COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS

Compaction equipment is selected on the bases of moisture content and type of soil. The different
types of compaction equipment used in compaction project depend on the scope of work. These
type of compaction equipment are used for large areas for different types of soils.

1. SMOOTH WHEEL / SMOOTH DRUM ROLLERS

Smooth wheel rollers are most suitable for compacting gravels,

sands and such materials where crushing is required. The depth of
layer which can be satisfactorily compacted depend on the type of
soil, and the weight of the roller and nature of the work. It is not
suitable for consolidating embankments and soft sub-grades but are
better suited than any other plant for compacting silty and sandy
soils and with fewer passes. When the moisture content is a little
more than optimum it will compact more easily.

Depending upon the number of wheels on the rear, it can be of following two types:

 Three wheeled rollers (having two wheels at rear and one in front)
- It ground coverage provided by smooth wheeled roller is 100%.
- The weight of the roller can be increased by filling the inside space of the drum with water or
wet sand. This is called ballasting.
- The ground pressure exerted by tandem rollers is about 10 to 17 kg/cm2.
 Tandem rollers (having one wheel at rear and one wheel in front)
- The weight of tandem roller varies from 2 to 8 tonnes and that of two wheeled roller varies
from 8 to 10 tonnes.

Characteristics of a Smooth Wheel Roller:

 100 % ground coverage under the wheelbase.

 Contact pressure up to 380 kpa
 Can be used on all types soil except rocky soil.
 Crushes the weaker aggregates
 Optimum working speed is 3 to 6 kmph.
 Nearly eight passes are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer.

2. PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLERS

Pneumatic rollers also known as rubber tired rollers, these

consist of a heavily-loaded wagon with several rows of closely-
spaced tires. They provide uniform pressure throughout the
width covered, and are often used in pavement subgrade works,
as they are suitable for compacting uniform coarse soils and
rocks. They are also used to finish embankments compacted by
sheepsfoot rollers.

The factors which affect the amount of compaction that can be

achieved are the weight, tire inflation pressure and the area of
contact. Used for compacting cold laid bituminous pavements, soft base course materials or layers of
loose soil. These rollers are also suitable for compacting closely graded sands, and fine-grained
cohesive soils at moisture content approaching their plastic limits, though the compaction is not as
high as that with the smooth wheel roller.

Characteristics of Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers:

 It provided uniform pressure throughout the width.

 2 factors governing the amount of compaction are Tire pressure and Area of contact
 The coverage area is about 80%.
 The gross weight of the roller is about 6 to 10 tons which can be increased to 25 tons by
ballasting with steel section or other means.
 The maximum density can be achieved by 8 to 10 passes of the roller. The optimum speed of
roller is between 6 to 24 km/h.
 The depth of compaction needed will define the weight of roller needed.
 Light weight Roller (200 kN) can compact up to = 150 mm thickness.
 Medium weight Roller (500 kN) can compact up to = 300 mm thickness.
 Heavy weight Roller (18000 kN) can compact up to = 450 mm thickness

3. SHEEPSFOOT ROLLER

This type of roller consists of a drum having many round or

rectangular shaped protrusions or “feet” on it. These rollers are
also called tamping rollers. These are most suitable for
compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and silty clays.
It can be used for compaction of soils in dams, subgrade layer in
pavements and road construction projects.

Maximum performance
of sheepsfoot rollers for soil compaction can be achieved
when lugs gradually walk out of the roller lugs with successive
coverage. Performance is affected by the pressure on the foot
and coverage of ground obtain as per pass.

Characteristics of a Sheepsfoot Roller:

 The ground coverage area of these roller is less. 8-12 % ground coverage under the lugs on
drum.
 Contact pressure up to 1400 to 7000 kpa.
 Sheepsfoot roller work normally at speeds from 6-10 km/h.
 Pressure on the feet may be increased by filling the drum with wet sand or some other
material.
 Mostly used for cohesive soils such as heavy clays and silty clays except for sandy soil.
 Compactative efforts are static weight and kneading.
 The thickness of compacting layer is kept minimum 5 cm or more, which depends on the
length of foot.
 The soil is supposed to be consolidated when the impression by the projecting teeth is not
more than 12 mm deep or when the surface has been rolled 16 to 20 times.
 10 to 20 passes are generally required to give complete coverage.

4. VIBRATORY ROLLERS
 Vibratory rollers are widely used for compaction of coarse-
grained soil or gravely soil. Selection of vibratory soil compactor is
the most important factor in raising up the level of efficiency of
soil for construction of a strong building.

This type of roller is fitted with one or two smooth surfaced steel
wheels 0.9 m to 1.5 m in diameter and 1.2 m to 1.8 m wide. Self-
propelled vibratory rollers are now available weighing from 4 to 6
tons.

Vibrations are generated by the rotation of an eccentric shaft

inside. A vibratory roller is used for compacting granular base courses. It is sometimes used for
asphaltic concrete work.

