1.

1 Concept of Tourism

From the early historical period, man travelled everywhere in the world; with
the desire to know the unknown region, to explore new places, seeking a comfortable
environment and underwent new experiences. Food, water, safety and trade were the
early motivations of travel. But, the idea of travel for pleasure or exploration has
been emerged soon. The term “travel” is not new; but, the word “tourism” a popular
term today, is relatively of modern origin. However, the present day tourism is not
the same as the travels of the early period of human history (Robinson, 1979).
Tourism has different meanings in different languages with different regions and can
be defined in different ways. In the language of Jews, the word „Torah‟ means study
or search and „tour‟ seems to be derived from it. Theobald (1994) suggested in Latin,
the original word „Tornos‟ stand as close to it, which was a kind of round wheel-like
tool hinting at the idea of a travel circuit or a package tour. Tourism is the phenomena
of the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal place of
work and residence for a few days or weeks or month (Khullar, 2010). It is the
starting point for the study of the circular flow of populations to their destinations. It
is the travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes, usually of a limited
duration and is an activity of an individual or a group of individuals moving from a
place to another. The earliest travellers walked or rode on domesticated animals.
With the advancement in technology, there has been consistent increase in
individual‟s opportunities to travel for education, sight-seeing and religious purposes.
Tourism is a collection of activities, services and industries that delivers a travel
experience, including transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking
establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses, activity facilities and other
hospitality services provided for individuals or groups travelling away from home
(Tourism lesson, 2014).

Tourism, in fact, is very much concerned with spatial conditions – the location
of tourist areas and movements of people between the usual residential place and
destination place. Therefore, tourism is defined as a discipline of geography in the
modern world. Accordingly, Geography has a fundamental role in examining the
spatial interplay of tourist demand and satisfaction. Meanwhile, tourism is a
commercial activity which can create employment, revenue income earnings. So, it is
a key factor for the promotion of economic growth. In general, tourism is an aspect of

37
the economic geography in modern geography (Robinson, 1979). Tourism studies the
people or traveller who travels away from their usual habitat to other destination, the
requirements of those travellers and the impacts of travellers on economic, physical or
environment and social well-being of their hosts. It involves the motivations,
expectations, experiences, adjustments of tourists, excursionists and residents of
reception areas; the roles of numerous agencies and institutions governed which
intercede between them (Mathieson & Wall, 1982).

Travellers

Visitors Other Travellers

Border-, seasonal-, other

Tourists Excursionists short-term- and long term
(Overnight Visitors) (Same – day Visitors) workers

Tourism

Fig 1.1 (Source: SSADEAT, 2008)

In general, tourism is used interchangeably with travel which is in fact, a much

broader term. There are three important concepts to be considered about tourism in
any country: travellers, visitors and tourists. Tourism is a subset of travel while
visitors are subset of travellers. Travel refers to the activities of travellers. A traveller
is someone on a trip between two or more countries or between two or more localities
within his country of usual residence. Travel has an economic impact; mainly in the
places, travellers have visited. A visitor is anyone travelling to a place other than his
usual environment for less than 12 months and the main purpose of the trip is other
than to exercise an activity remunerated from within the place visited. A visitor is
thus someone who is travelling for holiday, leisure or recreation, business, health,
education and other purposes. Tourism refers to the activity of visitors and trips taken
by visitors are known as tourism trips. However, all types of visitors are not involved
in tourism (SSADEAT, 2008). Overnight visitors commonly visit in the city area due

38
to the availability of adequate luxurious lodging hotels, markets, good networking
communication and other facilities. Meanwhile, the excursionists generally visit in
rural areas and cities as well. In fact, both the phenomena of overnight visitors and
excursionist are also involved in the tourism.

Travel and tourism has been important social activities of human beings from
the time immemorial (Mamta, C., 2014). But, tourism was never seen as a potential
resource in the ancient days and it was growing its own space. From the last decade,
it has been recognized as the most rapid growing industry in the modern and
globalized world. Much of its growth is dependent on the supplied information from
various tourist spots and their beauties to attract the people. In the ancient time, there
was lesser opportunities in every aspects of infrastructural facilities such as poor
connectivity of communication network facilities and did not have the idea of tourism
activities. In the recent globalization and liberalization days, many people are busy to
do work mentally and have higher disposable incomes. Therefore, they prefer to take
mental rest for a few hours or a few days, or a month on moving some other places
outside their residential places. They have taken the information of various tourist
spots through the magazines, tourist broachers, newspapers, television, internet, etc.
Indeed, internet plays a major key role in the development of tourism industry
throughout world supplying immense information to the people. With this immense
information, it allows tourist to scrutinize hotels, check weather forecasts, read up on
local food and even talk to other tourist around the world about their travel
experiences for a chosen destination. This new trend of development in the
globalized world made the tourism very challenging. Popularity of visits to natural
sight-seeing is increasing and therefore tourism is increasing throughout the world. In
fact, the growth of tourism is mainly due to good communication, higher disposable
incomes, increased leisure time, lesser travelling time and falling of travel costs.

