Khairul Nizam Tahar, PhD
Lecture Outline
Theory of Photogrammetric Orientation
Conceptual differences between traditional and digital
photogrammetry
The mathematical relationship between image and
corresponding ground coordinates
Some Revisions!!!!
What is Photogrammetry? – What do you know?
How does it works? – Principle?
Why we need Photogrammetry Mapping?
three Greek words, photos meaning “light,”
gramma meaning “something drawn or written.”
And metron meaning “to measure.”
Photogrammetry is the art, science, and
technology of obtaining reliable information
about physical objects and the environment
through processes of recording, measuring, and
interpreting photographic images and patterns of
electromagnetic radiant energy and other
phenomena
Lecture Outline
Theory of Photogrammetric Orientation
Conceptual differences between traditional and digital
photogrammetry
The mathematical relationship between image and
corresponding ground coordinates
Theory of Photogrammetric
Orientation
Two types of camera orientations maybe used:
vertical and
oblique
Oblique allows one to take pictures of a large area while
vertical allows for less distortion in photo scale.
Vertical and oblique aerial photography
View Angle:
View angle is normally determined by the focal length
and the frame size of a film.
For a camera, the frame is fixed, therefore the ground
coverage is determined by the altitude and the camera
viewing angle
Obviously, wide angles allow a larger area to be
photographed
Viewing angle determined by
the focal length
Photographic Resolution
Spatial resolution of aerial photographs is
dependent on the following factors:
–Lens resolution
–Optical quality
–Film resolution
–Film flatness -normally not a problem
–Atmospheric conditions - Changes all the time
–Aircraft vibration and motion -random
Photographic Resolution-cont…
Film resolution depends mainly on granularity.
–The standard definition of photographic
resolution:
the maximum number of line-pairs per mm that can
be distinguished on a film when taken from a
resolution target.
–If the scale of an aerial photograph is known, we can
convert the photographic resolution (rs) to ground
resolution
Ground Coverage
A photograph may have a small coverage if it is taken
either at a low flight height or with a narrower viewing
angle.
–The advantages of photographs with small coverages:
they provide more detail, and less distortion and displacement.
easier to analyze because similar target will have less distortion from
the center to the edge of the photograph, and from one photograph
to the other.
–The disadvantage of photographs with small
coverages:
it needs more flight time to cover an area and thus the cost will be
higher.
Mosaicing may cause more distortion.
Ground Coverage – cont…
A large coverage can be obtained by taking the
photograph from a higher altitude or using a wider
viewing angle.
The quality of photographs with a large coverage is likely to
have poorer photographic resolution due to larger viewing
angle and likely stronger atmospheric effect.
The advantages:
a large coverage is simultaneously obtained, requires less
geometric mosaicing, and costs less.
The disadvantages:
it is difficult to analyze targets in detail and that target is
severely distorted.
Ground Coverage – cont…
Essentially, the size of photo coverage is related to the
scale of the raw aerial photographs.
Choosing photographs with a large coverage or a small
one should be based on the following:
–budget at hand
–Task
–equipment available
Ground Coverage – cont…
Advantages of aerial photography in comparison with
other types of data acquisition systems:
–High resolution (ground)
–Flexibility
–High geometric reliability
–Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages:
–Day light exposure (10:00 am-2:00 pm) required
–Poorer contrast at shorter wavelengths
–Film non-reusable
–Inconvenient
–Inefficient for digital analysis
3D Rotation
any object or coordinate system in
space has 6 independent degrees
of freedom, 3 position shifts
along 3 mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes and 3 rotations
about the coordinate axes
photogrammetric terminology
traditionally uses the symbols
ω(omega), φ(phi) and κ(kappa) for
the rotations about the first, second
and third coordinate axes
respectively
3D Rotation – cont…
the senses of the rotations are defined by the right hand
screw rule, that is anticlockwise rotations are positive when
looking down each coordinate axis toward the origin
the generally accepted hierarchy for the rotations is
ω(primary), φ(secondary) and κ(tertiary), the same order
as the coordinate axes
three dimensional rotations are not independent, that is the
order in which rotations are applied is important
a 45°ω rotation followed by a 30°κ rotation does not give
the same result as a 30°κ rotation followed by a 45°ω
rotation, because the first rotation in each case changes the
attitude of the coordinate axis system
Take 5!!!
