Transient Conduction

Chapter 5
Transient Conduction
Transient Conduction
• A heat transfer process for which the temperature varies with time, as well
as location within a solid.

• It is initiated whenever a system experiences a change in operating conditions.

• It can be induced by changes in:

– surface convection conditions ( h, T ),
– surface radiation conditions ( hr , Tsur ),
– a surface temperature or heat flux, and/or
– internal energy generation.

• Solution Techniques
 The Lumped Capacitance Method
 Exact Solutions
 The Finite-Difference Method
Bodies with Negligible Internal
Temperature Gradients
Bodies in Which Internal Temperature
Gradients cannot be Neglected
Biot Number
The Biot Number and Validity of
The Lumped Capacitance Method
• The Biot Number: The first of many dimensionless parameters to be
considered.
 Definition:
hL
Bi  c
k
h  convection or radiation coefficient
k  thermal conductivity of the solid
Lc  characteristic length of the solid ( / As or coordinate
associated with maximum spatial temperature difference)

 Physical Interpretation:

Lc / kAs Rcond Tsolid

Bi    See Fig. 5.4.
1 / hAs Rconv Tsolid/fluid

 Criterion for Applicability of Lumped Capacitance Method:

Bi  1
Biot Number
 Transient Conduction:
The Lumped Capacitance Method
hLc
Bi 
k

Chapter 5
Sections 5.1 - 5.3
Lumped Capacitance Method

The Lumped Capacitance Method

• General Lumped Capacitance

Simplest and most convenient method to evaluate transient heat transfer.

 Consider a general case,

which includes convection,
radiation and/or an applied
heat flux at specified
surfaces  As ,c , As ,r , As ,h  ,
as well as internal energy
generation
Lumped Capacitance Method (cont.)

 First Law:

dEst dT
 c  Ein  Eout  Eg
dt dt

• Assuming energy outflow due to convection and radiation and

inflow due to an applied heat flux qs, the general solution:

 dT
q"s As ,h  E g  (q"conv  q"rad ) As ( c ,r )  Vc (5.14)
dt

 dT
q"s As ,h  E g  [h(T  T )   (T 4  Ts ) As ( c ,r )  Vc
4
(5.15)
dt

• Can the equation above be integrated? How do we solve the equation?

Special Case (Negligible Radiation)

• Special Cases
 Radiation Only

The non-homogeneous differential equation is now transformed into:

dT
  (T 4  Ts ) As ,r  Vc
4

dt

Integrating from t = 0 to t and T = Ti to Ts, variables include t, Ti and Tsur.

For Tsur = 0 (deep space), equation now becomes:

Vc  1 1 
t  3  3
3As ,r T Ti 

Special Case (Negligible Radiation)

• Special Cases (Exact Solutions, T  0   Ti )

 Negligible Radiation   T  T ,      b / a  :
 
a  hAs ,c / c b   qsAs ,h  E g  / c
 
The non-homogeneous differential equation is transformed into a
homogeneous equation of the form:
d
 a  b  0
dt
Integrating from t = 0 to any t and rearranging,
T  T b/a
 exp  at   1  exp  at 
Ti  T Ti  T (5.25)

To what does the foregoing equation reduce as steady state is approached as t approaches ∞?
Special Case (Convection)

 Convection only with variable h

Variable convection coefficient h can be approximated with the expression:

h  C (T  T ) n

The non-homogeneous differential equation is transformed into a

homogeneous equation of the form (with negligible radiation, surface
heating and volumetric generation):
dT
 C (T  T ) n (T  T )  As ,c  Vc
dt

1 / n
  nCAs ,c i 
n

 t  1
 i  Vc 

(5.28)

where dθ/dt = dT/dt

Special Case (Convection)
 
 Negligible Radiation and Source Terms  h  hr , E g  0, qs  0  :
dT  
c  hAs ,c T  T  (5.2)
dt
c  d t
hAs ,c i  
  dt
0  Note:   T  T

 T  T   hA    t 
  exp    s ,c  t   exp    (5.6)
i Ti  T   c    t 

The thermal time constant is defined as

 1 
t     c  (5.7)
hA
 s ,c 
Thermal Lumped Thermal
Resistance, Rt Capacitance, Ct

The change in thermal energy storage due to the transient process is

  t 
Est  Q    Eout dt  hAs ,c   dt    c i 1  exp  
t t
 (5.8)
0 0   t 
 Transient Conduction:
Spatial Effects and the Role of
Analytical Solutions

Chapter 5
Sections 5.4 - 5.8
Plane Wall
Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall with
Symmetrical Convection Conditions
• If the lumped capacitance approximation cannot be made (large Biot number for
example), consideration must be given to spatial, as well as temporal, variations in
temperature during the transient process.