1.2 Definition of Visitors, Excursionists, Tourist, and Tourism

In general, tourists are the overnight visitors but tourism is the phenomena of
both tourist and excursionists. However, there exist various forms of definitions for
visitors, excursionists, tourists and tourism, as discussed by different scholars and
different agencies.

39
Visitors

A visitor is a traveller taking a trip to a main destination outside his/her usual

environment less than a year, for any main purpose (business, leisure or other
personal purpose) other than to be employed by a resident entity in the country or
place visited. These trips taken by visitors qualify as tourism trips. Tourism refers to
the activity of visitors (Peter, 2010).

Excursionists

An excursionist is a temporary visitor who stays less than 24 hours in the

country visited (Sharma, 2004, p.4). Excursionist is generally termed as same-day
visitors; it refers to a visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private
accommodation in the place visited. An international same-day visitor is an
international visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private
accommodation in the country visited. A domestic same-day visitor is a domestic
visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the
place visited (MAS, 2009).

Tourist

The following are the several definitions of tourist's given by many

organizations and scholars:

1. In accordance with United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO):

Tourist are defined as people who “travel to and stay in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and
other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within
the place visited” (Subash & Sinha, 2010).

2. According to Lickorish: All persons staying for not more than 12 months and less
than 24 hours should be excluded from the category of tourists (Rajasthan Atithi,
1992).

3. According to League of Nations: Any person visiting a country other than that in
which he usually resides for a period of at least 24 hours (Rajasthan Atithi, 1999).

4. The United Nations Convention concerning customs facilities for touring: Any
person without distinction to race, sex, language, or religion who enters the
territory of a contacting state other than that person normally resides and remains

40
 there for not less than six months in the course of 12-month period for legitimate,
non-immigrant purpose such as touring, recreation, sports, health, family reasons,
study, religious pilgrimages or business (Raina & Jain, 2010).

5. According to Tourist Statistics, Government of India Department of Tourism,

New Delhi: Tourists are the visitors who stay at least one night in a collective or
private accommodation in the country visited (Piffner & Sherwood, 1964). In
general, tourists are known as over-night visitors.

Tourism

Tourism is defined by many scholars, agencies and organizations as follows:

1. In accordance to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO):

Tourism is defined as “the activities of persons travelling to, and staying in places
outside their usual environments for not more than one consecutive year for
leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity
remunerated from within the place visited” (Subash & Sinha, 2010).
2. According to L. J. Lickorish: Tourism embraces all movements of people outside
their community for all purposes except migration or regular daily work in which
the main purpose includes the attendance at conferences and the movement on
sporadic or infrequent business purpose (Likorish, 1953).
3. According to Hunziker & Krapf (1941): Tourism is the sum of the phenomena and
relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as they do
not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity
(Hunziker, 1942).
4. Tourism Society of England‟s Definition (1976): Tourism is the temporary, short-
term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally
live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes
movement for all purposes (Beaver & Allan, 1952).
5. According to Tourist Statistics, Government of India Department of Tourism,
New Delhi: Tourism is the phenomena of the movement of persons either stay at
night or do not stay at night in a collective or private accommodation in the
country visited. In general tourism comprises the phenomena of same day visitors
and overnight visitors (Raina & Jain, 2010).

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1.3 Types of Tourism

Tourism may be classified to various types on the basis of distance travelled or

purpose of travels.

I. Forms of tourism on the basis of country reference:

 Domestic Tourism: Domestic tourism comprises the activities of a resident

visitor within the economic territory of the country of reference as part of a
domestic trip, or as part of an outbound trip. It simply involves residents of a
country visiting their own country (Raina & Jain, 2004).
 Inbound Tourism: Inbound tourism comprises the activities of non-resident
visitors within the economic territory of the country of reference on an inbound
trip. Tourism involving non-residents visiting a country other than their own is
generally termed as inbound tourism (Raina & Jain, 2004).
 Outbound Tourism: Outbound tourism comprises the activities of resident
visitors outside the economic territory of the country of reference. In other
words, outbound tourism refers to the involving residents of a country visiting
other countries (Raina & Jain, 2004).

