Course Contents

• Ship Types and Hull forms

• Transverse stability at small and large angles
• Longitudinal stability and trim
• Stability when grounded
• Horsepower and hull resistance
• IMO regulations
2
 1 Ship Types

3
 Classification of Ship by Usage

• Merchant Ship

• Naval & Coast Guard Vessel

• Recreational Vessel

• Utility Tugs

• Research & Environmental Ship

• Ferries
3
 Classification of Ship by Support Type
• Aerostatic Support
- ACV (Air Cushion Vehicles)
- SES (Captured Air Bubble)

• Hydrodynamic Support
- Hydrofoil
- HYSWAS (HYdrodynamic Small Waterplane Area Ship)
- Planning Hull

• Hydrostatic Support
- Conventional Ship
- Catamaran
- SWATH (Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull)
- Deep Displacement
• Submarine

4 - Submarine
- AUV/ROV
 Aerostatic Support
- Supported by cushion of air generated by a fan.
- ACV (Air Cushion Vehicle)
hull material : rubber
propeller : placed on the deck
amphibious operation
- SES (Surface Effect Ship)
side hull : rigid wall(steel or FRP)
bow : skirt
propulsion system : placed under the water
water jet propulsion
supercavitating propeller
5 not amphibious operation
6 Air Cushion Vehicle
SES Ferry

NYC SES
Fireboat

7
 250’ SES Ferry
8
 Hydrodynamic Support
• Planning Hull
- supported by the hydrodynamic pressure developed
under the hull at high speed
- V or flat type shape
- commonly used in pleasure boat, patrol boat,
missile boat, racing boat

9
10
 Hydrodynamic Support
• Hydrofoil Ship
- supported by a hydrofoil, like wing on an aircraft
- fully submerged hydrofoil ship
- surface piercing hydrofoil ship

Hydrofoil Ferry

11
 Hydrostatic Support
• Displacement ship
- conventional type of ship
- carries high payload
- low speed
• SWATH
- small water plane area twin hull (SWATH)
- low wave-making resistance
- excellent roll stability
- large open deck
- disadvantage : deep draft and cost
• Catamaran/Trimaran
- twin hull
12 - other characteristics are similar to the SWATH
• Submarine
13 SWATH vessel
14
15
16
 Archimedes Principle
Law: a body floating or submerged in a fluid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the water it displaces
Depth to which ship sinks depends on density
of water (r = 1 ton/35ft3 seawater)

17
 Ship sinks until weight of water displaced by
the underwater volume is equal to the weight
of the ship
Forces of gravity: G = mshipg =Wship
Forces of buoyancy: B = rwaterVdisplaced
Wship = rwaterVdisplaced

18
• A FLOATING BODY DISPLACES A VOLUME
OF WATER EQUAL IN WEIGHT TO THE
WEIGHT OF THE BODY.

00

19 DISPLACEMENT
G

00

DISPLACEMENT
G

04

DISPLACEMENT
G

09

DISPLACEMENT
G
B

16

DISPLACEMENT
G
B

20

DISPLACEMENT
 Center of Gravity (G): all gravity forces as
one force acting downward through ship’s
geometric center

Center of Buoyancy (B): all buoyancy forces

as one force acting upward through
underwater geometric center

20
21
 Definition
1- Perpendiculars
Imaginary lines perpendicular to the base line or plane (and the
water line)
On the ship there is a :
- Forward Perpendicular (Fpp or Fp)
This is the line crosses the intersection of the water line and the
front of the stem
-Aft Perpendicular (App or Ap)
This line usually aligns the centre line of the rudder stock. This
is the imaginary line around which the rudder rotates.
22
23
24
 2. Waterlines
The waterline of a ship lying in the water. There are different
waterlines (i.e load-lines) for different loading conditions, such
as:
- Light waterline
The waterline of a ship carrying only her regular inventory.
- Fully loaded waterline
The waterline of maximum load draft in sea water.
- Construction (Scantling) waterline (CWL)
The waterline used as the limit to which the various structural
components are designed.
25
 3- Plimsoll Mark (freeboard mark)
The freeboard mark is a symbol indicating the maximal
immersion of the ship in the water, leaving a minimal
freeboard for safety.

