ELG4139: DC to DC Converters
A dc-dc regulator/converter or other names known as buck
or boost regulator, provides stable regulated output voltage
to supply electric and electronic circuits.
Principles of Step-Down Operation
• Source, Switch with a duty cycle, and a load.
• The switch can be implemented by using BJT, MOSFET, GTO, or IGBT.
• The duty cycle varies from 0 to 1 by varying the duty cycle,
chopping duration, or the chopping frequency but usually with a
variable duty cycle.
• The output voltage contains harmonics and a DC filter is required to
smooth out the ripples.
• The duty cycle can be generated by comparing a DC reference signal
with a saw-tooth carrier signal.
• The algorithm to generate the gating signal is first to generate a
waveform of period T as a reference and a DC signal, then compare
the two by comparator to generate the difference and then a hard
limiter to obtain a square-wave gate pulse of width DT which must
be applied to a switching device through an isolating circuit.
Pulse Width Modulator
DC Conversion: To efficiently Reduce DC Voltage
Iin Iout
+ +
DC−DC Buck
Vin Converter Vout
− −
Lossless objective: Pin = Pout, which means that VinIin = VoutIout
Vout I in
Vin I out
DC−DC Converter: Non-Efficient Way!
R1 The load
+ +
Vin R2 Vout
− −
R2
Vout Vin Voltage Divider
R1 R2
R2 Vout
R1 R2 Vin
If Vin = 39V, and Vout = 13V, efficiency η is only 33%!
Another Technique: Lossless Conversion
Load Switch closed
voltage Switch open
39
+
39 V RLoad
–
0
Switch state, Load voltage DT
Closed, 39 V T
Open, 0 V
6
Buck (Step Down) Converter in Brief
• Step down converter
• Switch
• Low-pass LC filter
• Diode
• Transition Between
– Continuous conduction
– Discontinuous conduction
Examples of DC Conversion
Try adding a large C in parallel with the load to
+ control ripple. But if the C has 13Vdc, then when
40V C RLoad the switch closes, the source current spikes to a
– huge value and burns out the switch.
L
Try adding an L to prevent the huge current
spike. But now, if the L has current when the
+
switch attempts to open, the inductor’s current
40V C RLoad momentum and resulting Ldi/dt burns out the
– switch.
lossless
L
By adding a “free wheeling” diode, the switch
+ can open and the inductor current can continue
40V C RLoad to flow. With high-frequency switching, the load
– voltage ripple can be reduced to a small value.
A DC-DC Buck Converter
Buck Converters
• A buck converter or voltage regulator is also called a
step down regulator since the output voltage is lower
than the input voltage.
• In a simple example of a buck converter, a diode is
connected in parallel with the input voltage source, a
capacitor, and the load, which represents output
voltage.
• A switch is connected between the input voltage
source and the diode and an inductor is connected
between the diode and the capacitor.
• A pulse width modulation controller controls the
switch. In this project the microcontroller served as a
pulse width modulation source
Buck Converter Analysis
• 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐷𝑉𝑖𝑛 ; D = switch duty ratio
1 1
• ∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 𝐷𝑇𝑠 = 𝑉 1 − 𝐷 𝑇𝑠
𝐿 𝐿 𝑜
𝑉𝑜
• 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑜 =
𝑅
Capacitors and Inductors
dv ( t )
Capacitors: i(t ) C The voltage cannot change instantaneously
dt
Capacitors tend to keep the voltage constant (voltage “inertia”). An ideal
capacitor with infinite capacitance acts as a constant voltage source.
Thus, a capacitor cannot be connected in parallel with a voltage source
or a switch (otherwise KVL would be violated, i.e. there will be a
short-circuit)
di ( t )
Inductors: v(t ) L The current cannot change instantaneously
dt
Inductors tend to keep the current constant (current “inertia”). An ideal
inductor with infinite inductance acts as a constant current source.
