize
5. M K . , p . l 9 3
6. C h a . U . , VII. 1.3
 [ 4]

the Atman , go beyond all pains and sufferings. According to the

Sarhkhya, there are three kinds of suffering (annihiltion or
afflictions, namely, Adhyatmika, Adhibhautika and Adhidaivika
which are mean purusartha or highest achievement, i.e. salva­
tion. The supreme release is total annihilation of these three­
fold pain7 without leaving any trace of it. According to the Yoga
system, he who has attained to tattvajnana, transcends the cat­
egories of intellect etc. and he is never involved in any desire
etc. or Mukti (emancipation), means to realize the real essence
{svarupa) of the Purusa or God (purusa-visesah Jsvarah ). Ac­
cording to the Nyaya system, when tattvajnana or knowledge
about the ultimate Reality manifests by the analysis of
Pramana etc. and sixteen substance {padartha)s then the utter
extinction of affliction, birth, desire and false knowledge is
possible8. According to the Mlmarhsakas, virtue is only the

7. d u h k h a n a rh trayarfi d u h k h a tra y a m . tat khalu

a d h y a tm ik a m , ad h ib h a u tik a m , a d h id a iv ik a n c a .
S T K . u n d e r S K . Ka. I.

8. (i) p ra m a n a -p ra m e y a -s a m s a y a p ra y o ja n a -d rs ta n ta -
s id d h a n ta ..... tattvajna n a n n is re y a s a d h ig a m a h .
NS.,1.1

(ii) d u k h a -ja n m a v fttid o sa m ith ya jn a n a m u tta ro -

tta ra p a y e ta d a n a n ta ra p a y a -p a v a rg a h . N S .,1 .2.
 [5]

instrument of prosperity. The Vedantins say that the utility of

Vedanta philosophy is to remove nescience and also to iden­
tify the individual soul with the Brahman, and this is the teach­
ing of the Vedanta9. The Vedanta philosophy may be studied
purely form a religious standpoint as an intuitive principle of
realisation as well as conceptual dialectics. In the former as­
pect, it unfolds to us the highest art of life, brings solace in
affliction and holds out a promise of self-realisation and tran­
scendental bliss.The Bauddha Darsana also prescribes Nirvana
for going beyond all tanhas or trsna (desire)s.

In spite of many different viewpoints and interpretations

in different philosophical schools, the real spirit of pholosophy
is not affected, because although their definitions of prime
object and standpoints differ, but their goal of attaining free­
dom from the bondage of ignorance is one and the same. The
intuitive thinkers of Indian philosophical thoughts repeatedly
advised people to have direct knowledge or immediate expe­
rience of the highest truth which means realization of the

9. (i) a tm a v a ’ re d r a s ta v y a h s r o t a v y o m a n t a v y o
n id id h y a s ita v y a h . B r .U ., II. iv .5

(ii) a t m a n o v a ’ re d a r s a n e n a s r a v a n e n a , m a ty a
v ijn a n e n e d a m sarvarri v id ita m . ib id ., IV . v. 6
(iii) s a r v a m k h a lu idarh b ra h m a . C h a . U . , III. x iv . 1.

i
 [ 6]

Absolute. Therefore, when we discuss these schools of phi­

losophy, then we discuss and analyses different ways for re­
alizing the ultimate reality of the universe which is the sum-
mum bonum of human life.

The spirit of Indian philosophy is to make a friendly rela­

tionship with religion. ‘In India, religion and philosophy are one.
Religion is the practical side of philosophy and the latter is the
1n
rational side of religion. They are inseparably connected .
Indian philosophy further teaches the secret of work (karmayoga)
the secret of devotion (bhaktiyoga), the secret of concentration
and meditation (rajayoga) as well as the secret of speculative
thoughts and highest widsom (jnanayoga).

The religio-speeulative thoughts and ideas evolved in

different periods in India, viz. the Vedic period , the Epic period ,
the Sutra period and the scholorstic period. Dr. Sarbapalli
Radhakrishnan says ‘There was a change in Indian thought
after the Vedic period, due to the asceticism of the Atharvaveda,
the mystic tendency increased. During the period of the hymns
of the R gveda, there was a sort of selfish abandonment to
pleasure. The spiritual instinct of the human soul asserted itself
and in the period of the Upanisads, the protest aginst the
10. PAR., p . 63.
 [7]
11
tyranny of the senses was heard in clear tones.’

The philosophical thinking began in India with the Rgveda

itself prominently revealed in the hymns. As a result of this
nucleus, there arose different philosophical systems in India
based on either monistic idealism or dualistic realism. It indi­
cates the philosophical speculations of all Indian propounders
of different systems of philosophy. Though there developed
different schools of philosophy in India and they present a di­
versity of views we can descern even in the systems or schools
the common stamp of an Indian culture, that is the Indian phi­
losophy.

Two Broad Divisions of Indian Philosophy

According to traditional principle of classification, Indian
philosophy is divided into two broad classes, namely - (i) the
Astika and (ii) the Nastika. All the systems of Indian philosophy
belong these two classes : (i) Astika (orthodox), so called as
it believes in the authority of the Vedas, and (ii) Nastika (het­
erodox), because it does not believe in the authority of the
Vedas. In common usage astika means ‘one who believes in
the existence of god or the absolute’ or one who believes in

11. H IP ., V o l.I.
 [8]

life after death’ ; nastika means the opposite of these. Similar

interpretation of the terms astika and nastika have been
recorded in the Sabdakalpadruma as well. To the former,
astika or orthodox, belong the six chief philosophical systems
(popuarly known as sad-darsana), namely, Nyaya, Vaisesika,

Samkhya, Yoga, M im am sa (or purvam im a rhsa) and Vedanta

(or uttara-mimart\sa). Under the other class of nastika or

heterdox systems, the chief three are the schools of the mate­
rialists like the Carvakas, the Bauddhas and the Jains.

The Vedic tradition is of two types — one is ritualistic

and other is speculative (karma and Jnana). The MimarVisa

emphasised the ritualistic aspect and raised a philosophy to

justify and help the continuation of the vedic rites and rituals.
The Vedanta school emphasised the speculative aspect of the
Vedas and developed an elaborate philosophy out of the vedic
speculations. As a result these two schools were direct
continuation of the Vedic culture and hence both are some­
times called by the common name- M im a rhsa. For the sake of
distinction the first is called the Purva-Mim arhsa or karma-

M im a rhsa and the second is called the Uttara-Mlmarftsa or

12. v e d a p r a m a n y a v a d i (astikah) v e d a p r a m a n y a v a d i

(n a s tik a h ) . S K D . , p.96 & 519.