The mark consists of a circle

with a diameter of 300 mm,
through which a horizontal
lines is drawn with its upper
edge going through the centre
of the circle.

26
This level indicates the minimal freeboard in salt water summer
conditions. Beside this circle the loadline mark consists of a number of
horizontal lines indicating the minimal freeboard required for other than
summer conditions.
All freeboard lines are 25 mm wide and are connected by a vertical line.

27
The freeboard mark is placed
midships on each side of the ship.
The minimal operating freeboard
depends on:
-Ship’s position at sea
-The time of year (summer, winter,
etc,.._

28
 4- Deck Line
In general this is the extended line from the upper side of the
freeboard deck at the ship’s side.
The deck line is placed above the Plimsoll mark so that the
freeboard can be easily monitored by the ship’s crew or other
interested parties

5- Permanent marks on the ship’s hull

It is very important the draft marks can be accurately read
as easily as possible.

29
1. Draft to portside fore :
53.8 dm

30
 2. Draft to portside fore:
5.17 meters

31
3. Draft on the stern is given in
meters and feet: 9.36 m = 30’ 7”

32
4. Draft to starboard aft: 9.35
meters

33
5- Draft midships: 7.00 meters

6- Deck line

7. Plimsoll mark

34
 Dimensions

FP Forward Perpendicular

35 AP After Perpendicular
WL Waterline
 WL Waterline
36 CL Centreline
1- Length over all LOA
It is the overall length of the vessel, i.e the horizontal distance over the
extremities from stem to stern

2- Length between perpendicular LPP

It is the horizontal distance between the FP and AP

3- Length waterline LWL

Horizontal distance between the fore and aft when the ship is loaded at
the summer mark, less the shell.
4- Breadth over all BOA
The maximum breadth of the ship as measured from the
outer hull on the starboard to the outer hull on port side,
including rubbing bars, permanent fenders.
37
4- Breadth or beam BMLD
The greatest moulded breadth, measured from side to side at the
outside of the frames, but inside the shell
5- Depth D
The vertical distance between the base line and the upper continuous
deck and is measured at the half Lpp at the side of the ship

6- Draft Forward (TFWD)

Vertical distance between the waterline and the underside of the
keel, as measured at the forward perpendicular
6- Draft at the stern (TAF)
Vertical distance between the waterline and the underside of the
38 keel, as measured at the after perpendicular
7- Freeboard
The distance between the waterline and the top of the deck at the side ( at
the deck line). The term summer freeboard means the distance from the
top of the summer loadline and the upper edge of the deck line
8- Air draft
The vertical distance between the waterline and the highest point of the
ship. The air draft is measured from the summer mark.
Sheer
This is the upward rise of the ship’s deck from mid length towards the
bow and stern. The sheer gives the vessel extra buoyancy at the stem
and stern
Camber

39 The transverse curvature of the weather deck. The curvature

helps to ensure sufficient drainage of any water on deck
Base line
Top of the flat keelplace
Keel (K)
Inter section of the base line and the center line plane

Beam: B Camber

WL Freeboard

Depth: D

Draft: T

40 CL
K
 Flare Tumble Home

• Flare : outward curvature of ship’s hull surface above the waterline

• Tumble Home : opposite of flare

41
Positions of the ship

List
Heeling to one side about the fore and aft axis

42 Heel to port side

Trim (t)
The difference between the draft at the stern and the draft at the stem i.e
the trim fore (tF) + the trim aft (tA)
On an even keel,
keel in proper trim
The draft of the stern equals the draft of the stem

Trim by head TF more than TA

43
 Trim by stern TA more than TF

44
Volumes and weights

Register ton (RT)

To determine the size of a ship the RT is used. It is based on
45 volume where one register ton equals 100 cubic feet or 2.83
m3
Gross Register Tonnage
The Gross Register Tonnage (GRT or GT) usually called Gross Tonnage,
is calculated using a formula that takes into account the ship’s volume in
cubic meters below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the
main deck
Net Register Tonnage
The Net Register Tonnage is also a non-dimensional number that
describes the volume of the cargo space. The NT is derived from the
GT by subtracting the volume of space occupied by:
- crew
- Navigation equipment
-The propulsion equipment
- work stations
43 - Ballast
Volume of Displacement V m3
The displacement is the volume of the part of the ship below the
waterline including the shell plating, propeller and rudder
Displacement Δ ton
The displacement is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the
ship

Lightship weight (ton)

This is the weight of the ship including the regular inventory
but without any cargo, fuel or crew. The regular inventory
includes: anchors. Life-saving equipment, lubricating oil,
44 paint
Deadweight (ton)
This is the weight of the a ship can take on until the maximal allowable
immersion is reached. This is a fixed value, unique to each ship.