II. Forms of tourism by the United Nations in 1994

 Internal Tourism: Internal tourism refers to the activities of both resident and
non-resident visitors within the economic territory of the country of reference
which are the part of domestic and inbound tourism (MAS, 2009).
 National Tourism: National tourism refers to the activities of resident visitors
within and outside the economic territory of the country of reference. It
comprises both domestic and outbound tourism (MAS, 2009).
 International Tourism: International tourism refers to the activities of resident
visitors outside the economic territory of the country of reference, which is a
part of outbound trips, and the activities of non-resident visitors within the
economic territory of the country of reference on inbound trips (MAS, 2009).

III. Other forms of tourism

 Holiday tourism: It is the most popular type of tourism. In this type, a fine
weather favourable for sightseeing, touring, recreation and visiting different
cultural sites (In see).

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  Rural tourism: It implies not only natural elements such as forest and
mountains, but also the indigenous local characteristics such as traditions,
customs and folklore. Direct experience with local people can be a unique
selling point to attract tourists (Tourism freee, 2015).
 Natural Tourism: It is based on enjoying the beauties of nature through visits
to hill stations, forests, national parks, mountain caves, waterfalls, etc.
 Cultural Tourism: Cultural Tourism embraces the full range of experiences
visitors can undertake to learn what makes a destination distinctive – its
lifestyle, its heritage, its arts, its people – and the business of providing and
interpreting that culture to visitors (Commonwealth of Australia Creative
Nation, 1994).
 Religious Tourism: Religious Tourism or faith tourism are people of faith who
travel on their own or in groups to holy cities or holy sites for pilgrimages,
crusades, conventions, retreats, religious tourist attractions or missionary work.
 Eco-tourism: Eco-tourism is “Responsible travel to natural (unspoilt) areas that
conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people” (TIES,
2015). The purpose of ecotourism is to educate the traveller about natural
destinations, to provide ecological conservation and awareness, to benefit
economic development, the political empowerment of local communities and
respect for the local culture. Here, the traveller can experience the natural way
of life surrounded by natural circumstances.
 Sustainable tourism: Sustainable tourism is that which “meets the needs of the
present requirement without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987). Actually, it attempts to make low impact on the environment and local
culture as possible, while helping to generate future employment for local
people. Sustainable tourism is an adopted practice in successful ecotourism.

1.4 History and Development of Travel and Tourism

Tourism is a multi-disciplinary activity with human dimensions of new

experiences and it is considered to be one of the largest and fastest growing industries
in the world. It is such an instrument of social change and economic growth which
creates employment and income generation. As the socio-economic phenomena,

43
tourism industry spreads in the developing countries that provide a natural channel for
significant resources transfer from advanced countries to backward economies
(Sharma, 2004). Most of the travels made by men in the early days was largely
unconscious and indeterminate; although it seemed to explore and seen the world
again with the development of human civilization (Robinson, 1976). In the early days,
nomads travelled all over the world and then the term “travel” has now been studied
in “tourism” which is the most flourishing industry in the modern world. Therefore,
the history of the development of tourism industry is associated with the history of
human civilization (Sharma, 2004). Travel is not the same as tourism, although it refers
to the activities of travellers. A traveller is a person who is on a trip between two or
more countries or between two or more localities within his country of usual
residence. Travel in the prehistoric period, Palaeolithic Age (30,000 B.C. to 10,000
B.C.) suggests that all human activity moved over the nearby areas: searching new
hunting grounds with suitable weather and climate for their day to day survival; then
they explored and discovered new regions; tools were made; and they were able to
settle down in shelters. During the Neolithic Age which began about 10,000 B.C.,
primitive people were settled in more permanent regions and started some kind of
agricultural activities in the fields. These factors and inventions greatly affected the
travel. The traveller in the ancient period was a merchant, a pilgrim, a scholar, or a
trader. However in the ancient times, trade and commerce was the strongest force of
which people made to travel to distant areas in order to seek fortunes. Trade relations
made a strong interaction with cultures, traditions, and social structures. In fact, the
trade and culture relations maintain the better understanding of each other‟s way of
life (Sharma, 2004). In earlier times, Greeks and Romans received a great goal of travel
from the easy communication and security (Robinson, 1976). They travelled in the
water and enjoyed their religious festivals. With the rapid improvement in
communications, the growth of travel is developed in the Rome and Greece. Most of
the travellers in the early times are pilgrims with the adoption and spread of
Christianity in the world but the classical scholars of Romans and Greeks travelled to
Egypt on holiday for the leisure, health or games (Sharma, 2004). In today‟s modern
and globalized world, the culture of travelling is considered as tourism which is the
fastest growing industry with the development of transport and communication
facilities.

