Special Core Analysis

Special core analysis tests on homogeneous formations are normally made on 1 or

11/2 inch (2.5 to 3.8 cm) diameter cylindrical plugs approximately 1 to 3 inches (2.5
to 7.5 cm) long. Samples are selected to cover the permeability, porosity, and rock-
type range. For heterogeneous formations, tests are made on full diameter cores.
Certain measurements are made on fresh, preserved cores that are not extracted and
leached prior to the laboratory tests. In other cases, samples are extracted, leached,
and dried. After porosity and permeability are determined, the samples are restored
to the desired saturation conditions.

The problem of not having suitable cores for special tests may arise because cores
were taken for a conventional analysis without subsequent special work in mind. The
remote location of some oil wells may make the use of a desired coring fluid and
packaging technique impractical. Either way, the engineer or geologist must use the
available rock in the state in which it exists.

Other than when storage of rock has caused deterioration, the primary factor that
may affect the soundness of the results of special tests is rock wettability. It is
complex in theory, but a simplified illustration of the concept of wettability as a
function of contact angle is shown in Figure 1 (Contact angle as an indication of
wettability).

Figure 1

It appears that normally rocks in their initial state are water-wet. Many remain in this
state, while others become neutral or oil-wet over geologic time when contacted by
oil containing surface-active (polar) compounds that are adsorbed on the rock
surfaces. This has been discussed in some detail by Denekas, Mattax, and Davis
(1959).

Samples of given original reservoir wettability have been shown to change because
of contact with coring fluids, temperature and pressure effects, core storage and
packaging, core exposure, and core cleaning. In other instances, however, rocks were
found to be virtually insensitive to these same factors, indicating that valid results
can be obtained in many cases with less than optimum conditions prior to special
analysis.

The data presented by Luffel and Randall (1960) indicate that capillary pressure
measurements, gas-oil relative permeability, and electrical property information can
be reliably obtained on extracted cores. Although it was not specifically stated, it is
likely that the reservoirs reported on were water-wet. Extracted samples are suitable
for most tests not involving the simultaneous flow of water and oil.

Greater awareness now exists that many reservoirs trend toward either neutral
wettability or a state of preferential oil-wetness. Treiber, Archer, and Owens (1972)
have provided a laboratory evaluation of reservoir wettability. They found that large
percentages of both carbonate and sandstone formations appear to be other than
strongly water-wet. When the rock is neutral or oil-wet, the laboratory capillary
pressure data are likely not to be suitable for calculation of reservoir water
saturations.

Water-oil relative permeability can be measured on extracted cores from water-wet

formations. Where the formation is believed to be intermediate or oil-wet in nature,
these tests should be made on samples recovered with oil-base coring fluids (native
state cores) to which no extraneous water has been added. The assumptions in this
case are that the water saturation present in the sample in the laboratory is equal to
that in the reservoir, that it is in the proper pore spaces, and that the wettability of
the laboratory rock sample mirrors the reservoir wettability. When the formation is oil-
wet, electrical properties may also need to be measured on native state core.

Capillary Pressure Tests

Water is retained in the reservoir pore space by capillary forces as hydrocarbons
migrate and accumulate. This interstitial water, in water-wet reservoirs, adheres to
sand or carbonate surfaces. Retentive forces are proportional to the water-
hydrocarbon interfacial tension and the affinity of water for the rock (wetting
preference), and inversely proportional to pore size. This implies that low
permeability formations that are composed of very small pore spaces have high
water retentive forces, and hence often contain high immobile water saturations.

The measurement of capillary pressure requires that core samples be selected so

that the pore radii distribution of the sample represents that of the reservoir. The
data obtained in the test are used to define initial water saturation distribution in the
reservoir as a function of the height above the hydrocarbon-water contact, and to
furnish pore throat size and distribution data that are helpful in identifying various
rock types present in the formation.

Measurement Techniques

Three commonly utilized techniques for measuring capillary pressure data are:

the restored state cell technique (Bruce and Welge 1947);

the centrifugal technique (Slobod, Chambers, and Prehn 1951);

 the mercury injection technique (Purcell 1949).