Cargo Capacity (t)

This is the total weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry at a
given time.

45
Hull Form Coefficients
Line coefficients define the characteristics of the vessel’s shape at and
below the waterline. This makes it possible to get an impression of the
shape of the underwater body of a ship without extensive use of any
data.
1- Block Coefficient, Coefficient of fineness CB
The block coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater
body (V) and the rectangular block bounded by LPP, BMLD and draft (T).
The vessel with a small block coefficient is reoffered to as fine.

46
47
 2- Waterline coefficient CW
The waterline coefficient gives the ratio of the area of the waterline (Aw)
and the rectangular plane bounded by LPP, BMLD.

48
Midship Section Coefficient CM

The midship (main frame) coefficient gives the ratio of the area of the
midship section (AM) and the area bounded by BMLD and T.

49
 Prismatic Coefficient CP

The prismatic Coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater
body and the block formed by the area of the Midship Section AM and
LPP.

50
When the principal dimensions, displacement and hull form coefficients
are known, one has an impressive amount of design information, but not
yet a clear image of the exact geometrical shape of the shape. The shape
is given by the lines plane.

The shape of a ship can vary in height, length and breadth. In order to
represent this complex shape on paper, transverse sections of the hull
are combined with two longitudinal sets of parallel planes, each one
perpendicular to the others
Since the ship is a 3-dimensional shape, data in x, y
and z directions is necessary to represent the ship hull.
(Table of Offsets)
Lines
- body plan (front View)
- shear plan (side view)
51 - half breadth plan (top view)
52
 Half-Breadth Plan
- Intersection of planes (waterlines) parallel to the baseline (keel).

53
Shear Plan
-Intersection of planes (buttock lines) parallel to the centerline
plane

54
 Body Plan
- Intersection of planes to define section line
- Sectional lines show the true shape of the hull form
- Forward sections from amidships : R.H.S.
- aft sections from amid ship : L.H.S.

55
 Waterlines
Horizontal sections of the hull are called waterlines. When
the waterlines are projected and drawn into one view from
above, the result is called a waterline model.
56
 Stations
Evenly spaced vertical cross-section in transverse direction are
called sections (ordinates). Usually the ship is divided into 20
ordinates, from the centre of the rudder stock (ordinate 0) to
57 the intersection of the waterline and the mould side of the stem
(ordinate 20)
 Verticals / Bow and Buttocks
Lengthwise section are called verticals or bow and buttocks
lines. These longitudinal sections are parallel to the plane of
symmetry of the ship.
58
59
60
General Arrangement

There are a number of

stationary components
and spaces. These have
an indirect relationship to
Ship stability.

61
62
There are a number of variables important to stability. The
location of these variables is dependent upon:
-The distribution of weight on the ship
-The distribution of upward force (buoyancy) on the
submerged part of the hull.
These variables are:
Abbreviation Term Explanation
G or COG Centre of gravity Mass or centre of gravity of ship, cargo and added cargo
g or COg Centre of gravity Mean mass of spaces
B or COB Centre of buoyancy Volumetric centre of the submerged part of the hull
M Metacenter Metacenter
K Keel Keel
COF or C.F Centre of flotation Geometrical centre of the water plane area or tipping center

63
64
65
66
Example 1
A ship has a length and breadth at the waterline of 40.1 m and 8.6
m respectively. If the water-plane area is 280 m2 calculate the
coefficient of fineness of the water-plane area (CW).
Solution

Example 2
A ship floats at a draught of 3.20 m and has a waterline length and
breadth of 46.3 m and 15.5 m respectively. Calculate the block
coefficient (CB) if its volume of displacement is 1800 m3.
Solution