Thus, an inductor cannot be connected in series with a current source
or a switch (otherwise KCL would be violated)
Capacitor and Inductor
Examine the current passing through a capacitor that is operating in periodic
steady state. The governing equation is
1 o t
t
dv ( t )
i(t ) C
dt
which leads to v ( t ) v ( to )
C i ( t )dt
to
Since the capacitor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time to is
the same as the voltage one period T later, so
1 o T
t
C
v( to T ) v( to ), or v ( to T ) v ( to ) 0 i ( t )dt
to
to T
The conclusion is that i ( t )dt 0
to
Examine the voltage across an inductor that is operating in periodic steady
state. The governing equation is
1 o t
t
di ( t )
v(t ) L
dt
which leads to i ( t ) i ( to )
L v ( t )dt
to
Since the inductor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time to is
the same as the voltage one period T later, so
1 o T
t
L
i ( to T ) i ( to ), or i ( to T ) i ( to ) 0 v ( t )dt
to
to T
The conclusion is that v ( t )dt 0
to
Buck (step Down) Converter
• Assume large C so that
+ vL – Vout has very low ripple
iL Iout
iin
+ • Since Vout has very low
L ripple, then assume Iout
Vin C Vout
iC has very low ripple
–
What do we learn from inductor voltage and capacitor current in the
average sense?
+0V–
iin Iout Iout
L +
Vin C Vout
0A
–
Examining Inductor Voltages
+ (Vin – Vout) –
iin iL Iout
L diL Vin Vout +
Switch closed for DT Vin dt
L Vout
C (iL – Iout)
seconds –
Reverse biased, thus the diode is open
diL diL
vL L , vL Vin Vout , Vin Vout L ,
dt dt
for DT seconds
Note – if the switch stays closed, then Vout = Vin
Switch open for (1 − D)T seconds
– Vout +
iL Iout
diL +Vout
L
dt L
Vin C Vout
(iL – Iout)
–
iL continues to flow, thus the diode is closed. This is the assumption of
“continuous conduction” in the inductor which is the normal operating condition.
Vout DVin
di di I in
vL L L , vL Vout , Vout L L , I out
dt dt D
for (1−D)T seconds
16
The Inductor Current
diL Vin Vout
Switch closed vL Vin Vout ,
dt L
diL Vout
Switch open vL Vout ,
dt L
From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway
iL Vout
L
A / sec between Imax and Imin
Imax
Iavg = Iout
Vin Vout ΔI Periodic – finishes a
Imin L
A / sec period where it
started
DT (1 − D)T
T
17
Designing the Inductance
Vout
A / sec
iL L
2Iout
Iavg = Iout
0
(1 − D)T
Vout 1 D
1 D T
Vout
2 I out
Lonset Lonset f
Vout 1 D
Lonset
2 I out f
Then, considering the worst case (i.e., D → 0),
use max
Vout
L guarantees continuous conduction
2 I out f
use min
Designing the Capacitance
iC = (iL – Iout)
Iout C charging
0
T/2
−Iout
1 T
Q 2 2 I out T I out I out
V
C C 4C 4Cf
During the charging period, the C voltage moves from the min
to the max. The area of the triangle shown above gives the
peak-to-peak ripple voltage.
19
Impedance Matching
Iin Iout = Iin / D
+ +
V
DC−DC Buck Rload out
Source Vin Vout = DVin I out
Converter
Requiv
− −
Iin
+
Equivalent from source
Vin
perspective
−
Vout The buck converter makes
Vin D Vout Rload the load resistance look
Requiv
I in I out D I out D 2
D2
larger to the source
20
Switching Mode Regulators
• DC converters can be used as switching-mode regulators to convert a DC
voltage, normally unregulated, to a regulated DC output voltage. The
regulation is normally achieved by PWM at a fixed frequency and the
switching device is normally BJT, MOSFET, or IGBT.
• Buck Regulators
• Boost Regulators
• Buck-Boost Regulators
• Cuk Regulators
Designing a Buck Converter
• Design Criteria
– Calculate the required inductor
– Calculate the output capacitor
– Select the input capacitor
– Select the diode
– Choose the MOSFET
– Calculate the converter Efficiency
• For a Buck DC-DC converter we first calculate the
required inductor and output capacitor
specifications. Then determine the input capacitor,
diode, and MOSFET characteristics. With the selected
components, we will calculate the system efficiency.