 [9]

Jnana Mimarhsa. Actually, the more usual and popular names

of these two schools are the Mimarhsa and the Vedanta re­
spectively.

Although all the astika or orthodox systems accept the

Vedas as infallible, they differ as to the reason for this infalli­
bility. The Nyaya, the Vaisesika, the Sa mkhya and the Yoga
systems did not challenge the authority of the Vedas and phased
their theories on ordinary human experience and reasoning, but
they tried to show that the testimony, of the Vedas was quite in
harmony with their rationally established theories.The nastika,
namely, the Carvaka, the Bauddha and the Jaina schools arose
mainly by opposition to the Vedic culture and hence, they re­
jected the authority of the Vedas.

These all systems can be divided under three groups, viz.

13
idealism, realism and materialism Of these six orthodox sys­
tems, the Sathkhya, the Yoga and the Vedanta come under
idealism; the Nyaya, the Vaisesika and Mimarhsa come under
realism. Of them, the Vedanta is and unqualified idealism, the
Nyaya and the Vaisesika are unqualified realism.These six sys­
tems are generally mentioned to be in three pairs as (i) Nyaya-

13. IP., p. 39
 [ 10]

Vaisesika, (ii) Sarfikhya-Yoga and (iii) Mlmarhsa-Vedanta.

We may summed up these facts in a tabular form as
follows :
ScfiooCs o f Indian pfiiCosopfiy

Schools admitting Vedic Schools rejeccting Vedic authority

authority
i.e. nastika (heterodox)
i.e. astika (orthodox)
e.g. Carvaka, Bauddha, Jain

Schools directly based Schools based on independent grounds

on Vedic texts
e.g.- (i) Nyaya, (ii) Vaisesika,
(iii) Sarhkhya, (iv)Yoga

School emphasising the School emphasising

ritualistic aspect of the Vedas, viz. the speculative aspectof the Vedas,
Mimarfisa Vj2. Vedanta.

The main significance of the systematization of earlier

thought about present time is seen in the attention that comes
to be consciously paid to the nature and function of knowledge
Jl
or to the problems of what and how we know.
14. EIP., p .42
 11
[ ]

A Brief Sketch of Six Schools of Indian Philosophy :

The Nyaya system w as founded by Gotama or Gautama

Aksapada, It is purely a system of logic, co n ce rn e d with the
m eans of acquiring right know ledge w hich it classifies

under sixteen topics. G autam a has used the w ord A n v lk s ik l

as the hetuvidya, i.e. the scie n ce of reasoning. T h e word

a n vik sik i has a lso been used as a darsana o r philosophy or

V a d a vid ya or art or science of debate. G autam a (200BC)

w as the author of the N ya ya -su tra . T h is system upholds real­

ism and b e lie ve s that know ledge has fo u r separate so u rce s —

perception, inference, com parison and verbal testim ony. Pramana

is the w a y of know ledge a n y thing truely.

The Vaisesika system w as founded the great sa ge Kanada

(300 B C ). H e w a s the author of the V a ise sik a sutra. A ccording

to the V a ise sik a philosophy, m eans of valid know ledge is of four

kinds — perception, inference, relcollection or rem em brance

(sm rti) and intuitive know ledge (a rsa -jn a n a ).

The Samkhya system w as founded b y Kapila. He is c o n ­

sidered the Father of the Hindu philosophy. T h e Sarfikhya works,

the S arhk ya pra va cana sO tra and Ta ttva sa m a sa are ascribed to

Kapila. T h e Sarfikhyakarika of Isva rk rsn a (200 A .D ) is the

 [12]

earliest available work of this system. Gaudapada’s the

Saifikhyakarika-bhasya, Vacaspati’s the Tattvakaumudi and
Vijnanabhiksu’s the Samkhya-pravacana-bhasya and the
Sarhkhya-sara are some important work of this system. The
Sarhkhya recognizes three kinds of sources of valid knowidge—
perception, inference and verbal or scriptural testimony.

The Yoga system was propounded by Patanjali which

came to its exitstence almost at the same time as the Sarhkhya.
This system is known also as Patanjala-darsana after the name
of its founder. The Yoga-sutra or the Patanjala-sutra is the first
work of this system. This system recognizes three kinds of
soures of valid knowledge-- perception, inference and verbal
testimony.

The Mirfiamsa system was founded by Jaimini (400 B.C).

Jaimini excogitates the Mirhamsa-sutras.Many savants, have
been writen commentaries upon the M i rhamsa-sutra, namely,
Savara-swamin’s Savar-bhasya, Kumarila Bhatta’s, Slokavartika,
Tantravartika, Prabhakara Misra’s Brhati, Sucarita Misra’s
Kasika, Parthasarathi Misra’s Nyaya-ratnakara, Vacaspati Misra’s
Nyaya-kanika etc.There are two famous schools of Mlrhamsa
founded by Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Misra which are
known as Bhatta school and Prabhakara school of Mirfiamsa
 [ 13 ]

respectively. The third school of Mlrhamsa was founded by

Murari Misra whose works are lost. The Prabhakara school of
the Mlrhamsa admits five pramanas, viz, pratyaksa, anumana,
sabda, upamana and arthapatti. The Bhatta School accepts all
these five pramanas by adding anupalabdhi or abhava to them.

Among the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy,the

Vedanta occupies a unique place. The Vedanta literally means
t -i 15
the end of the Veda and primarily denotes the Upanisads .
Actuly the Upanisads are literally ‘the final section of the Veda’
which is what the term’ Vedanta also means. Thus, Vedanta
system, properly speaking is that philosophy which takes its
lead from the Upanisads. Max Mullar regards it even to be the
native philosophy of india. This tendency of identifying the
Vedanta with the whole of Indian philosophy is often seen.
However, since the meanings of Upanisadic utterances are
ambiguous, there came to be several Vedanta philosophies,
corresponding to differing interpretations of the essential genius
of the tests that inspired them. The philosophy of the Upanisads,
which are collectively called the Vedanta, marks the starting
point of the Indian philosophy, that accepts the Vedas as su-

15. v e d a n to ’ n a m o p a n is a tp ra m a n a m . VSa.
 [ 14]

prem e a u th o rity. The con ten t of the U p a n isa d s is

'vedantavijnanam', it speaks of the highest mystery in the
Vedanta16.