All three techniques furnish multiple saturation values so as to define water

saturation as a function of capillary pressure. The restored state technique has one
advantage over the other two: water is present in the core samples, which allows
electrical properties to be measured along with capillary pressure. The centrifugal
technique is the most rapid and is the best for poorly consolidated rocks, provided
they have been mounted in sleeves with screens over the sample ends. The mercury
injection technique yields the maximum number of data points. It is the best one for
obtaining pore throat distribution data, but the sample will be filled with mercury at
the conclusion of the test and will have no further value.

Figure 1 (Schematic of restored state capillary pressure cell) is a schematic of the

restored state capillary pressure cell.

Figure 1

Clean, dry samples are weighed, evacuated, pressure-saturated with simulated

formation brine, and again weighed. Multiple samples of varying permeability can be
run in one cell. The nonwetting phase is introduced at a low and constant pressure.
This low pressure injection, which acts as a driving force to remove the water, is
counterbalanced by the capillary retentive forces. When no further water is moving
from the core at the imposed pressure level, the sample is removed and weighed.
The water saturation remaining in the core is then determined gravimetrically.

The pressure imposed on the sample in the laboratory is equivalent to the pressure
difference that exists between the wetting and nonwetting fluid phases. This in turn is
proportional to the pressure difference between the wetting and nonwetting phase in
the reservoir, which is related to the height of a given saturation above the original
water-oil level and the oil and water hydrostatic gradient. Figure 2 (Pressure
differential (PC) between water and hydrocarbon versus height and water saturation)
illustrates this concept.

Figure 2

As the hydrocarbon column increases in height, the buoyant force of the hydrocarbon
column increases. Water saturation is therefore pushed from the pore space and
reduced to lower values as the height above the free water surface increases.

In Figure 3 (Capillary pressure curves representing different depositional

environments) we see examples of capillary pressure data for rocks that represent
three different depositional environments.
 Figure 3

Note that the higher permeability rocks have the lowest water saturation at any given
capillary pressure, thus yielding a smaller transition zone. There are some
suggestions, however, that this may hold true only at lower capillary pressures. The
capillary pressure that yields a given water saturation is a function of the rock-
wetting characteristics. Typically, this contact angle varies between the laboratory
and the reservoir. Capillary pressure is also a function of the interfacial tension
between the fluids in the test core at the time of testing, which differs from the
reservoir value. One of the major uses of capillary pressure data is for defining the
initial water saturation of the reservoir.

Water Saturation versus Height

Equations 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 (below) may be used to correct the laboratory measured
capillary pressure to an equivalent height above the free water level in the reservoir.
The free water level is defined as the depth where the capillary pressure is zero; for
practical purposes, it is the depth at which a high permeability and porosity reservoir
rock would show no residual oil saturation as the zone of 100% water saturation is
approached.
 System Conta Cosine Interfaci T x Cosine 
ct  al
angle Tension
 T

Laborator Air- 0 1.0 72 72

y water

Oil- 30 0.866 48 42
water

Air- 140 0.765 480 367

mercury

Air-oil 0 1.0 24 24

Reservoir Water- 30 0.866 30 26

oil

Water- 0 1.0 50* 50

gas

*Pressure and temperature dependent. Reasonable value to depth of 5000 feet.

Table 1. Typical interfacial tension and contact angle values for a wafer-wet system

The equations require knowledge of the interfacial tension of the fluids, both in the
laboratory and in the reservoir. Some estimate must also be made of the contact
angle in the reservoir. For water-wet systems, the values reported in Table 1 may be
used as an approximation for those two variables if no further information is
available. Schowalter (1976) discusses the importance of capillary pressure and
presents data that may be used for estimating the parameters required in the three
equations. Examples of conversions of capillary pressure to reservoir height have also
been presented by Keelan in the manual published by Core Laboratories, Inc., entitled
Special Core Analysis.

(1)

or

But

(2)

Therefore
 (3)

Where:

h = height above free water table, ft or m

Pc = capillary pressure, psi or kPa
 = interfacial tension, dynes/cm
= contact angle, degrees
pw = density of brine, g/cm3
ph = density of hydrocarbon, g/cm3 g = gravity term used to convert density to fluid
gradient
R = subscript used to indicate initial reservoir conditions

L = subscript used to indicate laboratory conditions

Pore Throat Distribution

Capillary pressure data obtained from mercury injection tests can be converted to
equivalent pore radii, and Figure 4 (Cumulative pore throat distribution for different
depositional environments)
 Figure 4

illustrates plots of pore entry radius developed from the capillary pressure curves of
Figure 3 . These data have been helpful in rock typing and in selection of net pay
(Jodry 1972; McKenzie 1975).

