LONG QUESTION: MIGRATION IN INDIA

I. TYPES OF MIGRATION

Internal Migration

Internal migration is the movement of people within one common place. The reasons that
lead to this type of migration include the search for better education or the pursuit of a better
economic opportunity in another area. Natural disasters and civil unrests can also trigger this
type of migration.

External Migration

External migration generally refers to movement outside of one's home country. Common
reasons for this include education, life improvement, and other economic prospects. Politics
also play a huge part in causing people to migrate to other countries. An example of this type
of migration is the movement of refugees into a neighbouring nation due to unsafe conditions
in their home country. Example: European Refugee Crisis

Seasonal Migration

Seasonal migration is the movement of people from one area to another with each season in
pursuit of better conditions for themselves. It is moving with each season or in response to
labor or climate conditions

Emigration: leaving one country to move to another

Immigration: moving into a new country

Return migration: moving back to where you came from

Intra State Migration: Moving within the State of a country for various reasons. (Eg.
Moving from Cuttack to Bhubaneshwar). This can be of 4 types: Urban to Rural, Urban to
Urban, Rural to Rural, Rural to Urban. Also Refer to:
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/migrations.aspx

Inter State Migration: Moving between the states of a country for various reasons. (Eg.
Moving from Maharashtra to Odisha).
 In-migration is the process of people moving into a new area in their country to live there
permanently. Out-migration is the process of people moving out of an area in their country
to move to another area in their country permanently.

Many times when we're speaking about in- and out-migration, it's in reference to a large-scale
or ongoing movement from one area to another.

II. TRENDS OF MIGRATION

Net Out Migration within the age group of 20-29 according to the Census of 2001 and 2011
as published in the Economic Survey is given below:

Haryana 56

Madhya Pradesh 765

Bihar 2695

Uttar Pradesh 5834

Rajasthan 791

2011 census accounted for 453 million migrants. However, the vast majority of migrants are
intra state, and were not counted. The 2001 census accounted for only 13 percent of India’s
migration.

Reasons for migration in India include agricultural distress, increasing urbanisation, etc.
According to 2017 Economic survey, total interstate migration went up by 191 percent in the
decade of 2001-2011 as compared to the previous decade. For example, Tamil Nadu saw its
migrant population explode by 39 Percent and saw the highest number of migrants in 2001-
2011 decade. Migration from Uttar Pradesh was up by 197 %, Bihar by 237 %.

Therefore, there is strong correlation between state per capita and migration. This is the
reason why out migration from Madhya Pradesh is lesser than in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc.

III. FACTS ABOUT INDIA’S MIGRATION (CLASS NOTES)

1. India is a top a top source and destination for world’s migrants. Large number of Indian
 migrants, mostly voluntary, have moved to North America, Europe, etc.

2. India is a top source of International migration from neighbouring countries such as

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, etc

3. India receives more remittances from migration than any other region. According to World
Bank, about 69 million dollars were sent by Indian migrants abroad to India. In 2015, this
amounted to 3% of the country’s GDP.

4. According to Peu Centre research, India’s minorities are more likely to migrate. For
example, 19 % of India’s migrants were Christians, 27% Muslims and 45% Hindus

5. India has one of the least emigration rates. Only 1% of the Indian population lives outside
the country, which is similar to the date of the USA.

IV. INTERNAL VS. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

INTERNAL MIGRATION INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

The movement of people within a

The movement of people from one country to
country i.e. between states, districts,
other across the international borders is called
villages, etc is called as Internal
as International Migration.
Migration.

 MOSTLY SEEN IN

The Internal migration is mostly seen

in the semi-skilled and unskilled The International migration is mostly seen is
workers in the rural and semi-urban the professional and skilled people.
areas.

 GOVERNMENT

The government may or may not take The government provides security to the
care about the internal migrants from international migrants through Indian
other states. embassy's in respective countries.

 BRAIN DRAIN
 INTERNAL MIGRATION INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

The international migration pose a serious

The internal migration do not pose a
problem of brain drain of highly educated
problem of brain drain.
people working for other country's progress.

