Automatic Power Factor Control

AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CONTROL
ABSTRACT
This project is mainly proposed for reducing the power loss in industries by using power factor
compensation through a number of shunt capacitors. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real
power to apparent power.
So, the increase in reactive power (real power) increases the apparent power, so the power
factor also decreases. By having low power factor, the industry needs more energy to meet its
demand, so the efficiency decreases.
In this system, we proposed the time lag between zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse
delay generated by suitable op-amp circuits in comparator mode and fed into two interrupt pins
in microcontroller. Microcontroller displays the power loss due to inductive load on the LCD. This
process is continuously actuating until the power loss would be zero by using relays which is used
to bring the shunt capacitors into load circuit. 8-bit microcontroller is used in this project which
belongs to 8051 family.
Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction:
In the present technological revolution, power is very precious and the power system is
becoming more and more complex with each passing day. As such it becomes necessary to
transmit each unit of power generated over increasing distances with minimum loss of power.
However, with increasing number of inductive loads, large variation in load etc. the losses have
also increased manifold. Hence, it has become prudent to find out the causes of power loss and
improve the power system. Due to increasing use of inductive loads, the load power factor
decreases considerably which increases the losses in the system and hence power system losses
its efficiency.
An Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line voltage and line
current by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with respect to voltage signal
from the source with high accuracy by using an internal timer. It determines the phase angle lag
() between the voltage and current signals and then determines the corresponding power
factor (cos). Then the microcontroller calculates the compensation requirement and
accordingly switches on the required number of capacitors from the capacitor bank until the
power factor is normalized to about unity.
Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to industrial units, power systems
and also households to make them stable. As a result, the system becomes stable and efficiency
of the system as well as of the apparatus increases. Therefore, the use of microcontroller-based
power factor corrector results in reduced overall costs for both the consumers and the suppliers
of electrical energy.
Power factor correction using capacitor banks reduces reactive power consumption which will
lead to minimization of losses and at the same time increases the electrical system ‘s efficiency.
Power saving issues and reactive power management has led to the development of single-phase
capacitor banks for domestic and industrial applications. The development of this project is to
enhance and upgrade the operation of single-phase capacitor banks by developing a micro-
processor-based control system. The control unit will be able to control capacitor bank operating
steps based on the varying load current. Current transformer is used to measure the load current
for sampling purposes. Intelligent control using this micro-processor control unit ensures even
utilization of capacitor steps, minimizes number of switching operations and optimizes power
factor correction. The Choke used in the Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) will be used as an
Inductive load.
1.2. Background:

Electrical energy efficiency is of prime importance to industrial and commercial companies

operating in today's competitive markets. Optimum use of plant and equipment is one of the
main concerns that industries try to balance with energy efficiency for both economic and
environmental reasons. As society becomes increasingly conscious of its impact on the
environment, reduced energy consumption becomes more desirable, which is an achievable goal
for everyone. Through the use of measures such as power factor correction, electricity
consumption is optimized, which ultimately leads to reduced energy consumption and reduced
CO2 greenhouse gas emissions. Within a cost-conscious market, payback considerations are also
important. This report identifies the most appropriate application for power factor correction
based on energy consumption, tariff metering, cost payback and emission reduction. Power
factor correction is an appropriate means by which to improve the power quality of an
installation. Its application is dependent though on the size of the installation and the extent that
power factor correction needs to be applied. Currently, the effective use of the capacitor bank as
power factor correction device has been its use as a capacitor bank for domestic use. Also known
as energy stability, it will correct power factor based on the concept of employing a capacitor as
a compensator of reactive current in the single-phase electric circuit. However, this device proves
to be less efficient because of its static operation i.e. the compensation does not vary with
changes in the load. The project titled “Automatic Power Factor Correction” was developed to
enable operation of a single-phase capacitor bank to control the power factor such that it follows
the change in the load. The present single-phase capacitor bank was not able to operate with an
increase or reduction in the load on the power system. Because the present system could not
detect load rating that changed, its operation was inefficient and power factor correction thus
obtained was not optimum. This project is using fluorescent magnetic ballast as the load.

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO POWER FACTOR
2.1. Introduction:
Power factor is the ratio of true power or watts to apparent power or volt amps. They are
identical only when current and voltage are in phase then the power factor is Unity (1.0). The
power in an ac circuit is very seldom equal to the direct product of the volts and amperes. In
order to find the power of a single-phase ac circuit the product of volts and amperes must be
multiplied by the power factor. Ammeters and voltmeters indicate the effective value of amps
and volts. True power or watts can be measured with a wattmeter. The power factor is expressed
in decimal or percentage. Low power factor is usually associated with transformers and motors.
An incandescent bulb would have a power factor of close to 1.0. A one hp motor has a power
factor of about 0.80. With low power factor loads, the current flowing through electrical system
components is higher than necessary to do the required work. These result in excessive heating,
which can damage or shorten the life of the equipment. A low power factor will also cause low-
voltage conditions, resulting in dimming of lights and sluggish motor operation.
Low power factor is usually not that much of a problem in residential houses. It does however
become a problem in industries where multiple numbers of large motors are used. So, there is a
requirement to correct the power factor in industries. Generally, the power factor correction
capacitors are used for power factor correction.
2.2. Power Factor:

For a DC circuit the power in the circuit is given by P=VI and this relation also holds good for the
instantaneous power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit expressed in
terms of rms voltage and current is:
Pavg = VIcosφ
Where, φ is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The term ‘cosφ’ is called the power
factor. Power factor is the ration between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical load where
the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a measure of how
effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and more particularly is a good
indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the supply system. A load with a
power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power
factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.