The principles of vibratory rollers as shown. The vibration is

produced by rotating off-center weights. Handheld vibrating
plates can be used for effective compaction of granular soils
over a limited area. Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted on
machines. These plates can be used in less restricted areas.

Characteristics of Vibratory roller :

 Higher compaction can be achieved.

 Compaction can be done up to greater depth.
 Vibrations are generated by the rotation of eccentric shaft inside.
 Rollers are used for compacting granular base courses and asphalt concrete work.
 Gross weight of the roller is about 4 to 8 tons.
 Working Speed of roller 2.0 to 6.0 km/h which gives the best results.

5. VIBROFLOTATION

Vibroflotation is a ground improvement technique used at a considerable depth that by using a

powered electrically or hydraulically probe, it strengthens the soil. The vibroflotation will compact
the soil making it suitable to support design loads. It involves the introduction of granular soil to form
interlocking columns with surrounding.

The technique is used to improve bearing capacity and reduce the possibility of differential
settlements that might be allowed for the proposed loads. Sometimes it is also referred to as
Vibrocompaction and the ultimate concept is to
repack soil particles by joining them together
improving soil's bearing capacity. The compaction
of soil can be obtained in soils as deep as 200
feet. The risk of liquefaction in an earthquake
prone area is also drastically reduced.

The entire vibroflotation compaction process in the field can be divided into four stages:

Stage 1. The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the ground.

Stage 2. The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil and it allows the vibrating unit to sink into
the ground.
Stage 3. Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the lower jet is
transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries the granular material down
the hole.

Stage 4. The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3 m (.1 ft) lifts and held vibrating for about 30
seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the desired unit weight.

Equation 1: Suitability number (Brown, 1977)

Where D50, D20, and D10 are the grain size diameters (in millimeters) at 50%, 20%, and 10% passing,
respectively. Brown described suitability numbers in the range of 1-10 to be excellent, while
numbers greater than 50 are considered unsuitable (Brown, 1977).

Coarser material generally makes better backfill material, however, if the particle size is too large, it
can become stuck between the crater and the vibroflotation apparatus, preventing it from reaching
the desired depth. It should be noted that vibroflotation generally does not work for surface
materials (uppermost 2 to 3 feet of material) and instead a roller is needed to attain equivalent
compaction.

6. DYNAMIC COMPACTION

is a ground improvement technique that

densifies soils and fill materials by using a
drop weight. The drop weight, typically steel,
is lifted by a crane and repeatedly dropped
onto the ground surface. Vibrations
transmitted below the surface improve soils
at depth. The drop locations are typically
located on a grid pattern, the spacing of
which is determined by the subsurface
conditions and foundation loading and
geometry. The degree of compaction depends on the weight of the hammer, the height from which
the hammer is dropped, and the spacing of the locations at which the hammer is dropped. The initial
weight dropping has the most impact, and penetrates up to a greater depth. The following drops, if
spaced closer to one another, compact the shallower layers and the process is completed by
compacting the soil at the surface.
 Most soil types can be improved with dynamic compaction. Old fills and granular soils are most often
treated. The soils that are below the water table have to be treated carefully to permit emission of
the excess pore water pressure that is created when the weight is dropped onto the surface.

Treated granular soils and fills have increased density, friction

angle, and stiffness. In shallow karst geologies, dynamic
compaction has been used to collapse voids prior to
construction to reduce sinkhole potential. It has also been
used to compact construction debris and urban fill as well as
sanitary landfills prior to construction of parking lots,
roadways, and embankments. The removal of compressible,
contaminated fills can sometimes be avoided.

BLASTING

Blasting is a technique that has been used

successfully in many projects (Mitchell, 1970) for
the densification of granular soils. The general soil
grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting are
the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation.
The aim of this ground-improvement technique is
to densify and improve the engineering
characteristics of loose sand deposits and thus
prevent or minimize the effects of liquefaction
during an earthquake. The liquefaction of loose,
saturated sands due to seismically induced ground motions continues to be the major source of
damage to facilities and loss of human lives after severe earthquake events

The process involves the detonation of explosive charges, such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth
below the ground surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 3 to
9 m (10 to 30 ft). Three to five successful detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired
compaction. Materials needed for blasting such as dynamite sticks and also a detonator.

Procedure of the blasting for ground improvement:

1. Series of boreholes are drilled and Pipe of 7.5 to 10 cm is driven to the required depth
2. The detonator and the dynamic sticks are both enclosed in a water proof bundle and is lowered
through casings
3. Casing is withdrawn and a wad of paper or wood is placed against the charge of Explosive (To protect
it from misfire)
4. Boreholes are backfilled with sand to obtain full force of blast
5. The charge is fired in definite pattern

The energy released by the explosives creates compressive radial stresses in the soil mass as the
shock wave approaches and generates tensile stress as the shock wave passes. The resulting cyclic
stress increases the pore pressure, and the effective stresses acting on the soil are gradually reduced.
As the pore water pressure dissipates, the grain particles rearrange into a denser and more stable
configuration.