 MONEY TRANSFER

The money sent by the migrants to The money sent by the international migrants
their families is less when compared to the home country is very high.
to international migrants.

Source: https://topdifferences.com/difference-between-internal-and-international-migration/

V. EUROPEAN REFUGEE CRISIS

More than a million migrants and refugees crossed into Europe in 2015, sparking a crisis as
countries struggled to cope with the influx. The vast majority arrived by sea but some
migrants have made their way over land, principally via Turkey and Albania. The conflict in
Syria was the biggest driver of migration. But the ongoing violence in Afghanistan and Iraq,
abuses in Eritrea, as well as poverty in Kosovo, are also leading people to look for new lives
elsewhere.

Germany received the highest number of new asylum applications in 2015, with more than
476,000. But far more people have arrived in the country - German officials said more than a
million had been counted. Hungary moved into second place for asylum applications, as more
migrants made the journey overland through Greece and the Western Balkans.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that more than 1,011,700
migrants arrived by sea in 2015, and almost 34,900 by land. This compares with 280,000
arrivals by land and sea for the whole of 2014. The figures do not include those who got in
undetected. The EU's external border force, Frontex, monitors the different routes migrants
use and numbers arriving at Europe's borders and put the figure crossing into Europe in 2015
at more than 1,800,000. Most of those heading for Greece take the relatively short voyage
from Turkey to the islands of Kos, Chios, Lesvos and Samos - often in flimsy rubber dinghies
 or small wooden boats.

Many of these migrants lose their lives at sea. According to the IOM, more than 3,770
migrants were reported to have died trying to cross the Mediterranean in 2015. Most died on
the crossing from north Africa to Italy, and more than 800 died in the Aegean crossing from
Turkey to Greece. But in 2015, the deadliest month for migrants was April, which saw a boat
carrying about 800 people capsize in the sea off Libya. Overcrowding is thought to have been
one of the reasons for the disaster.

There has been a mix response to this crisis. Tensions in the EU have been rising because of
the disproportionate burden faced by some countries, particularly the countries where the
majority of migrants have been arriving: Greece, Italy and Hungary. Although huge numbers
have been applying for asylum, the number of people being given asylum is far lower.

The present European system for granting of asylum is not adequate to deal with this crisis.
There needs to be an overhaul of the system. Many European countries refuse entry of
refugees claiming them to not be refugees but economic migrants. The definition of refugees
in current International law needs to be reinterpreted and consolidated.

VI. PUSH AND PULL FACTORS OF MIGRATION: WHY DO PEOPLE MIGRATE

Often, in the migration context, there are both push and pull factors with push factors being
reasons why people would want to leave their home country and pull factors being reasons
why people would want to come to a new country. In migration, push and pull factors can be
economic, environmental, social and political. They include some of the following:

Economic Factors

Economic migration, whether permanent or seasonal, is a commonly cited reason for

migration. In general, it is believed that in economic migration people move from poorer
developing areas into richer areas where wages are higher and more jobs are available. It is
also common for people from rural areas to move to more competitive urban areas in order to
find more opportunities.

Environmental Factors

Migration caused by environmental factors is increasingly involuntary. Environmental factors

cause displacement, or the forced movement of people by social or environmental
factors. Crop failure for example, often results in both food scarcity and a drop in
agricultural jobs, prompting people to move to a place with better job opportunities and
 climate. Pollution of water, air and soil in both urban and rural settings can also create a
serious health risk to locals, forcing them to look for a better life for themselves and their
children. 

Devastating natural disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes and earthquakes are

environmental factors that the news most often cover.

Social Factors

Social factors motivating migration grow from the human needs and desires to achieve a
better quality of life. Migrants often move to ensure better opportunities for themselves or
their family, like sending their child to a better, safer school or finding a job that would have
not only a sufficient salary, but also important benefits and career growth prospects. In terms
of education, the United States graduate programs have been a particularly strong attraction
for young, talented individuals around the world. Individuals can also migrate in search
of services, such as life-saving surgery and medical treatment that are inaccessible in their
home area.