The Upanisadic truth and speculations were summarised

by Badarayana in his Brahma-Sutra. The Brahma-sutras are
regarded as the beginnings of the Vedanta as a philosophical
system.Thus, in India, the Upanisads, belonging as they do to
the end of the Vedic sacred canon, are universally termed the
Vedanta.The Brahma-sutras are the gist of the Upanisadic teach­
ing in its idealistic import. Various commentaries came to be
written to elaborate the doctrines of the Vedanta in their own
light. The author of each of these main commentraries (bhasya)
became the founder of a particular school of the Vedanta.Thus
we have the following schools as Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva,
Vallabha, Nimbarka an many others. The Vedanta represents
the foundation on which most of the subsequent philosophies
and religions of India rest. All the religio-phiiosophie systems
of modern times are nothing but the diverging rays of the cen­
tral light, namely the Vedanta. Thus the Vedanta takes a very
important role in the context of Indian philosophy.

16 . v e d a n te p a ra m a m -g u h y a m p u r a k a lp e p r o c o d it a m .

d v .U .,V I . 22
 [15]

I. A Note on the Advaita-Vedanta:

Advaita, Visistadvaita and Dvaita are the principal schools

of Vedanta represented by Sankaracarya,Ramanujacarya and
Madhvacarya respectvely, presenting the widest possible points
of departure of philosophical thought emerging from the inter­
pretation of the Prasthanatrayi or the triune authority of the
Vedanta; but it is Advaita-Vedanta that is the culmination of the
philosophy. The ninth century and the tenth century A.D. have
witnessed the golden age of the Advaita-Vedanta.The most com­
mon question on which the schools of the Vedanta are divided
is : what is the nature of the relation between the the Self (Jlva)
and God (Brahman)? According to Madhva, the Self and God
are two totally different entities; their view is called Dvaita (du­
alism). In the commentary on the Bhagavadgita, Sankara says:
‘The dualists are those who recognize the state of bondage and
release as real states or experiences pertaining to the Atman.*17
According to him.Advaitins would deny the reality of these states
— -JO r

as such for the Atman . The whole attempt of Sankara is to

17. atm an o van d h a -m u k ta v a sth e p aram arth ata eva

v a stubhOte m ate s a rv e s a m d v aita-vadin am .
t
S B B G .,X II.2 .
18. a d v a itin a m p u n a h ...a v a s th a b h e d a v a tv a n u p a -
patteh. ibid.
 [16]

show that all these things are one; this identity of the jlva and
19
brahman is clearly stated by the scriptures in texts.

Madhvacarya is the founder of the dualistic school of

Vedanta. He lived in thirteenth century and is known as
Puranaprajna and Anandatirtha. Madhva’s works are thirty-seven,
collectively called Sarvamula. He has written commentaries on
the Brahma-sutra called Anubhasya, Bhagavadgita called
Gltabhasya and principal Upanisads. His doctrine of dualisim
is out and out realism that recognizes God, individual souls, and
the world. It signifies a system of philosophy which admits more
than one fundamental metaphysical principle or category to
explain the universe, or a fundamental distinction between the
human souls and the supreme being, for all time.Madhva has
appeared as an antagonist to monism and upholder of pluralism.

Though chronological the last and having perhaps fewer fol­

lowers than the other two, the Dvaita system has been the chief
rival in thought to the Advaita of Darsana, in the history of Indian
philosophy .To this day, they enjoy the status of living systems of
Vedantic thought, in India, each with its own well defined eommu-

19. (i) a h a m b rah m asm i. Br.U.,I.4.10

(ii) tattvam asi. C h a .U .,V I .8 .7
(iii) sattvat san jayate jnan am . S G ., X IV . 17.
(iv) s a d e v a s a u m y e d a m g re asTt. C h a .U ., VI. 2.1 .
 [ 17]

nity of followers, religious institutions and extensive philosophical

/ 20
literature in Sanskrit.

Monism (Advaitavada) has two different trends, namely, quali­

fied and unqualified. Ramanuja is the exponent of qualified mo­

nism. The doctrine of qualified monism starts from the fundamen­

tal concept that Brahman is composed of three eternal principles,

viz., cit or sen tien t beings, acit or in se n sa te world and

Isvara.Brahman is a synthetic whole with cit i.e. soul and acit i.e.
21
matter as His component. Ramanuja holds that the two, the J iva

and Brahman are indentical only in some special sense;!.e.he

does not admit Sankara's view that the phenomenal world is an

eternally false appearance in the Brahman; this view is called quali­

fied monisom (Visistadvaita). Ramanuja argues that Brahman is

nirguna in the sense that He is devoid of false and bad attributes,

22
but He is possessed of infinite good and auspicious qualities.

Ramanujacarya is the best exponent, though not the founder

of the Visistadvaitavada. He belongs to the eleventh twelveth cen-

20. H D S V L . , p .x vi.
21. a tre d a m t a t t v a m - a c id v a s t u n a s c id v a s t u n a h ,

p a r a s y a c a b ra h m a n o b h o g y a t v e n a b h o k tftv e n a
c e s it ftv e n a c a s v a r u p a v iv e k a m a h u h kascana

s r u t a y a h . . . s f e h . , 1.1.1.

22. ibid.
 [ 18
]

turyA.D. His spiritual teacher was Yamunacarya. In the Siddhitraya,

Yamunacarya gave the central philosophy of Visistadvaita.
Ramanujacarya has enunciated eleborately and systematically
the philosophical thoughts and ideas in his Sribhasys.the com­
mentary on the Brahmasutra as well as the commentries on the
principal Upanisads, Bhagavadglta, Vedantasara, Vedantadlpa,
etc. After Ramanuja, Sudarsana, Lokaearya, Vedantadesika, and
Srinivasacarya have also propagated the Visistadvaita.
Both Madhva and Ramanuja as well as their followers have
taken a leading role as critics of the Advaita Vedanta. A historical
study of the development of the Vedantic Monism as propounded
by Sankara and his fallowers will prove this fact.23
There are many other views,like Nimbarka’s Dvaitadvaitavada
or dualistic monisom, Vallabha’s Suddhdvaitavada or pure non-
dualistic school of the Vedanta etc., each specifying a particular
type of identity (abheda), difference (bheda) or identity-in-differ-
ence (bhedabheda) between the Self and God. But the best known
among the Vedanta school are those of Sankara and Ramanuja.
The School of the Vedanta as propounded by Sankaracarya
is known as Advaita Vedanta. The term ‘Advaita’ however does
not mean ‘one’ but ‘not two’; This is significant. Sankara does not