Fig 2.1 Power Triangle
A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with
a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system. A poor power factor
can be the result of either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the
load terminals or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current
waveform. Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an
induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A distorted
current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched mode power
supply, discharge lighting or another electronic load.
A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power factor
correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires a change in
equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable improvement. Many
inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the true power
factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based on the Cosine of the angle between
the voltage and current but does not take into account that the current waveform is
discontinuous and therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply.
2.3. AC response of Inductor, Capacitor and Resistor:
2.3.1 Inductor:
An inductor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with its Phasor diagram, which
shows the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of an inductor, voltage leads current
by 90⁰. The voltage across an inductor leads the current because the Lenz law behavior resists
the buildup of the current and it takes a finite time for an imposed voltage to force the buildup
Fig 2.2 Inductor Fig 2.3 Waveforms and phasor

Of maximum of its current.
2.3.2 Capacitor
A capacitor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with the waveform and Phasor
diagram, which shows that the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of a capacitor,
voltage lags behind the current by 90⁰. The voltage across a capacitor lags the current because
the current must flow to build up charge and the voltage is proportional to that charge which is
built up on the capacitor plates.
Fig 2.4 Capacitor Fig 2.5 Waveform and Phasor

2.3.3. Resistor:
A Resistor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with the waveform and Phasor
diagram, which shows that the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of a Resistor,
the phase angle between current and voltage is 0⁰. For ordinary currents and frequencies, the
behavior of a resistor is that of a dissipative element which converts electrical energy into heat.
It is independent of the direction of current flow and the frequency. So, we say that the AC
impedance of a resistor is the same as its DC resistance.
Fig 2.6 Resistor Fig 2.7 waveform and Phasor

2.4. Causes of Low Power Factor:
The first and the foremost cause of a low power factor is the operation of highly inductive loads
in the power system. As in a pure inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90⁰, this large
difference in phase angle between the current and voltage causes zero power factor. Basically,

all those circuits having capacitance and inductance (except tuning circuit or resonant circuit,
where inductive reactance (XL) is equal to capacitive reactance (XC), so the circuit becomes a
resistive circuit), will cause a low power factor because the inductance and capacitance causes a
difference of phase (φ) between the current and voltage.
Following are the causes of low power factor:
• Single Phase and Three Phase Induction motors, having a power factor of 0.8-0.9 at full
load and 0.2-0.3 at small load while it may be at no-load.
• Varying load in the power system is another major cause of low power factor. As we know
the load on a power system varies as is evident from the load curves. During low load
period, supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetizing current which causes
the decreased power factor.
• Industrial heating furnaces are highly inductive and thus cause a low power factor on the
power system.
• Electrical discharge lamps (high intensity discharge lamps), Arc lamps etc. operate at a
very low power factor.
2.5. Disadvantage of Low Power Factor:

Power factor plays an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation in the power system is
dependent on the power factor of the system. We know that the power in a three phase AC
circuit is:
P = √3 V × I cosφ
And the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (3 V × cosφ)
Also, the power in a single-Phase AC circuit is:
P = V × I cosφ
and the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (V × I cosφ)
It is evident from the equations for the currents that the current is proportional to cosφ i.e. power
factor. In other words, as the power factor increases the net current flowing in the system
decreases and when the power factor decreases the net current in the system increases. The
increased current incase of low power factor condition leads to following disadvantages:
2.5.1. Large copper losses:
We know that the line loss or copper loss is the loss of power in the transmission lines or the
windings in case of machines and it is directly proportional to the square of current (I2). The total
power loss is given by:

P = I2 × R
Where ‘R’ is the line resistance in Ohms (Ω).
That means the larger the current the larger is the line loss.
2.5.2. Large kVA rating and size of electrical equipment’s and switch gear:
As we know that almost all electrical machinery (Transformers, alternators, switchgear etc.) are
rated in kVA. But from the given equation:
Cosφ = kW / kVA
It is clear that the power factor is inversely proportional to the kVA. Therefore, the lower the
power factor, the larger the kVA rating of machines and also larger the size of machines.
2.5.3. Greater conductor size and costs:

In case of low power factor conditions on the power system the current will be increased. In order
to transmit this high current, the conductor size will have to be increased. As the size of conductor
increases, the cost of the material, support structure, manpower required also increases
manifold, leading to an overall increase in the cost.
2.5.4. Poor Voltage Regulation and large voltage drop:

The voltage drop in the power system is given by:
V = I×Z
Now, in case of a low power factor, the overall current in the circuit will be increased. So, the
larger the current the larger is the voltage drop. As Voltage Regulation is the change in voltage
from no-load to full-load expressed as a percentage of no-load voltage and is given by:
V.R = ((Vno load – Vfull load)/Vfull load) × 100
In case of low power factor (lagging) there would be a large voltage drop which leads to a low
voltage regulation. Therefore, in order to maintain the voltage, drop within permissible limits we
have to install extra regulation equipment’s such as voltage regulators.
2.5.5. Low efficiency:

In case of low power factor, it results in a large voltage drop and line losses, which decrease the
efficiency of the equipment in particular or the whole of the power system in general to decrease.
In addition, as a result of increased line losses, the alternator would require higher excitation,
thus generation efficiency would be low.
2.5.6. Penalty from Power Supply Company:

Electrical power supply companies have to bear the brunt of low power factor by installing
equipment’s and transmission lines of higher ratings, larger sizes and of higher ratings. In
addition, they may have to install power factor correction equipment. Thus, the power utility
companies impose a penalty on the consumers whose power factor is below 0.95 lagging in the
electric power bill.
2.6. Need of Power Factor controller:

Power factor correction is a technique of counteracting the undesirable effects of electric loads
that create a power factor less than one. Power factor correction may be applied either by an
electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission
network or correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs
charged to them by their electricity supplier. An electrical load that operates on alternating
current requires apparent power, which consists of real power plus reactive power. Peal power
is the power actually consumed by the load. Reactive power is repeatedly demanded by the load
and returned to the power source, and it is the cyclic effect that occurs when alternating current
passes through a load that contains a reactive component. The presence of reactive power causes
the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electrical load has a power factor
of less than unity (1.0). The reactive power increases the current flowing between the power
source and the load, which increases the power losses through transmission and distribution
lines. This results in operational and financial losses for the power companies. Therefore, power
companies require their customers, especially those with large loads, to maintain their power
factors above a specified value (usually 0.90 0r higher) or be subjected to additional charges.
Electrical engineers involved with the generation, transmission and consumption of electrical
power have an interest in the power facto of loads because power factors affect efficiency and
costs for both the electrical power industry and the consumers. In addition to the increase
operating costs, reactive power can require the use of wiring, switches, circuit breakers,
transformers and transmission lines with higher current carrying capacities. Power factor
correction attempts to adjust the power factor of an AC load or an AC power transmission system
to unity (1.0) through various methods. Simple methods include switching in or out banks of
capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load,
respectively. For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected
capacitors. It is also possible to effect power factor correction with an unloaded synchronous
motor connected across the supply. The power factor of the motor is varied by adjusting the field
excitation and can be made to behave like a capacitor when over excited. Non-linear loads create
harmonic currents in additional to the original AC current. The simple correction techniques
described above do not cancel out the reactive power at harmonic frequencies, so more
sophisticated techniques must be used to correct for non-linear loads. Power factor correction is
desirable because the source of electrical energy must be capable of supplying real power as well
as any reactive power demanded by the load. This can require large, more expensive power plant
equipment, transmission lines, transformers, switches, etc. than would be necessary for only real
power delivered. Also, resistive losses in the transmission lines mean that some of the generated

power is wasted because the extra current needed to supply reactive power only serves to heat
up the power lines. The electric utilities therefore put a limit on the power factor of the loads
that they will supply. The ideal figure for load power factor is unity (1), that’s a pure resistive
load, because it requires the smallest current to transmit a given amount of real power. Real
loads deviate from this ideal condition. Electric motor loads are phase lagging (inductive),
therefore requiring capacitor banks to counter their inductance. Sometimes, when the power
factor is leading due to capacitive loading, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are
used to correct the power factor. In the electric industry, inductors are said to consume reactive
power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though the reactive power is actually just moving
back and forth between each AC cycle. Electric utilities measure reactive power used by high
demand customers and charge higher rates accordingly. Some consumers install power factor
correction schemes at their factories to cut down on these higher costs.
2.7. Types of Power Factor Controllers:

Generally, there are three types of techniques that are employed to control the power factor.
They are:
2.7.1. Passive PFC:

This is a simple way of correcting the non-linearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is not as
effective as active PFC, switching the capacitors in or out of the circuit causes harmonics, which
is why active PFC or a synchronous motor is preferred.
2.7.2 Active PFC:

An Active Power Factor corrector is a power electronic system that controls the amount of power
drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to unity. In most
applications, the active power factor controls the input current of the load so that the current
waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). Some types of active PFC
are: Boost, Buck and Buck Boost. Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-
stage. Active power factor controller is the most effective and can produce a PFC of 0.99 (99%).
2.7.3. Synchronous Power factor controller:

Synchronous motors can also be used for power factor correction. A shaft less motor is used, so
that no load can be connected and run freely on the line at capacitive power factor for the
purpose of power factor correction.
2.8. Capacitive Power Factor Correction:

Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction motors as a
means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby reduce the losses in the
supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the motor itself. An induction motor draws
current from the supply that is made up of resistive components and inductive components.

The resistive components are:

1. Load current
2. Loss current
The inductive components are:
1. Leakage reactance
2. Magnetizing current
Fig 2.8 Current triangle
The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total current drawn by the motor
but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The magnetizing current
will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. The
magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron and is very necessary if the
motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not actually contribute to the actual
work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the motor to work properly. The
magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be considered passenger components of
current that will not affect the power drawn by the motor, but will contribute to the power
dissipated in the supply and distribution system. Taking an example, a motor with a current draw
of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75 the resistive component of the current is 75 Amps and
this is what the KWh meter measures. The higher current will result in an increase in the
distribution losses of (100 x 100) / (75 x 75) = 1.777 or a 78% increase in the supply losses.
In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction is added
to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the corrected power
factor will be 0.92 - 0.95 some power retailers offer incentives for operating with a power factor
of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a poor power factor. There are many
ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in order to reduce wasted energy in the
distribution system, the consumer will be encouraged to apply power factor correction.