Safety Factors

Safety factors can cause danger to individuals, prompting them to migrate. Persecution and

discrimination based on nationality, race, religion, political beliefs, or membership status in a
particular social groupwill prompt people to move large distances in search of a safer living
location where they can have freedom over their lives. Danger can be imposed upon
individuals by something formal, like war , or informal, such as widespread gang activity.
Eg: European refugee crisis due to war in Syria.

VII. EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON SOURCE AND DESTINATION STATES

When migration happens, there are many impacts that immigrants can bring to the destination
country, as well the source country in which they used live in. These impacts can be divided
into social, cultural, economic, demographic, and environmental as listed below.

1. At Destination
 Social/Cultural
a. Positive
1. Introduction to new culture/multiculture.
2. Well educated/skilled workers.
3. Better friendship with foreigners.
b. Negative
2. Migration may cause disputes due to different culture.
3. Insufficient housing facilities.
4. Increase in homeless people.
5. Increase in crime rate (illegal immigrants).
6. Illegal immigrants = illegal violent organization = violence related crimes/murders.
7. Racial dispute which may lead to issues among countries.
8. Religious issues.
 Economical
a. Positive
1. Increase in contribution to tax.
2. Helps reduce the workload of the citizens to pay for the nation’s expenditure.
3. Migration boost economic growth.
4. Immigrant workers can help fill the job of shortage.
5. Improved service for foreigners.
b. Negative
1. Immigrants are not flexible in work. They tend to be trained only for one
particular job.
2. Not all immigrants are skilled (unproductive/useless workers).
3. The money they earn is often sent back to their own country meaning there is
no benefit for the hosting country.
 Demographic
a. Positive
1. Increase in active population = less dependency ration
2. Increase in fertility rate (good for countries that aim for population increase)
b. Negative
1. Immigrants do not earn that much, so they do not make contribution to support the
aging population (less economical development)
2. When there are too many immigrants, it may overcrowd the country.
3. Foreigners may replace, residential population.
4. There may be too much of an increase in young population, which will lead to a bad
population structure.
5. Since men are the most common immigrants, they may outnumber female gender.
 Political
a. Positive
1. Introduction to new culture may promote better relation between countries.
2. Improved service for foreigners.
 3. Improved taxation will lead to flexibility in government expenditure.
b. Negative
1. Introduction to new culture may lead to cultural, religious, and racial conflicts.
2. More construction to provide housing for the immigrants will harm the environment.
3. Homelessness may lead to pollution.

Environmental

a. Negative
1. Allowing more people in to the country will demand more supply of basic nessecities
of the immigrants.
2. This may lead to the country not being able to support its people through their natural
resources and will certainly increase the import cost in order to meet the needs of their
people.
3. Transportation harms the environment.
4. Creation of buildings due to increased need of housing will also damage the
environment.
5. Houseless dwellers may create their habitat throughout the country, which results in
pollution.

AT SOURCE

 Social/Cultural
a. Positive
1. Immigrants going back and forth between countries may also promote different
culture at source.
2. Migration will promote the source country of the immigrants. This may promote
tourism as well.
3. Immigrants can send money back to his/her family to improve their living condition
4. This will also result in decrease in poverty.
5. Better education
6. Less child labor
b. Negative
1. Immigrants going overseas may face family separation/conflicts
2. Through rights violation of immigrants in a country, it will create conflicts between
countries.
 Economical
a. Positive
1. Sending their earnings may enhance overall economy.
2. Migration from the source will create wider job opportunities for the ones within the
source.
3. Workers may obtain new knowledge and skill, and they may share this when they are
back in their country.
4. This could lead in development of better paying jobs in the future.
b. Negative
1. Many skilled workers leave, which leaves less skilled ones in the country.
2. This may lead in the government hiring flexible workers from abroad.
3. Environmental
4. Positive
5. The people leaving the country will provide more space and supplies available for the
remaining people.
6. This leads to fewer resources used in the country.
7. Having less to provide will reduce construction and manufacturing which will lead to
good towards the government.
8. Less pollution.
9. Negative
10. Transportation used for migration will harm the environment.
 Demographic
a. Positive
1. Since there are already more than enough working populations, immigration will
balance the population pyramid.
2. This balance in population structure will lead to economic growth.
3. It can slow down the population growth. (good thing for overpopulated countries)
b. Negative
1. Less national income contribution from the less skilled workers left in the source
country.
2. Less skilled workers in the source country will also lead to a slow pace of
development.
VIII. HARRIS TODARO MODEL OF MIGRATION