Designing a Buck Converter
• Calculate
Select C, Diode (Schottky),
and the MOSFET
Calculate the Efficiency
Example
• In Buck converter, L = 24µF (steady-state): Vin = 20V; D = 0.6;
Po = 14V; fs = 200 kHz. Calculate and draw the waveform.
Full-Bridge and Half-Bridge Isolated Buck
Converters
Full-bridge isolated buck converter
During first switching period:
transistors Q1 and Q4 conduct
for time DTs , applying voltseconds
Vg DTs to primary
winding
• During next switching period:
transistors Q2 and Q3 conduct
for time DTs , applying voltseconds
–Vg DTs to primary
winding
• Transformer volt-second
balance is obtained over two
switching periods
• Effect of nonidealities?
Boost Converter
• As with the buck converter, the boost or step-
up converter circuit consists of a switch, a
diode, an inductor and a capacitor. Their
positions in the circuit vary in comparison to
the buck converter. In this case the switch is in
parallel with the input voltage source, the
capacitor and the load. The inductor is placed
between the input voltage source and the
switch and the diode is placed in-between the
switch and the capacitor.
Boost (Step Up) Converter
• Step-up
• Same components
• Different topology!
• See stages of operation
Boost Converter
1 1
• ∆𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑇𝑠 = (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) 1 − 𝐷 𝑇𝑠
𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑜 1
• =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐷
Example
• Consider a boost converter, the inductor current has ΔiL=2 A.
Vin = 5 V, Vo = 12 V, Po = 11 W, fs = 200 kHz. Calculate L and
draw the waveform.
Control of DC to DC Converter
Switch, PWM, Electronics, Reference, and Buck Converter
(LM2529: Courtesy of National Semiconductors)
LM2585 with Boost Regulator
National Semiconductors
Inverting Buck Boost Converter
• The last and most important type of switching regulator is the buck-boost
converter. In this converter, the buck and boost topologies covered earlier
are combined into one. A buck-boost converter is also built using the same
components used in the converters covered before. The inductor in this
case is placed in parallel with the input voltage and the load capacitor. The
switch or transistor is placed between the input and the inductor, while
the diode is placed between the inductor and the load capacitor in a
reverse direction.
• In the OFF state of the circuit the inductor is used to supply energy
to the RC load circuit. The inductor current that the load capacitor
sees is in the reverse polarity to that of the input voltage.
• Therefore the name of this converter describes one of the main
features of this converter, which is the reversal of the polarities
between input and output voltages.
• For this reason, extreme attention should be paid in designing a
circuit that uses this type of converter. This converter can be used
when the output polarity is not important to the load.
• One of the main advantages of this converter is the low number of
parts needed to implement the topology. Therefore losses in the
circuitry are low.
• The main disadvantage to this topology is the fact that it operates in
buck-boost mode only. So if buck-only mode or boost-only mode is
needed this converter is not going to be able to meet the
requirements.
Converter Classification
• First Quadrant Converter: Both load voltage and currents are positive.
• Second Quadrant Converter: Load current flows out of the load. Load
voltage is positive, but the load current is negative.
• First and Second Quadrant Converter: Load current is either positive or
negative; load voltage is positive.
• Third and Fourth Quadrant Converter: The load voltage is always negative.
The load current is either positive or negative.
• Four Quadrant Converter: The load current is either positive or negative.
The load voltage is either positive or negative.
DC Motor Quadrant
• First: Steady-State forward driving.
• Fourth: Regenerative breaking; machine trying to slow down; like breaking
for traffic light.
• Third: Reverse steady-state driving.
• Second: Regenerative breaking.
Half-Bridge DC Chopper
• Buck converter: Motoring
• Boost Converter: Generating
• Two quadrant operating capability
Full-Bridge DC Chopper
• Full-Quadrant Operation
• T1 and T2 ON: + Output voltage
• T3 and T4 ON: - Output voltage
• DC current and torque: + and –
• DC voltage and speed: + and –
• All quantities can be positive or negative
Summary of DC Choppers
• One Quadrant
• Half Bridge
• Full Bridge