1
Example 3
A ship has length 200 m and breadth 18 m at the waterline. If the
ship floats at an even keel draught of 7.56 m in water RD 1.012 and
the block coefficient is 0.824 calculate the displacement.
Solution

Example 4
A ship floats at a draught of 4.40 m and has a waterline
breadth of 12.70 m. Calculate the underwater transverse area
of the midships section if CM is 0.922.
2
Example 5
A ship has the following details: Draught 3.63 m; Waterline length
48.38 m; Waterline breadth 9.42 m;
Cm 0.946; Cp 0.778.
Calculate the volume of displacement.
Solution

3
 Tonnes per Centimetre immersion TPC
The TPC for any given draught is the weight that must be
loaded or discharged to change the ship’s mean draught by
4 one centimetre (1cm)
 Where:
TPC : tonnes per cm
WPA : water plane area m2
ρ : water density 1.025 t/m3
5
Example 6
Calculate the TPC for a ship with a water-plane area of 1500 m2
when it is floating in:
(a) fresh water;
(b) dock water of RD 1.005;
(c) salt water
Solution:

6
 LOAD/DISCHARGE

Example 7
M.V. Almar has a displacement of 13200 ton at an initial mean draught
of 4.40 m in salt water and is required to complete loading with a
draught of 6.70 m (displacement will reach 20610 ton). Calculate the
amount of cargo that must be loaded.

7
 Load line dimension

8
Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)
Fresh Water Allowance (FWA) is the number of millimetres by which
the mean draught changes when a ship passes from salt water to
fresh water, or vice-versa, when the ship is loaded to the Summer
displacement.
The FWA is found by the formula:

TPCSW is the salt-water TPC value for the summer load draught.

Example 8
A ship floats in SW at the Summer displacement of 1680
tonnes. If the TPCSW is 5.18, how much will the draught
change by if the ship is towed to a berth where the density
of the water is 1.000 t/m3?
9
10
Example 9
A section of steel plate to be used in the construction of a ship’s deck has
dimensions as shown.
Calculate the area of the plate.

11
Example 10
A ship’s water-plane area has half-ordinates from aft to forward as
follows:
0.6 m, 1.5 m, 1.6 m, 1.4 m and 0.0 m. If the half-ordinates are equally
spaced at 4.2 m apart, calculate:
(a) the total water-plane area;
(b) the TPC if the ship is floating in salt water (RD 1.025).

12
 Example 11
A plate section has dimensions as shown. Calculate the area.

13
Example 12
A small boat has a half water-plane area with equally spaced half-
ordinates as follows:
0.20 m, 1.20 m, 1.70 m, 1.82 m, 1.75 m, 1.65 m and 1.21 m.
The half-ordinates are equally spaced at 1.40 m apart.
Calculate the water-plane area.

14
Ship Centroids
Centre of buoyancy C.B

B (centre of buoyancy C.B) indicates the location of the

resulting buoyancy of the displaced seawater. The location of
B is dependent upon the hull’s form. B is the volumetric
centre of the hull. Buoyancy is equal to the weight
(displacement) of the ship.
 Location of Metacenter M
With a heeling angle up to about With larger lists, point M is
(5-10)º.It is assumed the point M defined as follows: The
lies at the intersection of the vector intersection of 2 successive lines
of buoyancy and the centerline of buoyancy with a very small
increase of angle of inclination. M
is then found outside the vertical
plane of symmetry
For calculation purposes, we can not work with M outside the
vertical plane of symmetry. Thus, a false metacenter, N is used
for the calculation the intersection
Point N is on the centreline at the
intersection of the buoyancy load
line and the centreline.
The importance of M’s location to
transverse (initial) stability is great.
The location of M depends on the
location of B.
The location of G in relation to M is
mainly for the stability as follows:
- Positive (G under M)
- Neutral (G at M)
- Unstable (G above M)
Centre of Gravity
The total weight of the ship is concentrated at point G
(centre of gravity)

g = centre of gravity of component

G = centre of gravity of the entire ship
 Movement of centre of gravity
The movement of G can be quickly made clear if only one (large )
weight is relocated on board or loaded, G then moves:
-In the movement direction of the weighty
- across a distance of GG1 = (w x h)/Δ (for transferring load)
GG1 = (w x h) / (Δ+w) (for adding weight)