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1.4.1 Brief History of Tourism in India

From the earlier period, India has been a centre of attraction for different
people for different purposes in and outside the world. However, our country India
was named as a “Golden Bird” of the world by the ancient invaders and traders due to
its abundant wealth, beauty of its natural attractions, amazing varieties of floras and
faunas on its different physiographic divisions, its diverse climatic conditions and its
diverse culture of the people (Sharma, 2004). With its topographical diversity of our
country, the scenic beauty of the snowed Himalayan mountain ranges; the mighty
rivers like the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra; amazing sand dunes of the Thar
Desert; and beautiful beaches of Coastal region like in the southern states of India are
major attractions from all over the world since the ancient days. Besides,
architectural elegance of the holy temples; ageless charm of various forts and heritage
monuments; amazing cultures of different community have been beckoning the
wonders since long. Also in India, travels in the earlier times were made commonly
by business class for paying pilgrimage and attending ceremonies in the neighbouring
states; and the travellers or tourists had rested and stayed at houses like Dharamsalas,
Salais and Havelis nearby the tourist spots for their comfortability. Some great
invaders namely; The Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Vasco de Gamma,
Christopher Columbus, and Young Marco Polo visited India in the ancient period.
Ibn Batuta also visited India during the medieval period. During the 16th century, the
English travellers, Sir Thomas Rao, Sir William Hawking and many other invaders
visited India and ruled over the whole country with the establishment of British East
India Company (Sharma, 2004). Thus, the scenic beauty of geographical diversities,
glorious tradition and rich cultural heritage made our country India, a major attraction
for foreign tourists and travellers in the past. However, in the twentieth century,
tourism industry came into existence mostly for catering to foreign tourist during their
visit to India. At present modern and globalized world, tourism is also an important
and flourishing industry in India. Tourism is the second largest industry in India next
to oil industry (Mishra & Padhi, 2013).

1.4.2 Brief History of Tourism in Manipur

Being the state of India, Manipur had experienced by the influx of invaders,
traders and colonizers since the pre-historic times. Manipur, located as an
international route by which people had travelled and supplied goods and

45
commodities from the Indian sub-continent to China, Burma, Orients and vice-versa
(Harvey, 1954). At that time, three hill routes were very significant which connected
the Imphal valley with the Indian sub-continent. The one, the northernmost route
connecting Banskandi near Silchar with a place called Jaipur in Imphal valley; the
middle route connecting Banskandi with Bishnupur in the valley; and the
southernmost route connecting the western bend of the Barak River with Torbung, a
village in the south-western part of the Manipur valley. Since the earlier days,
Manipur have good linkages with upper Burma (now Myanmar) from where China
and lower Burma could be easily connected (Dani, 1960). Similarly, the concept of
tourism did not exist in Manipur in the ancient period. But, the interchange of
cultures, traditions are done still in Manipur which were related to the history of
Manipur. Then, the history of Manipur in the ancient period was only the formation
and consolidation of Manipuris. For example, by the end of 8th century the famous
Gods of Gupta Empire like Vishnu, Shiva, and Ganesh also became famous in
Manipur. Meanwhile, during the medieval period, the concept of tourism which was
related to the pilgrims i.e. pilgrimage tourism was started in Manipur because of an
increase in the migration of Hindu population and preachers and adopted the new
cultures and religion by the strict instructions of the King. Due to the movement of
Hinduism in Manipur, the Royal family preferred to go to the holy places like Puri,
Haridwar and Brindavan. In adoption of new cultures during the reign of King
Bhaghya Chandra (1763), music, dances and dance drama were reached in peak
position. Some indigenous games like kang, polo were introduced in Manipur which
are very popular today. The history of Manipuris and their culture are the part of the
history and development of tourism in Manipur. Manipur became colonized by the
British Empire after the Battle of Khongjom in 1891, as an important trade route to
China and Burma. During the time of British Empire, roads were repaired and
wooden bridges were converted into iron bridges. Due to the improvement in the road
network, obvious leads to the better connectivity through the trade and commerce.
Many offices, electric connection and transport routes were introduced in the state.
British officers, governors of neighbouring state Assam, Bengal were regularly visited
to Manipur for the investigation and inquiries in various fields like transport &
communication, health, power, construction work, etc. They built many rest houses at
Mayang Imphal, Thoubal when the Viceroy and Lady Irwin came to Manipur in 1901
and 1930. They were selected many sites for shooting birds and scenic view like
46
Loktak lake, Ikoppat, Kharungpat, etc. Even today, these are the main tourism
products which can develop the influx of travellers and traders in the state and the
Loktak Lake is the major attractive place. British developed the educational
environment in the state with the establishment of new educational institutions in the
Manipur valley as well as in the hilly areas. For example, Madrassa was established in
1907 at Lilong by the introduction of a curriculum in Arabic, Urdu and Persian. Many
Christian Missions established educational institutions like American Baptist Mission
School in the Ukhrul district spreading educational environment over the whole state
even today and it also became an important tourism activity.