Fig 2.9 Phasor Diagram
Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the connected
motor circuits and can be applied at the starter or applied at the switchboard or distribution
panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to cancel the lagging
inductive current flowing from the supply. Capacitors connected at each starter and controlled
by each starter are known as "Static Power Factor Correction".
2.9 Different types of Capacitive Power Factor Correction:

2.9.1 Bulk Capacitive Power Factor correction:
The power factor of the total current supplied to the distribution board is monitored by a
controller which then switches capacitor banks in a pattern so as to maintain a power factor
better than a preset limit (typically 0.95). Ideally, the power factor should be as close to unity
as possible. There is no problem with bulk correction operating at unity; however, correction
should not be applied to an unloaded or lightly loaded transformer. If such a condition arises,
a high Q resonant circuit is created between the leakage reactance of the transformer and
the capacitors and high voltages can result.
Fig 2.10 Bulk correction capacitor banks

2.9.2. Static Correction:
As a large proportion of the inductive or lagging current on the supply is due to the
magnetizing current of induction motors, it is easy to correct each individual motor by

connecting the correction capacitors to the motor starters. With static correction, it is
important that the capacitive current is less than the inductive magnetizing current of the
induction motor. In many installations employing static power factor correction, the
correction capacitors are connected directly in parallel with the motor windings. When the
motor is Off Line, the capacitors are also Off Line. When the motor is connected to the supply,
the capacitors are also connected providing correction at all times that the motor is
connected to the supply. This removes the requirement for any expensive power factor
monitoring and control equipment. In this situation, the capacitors remain connected to the
motor terminals as the motor slows down. An induction motor, while connected to the
supply, is driven by a rotating magnetic field in the stator which induces current into the rotor.
When the motor is disconnected from the supply, there is for a period of time, a magnetic
field associated with the rotor. As the motor decelerates, it generates voltage out its
terminals at a frequency which is related to its speed. The capacitors connected across the
motor terminals, form a resonant circuit with the motor inductance. If the motor is critically
corrected, (corrected to a power factor of 1.0) the inductive reactance equals the capacitive
reactance at the line frequency and therefore the resonant frequency is equal to the line
frequency. If the motor is over corrected, the resonant frequency will be below the line
frequency. If the frequency of the voltage generated by the decelerating motor passes
through the resonant frequency of the corrected motor, there will be high currents and
voltages around the motor/capacitor circuit. This can result in severe damage to the
capacitors and motor. It is imperative that motors are never over corrected or critically
corrected when static correction is employed. Static power factor correction should provide
capacitive current equal to 80% of the magnetizing current, which is essentially the open shaft
current of the motor. The magnetizing current for induction motors can vary considerably. It
is not practical to use a "Standard table" for the correction of induction motors giving
optimum correction on all motors. Tables result in under correction on most motors but can
result in over-correction in some cases. Where the open shaft current cannot be measured
and the magnetizing current is not quoted, an
Fig 2.11 Static correction using capacitors

It is dangerous to base correction on the full load characteristics of the motor as
in some cases, motors can exhibit a high leakage reactance and correction to
0.95 at full load will result in over correction under no-load or disconnected

conditions. Static correction is commonly applied by using one contactor to control both the
motor and the capacitors. It is better practice to use two contactors, one for the motor and
one for the capacitors. Where one contactor is employed, it should be up sized for the
capacitive load. The use of a second contactor eliminates the problems of resonance between
the motor and the capacitors.
2.9.3. Inverters:
Static power factor correction must not be used when a variable speed drive or inverter
controls the motor. The connection of capacitors to the output of an inverter cause serious
damage to the inverter and the capacitors due to the high frequency switched voltage on the
output of the inverters. The current drawn from an inverter has a poor power factor,
particularly at low load, but the motor current is isolated from the supply by the inverter. The
phase angle of the current drawn by the inverter from the supply is close to zero resulting in
very low inductive current irrespective of what the motor is doing. The inverter however,
does not run with a good power factor. Many inverter manufacturers quote a ‘cosφ’ of better
than 0.95 and this is generally true, however the current is non-sinusoidal and the resulting
harmonics cause a power factor (KW/KVA) of close to 0.7 depending on the input design of
the inverter. Inverters with input reactors and DC bus reactors will exhibit a higher true power
factor than these without. The connection of capacitors close to the input of the inverter can
also result in damage to the inverter. The capacitors tend to cause transients to be amplified,
resulting in higher voltage impulses applied to the input circuits of the inverter and the energy
behind the impulses is much greater due to the energy storage of the capacitors. It is
recommended that capacitors should be at least 75m away from inverter inputs to elevate
the impedance between the inverter and capacitors and reduce the potential damage
caused. Switching of capacitors, Automatic bank correction etc. cause voltage transients and
these voltage transients can damage the input circuits of inverters. The energy is proportional
to the amount of capacitance being switched. It is better to switch lots of small amounts of
capacitance then few large amounts.
2.9.4. Solid-state soft starter:

Static power factor correction capacitors must not be connected to the output of a solid-state
starter. When a solid-state soft starter is used, a separate contactor must control the
capacitors. The capacitor contactor is only switched ON when the soft starter output voltage
has reached line voltage. Many soft starters provide a “top of ramp” or “bypass contactor
control” which can be used to control the PFC capacitor contactor. If the soft starter is used
without an isolation contactor, the connection of capacitors close to the input of the soft
starter can also cause damage if they are switched while the soft starter is not drawing
current. The capacitors tend to cause transients to be amplified resulting in higher voltage
impulses applied to the thyristors of the soft starter, and due to the energy storage of
capacitors, the energy behind the impulse is much greater. In such installations, it is
recommended that the capacitors be mounted at least 50m from the soft starter. The

elevated impedance between the soft starter and the capacitors reduces the potential for
damage to the thyristors. Switching capacitors, Automatic bank correction, etc. will cause
voltage transients and these transients can damage the thyristors of soft starters if they are
in the off-state without an input contactor. The energy is proportional to the amount of
capacitance being switched. It is better to switch lots of small capacitances than few large
ones. Power factor controller solid-state soft starter is shown below:
Fig 2.12 Solid soft starter