23. A V „ p .7
 [ 19]

characterise his philosophy as Monism but gives it the negative

name of non-dualism, Advaita. The term, "Monism" may give rise
to the impression that it has been achieved by regarding one of
the two terms of the opposition to the other. It is entirely free from
all dogmas and rests on metaphysics itself with which it coalesces
intiva single subject to teach the same high truth which is that of
One reality without a Second who is the one single adorable
being in the universe. The world forms but a part and by no means
the more consequential part of His being. The truth is known among
the philosophers by the name of Advaita-vada or Monism of
Vedanta Darsana.Different philosophers have interpreted the
Vedantic texts expounding their own lines of thought, but the chiefly
known school of thought being the Advaita of Sankara.
Gaudapada was the immediate fore-runner of Sankara. Ac­
cording to tradition, he is reputed to be the teacher of Sankara’s
teacher, Govindapada. He attempted to present the main ideas of
Advaita in a systematic form in his work called the Karika on the
Mandukya Upanisad, Gaudapada is said to have lived about the
beginning of the eighth century or the end of the seventh. The
central principles of the Advaita Vedanta, such as the orders of
reality, the identity of Brahman and Atman, Maya, the inapplicabil-

24. e k a m e v a d v itiy a m . C h a .U ., VI. 2.1 .

 [20 ]

ity of causation to ultimate reality, jnana (wisdom) as the direct

means to moksa (freedom) and the inconceivability of absolute
— — 25
nothing, are set forth in the karika.

There have been several teachers of Advaita before Sankara

like Bhartrhari, Brahmadatta and Bhartfprapanca, but their teach­
ings differ in important respect from those of Sankara. Bhartrhari
was a famous logician and grammarian whose great philosophical
work is Vakyapad i .
After Sankara many Advaitins appeared, who enriched the
field of Indian philosophical thought. The following names of the
Advaitins are worth mentioning : they are Padmapada, Vacaspati
Misra, Prakasatman, Vidyaranya Munisvar, Amalananda Sarasvatl,
Ananda Giri, Suresvaracarya, Mandana Misra, Sarvajnatma Muni,
Apyaya Diksit, Govindananda, Anandabodha Bhattaraka, Ananda
Puma Munindra, Vimuktatman, Sadananda Yogindra, Nfsirtiha
S ara sva ti, Ramatirtha, Prakasananda, Sriharsa, Citsukhacarya,
Madhusudana Sarasvati, Dharmaraja Adhvarindra and others.
Sankara had many pupils, but only four of them are remembered
t

by nam e, as P a d m a p a d a ,S u re s v a ra c a ry a ,T o ta k a and
26
Hastamalaka. Many works have been written on Advaita after

25. T V S R . , p.19
26. E O I P . , p.17-
 [ 21 ]

Sankara but, excepting the few they have added little of substan­
tial worth to the solid utterances of the Great Master.
The Advaitavada in its later development has become the
pyramid of conceptual construction. In the post-Sankara philosophi­
cal views, we find some differences of opinion regarding defini­
tions of Maya,and avidya, locus of may! or ajnana, status of Mukti
or Moksa, etc. Besides, we have two main schools of Post-Sahkara
philosophy, viz. Vivarana and Bhamati. Padmapada is known as
the founder of the Vivarana school whereas Vacaspati Misra as
the founder of the Bhamati school.
Padmapada was one of the chief disciples of Sankara. It has
been said that he has composed the commentary of the
Pancapadika only on the four aphorisms of the Brahma-sutra. The
Pancapadika is generally known as the Vivarana -prasthana, which
is divided into nine Varnakas or explanation (vyakhya).The
Pancapadika -- Vivarana explains that the object of Vedanta is to
determine the Brahman which is one without the second, and
nescience (ajnana) deludes men and brings false knowledge about
the real status of the Brahman, and the doctrines of Vedanta re-
27
move that false knowledge.
Vacaspati Misra was the founder of the Bhamati school.He

27. S IP T ., p.207.
 [22]

appeared in the earlier part of the nineth century A.D. Of the

works attributed to Vacaspati, Bhamati and Tattva-Samiksa are
regarded by scholars,as his Vedantic works. The Bhamati, like
the Brahma-Sutra-Sankara-Bhasya,is known for its profoundity of
spirit and subtlety of thought. It represents one of the main streams
of Sankarite interpretation.
According to scholars like Max Muller and Macdonell Sankara
flourished in 788-820 A.D. Some of his disciples compiled bio­
graphical accounts of which the main are Sankaradigvijaya by Ma-
dhava and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri. Sankara emphazises
the monistic tendency in the Upanisadas and develops it into a
systematic Advaitavada. He seems to have been influenced by
Gaudapada, his grand guru or paramaguru, to a remarkable ex­
tent. Sankara held him in high regard more than his direct teacher
Govindpada. Therefore he has chosen to comment upen
Gaudspada’s famous Mandukya karika. He has commented upon
the Brahma-sutra of Badarayana which is known as the Brahma-
sutra-bhasya or the Sarlraka-bhasya.
Sankara describes the Brahma-sutra as : ‘The five hundred
and fiftyfive sutras contained in the Brahma-sutra are as if, the
strings necessary for wreathing the Upanisad-passages

28. T V S jR., p.13.

 [23]
yOQ - _
symbolising the flowers or Kusuma . His Bhagavad-g ita-bhasya
and commentary upon principal Upanisads,like
Bfhadaranyakopanisad, Taittiriopanisad, Chandogyopanisad,
Aitareyopanisad, Isopanisad, Kathopinisad, Kenopanisad,
Mundakopanisad,Prasnopanisad, Mandukyopanisad with
Gaudapadiyakarika, Svetasvatopanisad and Kausitakyupanisad
are very important work in respect of Indian philosophical context.
Moreover, he has written severl independent valuable works enun­
ciating his views,namely, Upadesasahasrf, Atmabodha,
Panclkarana, Tattvabodha, Advaita-Pancaratna etc.
The Brahma-sutra.the Upanisads and the Bhagavad-gIta are
the most essential Sastras for the Vedantins. These three are
collectively known as Prasthana-traya or as we might say, the
triple foundation of the Vedanta.The Brahma-sutra is the Nyaya-
prasthana because of the logical and reflective style adopted by
the great author, the Bhagavad-g ita is the smrti-prasthana which
accepts the Vedas as the highest authority is smrti or tradition;
and the Upanisads are called the sruti-prasthana because the
Upanisads are divine revelation and not reached by ordinary per­
ception, inference or reflection. Sankara has commented upon