Electrical Properties
Electrical measurements made in the laboratory on cores define, for a given
formation, the parameters that are used in electric log calculations of water
saturation. The measured properties include the resistivity of the core at 100% water
saturation (Ro), at other saturations (Rt), and the resistivity of the brine (Rw). The
relationship between rock properties and water saturation is as follows:

(1)

(2)

or

(3)

Where:

Sw = formation brine saturation, fraction

Rw = formation brine resistivity, ohmmeters

Rt = true formation resistivity, ohmmeters

Ro = true resistivity of 100% brine-saturated rock, ohm-meters

F = formation resistivity factor Ro/Rw

 = measured porosity, fraction

a = intercept on F versus  plot

n = saturation exponent, slope of RI versus Sw plot

m = cementation exponent (slope of F versus  plot)

By using these equations we can refine log calculations and need no longer rely on
estimates presented in the literature.

Formation Factor versus Porosity

The formation factor (F) has been defined (Archie 1942) as the resistivity of a 100%
water saturated rock (Ro) divided by the resistivity of the saturating brine (Rw). When
the measured formation factor is plotted against measured porosity, the slope of the
resulting line yields the cementation exponent (m). This is illustrated in Figure 1 (Plot
of formation factor versus porosity, illustrating variation in intercept "a"), along with
limits observed in laboratory tests.

Figure 1

Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation

As water saturation decreases in a given sample, the true resistivity rises. This occurs
because less water and subsequently fewer ions are available to conduct electricity.
The resistivity index (RI) is defined as the true resistivity (R t) at any saturation
divided by the resistivity at 100% saturation (Ro). Figure 2 (Plot of sesistivity index
versus water saturation for range of measured values of the slope"n") shows a typical
plot of the resistivity index versus water saturation over a range of laboratory
measured data.

Figure 2

Note that the saturation exponent (n) is the slope of the resistivity index versus water
saturation line.

In rare cases, both m and n values exceed the limits illustrated on the figures. For
example, if the rock matrix contains conductive matrix components, the n value often
falls outside the illustrated limits. The calculation of water saturation is very sensitive
to m as porosity decreases, and use of an incorrect m value will yield water
saturation errors of 50% pore space.

Clay Effects

The presence of clay can suppress rock resistivity, and yield lower m and variable n
values. The water saturation equation that was developed to accommodate the
presence of clays that conduct electricity becomes more complex than that given in
Equation 3. The saturation equation that incorporates measured cation exchange
capacity effects caused by clays is given by the Waxman-Smits-Thomas equations
(1968,1974):

(4)

Where:

F*= Fa (1 + Rw B Qv) (5)

(6)

Where, in addition to the definition of nomenclature given after Equation 4, the

following apply:

F* = formation resistivity factor independent of clay conductivity = a*/ m*

n* = saturation exponent independent of clay conductivity

B = specific counterion activity, 1/ohm-m/equiv/liter

Qv = quantity of cation exchangeable clay present, meq/ml of pore space

CEC = cation exchange capacity, meq/100 gm

ma= grain density of rock matrix, g/cm3

a = equation coefficient associated with m*

m* = cementation exponent (slope of F* vs  plot)

Neglecting the cation exchange capacity — that is, using Equation 4 rather than 5 —
yields pessimistic estimates of hydrocarbons in place (see Koerperich 1975; Keelan
and McGinley 1979). With the present extent of knowledge, the cation exchange
capacity can only be reliably determined on rock samples from the formation being
evaluated.

The Waxman-Smits-Thomas equation requires a trial and error solution, as the water
saturation (Sw) appears on both sides of Equation 5. Programs for hand-held
calculators have been published by Bush and Jenkins (1977) that allow the
calculation to be made more easily. Keelan and McGinley (1979) have shown how the
measured laboratory values of m and n may be modified to furnish the m* and n*
values required for the Waxman-Smits-Thomas equations. Table 1., below, illustrates
the differences in calculated water saturation that may occur when using m and n
values for clean sand versus values developed for use in the Waxman-Smits-Thomas
equations. Note the pessimistic estimate of hydrocarbons in place that will result if
the clean sand rather than the latter equations for shaly sand are used.