Link: http://faculty.washington.edu/danby/todaro/Todaro.htm (with diagram)

From the middle of the 1970s development was increasingly taking on the form of govern-
mentality, with the international organisations and development states identifying absolute
poverty as the target of interventions. In the same time a shift was observed also in the
conceptualization of the dual economy.

John Harris and Michel. P. Todaro offered a description of the underdeveloped economy in
the American Economic Review (1970) which was different from the dual economy of the
Lewis model.

In addressing the question of rural-urban migration in Africa, they discovered a “curious

economic phenomenon”- “despite the existence of positive marginal product in agriculture
and significant levels of urban unemployment, rural-urban migration not only continues to
exist, but indeed, appears to be accelerating”.
The Harris-Todaro Hypothesis:
To provide an analytical explanation of “curious economic phenomenon”, they considered
rural-urban divide in which the “modern urban sector” offers a politically determined wage
that is substantially higher than what an individual would earn in the agricultural sector. The
rural-urban wage differentials lure rural workers to migrate to the urban centres.
The urban job is limited. So most of the migrated workers fail to get an urban job and become
unemployed. But they do not return to their native villages because they expect that they will
get an urban job in the near future.

Their expected income is equal to higher urban wage times the probability of getting a
modern sector job (which is less than unity). As long as this expected income is higher than
the certain income in the rural sector, the rural-urban migration continue. Thus labour power
remains un-utilised, causing a loss, in the sense of non –realisation of potential output, to the
economy as a whole.

The Observations of Harris-Todaro Model:

(i) Migration is stimulated primarily by rational economic considerations of relative benefits
and costs, largely financial and partly psychological.

(ii) The decision to migrate depends on expected rather than the actual urban-rural real wage
differentials where the expected differential is determined by the interaction of two variables

(a) The actual urban rural wage differential; and

(b) The probability of successfully obtaining employment in the urban sector.

(iii) The probability of obtaining an urban job is directly related to the urban employment rate
and is, thus, inversely related to the urban unemployment rate.

(iv) The rate of migration may exceed the rate of growth of urban job opportunities.

1. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE MODEL:

The Harris-Todaro model is based on the following assumptions:
1. There are two sectors in the economy – the rural or agricultural sector (A) and the urban or
manufacturing sector (M).

2. The model operates in the short run.

4. Capital is available in fixed quantities in the two sectors.

5. There are L workers in economy with L A and LM numbers employed in the rural and urban
sectors respectively.
8. The rural wage equals the rural marginal product of labour and the urban wage is
exogenously determined.

9. Rural-urban migration continues so long as the expected urban real income is more that the
real agricultural income.

1. CONCLUSION:
The main drawback of this model is that it does not incorporate the costs of rural-urban
migration or the relatively higher costs of urban living which the migrants have to incur in the
urban sector.

IX. SEASONAL WORKER (CLASS NOTES)

1. Early Entry: (14-2- years): Youth enter labour market as manual labour and secondary
wages earner

2. Peak Work life (21-27/30 years): manual labour takes toll and there is frequent return to
village with chronic illness

3. Return: (35-40 years onwards) Labourers take up local opportunities and their earning
capacity is diminished. They slide back to poverty with weak bodies.

This shows sever intergeneration implications and transfer of vulnerabilities across

generations.

Census 2001: Intra state seasonal migration is 87% mostly for rural to urban. Males
dominated the job scenario. Major participants were the poor class.

Inter state is only 13%, mostly from non affluent states to affluent states. Main participants
are the educated class.