29. v e d a n ta v a k y a k u su m a g ra th a n a rth a tv a t

s u tra n a m . B SB h. as fo u n d in S S V P .,p .2 .
 [24]
the Brahma-sutra and also popularised the Vedanta to a great
extent. He has also commented upon other two prasthanas of
Vedanta— the Bhagavad-gita and a number of Upanisads.
A
Sankara is a creative genius and he has not commented on
the Brahma-sutra mechanically. He shows his own creativity in
this commentation. He has gone away from his source philoso­
pher in many respects. Through the commenaries he has estab­
lished his own philosphy different from Badarayana. Of his phi­
losophy Max Muller opines-...“ Sankara’s philosophy in its un-
— j jj 30
flinching monism, is his own rather than Badarayana s .
The Brahma-sutra is designated to be the' Vedanta-sutra
the Vedanta-Darsana'.the'UttaraM lrham sa-Darsana', the
Sarlraka-Mirtiamsa', the 'Brahma-Mi rhamsa' and the 'Vyasa-
sUtra'.This scriptural text has four adhyayas which the first adhyaya
deals with the doctrine of Brahman, the nature of Brahman, His
relation of the universe and the individual soul. The second
adhyaya is defined as avirodha, since it meets objections brought
against the Vedanta by rival doctrinaires. This adhyaya contains
the account of the gradual evolution of the universe from the Brah­
man and final reabsorption of the former into Him.There are also
discussions about the nature of the jivatman and its relation to

30. SSIP.,p.117.
 [25]

the paramatman in this adhyaya. The third adhyaya deals with

the sadhana or the means of emancipation,the fourth adhyaya
discuss the fruits (phala or sadhana). Each adhyaya has four part
(pada)s and adhikaranas. The sutras consist mostly of two or three
words each cf. athato brahma jijnasa, janmadyasy yatah31.The
sutras themselves are exceedingly laconic and admit of different
interpretations. The first attempt at systematising the Upanisad
philosophy is made in the Brahma-sutra, in which the Vedanta
philosophy has received its final form.
In accordance with Badarayana’s classification of the slstras
,the Bhagavad-gita belongs to the smrti groups. It is composed
as discourse delivered by Srikrsna to Arjuna. It consists of eigh­
teen adhyayas.The Bhagavad-gita occupies a very important
role among the sacred scriptures of the Hindus. The philosophy of
the Bhagavad-gita is inspired by the Upanisad-conceptions. The
passage that “ the Upanisads are the cows, Krsna is the milker,
Arjuna the calf and the nector-like Gita is the excellent milk” bears
32
testimony to this fact.
Sankara’s genius has not only placed the coping stone on

31. V id e B S . ,1.1.1. , ib i d . ,1 .1 .2 .

32. s a r v o p a n is a d o g a v o d o g d h a g o p a ia n a n d a n a h /
p a r t h o v a t s a h s u d h i r b h o k t a d u g d h a m g ita m r t a r h
m a h a t// G M ., 5.
 [26]

the vedic lore that was current for a very long time but has also
shown that all the other authentic human experiences, such as the
ethical, the aesthetic and the religious, culminate in his theory of
the Absolute. He found his materials more or less ready to hand.
He found them, though in a rudimetary form, in the Rg Veda, the
Upanisads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Vedanta SGtras. Polythe­
ism of the early age i.e.hymn-period of the Rg-Veda has devel­
oped into monotheism of the later period and next monotheism has
terminated in monism. The Supreme God was stripped still later of
all anthropomorphic elements and came to be treated as an imper­
sonal reality, what is called mere sat. This idea is beautifully
brought out in one of the mantras of the Rg Veda which declears
that Reality is One and that wises call it by many names, viz.,
Indra.Mitra, Varuna etc.The ground had also been prepared for
Sankara, though partially, by his great predecessor, Gaudapada.The
views expressed by Sahkaracarya, have attained wonderful ce­
lebrity both on account of the subtle and deep ideas it contains,
and also on account of the association of the illustratious person­
ality of Sankara.

33. in d ra m m itram varunam agnim ahuh,atho divyas

s a su p arn o garutm an / e k a rti s a d vipra b ah u d h a
vadanti, a g n im y a m a m m atarisvanam ahuh //
RV., 1.164.46.
 [27]

Advaita-vada Is the theory of Sankaracarya, whose com­

mentary on the Brahma-sutra known as Sariraka-bhasya(Man oc­

cupies a central place in the Vedanta-sutra), holds the dominating

position in the field. But there is literally a world of difference be­

tween the Advaita-vada of Vedanta and that of Sankara. Advaita-

Vedanta is coupled with satkarya-vada which recognises the exist­

ence of the world as re a l™ ‘ this world was real even before

creation’ or ‘ there was only Being (Sat) at the beginning, it was

• 34 _
one w ith o u t a se co n d , w h e re a s th e A d v a ita -v a d a of

Sankaracarya is coupled with vivarta-vada or maya-vada which

denies reality to the existence of the world holding it to be but an

illusion. Sankara’ s explanation of the world as an illusion has given

his philosophy the name of Maya-vada or Anirvacan iya Khyativada.

The term Upanisad means the Brahmavidya ( the knowledge

of Brahman).It represents the jnanakanda or the knowledge por­

tion of the Veda. This knowledge leads the persons desirous of

knowing Brahman to sure success, destroys their ignorance(avidya)

and ultim a tely Jiva -B ra h m a ik y a is achieved. The classical

r
Upanisads are undobtedly the stronghold of Sankara.

The most distinguishing feature of the Advaita Vedanta or

34. sad eva saum yedam gre asit.ekam e v a advitiam.

Op .cit.
 [28 ]

the whole of the fundamental principles of Sankara’ s philosophy

may be summed up thus : the Brahman of the Upanisads is the
only Reality,and everything else--this world of manifoldness --is
unreal,is a mere appearance; the individual soul (jiva) is identical
with Brahman,the One without a second, which the scriptures de-
fine as Existence, Knowledge,Bliss,Absolute. According to
A d v a itin s .th e e sse n tia l c h a ra c te ris tic s of Brahm an is
saf(existence),c/f(consciousness), anan/a(infinity),a/7a/7da(bliss)cf.
Brahman is designated to be saccidananda. And as such the
A d va ita -V e d a n ta c o n s titu te s the e s se n tia l d e fin itio n of
36
Brahman. The name given to this R eality is sometimes
Brahman,sometimes Atman, sometimes simply Sat(Being),
Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.theVedanta-Paribhasakara, tries to
speak, as usual, of the two types of definition - essential
c h a ra c te ris tic s (s v a ru p a la k s a n a ) and se co n d a ry ones
(tatasthalaksana).By svarupalaksana is meant its own form.e.g.