2.10. Demerits of Capacitive Power Factor Correction and its Solution:
2.10.1. Capacitor Selection:
Static power factor correction must neutralize no more than 80% of the magnetizing current of
the motor. If the correction is too high, there is a high probability of over correction which can
result in equipment failure with severe damage to the motor and capacitors. Unfortunately, the
magnetizing current of induction motors varies considerably between different motor designs.
The magnetizing current is almost always higher than 20% of the rated full load current of the
motor, but can be as high as 60% of the rated current of the motor. Most power factor correction
is too light due to the selection based on tables which have been published by a number of
sources. The tables assume the lowest magnetizing current and quote capacitors for this current.
In practice this can mean that the correction is often less than half the value that it should be and
the consumer is unnecessarily penalized. Power factor correction must be correctly selected
based on the actual motor being corrected.
2.10.2. Supply Harmonics:

Harmonics on the supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This is because the
impedance of the capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This increase in current flow
through the capacitor will result in additional heating of the capacitor and reduce its life. The
harmonics are caused by many non-linear loads; the most common in the industrial market
today, are the variable speed controllers and switch mode power supplies. Harmonic voltages
can be reduced by the use of a harmonic compensator, which is essentially a large inverter that
cancels out the harmonics. This is an expensive option. Passive harmonic filters comprising
resistors, inductors and capacitors can also be used to reduce harmonic voltages. This is also an

expensive exercise. In order to reduce the damage caused to the capacitors by the harmonic
currents, it is becoming common today to install detuning reactors in series with the power factor
correction capacitors. These reactors are designed to make the correction circuit inductive to the
higher frequency harmonics. Typically, a reactor would be designed to create a resonant circuit
with the capacitors above the third harmonic, but sometimes it is below.
Adding the inductance in series with the capacitors will reduce their effective capacitance at the
supply frequency. Reducing the resonant or tuned frequency will reduce the effective
capacitance further. The object is to make the circuit look as inductive as possible at the 5th
harmonic and higher, but as capacitive as possible at the fundamental frequency. Detuning
reactors will also reduce the chance of the tuned circuit formed by the capacitors and the
inductive supply being resonant on a supply harmonic frequency, thereby reducing damage due
to supply resonance amplifying harmonic voltages caused by non-linear loads.
2.10.3. Detuning Reactors:

Detuning reactors are connected in series with power factor correction capacitors to reduce
harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency does not occur at a harmonic
of the supply frequency. The reactors are usually chosen and rated as either 5% or 7% reactors.
This means that at the line frequency, the capacitive reactance is reduced by 5% or7%. Using
detuning reactors results in a lower KVAR, so the capacitance needs to be increased for the same
level of correction. When detuning reactors are used in installations with higher harmonic
voltages, there can be a high resultant voltage across the capacitors. This necessity the use of
capacitors that are designed to operate at a high sustained voltage. Capacitors designed for used
at line voltage only, should not be used with detuning reactors. Check the suitability of the
capacitors for use with line reactors before installation. The detuning reactors can dissipate a lot
of heat. The enclosure must be well ventilated, typically forced air cooled. The detuning reactors
must be specified to match the KVAR of the capacitance selected.
Fig 2.13 Detuning reactors in series with the capacitors

2.11. Applications of Power Factor Controllers:
2.11.1. Electricity industry: power factor correction of linear loads:
Power factor correction is achieved by complementing an inductive or a capacitive circuit with a
(locally connected) reactance of opposite phase. For a typical phase lagging power factor load,

such as large induction motors, this would consist of a capacitor bank in the form of several
parallel capacitors at the power input to the device. Instead of using a capacitor, it is possible to
use an unloaded synchronous motor. This is referred to as a “Synchronous Condenser”. It is
started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at full leading power factor and puts
VARs onto the network as required to support a systems voltage or to maintain the system power
factor at a specified level. The condensers installation and operation are identical to large electric
motors. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation.
Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted. It
behaves like an electrically variable capacitor.
2.11.2. Switched-mode power supplies: power factor correction of non-linear

loads:
A typical switch-mode power supply first makes a DC bus, using a bridge rectifier or similar circuit.
The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus. The problem with this is that the rectifier is
a non-linear device, so the input current is highly nonlinear. That means that he input current has
energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage. This presents a particular problem for the
power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding
capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by the linear loads. Many
jurisdictions are beginning to legally require PFC for all power supplies above a certain power
level. The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter. It is possible to design a
filter that passes current only at line frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz). This filter kills the harmonic
current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the
power factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter
requires large-value, high-current inductors, however, which are bulky or expensive. It is also
possible to perform active power factor correction. In this case, a boost converter is inserted
between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost converter attempts to
maintain a constant DC bus voltage on its output while drawing a current that is always in phase
with and at the same frequency as the line voltage. Another switch-mode converter inside the
power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus. This approach requires
additional semiconductor switches and control electronics, but permits cheaper and smaller
passive components. It is frequently used in practice. This feature is useful in power supplies for
laptops and cell phones.