Successively, excavation of historical sites was carried out by W. Yumjao

Singh in 1935 with its own interest. Dance and indigenous games of Manipur were
spread and flourished outside Manipur by the Britishers. Manipuri Dance was
introduced in the Santineketan as a subject by Rabindranath Tagore which led to the
recognition of Manipuri Dance as one of the four classical dances of India.
Indigenous games' Polo was introduced as a national game of Manipur which spread
all over the world by the travellers and Britishers. But, the Indian National Army with
the Japanese Army fought against the British colonization and also some of the battle
of the Second World War was fought nearby Imphal. Japanese army raided from air
and agitated the British. Then, the Indian National Army led by Netaji Subash
Chandra Bose had occupied some places and hoisted the Indian Flag at Moirang for
the first time on April 14, 1944. Following the hoisting of the flag, Manipur became
the headquarters of INA and occupies a place of historic annals of the India‟s
Freedom Struggle. The battle was also fought at the Red Hill of Nambol during the
Second World War. Many of the Britishers, Japanese and Indian army laid down their
life and these places are now well developed as cemetery under the initiative of the
government. Natives of these countries mostly visit today and thus these places are
becoming a big potential for tourism in the district. After getting statehood in 1972,
Manipur government realized the potentiality of tourism in the state and established
the Tourism Department. Subsequently, some tourist homes were constructed at
Sendra, Phubala, Waithou and the development of tourism in the state is still
encouraging today. Today excursions and picnics become a very common among the
students and middle class people of Manipur. In the Bishnupur district, the influx of
excursionist is too high as per general view because it has a lot of tourism potential

47
with its scenic beauty, historical monuments, and unique cultural folk lore (Singh,
2005).

1.5 Importance of Tourism

Tourism is generally a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which is

related to the movement of people to places outside their usual place of residence. It is
a fast growing sector that plays a key role in the economic growth and poverty
alleviation. It is a driving force for poverty alleviation, job creation and social
harmony. The emergence of tourism is a part of a gradual process involving the
displacement of manufacture from its dominant position and the transition to a service
oriented economy. It creates employment and generates income of both personal and
government which improves the economy. It promotes national integration and
international understanding, helps in improving infrastructure and augments foreign
exchange earnings. It has witnessed a dramatic transformation into a multifaceted
economic and social activity. It also lends a helping hand to local handicrafts and
cultural activities. The tourism‟s study also improves the interaction, trade and
commerce between the regions. Tourism protects and maintains the natural and
cultural resources of any region. It helps in avoidance of migration of the local
population and brings about improvements in the economic and socio-cultural level of
the local community. Tourism acts as a tool or technique for the financial protection
of natural areas and increases their economic importance and raise awareness
regarding the environmental values. The growth of tourism sector is expanding fast
contributing the development of economic sector which leads to the development of
society (Sharma et al, 2012). Tourism is an upcoming and fastest growing industry in
the developing countries like India. India is living with full of cultural, religion and
geographical diversities. Due to its beauty of natural and historical places, it is the
second largest industry in India next to oil industry (Mishra & Padhi, 2013). In India's
context, tourism industry has several positive impacts on the economy and society. It
shows the significance and importance of tourism. The World Travel and Tourism
Council calculated that tourism generated 6.7% of the nation‟s GDP in 2014. It was
responsible for 39.3 million jobs, 7.9% of its total employment. The sector predicted
to grow at an average annual rate of 7.7% in the next decade. Tourism has now
rapidly grown to various dimensions and it has become the largest industry in the
world. The tourism industry is a driving force of poverty alleviation, job creation and

48
social harmony. It is a service-oriented industry. This upcoming industry needs to
focus on many dimensions such as promoting the industry and developing the
adequate tourism infrastructures. Tourism is an industry that can be used as a tool by
governments to achieve certain goals of economic growth.