Waxman-Smits-Thomas Laboratory Data Clean Sand

a=1.0 a* =1.0 a=1.0 a=1.0

m=1.63 m*=51.92 m=1.63 m=2.0

n=2.38 n*=2.87 n=2.38 n=2.0

(1) (2) (3)

No. Porosit Sw: % PV Sw: % PV Sw: % PV

y

1 20.4 47. 55. 66.

2 17.8 56. 68. 87.

3 16.3 57. 72. 95.

4 20.1 54. 64. 79.

5 14.3 61. 80. 111.

6 25.2 59. 59. 69.

7 25.4 55. 51. 58.

8 27.3 57. 51. 57.

9 17.5 74. 73. 95.

10 20.0 60. 70. 88.

11 17.4 68. 75. 99.

12 14.4 74. 86. 119.

(1) Laboratory data correctly adjusted to *values (equation 2)

(2) Laboratory values used as reported
(3) Clean sand values assumed correct and ignoring clay and shale effects (equation
4)

Table 1. Comparative values of calculated water saturation, using clean sand and
shaly sand equations, for a shaly formation (from Keelan and McGurley, 1979,
reprinted by permission of SPWLA)

Relative Permeability
Definitions

Relative permeability is a dimensionless term that has importance when two or more
fluids move through the pore spaces—for example, oil and water. Specific or absolute
permeability is the permeability of a porous medium to one fluid at 100% saturation.
Effective permeability is the permeability to a given phase when more than one
phase saturates the porous medium. The effective permeability, then, is a function of
saturation. Relative permeability to a given phase is defined as the ratio of effective
permeability to the absolute or, in some cases, a base permeability. Relative
permeability, then, is also a function of saturation.

In data that were generated prior to 1973, the specific permeability to air was often
used as the base permeability. Since that time, the common base has been the
hydrocarbon permeability in the presence of irreducible water. For an oil-water
reservoir, this would mean the base permeability would be effective permeability to
oil at irreducible water. For a gas reservoir, the base permeability would be that to
gas in the presence of irreducible water. Figure 1 (Gas-water relative permeability
curves) illustrates gas-water relative permeability data when water displaces gas.

Figure 1
Imbibition versus Drainage

The terms imbibition and drainage are also employed when discussing relative
permeability tests. Their meanings imply what is happening in the pore space to the
wetting phase as relative permeability tests are measured. If the wetting phase is
decreasing, that phase is draining and the curve is called a drainage curve. If the
wetting phase is increasing or being imbibed during the test, the curve is referred to
as an imbibition curve ( Figure 1 ).

For a water-wet reservoir, the drainage curves apply during the time that water is
draining from the reservoir and hydrocarbons are accumulating. Once the reservoir
rock or laboratory sample has attained an equilibrium water-saturation value and the
water is subsequently increased by natural water influx or the introduction of coring
or test fluids, the imbibition curves apply. (In oil-wet rock, a reduction in the oil phase
by water flooding would be referred to as a drainage curve.) These data are required
in many reservoir engineering calculations, and the laboratory tests that develop
them should follow the same saturation history as that in the reservoir.

Laboratory Methods for Measuring Relative Permeability

Two major laboratory methods have evolved to measure relative permeability. These
are referred to as the steady-state and nonsteady-state techniques.

STEADY STATE: The steady-state test, the older of the two methods, is made at low
flow rates, and the test apparatus contains upstream and downstream mixer heads to
remove capillary end effects. Most research groups prefer data obtained from this
test. Two fluids are injected simultaneously into a core sample and the water
saturation is increased slowly. This simulates the slow increase in water saturation
that would occur in the formation between the injection and producing wells.
Saturation increase is monitored by measuring the gain in weight occurring in the
sample or by X-ray technique.

NONSTEADY STATE: The nonsteady-state technique uses a viscous oil and is normally
made at a higher flow rate than that present in the reservoir. It is this higher rate that
sometimes yields pessimistic estimates of recovery from rocks of intermediate
wettability. Heaviside and Black (1983) have analyzed the two techniques and
presented recommendations on the most appropriate way to measure water-oil
relative permeability depending upon the wetting characteristics of the rock.