CHAPTER 3
APFC SYSTEM
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
This project is mainly proposed for reducing the power loss in industries by using power factor
compensation through a number of shunt capacitors. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real
power to apparent power.
Power factor is about the ratio of real power to apparent power. So, it is mathematically
represented as KW/KVA where the numerator is active(real) and denominator is the (active+
reactive) or apparent power. The increase in the reactive power increases the apparent power,
so that power factor also decreases. Having low power factor, the industry needs more energy
to meet its demand, so the efficiency is decreases.
3.1.1. LITERATURE REVIEW:

In olden days industries are used loads for more power utilization and the loads which are highly
inductive in nature for example like induction motors, AC/DC drives, welding machines,
electronic controls, and computers. There may be a few resistive loads such as heaters and
incandescent bulbs. There are very less industries which may have capacitive loads for like
synchronous motors. Therefore, net industrial load is highly inductive that leads to a very bad
lagging power factor. If the power factor is left which is uncorrected, then the industry will
require a high maximum demand from electricity board will also suffer a fine for poor power
factor.
Usually, standard practice is to connect the power capacitors in the power system at appropriate
places so that the inductive nature of the load can be compensated. So, the power factor is used
in this project to reduce the power loss in industries and by using the shunt capacitors.
Power factor is about the ratio of real power to apparent power. So, it is mathematically
represented as KW/KVA where the numerator is active (real) and denominator is the (active+
reactive) or apparent power. The increase in the reactive power increases the apparent power,
so that power factor also decreases. Having low power factor, the industry needs more energy
to meet its demand, so the efficiency is decrease’s.
3.2 EXISTING METHOD:

The most common problems for all industrial companies is the power factor correction of
electrical loads.
METHOD-1:
In earlier days, the power factor correction was done by using the resistive loads which provides
the more power loss at the output.
METHOD-2:
In second method, the power factor correction was done by using the capacitive load bank which
was done by manual changes but it gives only less amount of increasing in efficiency.
3.3 PROBLEMS IN ALREADY EXISTING METHOD:

The major problem for industries is to decreases in power lagging and leading the less power loss.
The real power is less than the apparent power because of presence of reactive power and so,
the power factor of electric load is less than 1. The current flowing between the power source
and the load increases due to the reactive power, which in turn increases the power losses
through transmission and distribution lines which results in financial and operational losses for
power companies.
3.4 PROPOSED METHOD:

In this project we proposed one system. So, that proposed system gives that time lag between
the zero-voltage pulse zero current pulse delay is generated by suitable op-amp circuits in
comparator mode and fed to two interrupt pins of the microcontroller. Microcontroller displays
the power loss due inductive load on in the LCD. Here we are using 8-bit microcontroller.
The automated power factor corrector (APFC) using capacitive load bank is helpful in the power
factor correction. The proposed automated project includes measuring the power factor value
from the load by using microcontroller. The design of this auto-adjustable power system always
preserving unity power factor. This process is taken over to actuate appropriate number of relays
at its output to bring shunt capacitors into the load circuit until to get zero power loss. APFC helps
us to correct the power factor which helps to improve efficiency.
3.5 APFC system:

In this system, we proposed the time lag between zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse delay
generated by suitable op-amp circuits in comparator mode and fed into two interrupt pins in
microcontroller. Microcontroller displays the power loss due to inductive load on the LCD. This
process is continuously actuating until the power loss would be zero by using relays which is used
to bring the shunt capacitors into load circuit. 8-bit microcontroller is used in this project which
belongs to 8051 family.
3.6 Block diagram

Fig 3.1Block diagram APFC system
3.6 Components:
1. 8051 Microcontroller:
Fig 3.2 Block diagram of Internal architecture of the 8051 microcontroller

Fig 3.3 Pin diagram of 8051 microcontroller

OPERATING MODES:
functions such as timer input, interrupts, serial communication indicators TxD &
RxD, control indicators for outside memory interfacing WR & RD, etc. This is a
domestic pull up port with quasi bi directional port within. For explaining the pin
diagram and pin configuration of microcontroller 8051, we are taking into deliberation a 40 pin
Dual inline package (DIP). Now study through pin configuration in brief: -
Pins 1–8: recognized as Port 1. Different from other ports, this port doesn’t provide any other
purpose. Port 1 is a domestically pulled up, quasi bi directional Input/output port.
Pin 9: As made clear previously RESET pin is utilized to set the micro-controller 8051 to its primary
values, whereas the micro-controller is functioning or at the early beginning of application. The
RESET pin has to be set elevated for two machine rotations.
Pins 10–17: recognized as Port 3. This port also supplies a number of other functions such as
timer input, interrupts, serial communication indicators TxD & RxD, control indicators for outside
memory interfacing WR & RD, etc. This is a domestic pull up port with quasi bi directional port
within.
Pins 18 and 19: These are employed for interfacing an outer crystal to give system clock.
Pin 20: Titled as Vss – it symbolizes ground (0 V) association.
Pins 21-28: recognized as Port 2 (P 2.0 – P 2.7) – other than serving as Input/output port, senior
order address bus indicators are multiplexed with this quasi bi directional port.
Pin- 29: Program Store Enable or PSEN is employed to interpret sign from outer program
memory.