Truth etc. are the essential characteristics of Brahman. After

35. b r a h m a s a t y a m ja g a n m it h y a jlv o 'b r a h m a iv a

n a p a ra h . B r .jm .,2 0 .

36. (a ) s a t y a r t i jn a n a m a n a n t a m b r a h m a . . . . T a i . U . I I . 1.
(b ) v ijn a n a m a n a n d a r h b r a h m a . B r . U . ,111.9.28
(c ) y a t h a s a ty a d ik a m b r a h m a s v a r u p a la k s a n a m .
V P .,p .2 2 8 .
 [29]

that, he raises a question how svarupa can be a definition

because it is not a property which exists in itself. He replies that
it could be so because the very thing itself becomes a ‘prop­
erty’ (dharma) as well as a substrate (dharmin) with reference
itself. In support of this Paribhasakara quotes Pancapadika
37
passages. By tatasthalaksana is meant that differentitating
property which does not stand all the time that the object to be
38
defined is present, e.g, the tatasthalaksana of Isvara is his
being the cause of production etc. of this world.In the
Upanisads,two sets of passages are found :(i)one speaks of the
nirguna(=niskriya and akhanda)Brahman,(ii)other speaks of the
saguna(=sakriya)Brahman.Sankara also has admitted dual na­
ture of the Brahman- nirguna Brahman for the purposes of know­
ing and saguna Brahman for the purposes of worship.
The next distinctive features of the Advaita-Vedanta is
the doctrine of the universe.From the paramarthika or absolute
real point of view the Vedanta system does not recognise the
reality of the universe. The world rests in Brahman even as the
illusion of a snake is said to reside in the rope. It is the per-

37. anando v is a y a n u b h a v o n it y a t v a m c e ti.

P a .P ., p . 23.
38. yavat la k s a y a k a l a m a n a v a s t h i t a t v e s a ti

yad v y a v a rta k a m . V P ., p .3 4 3 .
 [30 ]

version (vivarta). On account of maya Brahman appears as the

world, even, as the rope appears as the snake.39
According to the theory of maya, the phenomenal world
does not exist in reality. The jagat or prapance existas as long
as the individual souls are subject to maya or avidya. When
Brahman is intuited, avidya is destroyed and the world of names
and forms vanishes. To represent the central phislosophy of
Advaita Vedanta, it may be said that these Brahman is the pure
cit and it is paramarthika or absolute real. The concept of maya
is the necessary concomitant of the doctrine of nirguna Brah­
man and it is well known that it plays a very important part in
the Advaita of Sankara.The individual soul is the embodied self
and is defined as the jivatman as distinguished from the
Paramatman or the universal soul. It is the atman coupled with
the senses and mind, atman within the limitation of time, space
and causality.40
The Advaitins advocate different theories on jiva-brahma

3 9 __m a ya m a tra m hy etad p a ra m a tm a n o 'v a s th a tra y -

a tm a n a v a b h a s a n a m -ra jja iv a s a rp a d ib h a v e n e ti...
BS$>B., I I . 1.9.

40. atm an am rathinam viddhi, sa ri ram rath am eva tu/

buddhintu sarathim viddhi, m anah p ra g ra h a m e v a
ca// Kath.,I.3.3.
 [31]

relation. Sankara in his commentary on the Brahma-sutra, pro­

pounds the doctrine of reflection or bimba-pratibimbavada. Ac­
cording to the doctrine, jlvatman is the reflection of the supreme
self in the mind caused by avidya. Cosmic self, avidya and maya
both stand for delusion which has the effect of breaking up the
original unity of the real and presenting it as subject and object,
as agent and enjoyer, doer and the result of the deed. The true
knowledge, i..e. transecndental consciousness is eternal, un­
changing, and self-evident, whereas phenomenal or relational
knowledge is changing and unreal. Nescience (ajnana or avidya)
or maya is sadasadvilaksana i.e. which is neither real nor un­
real.
Dharmarajadhvarindra in his Vedanta-Paribhasa speaks of
Tsvara and Jlva as defined by different scholars in the Advaita
Vedanta. Some hold that consciousness which is commom to
Isvara and Jlva is the prototype and the reflection of this pro­
totype in Avidya as is Tsvara while the reflection of the same in
the internal organ is termed Jlva. This is supported by state-
41
ments in the Holy tests
Sankara opines that there are four essential pre-requi-

41. k a r y o p a d h ir a y a m jiv a h k a r a n o p a d h ir is v a r a h .
VP., p. 380.
 [32]

sites qualifications (sadhana-catustaya) to the enquiry into

Supreme Self, namely, (i) nityanityavastuviveka, i.e. discrimi­
nation betw een eternal and n o n -e te rn a l o b je c ts ;(ii)
ihamutraphalabhogaviragah, i.e.aversion to the enjoyment of the
o b je cts of se n se on earth or in h e a ve n ; (iii)
samadamadisadhanasampat, i.e. sama or possession of self-
restraint or antarindriyanigraha, dama or tranquility or
bahirinadriyanigraha, uparati or withdrawal from worldly pur­
suits, titiksa or endurance of the opposite extremes like heart
and cold, pleasure and pain etc., sraddha or faith in the scrip­
ture and the preceptor, samadhi or deep concentration and (iv)
mumuksutva, i.e.desire for liberatin or moksalabheccha .The
Advaitins described the state of moksa or the highest fruition of
spiritual enquiry.Aecording to Paribhasakara, moksa is the pur-
pose served by the study of the Vedanta. He discusses three
direct means of attaining knowledge,viz.,hearing, ref lection and
meditation(sravana,manana and nididhy!sana).To this Dharma-
raja attests the sanction of the Holy Text.43
Moksa or salvation has been described as the attainment

42. y a th a h a s ta g a ta s m fta s u v a rn a . V P ., p . 41

43. a tm a v a a re d ra s ta v y a h s ro ta v y o m a n ta v y o
n id id h y a s ita v y a h . O p .c it.
 [3 3 ]

of Brahman of the form of the Bliss. According to Dharmarija,

this is the main purpose of study of the Vedanta(other is sac­
rifice etc).This Bliss is absence of pain(dukhabhava),it is unsur­
passed Bliss .44 Moksa or salvation (liberation) is attained only
with the help of knowledge.
The most distinctive notion in the Advaita Vedanta is that
of pure, undifferentiated or objectless consciousness.The Advaita
elevates the distinction to new heights by identifying construc­
tion-free awareness with reality,i.e. Brahman. Much of what needs
to be said about the Advaita view of knowledge or awareness,in
Indian term Jnana has been anticipated in the next chapters.
True knowledge (yathartha-jnana) is caused or determined by
pramana and the Vedanta admits that a pramana is the means
of valid knowledge. According to the Advaita Vedanta pramanas
are six, and these are perception(pratyaksa), inference
(anumana),scripturai or verbal testimony (sabda or agama),
comparison or analogy (upamana), presumption or postulation
(arthapatti) and non-apprehension or negation (anupalabdhi or
abhava).Dharmarajadhvarindra in his Vedanta-Paribhasa dis­
cusses these means of valid or correct knowledge from the
Vedantic stand point of view.