Wettability Effects

The natural preference of a porous medium, which causes one fluid to adhere to its
surfaces rather than another, is referred to as wettability. A water-wet porous medium
causes water to adhere to its surfaces. The wettability of a rock has a dramatic
influence on relative permeability curves. It is therefore necessary that the core
samples tested in the laboratory reflect the actual formation wettability, and that
initial water saturation in the test sample be of the same magnitude and have the
same spatial location as it has in the reservoir. This need has led to the recovery of
"native state" cores. These are cores taken with crude oil or with other oil-base fluids
that do not alter the wettability or water saturation present in the recovered core.

Figure 2 (Effects of wettability on water-oil relative permeability: imbibition data for

Torpedo sandstone) illustrates the effects of core wettability on water-oil relative
permeability measurements (Owens and Archer 1971).

Figure 2

These data indicate that as the rock becomes more oil-wet, the relative permeability
to oil decreases and the relative permeability to water increases at any given
saturation. This results in unfavorable recovery efficiency. It also indicates that the
residual oil saturation in intermediate to oil-wet rocks is a function of the volume of
water that flows through the core sample, and that the relative permeability to water
existing at floodout will be much higher for the oil-wet formation. An interesting
observation is that the reduction of capillary retentive forces in the oil-wet rock allows
a lower residual oil saturation to be achieved in the oil-wet rock if economics would
support continued water injection.

Wettability may be estimated from shapes of relative permeability curves; however, it

should be remembered that a similar shift in the relative permeability curves can also
be caused by changes in other rock properties. This was documented by Morgan and
Gordon (1970).

Petrographic Studies
Sidewall and conventional cores, as well as cuttings recovered from wells, can be
used for petrographic studies. Progress in instrumentation now allows us to look into
the pore spaces and examine samples at magnifications of 40,000 times or greater.
These various microscopic measurements are complementary in nature, and all may
be made on a single sample that is representative of a given depth. Several such
tests are detailed below.

Thin Section Analysis

In thin section analysis, samples are mounted on glass and ground to a

uniform thickness of 0.03 mm. They are studied with a petrographic scope
under normal and polarized light. The minerals that are present are
identified, and the estimated porosity, median grain diameter, and degree
of rounding and sorting are recorded. The accumulation of minerals can be
ascertained, and the changes in composition, texture, and cement that
have occurred after deposition can be determined. These studies use
magnifications of up to 600 times normal size. Thin section analysis is a
less successful method for identifying clays, but there may be cases where
a particular clay is abundant enough to be seen and identified. Figure 1
(Thin section microscope display) shows a thin section sample; Table 1.

Figure 1
, below, depicts a core description made from this type of analysis.

Sample depth: 4640 feet Grain size:

Color: Medium gray Minimum: 0.06 mm

Name: Fine-grained sandstone Maximum: 0.51 mm

Sorting: Well Average: 0.24 mm

Lithification: Well Angularity and shape: Angular to

subrounded

Texture: Massive Grain contacts: Concavo-convex

Detrital Cements- Matrix-% Visible porosity-%

grains-% %

Quartz: 69 Secondary Detrital: 2 Intergranular: 5

Chert: 3 quartz Authigenic: 4 Grain-moldic: 2

Feldspars overgrowth Dissolution: 1

(total): 2 s: 7

Feldspar Microporosity: 1

Lithic overgrowth Fracture: -

fragments: 4 s: Trace

Calcite: -

Pyrite:
Trace

Measured porosity: 7.4%

Measured permeability: 38.3 md.

Table 1. Thin section data

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning electron microscope photographs provide a three-dimensional view of a

pore space with a magnification of up to approximately 40,000 times normal. Both
distribution and morphology of clays within the pore space can be studied with this
type of display. Normally, samples for analysis are first coated with a thin film of
conductive material and then bombarded with electrons. This causes a secondary
electron emission that yields a visual image such as that shown in Figure 2 (Electron
microscope display) plus X-ray photons that are then available for elemental analysis.
 Figure 2

The latter assists in defining clay type and chemistry.

Clays influence core analysis analytical procedures, permeability and porosity

magnitude, well-completion techniques, and response of the downhole logs. The
ability to identify clay types, and to observe the microporosity present in both clay
linings and in carbonates, are two of the most important uses of SEM information.