Inclining Test ( Experiment)

In order to calculate the correct GM of the empty ship, the
ship must undergo an inclining experiment ( stability test) to
determine KG
The weight of the empty ship must be as accurate as possible
During the test:
-The ship must be free to roll ( mooring wires slack, etc..)
- it must be calm with no wind
- no disturbance waves
-The test must be conducted multiple times both starboard
and portside with consistent outcome to ensure an accurate
result.
A known weight (1) is moved transversely across distance (2)
as a result of which the
ship lists.
(1)The weight must be so large that:
- The ship remains within an initial range of stability max list 9-
10º
- Equal to about 2 % displacement
(2) Approximately ½ the breadth

The ship’s list due to relocating the weight is accurately

measured. This can be done by means of a plumb line. If the
plumb line is used, it is usually suspended in a hold where the
weight hangs in a tank of water to stabilize the plumb line.
The result is determined by measuring the distance the pendulum
moves on a tape line (QR)
STABILITY REFERENCE POINTS

Metacenter

Gravity

Buoyancy

K eel
CL
STABILITY REFERENCE POINTS

Mother

Goose

Beats

K ids
CL
 RESERVE BUOYANCY
WATERLINE

THE CENTER OF
BUOYANCY
B1

B
RESERVE BUOYANCY, FREEBOARD, DRAFT
AND DEPTH OF HULL

RESERVE BUOYANCY
WATERLINE

B
CENTER OF BUOYANCY

WL

BB BBB
CENTER OF BUOYANCY

B
B
B
B
B
B
B
 G1

THE CENTER OF
G

GRAVITY
KG1
KGo

G1
G

KGo
KG1
 CENTER OF GRAVITY

• POINT AT WHICH ALL WEIGHTS COULD

BE CONCENTRATED.

• CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A SYSTEM OF

WEIGHTS IS FOUND BY TAKING
MOMENTS ABOUT AN ASSUMED CENTER
OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS ARE SUMMED
AND DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL WEIGHT
OF THE SYSTEM.
 MOVEMENTS IN THE
CENTER OF GRAVITY

• G MOVES TOWARDS A WEIGHT ADDITION

 G1

KG1
KGo
 MOVEMENTS IN THE
CENTER OF GRAVITY

• G MOVES TOWARDS A WEIGHT ADDITION

• G MOVES AWAY FROM A WEIGHT REMOVAL

 G1
G
G
G
G
G
G
G

KG1
KGo
 MOVEMENTS IN THE
CENTER OF GRAVITY

• G MOVES TOWARDS A WEIGHT ADDITION

• G MOVES AWAY FROM A WEIGHT REMOVAL

• G MOVES IN THE DIRECTION OF A WEIGHT

SHIFT
G G2
METACENTER
THE
METACENTER
M

B
B1 B2

M20
M45
M
M70
B

B20 B70
CL

B45
METACENTER

BBBBBB
B
METACENTER

B SHIFTS
 o o
0 -7/10

CL
 M20

B B20

CL
 M20
M45
M

B20 B45
C
L
 M20
M45

M70 M

B20 B70
CL

B45
 M45 M20
B M70
CL

M
M90
B20
B90
B45
B70
 MOVEMENTS OF THE
METACENTER
THE METACENTER WILL CHANGE
POSITIONS IN THE VERTICAL PLANE WHEN
THE SHIP'S DISPLACEMENT CHANGES

THE METACENTER MOVES IAW THESE

TWO RULES:
1. WHEN B MOVES UP M MOVES DOWN.
2. WHEN B MOVES DOWN M MOVES UP.
M1
M
M
M1
M
M
M1 M
M1
G
G
G
G
G
B1 B
B
B
B
B
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS IN
STABILITY