44. a n a n d o brahmeti vyajanat. T a i . U . ,111.6

 [34]

II. An Exhaustive Note on the Vedanta-Paribhasa:

The Vedanta-Paribhasa of Dharm arajadhvarindra is a

wellknown manual of the Advaita epistemology and metaphysics.

It is very important treatise on the Advaita-Vedanta system next

to the Vedanta-Sara of Sadanand Yogindra. The Vedanta-Paribhasa

r

is widely studied all over India. It follows the Sankara School of

_ /

Advaita-Vedanta founded by Acarya Padmapada.After Sankara,

Padmapada ( 820 A.D.) and Vacaspati are the two main writers who

represent the distinct thoughts in the interpretation of Advaita

/

Vedanta.Thus,we have two main branches of the Sankara School

of Advaita-Vedanta founded by Padmapada and Vacaspati Misra

respectively, Dharmarajadhvarindra belonged to the former.These

lines of Vedanta interpretations were seriouly continued by the later

writers in the form of commentaries and in their original works.

Dharmaraja Adhvarindra was a pupil of Nrsirhhasrama. He

hails form the village Kandramanikkam in Tanjore district. It can be

- - 45
evidenced from his commentary, Tarkacudamani on the

Prakasa (the Prakasa is in itself a commentary on Gangesa's

4 5. iti sr i m a t k a n d a r a m a n i k k a g r a m a v a s i n a trivedi

n a ra y a n a y a jv a n u je n a d h a rm a ra ja d h v a r i ndrena.

D e s c rip tiv e C a t a lo g u e , Vol. X I ., p.4586, 4756.

Tanjore Library.
 [35]

Tattvacintamani) of Rucidatta Misra. Dharmarajadhvarlndra

mentions with respect Nfsirhhasrama as his grand preceptor in
the opening verse of the Vedanta-Paribhasa46; he says that he
salutes his teacher's teacher, named Nrsirhha whose pupils
have routed dualists, as lions do elephants. Dharmaraja has
adopted the method and phraseology in his discussions of Navya-
Nyaya,introduced by Garige^a Upadhyaya in the fourteenth
century.

His teacher Nrsirhhasrama who was the author of

9

Bhedadhikara, lived in the early half of the 16th century. ‘Sri V.

Svaminathan places Nrsirhhasrama between 1470 A.D. -1550
A.D.. So Dharmaraja can be placed in the second half of the
16th century A.D. N.S. Anantakrsna Sastri, the editor of Vedanta-
Paribhasa with his own commentary,Prakasika,states that
Dharmaraja is a contemporay of Appayadlksita.the author of
the Siddhantalesasarhgraha. Prahladachandrasekhara Divanji
is of the view that Dharmaraja is a contemporay of Madhusudana
Sarasvati who lived in 16th century A.D. So Dharmaraja must
have lived in the 16th century A.D. Thus from the available

46. y a d a n te v a s ip a n c a s y a ir n ira s ta b h e d iva ra n a h /

tam pran ou m i n rs in h a k h y a m y a tin d ra m
p a ra m a m gurum// V P ., v e r s e .1/2.
 [36]

sources we may safely assign Dharmaraja to the latter half of

47 _
the sixteenth century A.D.’ According to Svami Madhavananda,
_ AO
Dharmaraja seems to have flourished in the seventeenth
century A.D. and he was an expounder of all systems of
philosophy,i.e.not in Vedanta alone.Svami says that he was a
reputed scholar of Southern India as we know from the introduc­
tory verses to the Vedanta-Paribhasi as also from similar verses
by his son (Ramakrsna Adhvarin) and commentator.

As it is customary to observe a benediction or invocation

(mahgalacarana), the author begins his work with six verses of
49
which three are benedictory. In the very first verse the
author bows to that Supreme reality, the embodiment of Ex­
istence, Knowledge and Bliss by the manifestation of the
nescience relating to which the projection of the elements and
things made up of these elements takes place. Indirectly, the
author indicates the subject-matter of the Vedanta system. The
author also pays homage to his teachers and the scholars of
the system.

47. v id e in tro d u c tio n to EVPD.

48. v id e in tro d u c tio n to V P D A .,p .V

49. t a m n a u m i p a ra m a tm a n a rh s a e c id a n a n d a v ig r a h a m .
V P ., v e r s e 1/1.
 [37]

In the sixth and the last benedictory verse which speaks

of the four binding factors, we come to know that Dharmaraja
-5 0
Adhvarindra is the author of the Vedanta-Paribhasa .That he
is composing the ‘Paribhasa’ based upon the Vedantic teach­
ings for the enlightenment of backward students. The
Anubandhas are subject (visaya), rightful person (Adhikarl),
relation (sambandha) and purpose (prayojana).

The ‘Vedanta’ lies at the core of the Vedic system.The

philosophy of the Upanisads are collectively called the Vedanta.lt
marks the starting point of the Indian philosophy.Sadanand
Yogindra has been defined ‘Vedanta’ as ‘vedanto namopanisat-
pramanam.’ The word ‘Paribhasa’ generally means terminol­
ogy, but here, it means a lucid exposition of the accepted prin­
ciples of the philosophy. So the Vedanta-Paribhasa is ‘a manual’
or ‘a hand-book’, ‘a short treatise’ of the Vedanta philosophy.
It is a primer and intended for the beginners.This treatise is a
stepping-stone of the higher authoritative texts of the Advaita
school of the Vedanta. The very title ‘Vedanta-Paribhasa’ indi­
cates that the work is on the Vedanta-system of thought and

50. te n a bodhaya m andanam v e d a n t a r t h a v a la m b in i/

d h a rm a ra ja d h v a r i n d re n a p a rib h a s a v ita n y a te //
ib id ., 1 /6 .
that too, St deals with the @s or tenets of the

S 9

( 9

®d to

51. s a n n b a n d h a s c a d h i k a r 5 c a v is a y a s c a prayojjaimam/
v in a n u b a n d h a rti sa strad a u m a n g a la m n n a iv a
sa sya te // v id e in introduction! of th e A d L S . , p . i 2
 [39]

Actually he was a well noted scholar both in the Vedinta

and Nyaya system. He commented upon the Nyaya works like
Tattvacintamaniprakasa of Rucidatta called TarkacOdamani, the
Yuktisarhgraha,the Nyayaratna on Sasadhara’s Nyayasiddhanta-
dipa etc.
The most detailed part of the Vedanta-Paribhasa relates to
the perception. What is fully perceptible and perceptual is
nothing but the absolute experience i.e. Brahman which is im-
52
mediate and intuitive . Despite its eternal non-duality, we
seem to perceive a world of fleeting duality, as it were. The
diversified content is said to be a projection of Maya or Avidya.
This is discussed in the Pratyaksa-pariecheda of the Vedanta-
Paribhasa.