(Sample depth: 4640 ft.)

Mineral Bulk sample Net clay fraction (4.2% of bulk sample)

Quartz 91

Feldspars 5

Calcite —

Kaolinite 3 70
Chlorite — —

Illite/Mica 1 30

Total 100% 100%

Table 2. X-ray diffraction data

X-ray Diffraction

All crystalline materials reflect X-rays from atomic planes within the Crystal that yield
a unique diffraction pattern. This allows the identification of minerals, including those
too small to be identified by thin section studies. Improved clay mineral identification
results when clay-sized particles of four microns or less are separated from large
sand grain particles and X-rayed as a unit. Table 2., above, is an example of such
data.

Cathodoluminescence

Thin sections of rock that are placed within a vacuum chamber will glow with color
when hit with electrons. If the electron emitter is mounted on a petrographic
microscope, immediate comparison of samples by polarized light and luminescence is
possible, and growth rings similar to those of trees may be observed in individual
crystals. West (1978) suggests that these rings have proved to be correlatable over
large distances, and that their color pattern reflects trace elements present in
formation waters at various stages of the crystal history. The color pattern, then,
offers insight into water temperature and chemistry during the history of the rocks.

Micropaleontology and Palynology

Micropaleontology is the study of fossils that are not identifiable with the naked eye.
Both the petrographic microscope and scanning electron microscope are essential
tools in these studies. Palynology is a specialized area of micropaleontology, that
deals with acid-insoluble organic plant fossils. Included in this classification are plant
spores and pollen, which are associated with terrestrial environments. LeRoy (1977)
suggests that other microfossils are associated with the marine environment, and
that still others, typical of fresh and brackish water, are found in transitional
environments. These data, when observed in core samples and related to
sedimentary structures, texture, and lithologic characteristics, aid in the classification
of environments of deposition. Figure 1 (Terrestrial and marine microfossils) presents
some examples of terrestrial and marine microfossils.
 Figure 1

Trace Element Identification

Kukal (1971) indicates that trace elements present in shales have been used
successfully as guides to major variations in water salinity, and hence serve to
differentiate between fresh water and marine sediments. The presence of trace
elements is related to the cation exchange capacity of clay minerals located within
the shales. Clays have tremendous surface area and are often electrically
imbalanced. Trace elements are adsorbed on clay surfaces, and many trace metals
survive at these absorptions points. Boron, chromium, copper, nickel, vanadium,
rubidium, and lithium are generally found in higher percentages in marine clay
sediments deposited in salty water. Some studies have indicated lead associated with
fresh water sediments.

Insoluble Residues
Tests for insoluble residues are conducted to determine the materials remaining after
rock samples have been digested in hydrochloric, formic, or acetic acid. Ireland
(1977) reports that quartz, chert, pyrite, and clay are common residues. The
reporting of data may simply identify residues or may furnish their weight
percentages as well. The techniques for such studies are also discussed by Swanson
(1981). Residue identification helps to specify rock environment.

Computer-Assisted Tomography (CAT) Scanning

A computer-assisted tomography, or CAT scan, produces an image of the internal
structure of a cross-sectional slice through an object by reconstructing a matrix of x-
ray attenuation coefficients. CAT scanning is a non-destructive x-ray technology that
is most familiar through its use in medicine, but which has been found to have oil
industry applications as well. Applications relating to core analysis include (1)
visualizing the extent of mud invasion, (2) detecting fractures, (3) characterizing the
lithology of cores contained in opaque preservation material, rubber-sleeve core
barrels and stainless-steel pressure vessels, (4) screening cores prior to flow tests
and (5) correlating scan data to porosity, permeability and lithology (Hunt et al.,
1988).

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Logging

The NMR logging tool has been used for a number of years to measure in situ rock
properties such as porosity, permeability and residual oil saturation. More recently,
nuclear magnetic resonance technology has been applied as a tool for core analysis
(Edelstein et al., 1988). NMR imaging enables the analyst to visualize fluids in a
porous medium in dimensions, on a sub-millimeter scale and thus to study porosity
and fluid saturation distributions, along with fractures and drilling mud invasion. NMR
images only mobile fluids within the pore structure.