M
GM
G BM

KM
KG B

K
CL
 M

G Z THE THREE CONDITIONS

B1
OF STABILITY
POSITIVE

G M

B
B1

G
NEUTRAL
M

B
B1

NEGATIVE
Vertical Weight Shifts
GG1 = KG1 - KGo
M

G
G 1
GG1 G
G 1
1
G
G 1
1
G
G11
KG1
KGo B
 KG1 = (Wo x KGo) ± (w x kg)
Wf

WHERE;
w = Weight Shifted
kg = Distance Shifted
Wo = Original Displacement
KGo = Original Height of G
Wf = Final Displacement
± = + if shift up/- if shift down
KG1 = (Wo x KGo) ± (w x kg)
Wf
25 T
M
Wo = 2000 T
G
G 1
G
G 1
30 FT G
G
1
1
1
G1
KG1 ?
12 FT B
45T
M Wo = 3400 T
8 FT

G 33 FT

15.5 FT B
17T
KG1 = (Wo x KGo)±(w1xkg1)±(w2xkg2)
Wf
WHERE;
w1&2 = Weights Shifted
kg1&2 = Distances Shifted
Wo = Original Displacement
KGo = Original Height of G
Wf = Final Displacement
± = + if shift up/- if shift down
Vertical Weight Additions

M
G1
G

B
Vertical Weight Additions

M M
M
M
M
1
1 M1
G
M11 G
G111
G11 G
G
GG1 G
G
BB11 B
BB KG
KGo 1
KG1 = (Wo x KGo) ± (w x kg)
Wf
WHERE;
KGo = Original Height of G
Wo = Original Displacement
± = + if addition/- if removal
w = Weight Added/Removed
kg = Distance Keel to "g" of wt
Wf = Final Displacement
16 TONS ADD

42 FT

Wo = 2000 TONS
KGo = 12 FT
Examples
Example 1
A ship displaces 5000 t and has an initial KG of 4.5 m. Calculate the
final KG if a weight of 20 t is moved vertically upwards from the lower
hold (Kg 2.0 m) to the upper deck (Kg 6.5 m).

Example 2
A ship displaces 12500 t and has an initial KG of 6.5 m. Calculate the
final KG if 1000 t of cargo is loaded into the lower hold at Kg 3.0 m.
Example 3
A ship has a displacement of 13400 t and an initial KG of 4.22 m. 320 t
of deck cargo is discharged from a position Kg 7.14 m. Calculate the
final KG of the ship.

Example 4
A ship displaces 10000 t and has a KG of 4.5 m.
The following cargo is worked:
Load: 120 t at Kg 6.0 m;
730 t at Kg 3.2 m.
Discharge: 68 t from Kg 2.0 m;
100 t from Kg 6.2 m.
Shift: 86 t from Kg 2.2 m to Kg 6.0 m.
Calculate the final KG.
Example 5
Prove that the KM of a box-shaped vessel changes with draught as
shown below for the range of draughts 1.00 m to 15.00 m given that
length is 100 m and breadth is 20 m.
From the values calculated it is seen that as draught increases, KM reduces to a
minimum value and then starts to increase again.
Example 6
A box-shaped vessel has length 20 m and breadth 6 m.
Calculate:
(a) the moment of inertia for all the axis’ of rotation shown;
(b) the moment of inertia about the two axis’ passing through the centre
of flotation using the parallel axis’ theorem.
Example 7
A ship of 6000 tonnes displacement has KM 7.3 m and KG 6.7 m, and
is floating upright. A weight of 60 tonnes already on board is shifted 12
m transversely. Find the resultant list.
Example 8
A ship of 8000 tonnes displacement has a GM 0.5 m. A quantity of
grain in the hold, estimated at 80 tonnes, shifts and, as a result, the
centre of gravity of this grain moves 6.1 m horizontally and 1.5 m
vertically. Find the resultant list.
Example 9
A ship of 13 750 tonnes displacement, GM 0.75 m, is listed degrees to
starboard and has yet to load 250 tonnes of cargo. There is space
available in each side of No. 3 between deck (centre of gravity, 6.1 m
out from the centreline). Find how much cargo to load on each side if
the ship is to be upright on completion of loading.
Example 10
A ship of 9900 tonnes displacement has KM 7.3 m and KG 6.4 m. She
has yet to load two 50 tonne lifts with her own gear and the first lift is to
be placed on deck on the inshore side (KG 9 m and centre of gravity 6
m out from the centreline). When the derrick plumbs the quay its head is
15 m above the keel and 12 m out from the centreline. Calculate the
maximum list during the operation