Lecture Outline
Theory of Photogrammetric Orientation
Conceptual differences between traditional and
digital photogrammetry
The mathematical relationship between image and
corresponding ground coordinates
Conceptual differences between
traditional and digital
photogrammetry
Flight Configuration
Photogrammetric Techniques
A photographic image is a “central perspective“:
every light ray reaching the film surface during
exposure, passed through the camera lens
(considered as a single point - “perspective center“).
Continue…Technique
To make measurements on photographs, the ray bundle
must be reconstructed.
The internal geometry of the camera defined by:
the focal length,
the position of the principal point and
the lens distortion, has to be precisely known.
The focal length is called “principal distance“,
distance of the projection center from the image plane´s
principal point.
photographic devices
Photographic devices for photogrammetric
purposes:
Metric cameras
Amateur cameras
Metric cameras
Stable and precisely known internal geometries and very
low lens distortions.
very expensive devices.
The principal distance is constant:
the lens cannot be sharpened when taking photographs.
hence, metric cameras are only usable within a limited range of
distances towards the object.
The image coordinate system is defined by (mostly) four
fiducial marks:
Marks are mounted on the frame of the camera.
Aerial metric cameras are built into aeroplanes mostly
looking straight downwards.
Today, all of them have an image format of 23 by 23
centimeters.
Fiducial Marks
Metric Camera Main Parts
Conventional Aerial Camera (Metric)
Zeiss RMK Model
Model Leica RC30
(Leica Geosystems)
Large Format Camera
“Amateur” cameras
The internal geometry of an “amateur camera” is not stable
and unknown
“normal” commercially available camera.
can also be very expensive and technically highly developed
professional photographic devices.
Photographing a test field with many control points and at
a repeatably fixed distance setting
E.g. (at infinity), a “calibration” of the camera can be
calculated.
The four corners of the camera frame function as fiducials.
However, the precision will never reach that of metric cameras.
Can only be used for products of lower accuracy standard.
However, such photography is better than nothing, and very
useful in cases of emergency.
Digital Aerial Camera
UltraCam-D
Leica ADS40
Camera Lenses
Airborne Configurations
UltraCam-D
Instruments for Traditional and
Digital Photogrammetry
Plotting Instruments
Analogue Stereo Plotter
Analytical Plotters
Softcopy System
VIRTUOZO System
PHOTOMOD System
Applications
Wide applications of photogrammetry:
Principally, it is utilized for object interpretation:
What is it?
Type?
Quality?
Quantity and
object measurement
Where is it?
Form?
Size?
Aerial photogrammetry is mainly used to produce:
Topographic maps complete with contour lines
Thematical maps and
Digital terrain models.
Photogrammetric Products
Topographic
Maps
Orthophoto
GIS Map Products
DEM
3D Visualization
Lecture Outline
Theory of Photogrammetric Orientation
Conceptual differences between traditional and digital
photogrammetry
The mathematical relationship between image
and corresponding ground coordinates
The mathematical relationship
between image and
corresponding ground
coordinates
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
The photo interpretation is a separate area of
photogrammetry, since it deals with the attribute
(qualitative) information of photos.
The geometric approach means that we try to infer
geometrical, measurable information; usually it means
coordinates, maps, drawings and rectified or
transformed images (orthophotos).
During the history of photogrammetry different
evaluation methods were developed and distributed. The
first evaluation machines were regarded as analog
instruments containing mechanical and optical parts.
The stereo models were constructed as real models,
since the images were rotated in the space to that
orientation position as they were located in the moment of
exposure.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
The analytical instruments were connected to the computer
and new concepts (like stereo comparators, analytical plotters)
were worked out to build the stereo model. The model
creation was made only mathematically, the image planes were
not rotated, only the rotation elements were computed and the
stereo model was built virtually.
Finally the digital photogrammetry uses only digital images
and the evaluation instrument is reduced to a computer. Here
the mathematical principles of image orientation and evaluation
are very close to the analytical photogrammetric approach,
but the level of automation is higher and new software
applications appear on the market continuously offering more
comfortable, faster and reliable work.