1.6 Determinants of Tourism

Determinants of tourism demand are those factors with tendencies to shape the
nature and pattern of individual for holiday and travel (Raghvendra et al., 2016).
Social and economic condition of individual (age, sex, race, education, occupation,
income, etc.) i.e. excursionist or tourist are the key parameters of the determining
factors of the tourism demand. Tourism infrastructures are the important determinant
of tourism development. It is the basis of tourism development and utilizing the
existing destination resources to shape the prosperity of the national economy
(Jovanovic and Ilic, 2016). Factors supporting the tourism growth include the
development and management of natural resources, the growth of income and wealth,
improvements in transport system, changing lifestyles and consumer values, increased
leisure time, international openness and globalization, special events, information and
communication technologies, destination marketing and promotion, improved general
and special tourism infrastructures (Matias et al., 2007). Tourism infrastructure can be
regarded as the major elements of determinants of tourism supply and demand that are
designed and erected to cater the visitors. The supply of tourism is oriented to the
demand of consumers (i.e. visitors). Tourism supply is the combination of various
attractions, factors and services which may be pleasing natural scenic attractions,
historical and cultural factors, accessibility, amenities, etc. All these are confined into
tourism infrastructures that designed the tourism demand. It can be categorized into
six groups – physical (scenic beauty including lake, mountains, rivers, national parks,
bird sanctuaries, weather and climate); cultural (culture, monuments, museums,
heritage, fairs & festivals, local art, music, dress and dance); service (accommodation
includes hotels, motels, restaurants; transportation includes roads, railways, airways,
waterways; communication includes travel agencies, tourist guides, banking facilities;
recreation facilities; water; electricity and sanitation); social(lifestyle, language and
food); economic (cost factors) and political (bandhs / strikes, political riots, theft and
robbery) factors/ determinants. Thus, the major determining factors of tourism

49
demand are needed to be facilitated and supplied to the consumer‟s demand. It is the
need for the promotion of marketing of tourism products.

1.7 Impacts of Tourism

Tourism industry is the developmental process and its global tourism is about
its monetary gains so far. It is obvious, when the development takes place, then; the
impacts ought to be there. With other developments, tourism has brought to both
positive and negative impacts on the society. Since, the determining factors vary from
area to area; impact of tourism varies from area to area in relation to the economy,
society, culture and environment. Certain positive and negative impacts of tourism
should be discussed on the economic, socio-cultural and environmental condition of
the destination region.

1.7.1 Economic Impacts

Tourism industry generates substantial economic benefits to the destination

countries and tourist‟s generating countries. In the developing countries, it is the
major source to promote the economic growth. This massive economic development
though tourism industry causes both positive as well as negative impacts.

1.7.1(a) Positive impacts

Substantial economic benefits like generation of employment, generation of

foreign exchange earnings, infrastructures development, contribution of local
economies and revenues for government are some of the major economic benefits of
tourism development. These positive aspects of tourism development have been
discussed in details in following description.

I. Employment Generation

Tourism is labour-oriented industry providing many jobs to several homes of

both hosts and tourist‟s home countries. It employs more and more people especially
in the developing and less developed countries. Government encourages the
development of tourism in developing and under-developed countries due to the
ability of its creation of jobs. Direct and indirect employment occurs in tourism sector
in which direct employment are involved through jobs in transport operators, travel
agencies, tourist attractions, tour guides, government departments and tour operators

50
(Lieper, 1979) whereas indirect employment in industries not directly associated with
the tourism sector such as in construction, banking, design and transport companies.

II. Sources of Foreign Exchange Earnings

Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings (FEE) in the

developing countries like India which has favourable impacts on the balance of
payment of the nation. The trade of goods and services generate income to the host
economy which encourages the financial growth of the other economic sectors of the
host country. In fact, tourism industry is the only export trade that gain enormous
amount of foreign exchange earnings without exploiting the natural resources.

III. Infrastructure Development

Proper infrastructures are the basic essentials for the success of tourism
industry. Development of tourism infrastructures also facilitates the local residents
with providing water and sewage systems, roads, electricity, public transport network,
etc. All these facilities and amenities are not only benefits to the visitors but for locals
also.

IV. Contribution of Local Economies

Tourism industry also provides the economic benefits to the non-government

service stakeholders such as street vendors, rickshaw pullers, informal guides, etc.
Therefore, the private sector and local residents are also benefited.

V. Contribution of Government Revenues

Tourism generates both direct and indirect revenues for Governments in the
form of taxes and duties imposed on earnings from tourism and supply of goods and
services.

1.7.1(b) Negative Impacts

With the development, it creates not only the positive effects but also negative
impacts associated with the development of tourism industry that makes unfavorable
conditions of economies towards the host community. Some of the negative impacts
of tourism have been discussed in details on the following.

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I. Inflation

Inflation is the direct result of the development of tourism industry to an area.

Goods and services will become scarce to support tourism and then there will be
inflation.

II. Infrastructure cost

In order to develop the infrastructures for tourism success, Governments

provides developer subsidies; tax relaxations and other financial advantages and
therefore, it causes the reduction of government investment to other critical fields
such as education system, health, etc.