• For a plane wall with symmetrical convection

conditions and constant properties, the heat
equation and initial/boundary conditions are:
2T 1 T

x 2  t (5.29)

T  x,0   T i (5.30)

T
0 (5.31)
x x 0

T
k  h T  L, t   T   (5.32)
x xL

• Existence of eight independent variables:

T  T  x, t , T i , T  , L, k ,  , h  (5.33)
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Non-dimensionalization of Heat Equation and Initial/Boundary conditions:

 T T
Dimensionless temperature difference: * 
 i Ti T
x
Dimensionless space coordinate: x * 
L
t
Dimensionless time: t *   Fo
L2
Fo  the Fourier Number
 *  f  x * , Fo, Bi 
hL
The Biot Number: Bi 
k solid

1. Exact Solution:

   C n exp   n2 Fo  cos  n x * 
* (5.42a)
n 1
4sin  n
Cn   n tan  n  Bi
2 n  sin  2 n 
(5.42b,c)

See Appendix B.3 for first four roots (eigenvalues  1 ,...,  4 ) of Eq. (5.42c).
Plane Wall (cont.)

2. The One-Term Approximation  Valid for Fo  0.2  :

 Variation of midplane temperature (x*= 0) with time  Fo  :
T  T    C exp  2 Fo
 o*  o  1  (5.44)
 i 
T  T
1

Table 5.1  C 1 and  1 as a function of Bi

 Variation of temperature with location (x*) and time  Fo :
 *   o* cos  1 x *  (5.43b)

 Change in thermal energy storage with time:

E st  Q (5.46a)

 sin  1 * 
Q  Q o 1  o  (5.49)
  1 
Q o   cV T i  T   (5.47)
Example 5.5

page 305
Radial Systems

Radial Systems
• Long Rods or Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection.

Bi  hr o / k
Fo   t / r o2

• One-Term Approximations:
Long Rod: Eqs. (5.52) and (5.54)
Sphere: Eqs. (5.53) and (5.55)
C 1 ,  1  Table 5.1
Objects with Constant Ts or qs

Objects with Constant Surface

Temperatures or Surface Heat Fluxes
• Transient response of a variety of objects to a step change in surface temperature or
heat flux can be unified by defining the dimensionless conduction heat rate:

qs L c
q* 
k T s  T i  (5.67)

where Lc is a characteristic length that depends on the geometry of the object.

• Consider the variation of q* with time, or Fo, for
– Interior heat transfer: Heat transfer inside objects such as plane walls,
cylinders, or spheres,
– Exterior heat transfer: Heat transfer in an infinite medium surrounding an
embedded object.
Objects with Constant Ts or qs (cont.)

• When q* is plotted versus Fo in Figure 5.10, we see that:

– All objects behave the same as a semi-infinite solid for short times.
– q* approaches a steady state for exterior objects.
– q* does not reach a steady state for interior objects, but decreases continually
with time (Fo).

Constant Ts Constant qs
Problem: Thermal Energy Storage

Problem 5.80: Charging a thermal energy storage system consisting of

a packed bed of Pyrex spheres.

KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of Pyrex

spheres in packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient
and inlet gas temperature.

FIND: Time required for sphere to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal
energy and the corresponding center and surface temperatures.
SCHEMATIC:

Gas Pyrex sphere

D = 75 mm, Ti = 25oC
Tg,i = 300oC = 2225 kg/m3
c = 835 J/kg-K
h = 75 W/m2-K k = 1.4 W/m-K
Problem: Thermal Energy Storage (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional radial conduction in sphere, (2)

Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with adjoining spheres, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: With Bi  h(ro/3)/k = 75 W/m2K (0.0125m)/1.4 W/mK = 0.67,

the lumped capacitance method is inappropriate and the approximate (one-term)
solution for one-dimensional transient conduction in a sphere is used to obtain
the desired results.
To obtain the required time, the specified charging requirement
Q / Q o  0.9  must first be used to obtain the dimensionless center temperature,
 o*.

From Eq. (5.55),

 13  Q 
o   1  
3 sin  1    1 cos  1   Qo 

With Bi  hro/k = 2.01,  1  2.03 and C1  1.48 from Table 5.1. Hence,
0.1 2.03
3
0.837
o    0.155
3 0.896  2.03  0.443 5.386
Problem: Thermal Energy Storage (cont.)

From Eq. (5.53c), the corresponding time is

ro2  o 
t ln  
 1  C1 
2

 
  k /  c  1.4 W/m  K / 2225kg/m3  835J/kg  K  7.54  107 m 2 /s,

t
 0.0375m  ln  0.155 / 1.48
2
 1,020 s
7 2
<
7.54  10 m /s  2.03
2

From the definition of  o* , the center temperature is

 
To  Tg ,i  0.155 Ti  Tg ,i  300°C  42.7°C  257.3°C <

The surface temperature at the time of interest may be obtained from Eq. (5.53b)

with r  1,
o sin  1   0.155  0.896 
Ts  Tg ,i  Ti  Tg ,i   300°C  275°C    280.9°C <
1  2.03 

Is use of the one-term approximation appropriate?