In this module we introduce only the basic mathematical
elements of photogrammetry and the areas of the digital
photogrammetry.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Coordinate Systems Notation: O: projection center,
ζ= : camera constant (calibrated focal length),
ξηζ: image coordinate system,
XYZ: terrain coordinate system.
To handle mathematically the
central projection defined by the
images we need equations to
describe the connection between
the image points and the
corresponding terrain points. To
gain this purpose we basically use
two important coordinate systems in
photogrammetry. The first one is the
image coordinate system (ξηζ), the
second one is the (XYZ) terrain
coordinate system Basic coordinate systems
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Coordinate Systems – cont…
The image coordinate system is defined
by the fiducial marks. These fiducial
marks are located generally at the rim of
the image in the corners or in the middle
section of the image sides. The origin of
the image coordinate system can be
defined as the intersection point of lines
gained by the opposite fiducial marks.
The axis ζ of the image coordinate system
is defined by the camera axis and each
image coordinate ζ is a constant value Image coordinate system
and it is equal with the calibrated focal
length called camera constant.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Orientation Elements
If we want to evaluate the images and gain terrain
coordinates we need to know the position of the image
in the moment of exposure, it means we need to know
the orientation elements. These elements can be
divided into two groups: interior orientation elements
and exterior orientation elements.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Orientation Elements – cont…
Interior orientation elements are
the image coordinates of the principal point
camera constant or focal length.
The principal point is the point where the camera axis
goes through the image plane virtually. This
intersection point doesn’t fit with the intersection
point of lines defined by the fiducial marks. Because of
this, the coordinates of the principal point should be
considered at the central projection and in general it is
not equal zero.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Orientation Elements – cont…
By referring to figure (basic coordinate system ). It
illustrates the exterior orientation elements. These
elements are:
geodetic coordinates of the perspective centre (),
rotation angles defining the image plain orientation ().
The interior orientation elements are usually known with
high accuracy, since these elements are defined in
laboratory and supplemented to the camera. The exterior
orientation elements should be defined during the aerial
survey or after the exposure with calculation (for example
with space resection method).
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection
Collinear equations
: image coordinates,
terrain coordinates,
coordinates of the perspective centre,
element of the rotation matrix, where each
focal length.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
The task is to determine the exterior orientation
elements coordinates of perspective centre and
rotation matrix. Using the image and geodetic
coordinates of at least four control points, we can solve
the task with adjustment. First we need to linearize
the equation converting it to a Taylor polynomial. It
means we have to generate partial derivatives by each
unknown (exterior orientation element) and after that
we can compile the error equations like:
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
Error equations of the space resection
partial derivative gained from Equation
corrections to the approximate values of unknowns,
differences gained from the calculated and measured image
coordinates,
errors.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
Also we need to determine the approximate values of
unknowns as . Writing these
approximations and the X,Y,Z geodetic coordinates
into the Equation we can get the calculated image
coordinates as . If we decrement these values from
the measured image coordinates, we can get
the values.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
The error equations can be written into a matrix
equation as .
The vector x gives the corrections to the approximate
values of unknowns. After making these corrections
we repeat the whole procedure, and we continue it
until the corrections become negligible. As a final
result we gain the adjusted values of all exterior
orientation elements.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
If we solve the task of
space resection for one
stereo-pair we can
intersect the image rays
to calculate the ground
coordinates of any point
Intersection of rays for calculation of the
ground coordinates of P
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Space Resection – cont…
After the basics of coordinate systems, let’s list the data
acquisition procedure based on images:
Production of images.
Orientation procedure, the reason of this step is to define the
position of the images in the moment of exposure concerning the
ground coordinate system.
Photogrammetric evaluation and compilation of products like:
Construction of a DTM model,
Monoplotting,
Orthophoto production,
Mapping,
Aerial triangulation,
3D modeling.
Dr. Jancsó Tamás (2010)
Thank you
Khairul Nizam Tahar, PhD
Centre of Studies for Surveying Science & Geomatics, Faculty
of Architecture Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA
khairul0127@salam.uitm.edu.my
nizamtahar@gmail.com
Tel: +603 5544 4502 H/p: +6012 370 9462