Pin-30: External Access or EA input is employed to permit or prohibit outer memory interfacing.
If there is no outer memory need, this pin is dragged high by linking it to Vcc.
Pin-31: Address Latch Enable or ALE is brought into play to de-multiplex the address data
indication of port 0 (for outer memory interfacing). Two ALE throbs are obtainable for every
machine rotation.
Pins 32-39: recognized as Port 0 (P0.0 to P0.7) – other than serving as Input/output port, low
order data & address bus signals are multiplexed with this port (to provide the use of outer
memory interfacing). This pin is a bi directional Input/output port (the single one in
microcontroller 8051) and outer pull up resistors are necessary to utilize this port as
Input/output.
Pin-40: termed as Vcc is the chief power supply. By and large it is +5V DC.
INTERRUPT PIN MODES:
Pins 1–8: Recognized as Port 1. Different from other ports, this port doesn’t provide any other
purpose. Port 1 is a domestically pulled up, quasi bi directional Input/output port.
Pin 9: As made clear previously RESET pin is utilized to set the micro-controller 8051 to its primary
values, whereas the micro-controller is functioning or at the early beginning of application. The
RESET pin has to be set elevated for two machine rotations.
Pins 10–17: Recognized as Port 3. This port also supplies a number of other
2 RECTIFIER:
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. A
transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a common
center tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when
its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center point C producing an output
during both half-cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown
below.
Fig 3.4 Full wave bridge Rectifier Circuit Fig 3.5 Bridge rectifier IC
3 Potential transformers:

Potential transformer is a voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a high
voltage circuit to a lower level for the purpose of measurement. These are connected across or
parallel to the line which is to be monitored. The basic principle of operation and construction of
this transformer is similar to the standard power transformer. In common, the potential
transformers are
Fig 3.6 Potential transformer

abbreviated as PT.
4 Current transformers:
A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to measure AC Current. It
produces an alternating current (AC) in its secondary which is proportional to the AC current in
its primary. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VTs) or potential
transformers (PTs), which are designed for measurement, are known as an Instrument
transformer.
Fig 2 Current Transformer

The main tasks of instrument transformers are:
−To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a value easy to handle for
relays and instruments.
− To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage system.
− To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and relays to a few rated currents and
voltages.
5 Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage

regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the
design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Voltage regulator is any
electrical or electronic device that maintains the voltage of a power source within acceptable
limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages within the prescribed range that can be
tolerated by the electrical equipment using that voltage.
Fig 3.8 Pin diagram of voltage regulator

6 Zero crossing detector:
A zero crossing is a point where the sign of a mathematical function changes (e.g. from positive
to negative), represented by the crossing of the axis (zero value) in the graph of the function. A
zero-crossing detector is an important application of op-amp comparator circuit. It can also be
referred to as a sine to square wave converter. Anyone of the inverting or the non-inverting
comparators can be used as a zero-crossing detector. The reference voltage in this case is set to
zero. The output voltage waveform shows when and in what direction an input signal crosses
zero volts.
7 Capacitor bank:
A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical or non-identical capacitors interconnected in
parallel or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or
counteract undesirable characteristics such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent in
alternating current electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current
power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power
supply. The capacitor bank consists of a group of eight a.c capacitors, all rated at 230V, 50 Hz i.e.,
the supply voltage and frequency.

Fig 3.9 Capacitor bank

8 LCD (Liquid crystal display):
LCD Modules can present textual information to user. It’s like a cheap “monitor” that you can
hook in all of your gadgets. They come in various types. The most popular one is 16x2 LCD
Module. It has 2 rows and 16 columns.
Fig 3.10 LCD display

9 Relay module:
The relay module comprises of eight electro-magnetic relays which are controlled by the outputs
on the digital pins of the 8051 microcontrollers. The relays are used to switch on the required
number of capacitors as required for power factor correction. The relays are normally in the
“Normally Open” (“NO”) state and the contacts are closed only when the logic on any of the
digital pins is high. As the logic on a pin goes high, the “Normally Open” contacts of the relay are
now closed and the corresponding capacitor in connected in parallel with the load.
The relay module is interfaced with the digital pins of the Arduino microcontroller using a parallel
port and bus. The relay driver is supplied with a voltage of 12V from the power supply. Each of
the relays has an LED connected across its terminals to indicate that the relay has been switched
on and is functional.

Fig 3.11 Relay module

CHAPTER 4
OPERATION OF APFC UNIT
4.1 Principle
The above given circuit for Automatic Power Factor detection and correction operates on the
principal of constantly monitoring the power factor of the system and to initiate the required
correction in case the power factor is less than the set value of power factor. The current and
voltage signals are sampled by employing instrument transformers connected in the circuit. The
instrument transformers give stepped down values of current and voltage, whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the circuit current and voltage.
Fig 4.1 Block diagram of APFC unit

The sampled analog signals are converted to suitable digital signals by the zero crossing
detectors, which changes state at each zero crossing of the current and voltage signals. The ZCD
signals are then added in order to obtain pulses which represent the time difference between
the zero crossing of the current and voltage signals. The time period of these signals is measured
by the internal timer circuit of the Arduino by using the function “pulseIn ()”, which gives the time
period in micro seconds. The time period obtained is used to calculate the power factor of the
circuit. Now if the calculated power factor is less than the minimum power factor limit set at
about 0.96-0.98, then the microcontroller switches on the require number of capacitors until the
power factor is greater than or equal to the set value.
4.2 Circuit description:

Automatic Power Factor Correction system is based on the AVR 8051 microcontroller A. The
voltage and current in the circuit are stepped down using a potential transformer and a current
transformer respectively. These transformed a.c signals are next fed to a Zero Crossing Detector
(ZCD) circuit. The output of the Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD) is a square wave, in which each
change of state represents a zero crossing of the a.c waveform. The signal goes high on the first
zero crossing of the current or voltage waveform and then goes low on the next zero crossing of
the signal, thereby generating a square wave. Two separate Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD) circuits
are used for voltage and current waveform. The two square waves are then summed using an
“Exclusive OR (X-OR)” gate. The output of the summer gives the phase angle difference which is
given to the 8051 microcontrollers on one of its digital I/O pins (pin 3). The value on the pin is
read using the function “pulseIn(pin, value, timeout)”, where the parameters ‘pin’ depicts the
number of the pin on which you want to read the pulse. (int), value depicts the type of pulse to
read i.e., either HIGH or LOW. (int) and timeout (optional) depicts the number of microseconds
to wait for the pulse to start, default is one second (unsigned long). The function reads a pulse
(either HIGH or LOW) on a pin. For example, if value is HIGH, pulseIn() waits for the pin to go
HIGH, starts timing, then waits for the pin to go LOW and stops timing. It finally returns the length
of the pulse in microseconds or gives up and returns 0 if no pulse starts within a specified time
out. The timing of this function has been determined empirically and will probably show errors
in longer pulses. Hence, it works efficiently on pulses from 10 microseconds to 3 minutes in
length. The difference is measured with high accuracy by using internal timer. This time value
obtained is in microseconds (µs). It is converted in milliseconds (ms) and is then calibrated as
phase angle ‘φ’ using the relation:
φ = (t/T) *360
Where:
φ = difference in phase angle
t = time difference in milliseconds (ms);
T = the time period of one AC cycle (i.e., 20ms);
The corresponding power factor is calculated by taking cosine of the phase angle obtained above
(i.e., cosφ). The values are displayed in the serial monitor which in this case is the LCD display.

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
The Automatic Power Factor Detection and Correction provides an efficient technique to improve
the power factor of a power system by an economical way. Static capacitors are invariably used
for power factor improvement in factories or distribution line. However, this system makes use
of capacitors only when power factor is low otherwise, they are cut off from line. Thus, it not only
improves the power factor but also increases the life time of static capacitors. The power factor
of any distribution line can also be improved easily by low cost small rating capacitor. This system
with static capacitor can improve the power factor of any distribution line from load side.
As, if this static capacitor will apply in the high voltage transmission line then its rating will be
unexpectedly large which will be uneconomical & inefficient. So, a variable speed synchronous
condenser can be used in any high voltage transmission line to improve power factor & the speed
of synchronous condenser can be controlled by microcontroller or any controlled device.

REFERENCES
• V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta, “Principles of power system”, S. Chand & Company Ltd,
Ramnagar, 4th Edition, Chapter 6.
• https://www.academia.edu/13380647/Automatic
_power_Factor_Detection_and_Correction_System_Passive_PF_Correction
• Electric power industry reconstructing in India, Present scenario and future prospects,
S.N. Singh, senior member, IEEE and S.C. Srivastava, Senior Member, IEEE.
• Dr. Kurt Schipman and Dr. Francois Delince, ―The importance of good power
quality‖, ABB power quality Belgium


Automatic Power Factor Control

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Automatic Power Factor Control

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Automatic Power Factor Control

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CONTROL

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 1

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 2

Electrical energy efficiency is of prime importance to industrial and commercial companies

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 3

2.2. Power Factor:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 4

Fig 2.1 Power Triangle

Fig 2.2 Inductor Fig 2.3 Waveforms and phasor

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 5

Of maximum of its current.

Fig 2.4 Capacitor Fig 2.5 Waveform and Phasor

Fig 2.6 Resistor Fig 2.7 waveform and Phasor

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 6

2.5. Disadvantage of Low Power Factor:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 7

2.5.3. Greater conductor size and costs:

2.5.4. Poor Voltage Regulation and large voltage drop:

2.5.5. Low efficiency:

2.5.6. Penalty from Power Supply Company:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 8

2.6. Need of Power Factor controller:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 9

2.7. Types of Power Factor Controllers:

2.7.1. Passive PFC:

2.7.2 Active PFC:

2.7.3. Synchronous Power factor controller:

2.8. Capacitive Power Factor Correction:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 10

The resistive components are:

Fig 2.8 Current triangle

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 11

Fig 2.9 Phasor Diagram

2.9 Different types of Capacitive Power Factor Correction:

Fig 2.10 Bulk correction capacitor banks

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 12

Fig 2.11 Static correction using capacitors

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 13

2.9.4. Solid-state soft starter:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 14

Fig 2.12 Solid soft starter

2.10.2. Supply Harmonics:

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 15

2.10.3. Detuning Reactors:

Fig 2.13 Detuning reactors in series with the capacitors

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 16

2.11.2. Switched-mode power supplies: power factor correction of non-linear

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 17

3.1.1. LITERATURE REVIEW:

3.2 EXISTING METHOD:

3.3 PROBLEMS IN ALREADY EXISTING METHOD:

3.4 PROPOSED METHOD:

3.5 APFC system:

3.6 Block diagram

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 19

Fig 3.1Block diagram APFC system

Fig 3.2 Block diagram of Internal architecture of the 8051 microcontroller

Deptt. of Electrical Engg, GCET 20