III. Seasonal jobs and its economic dependence

In most cases, tourism attraction is fully dependent on the seasons of the

regions and it becomes an economic problem for destinations. In this case, insecure
jobs, difficulties in training, unsatisfactory housing and working conditions, medical
benefits and recognition of experiences are some of the major issues associated with
the seasonality of tourism. Also, many countries especially in developing countries,
governments tried to explore other resources with little ability of tourism for the
development of the nation‟s economy. In such cases, little involvement in creation of
jobs may also cause unfavorable condition for the host community.

1.7.2 Socio-cultural Impacts

Tourism is a social phenomenon that brings certain changes in society and

cultures of the societies due to the interaction between the guest and host community.
It may have many different positive effects but sometimes negative effects also on the
social and cultural effects of life in the destination depending upon the strength of the
region.

1.7.2(a) Positive Impacts

Tourism industry has the potential to promote social development through the
creation of employment opportunities, increase income, improvement of
infrastructure, provide better local facilities and poverty alleviation. Some positive
impacts are discussed below.

52
I. Strengthening Communities

The jobs created by tourism services can reduce the emigration from rural to
urban areas and can also increase the involvement of locals on the tourism
development. In this way, the earnings and income of the locals can be increased and
therefore the locals can stay at their home soil.

II. Improve Standard of Living

Tourism development facilitates upgraded infrastructures like transport

system, health, new recreational parks and public spaces, etc. to the host community.
It supports better quality of services to the destination and so, the living style of the
locals should be changed and improved.

III. Re-evaluation of Culture and Tradition

Tourism supports the preservation and management of historical culture and

traditions of destination. It also contributes the sustainable natural resources and
provides the protection of local heritage by making the local aware about the financial
value of natural and cultural sites. However, honest participation and positive attitude
of local community can make only a profitable tourism to the destination.

1.7.2(b) Negative Impacts

In spite of the benefits of tourism on the social and cultural condition of the
society, the negative effects should be found and studied in the details on the
following.

I. Change of Indigenous local identity and Cultural deterioration

Tourism is the one that can give a chance to make the guest and host
interaction. It brings some changes to local identity and values but, sometimes, it may
be on large scales that can entirely remove the inherited cultural traits by introducing
new cultural values. So, tourism is sometime the issue to the loss of local identity and
values and also deteriorates the historical cultures of the host community.

II. Cultural clashes

Differences in the culture, ethnicity, religion, language, food habits, lifestyles

and levels of prosperity in between visitor and host community may sometimes cause
the cultural clashes.

53
III. Behavioural changes

Sometimes the ignorance and carelessness of visitors towards the local values
and customs brings changes in behaviors of locals. It causes the irritation and
stereotyping among locals.

IV. Crime Generations

Sometimes, mass tourism is accompanied by increased crime. Among the

visitors, drug abuse activities have performed at the destination region and it increases
the crimes like thief, robbery, drug dealing, kidnapping, etc. Also, it brings the bad
impression towards behavior of local youth and feels unsafe.

1.7.3 Environmental Impacts

The quality of environment is essential to tourism and livelihood development.

The relationship between tourism and environment is complex because tourism
involves many adverse effects of environment but it can be beneficial by contributing
the environmental protection and conservation.

1.7.3(a) Positive Impacts

Tourism can contribute to the benefits of environment through the successive

details.

I. Financial Contribution

Revenues generated in the form of park-entrance fees, taxes, sales or rental

recreation activities and other source of income can be used to the protection and
management of environment.

II. Improved Environmental Planning and Management

By careful monitoring, proper planning should be made for tourism

development that can reduce the environmental destruction. By doing this, tourism
facilities can increase the benefits to the natural areas.

III. Environmental Awareness

Awareness about the surrounding environment is essential for the protection

and control of natural resources. Tourism brings the awareness to both visitors and
hosts about environment by operating conscious activities that can aware about the

54
conservation and restoration of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural
resources.

1.7.3(b) Negative Impacts

Uncontrolled and unplanned conventional tourism development threats to the

natural areas around the world that leads to the impacts as soil erosion, increased
pollution, loss of natural habitats, increased pressure on endangered species and
increased forest fires, etc. The negative consequences of tourism on the environment
are mentioned subsequently.

I. Reduction of Natural resources

Major attractions of tourism are based on the natural resources. When the
consumption puts more pressure on natural resources, resources become scarce.
Greater extraction of natural resources generates the exploitation of natural
environment and future resources.

II. Land Degradation

Development and construction of tourism infrastructures in an area, use the

land. Increased construction of buildings, roads and recreation put pressure on the
use of both renewable and non-renewable resources like minerals, fertile soil, fossil
fuels, forests, wetland and wildlife through deforestation and forest fires. These are
the major cause of environmental destruction and pollution.