The Vedanta-Paribhasa contains eight chapter(calied

pariecheda)s in total. The first six chapters are devoted to
establishing the sources of valid knowledge (pramanas) from
the Vedantic standpoint. These six chapters are devoted to
Perception (P ra tya k sa ),ln fe re n ce (A n u m a n a ),C o m p a riso n
(Upamana), Verbal testimony (Agama), Postulation (Arthapatti)
and Non-Apprehension(Anupalabdhi) respectively. The last two

52. p ra ty a k s a p ra m a ca tra c a ita n y a m e v a ‘ yat

sak sa d a p a ro k sa d b ra h m a ’ iti sruteh. V P ., p .11
 [40]

chapters are metaphysical in character and one can find therein

a delightful compendium of the important doctrines of the phi­

losophy embodying its subject (visaya) and purpose or aim

of the investigation (prayojana). Besides, the important prob­

lems of the Advaita Vedanta such as the nature of valid knowl­

edge (prama), its sources (pramanas), the relation of Brahman,

fsvara and J iva, the nature and states of the world, relation of

may a and avidya,liberation (moksa) and the way to attain it are

discussed in the Vedanta-Paribhasa with great skill.

Regarding the content of the Vedanta-Paribhasa we find

go
that it can mainly be divided into three sections, viz.,

(1) means of valid knowledge (pramanas),

(2) subject-matter (visaya) and

(3) the fruit (prayojana).

The first section i.e. the pramana section comprises of six

chapters where Dharmaraja tries to establish the sources of valid

knowledge from the Vedantic standpoint. As such very often, the

author deals with the refutation of other systems of philosophy.lt

shows that Dharmaraja is one of the authors who made a dialectical

approach to the Advaita school. In the subject-matter section i.e.

visaya (prameya) also he discussed at length the views of the

53. vide introduction to EVPD.

 [41 ]

Advaita Vedanta. One can easily understand from a study of his

work, the Vedanta-Paribhasa, that he faithfully follows the Vivarana
school of Advaita Vedanta. Dharmaraja has shown a great original­
ity in the interpretation. Thus it may be said that the principal topics
of the Vedanta of great originality and merit are dealt with in the
Vedanta-Paribhasa by Dharmaraja.

The popularity of the Vedanta-Paribhasa may be inferred and

i
testified by the number of commentaries written on it and avaiable
in print, beginning with the Vedanta-Sikhamani or Sikhamani by
Ramakrsna Adhvarin, son of Dharmaraja. Amaradasa’ s Vedanta-
Maniprabha (or Maniprabha) is a useful gloss (sub-commentary) on
the Sikhamani. These two works are very useful to the readers of
the Advaita Vedanta.

The Vedanta-Paribhasa with the two commentaries viz.,

• *

Sikhamani and Maniprabha forms an excellent exposition of some

_
of the fundamental principles of the Vedanta system . Another
work of supreme importance (though probably the last great work on
Vedanta) is the Advaita-Siddhi of Madhusudana Sarasvati who fol­
lowed the Vedanta-Paribhasa.

Other published commentaries on the Vedanta-Paribhasa are

54. A H O I P ., Voi.I, p . 419

 [42]

the Arthadlpika by Sivadatta, the Vedanta-Paribhasa-Prakasika by

Pedda Dlksita, the Asubodhini by Pandita Krsnanatha Nyaya-

Paneanana, the Paribhasa-Prakasika by Mahamahopadhyaya N.S.

Anantakrsna Sastri and one by Jlvananda Vidyasagara.ln addition

to the above there are some more commentaries and modern trans­

lations of the Vedanta-Paribhasa in English and Hindi like the Vedanta

Paribhasa of D harm araja A d h v a rin d ra edited by Svam i

Madhavananda, Vedanta Paribhasa of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra

edited by Prof. S.S.Suryanarayana Sastri, An Exposition of

Vedanta-Paribhasa of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra by Dr.G.Akkubhotlu

Sarma, edited with Hindi Prakasa commentary by Gajanana Sastri

* 55
etc.

Thus the Vedanta-Paribhasa comes to be epistemological

/
work on Sankara Vedanta as it interpreted in the Vivarana School.

The epistemological implications of the Pahcapadika of Acarya

Padmapada as interpreted in the Vivarana, worked out by Ramadvaya

in the Vedanta-Kaumudi . The Vedanta-Paribhasa of Dharmaraja

follows and accepts the Vedanta-Kaumudi and as such Dharmaraja

is indebted to Ramadvaya.The Pahcapadika was commented upon

by Prakasatmanyati (1200 A.D.) also. The Vedanta-Paribhasa , the

Pancapadikavivarana (byPrakasatman) enjoys a very great repu-

55. vide introduction to EVPD.

 [4 3 ]

tation and It influenced the followers of Advaita in its dialectical

literature.

It may be added here that theme of the Advaita-Vedanta

viz., the essential identity of the individual Self and Supreme-self
i.e. Brahman and the unreality of the universe has been properly
delt with in the Vedanta-Paribhasa and the steps to its realisation
viz, Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasana have been clearly shown.The
investigation undertaken by the Vedanta-Paribhasa inconnection
with the nature and the conditions of knowledge results is the view
of the universality of caitanya. It is the basis of all things and
cannot, therefore, be regarded as a thing.

The Vedanta-Paribhasa is most essentail for acquiring a clear

understanding of the epistemology of the Advaita-Vedanta system
and perhaps because of this, the Vedanta-Paribhasa receives
attention from the students and teachers of the Advaita all over
India. Contributions of Dharmaraja Adhvarlndra, open a new era in
the domain of the Advaita-Vedanta and add a new page in the
history of the development of monistic thought and epistemology.