Problem: Thermal Response Firewall

Problem: 5.93: Use of radiation heat transfer from high intensity lamps
 qs  10 4 W/m 2  for a prescribed duration (t=30 min) to assess
ability of firewall to meet safety standards corresponding to
maximum allowable temperatures at the heated (front) and
unheated (back) surfaces.

KNOWN: Thickness, initial temperature and thermophysical properties of

concrete firewall. Incident radiant flux and duration of radiant heating.
Maximum allowable surface temperatures at the end of heating.

FIND: If maximum allowable temperatures are exceeded.

SCHEMATIC:
x L = 0.25 m
Concrete, Ti = 25oC
qs = 104 W/m2 = 2300 kg/m3
c = 880 J/kg-K
k = 1.4 W/m-K
s = 1.0
Tmax = 325oC Tmax = 25oC
Problem: Thermal Response of Firewall (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in wall, (2) Validity of

semi-infinite medium approximation, (3) Negligible convection and radiative
exchange with the surroundings at the irradiated surface, (4) Negligible heat
transfer from the back surface, (5) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: The thermal response of the wall is described by Eq. (5.62)

2 qo  t /     x 2  qo x
1/2
 x 
T  x, t   Ti  exp    erfc  
k  4 t  k   
  2 t

7
where,   k /  c p  6.92  10 m /s and for
2

t  30 min  1800 s, 2qo  t /   / k  284.5 K. Hence, at x = 0,

1/2

T  0,30 min   25°C  284.5°C  309.5°C  325°C

At
2
 
x  0.25 m,  x / 4 t  12.54; qox / k  1, 786 K, and x / 2  t    3.54.
1/2
 

 
Hence, T  0.25 m, 30 min   25C  284.5°C 3.58  106  1786°C   ~ 0   25°C
Problem: Thermal Response of Firewall (cont.)

Both requirements are met. <

Is the assumption of a semi-infinite solid for a plane wall of finite thickness

appropriate under the foregoing conditions?

COMMENTS: The foregoing analysis may or may not be conservative, since

heat transfer at the irradiated surface due to convection and net radiation
exchange with the environment has been neglected. If the emissivity of the
surface and the temperature of the surroundings are assumed to be  = 1 and Tsur
= 298K, radiation exchange at Ts = 309.5C would be
qrad  4

   Ts4  Tsur  6080 W/m2  K,
which is significant (~ 60% of the prescribed radiation). However, under actual
conditions, the wall would likely be exposed to combustion gases and adjoining
walls at elevated temperatures.
Problem: Microwave Heating

Problem: 5.101: Microwave heating of a spherical piece of frozen

ground beef using microwave-absorbing packaging
material.

KNOWN: Mass and initial temperature of frozen ground beef. Rate of

microwave power absorbed in packaging material.

FIND: Time for beef adjacent to packaging to reach 0°C.

SCHEMATIC:
Beef, 1kg
Ti = -20°C

Packaging material, q

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Beef has properties of ice, (2) Radiation and convection
to environment are neglected, (3) Constant properties, (4) Packaging material
has negligible heat capacity.
Problem: Microwave Heating (cont.)

PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Ice (≈ 273 K): ρ = 920 kg/m3, c = 2040 J/kg∙K, k = 1.88 W/m∙K.

ANALYSIS: Neglecting radiation and convection losses, all the power absorbed in the
packaging material conducts into the beef. The surface heat flux is
q 0.5P
qs = =
As 4πR 2
The radius of the sphere can be found from knowledge of the mass and density:
4
m = rV =  π ro3
3
1/3 1/3
 3 m  3 1 kg 
ro =   =  = 0.0638 m
 4π    4π 920 kg/m3 
 

Thus
0.5(1000W)
qs   9780 W/m2
4   0.0638 m 
2

The beef can be seen as the interior of a sphere with a constant heat flux at its surface, thus
the relationship in Table 5.2b, Interior Cases, sphere, can be used. We begin by calculating q* for Ts=0°C.
qsro 9780 W/m2  0.0638 m
q*    16.6

k Ts  Ti  1.88 W/m  K 0 C - -20 C  
Problem: Microwave Heating (cont.)

We proceed to solve for Fo. Assuming that Fo < 0.2, we have

1 π π
q*  -
2 Fo 4
-2
 π 
Fo = π 2(q* + )  = 0.0026
 4 

Since this is less than 0.2, our assumption was correct. Finally we can solve
for the time:

t = Fo ro2 / = Fo ro2  c / k
= (0.0026 × (0.0638 m)2× 920 kg/m3× 2040 J/kg  K)/(1.88 W/m  K)

= 10.6 s <

COMMENTS: At the minimum surface temperature of -20°C, with T∞ = 30°C and h = 15 W/m2∙K
from Problem 5.33, the convection heat flux is 750 W/m2, which is less than 8% of the microwave
heat flux. The radiation heat flux would likely be less, depending on the temperature of the oven walls.