III. Pollution

Tourism based activities contributes pollution in the environment by causing

the air emission, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and
chemicals, water pollution, etc. Tourism transportation say, airplanes, buses, cars, as
well as recreation vehicles cause an ever-increasing emission of CO2 that cause acid
rain, global warming and photochemical pollution to the environment. Also, increased
number of tourism transport system cause noise pollution to the surrounding
environment. In addition to this, loss of hearing problems of humans has increased;
also the pattern as well as life-style of animals and wildlife species is disturbed. It is
fact that the area where the tourist concentration is high, the concentration of waste
disposal must be high. This is a serious problem that can degrade the physical
appearance like rivers, lakes, scenic areas, roadsides and cause the death of animals.

55
IV. Ecosystem Destruction

Improper and unplanned development of tourism leads the land degradation

and loss of wildlife habitat that brings the degradation and destruction of ecosystem of
destination. The most threatened ecosystem with degradation is ecologically fragile
areas such as forest areas, wetlands, mountains, mangroves, etc. and these places are
attractive to both developers and tourists.

1.8 Framework of Sustainable Tourism Development

In the above study, it has been already discussed about the definition of
tourism and concepts of its development. In fact, tourism is a multi-faceted
phenomenon of the movement of people to and stay in other destination having the
pull characteristics of tourism viz. natural or physical, social, cultural heritage, etc.,
outside their normal place of residence (Mathieson & Wall, 1982; pp.1-2). However, a
conceptual framework of tourism has been developed by classifying three basic
elements which determines the major components of tourism and its impacts into a
broader context. These three basic elements are as follows:

1. Dynamic element: A dynamic element involves travel to selected destinations.

The demand for tourism in its various forms is so dynamic in nature. This is the
fact that everyone has different perceptions and purpose of travelling i.e., some
are interested in nature's scenic beauty; some are travelling for business purposes;
some are visiting for religious purposes; some are for educational tourism or and
many more. However, the demand for tourism is the total number of persons who
travel, or wish to travel, to use tourist facilities and services at places away from
their places of work and residence (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). In short, this
element is so dynamic because it prefers to the perception of visitors and tourists
demand. Obviously, every person had different purpose of visit and it should be
changeable.
2. Static element: A static element involves the stay in the destination and the
characteristics of tourist. It includes the social and economic structure of tourist,
environmental condition and tourism infrastructures (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). It
examines the determining factor of the tourism development in the study.

56
 Dynamic element
Demand

TOURIST: forms
of tourism DESTINATION
CHARACTERISTICS
OF TOURIST CHARATERISTIC
S

Duration of stay Environmental

Tourist processes
destination
Type of tourist Economic
Static element

activity structure

Pressure Political
Level of usage generation Organization

Level of tourist
Levels of tourist
Carrying development
satisfaction
capacity

Socio-economic Social structure

characteristics and organization

IMPACTS OF TOURISM
Consequential element

Economic Environment Social

al

Impact control

Finance Management Information Engineering

strategies carrying controls
capacity

Fig 1.2 (Source: Adopted from Mathieson and Wall, 1982)

57
3. Consequential element: A consequential element involves the results of two
preceding elements: dynamic and static element with effects on the economic,
environmental and social condition with which the tourist is directly or indirectly
in contact (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). These effects show both positive as well as
negative. But, the negative effects should be controlled and managed by proper
planning and management through various government and private agencies.
Substantial economic benefits like generation of employment and new business
opportunities, generation of domestic income and foreign exchange earnings,
improved infrastructures, generation of tax revenues, increased local economy are
the major prospects of tourism development. Whereas negative economic effects
are leakage, infrastructure cost, overdependence, seasonality, inflation and land
value. Socio-cultural benefits like improved living style, strengthening
communities, active participation towards the preservation of culture and
traditions, improved environmental management and planning and environmental
awareness for sustainable development while drug abuse activities, increasing
population density, loss of tradition, pride among locals and commercialization of
tradition are the negative effects of tourism development. Similarly,
environmental effects have been occurred with positive as development of basic
facilities (toilets, bathrooms, and dustbins), separate parking, quality of sewage,
availability of drinking water and negative as pollution viz. water, air, noise and
overcrowding. However, tourism development should benefit to the society of the
destination region with the development of ecotourism and sustainable tourism.
The negative consequences of tourism should be proven to reduce through proper
channel of planning and management of the tourism development.

Travel and tourism activities began time immemorial sustaining their

livelihood activities but the modern travel and tourism is mainly for pleasure and
recreation. It adversely effects on the socio-cultural, economic and environmental
condition of the local population. However, various planning and policies have been
formulated by the government agencies to promote the tourism industry which has
boost up the generation of employment, increase in foreign exchange earnings,
development of infrastructures, etc.

58
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