Lecture 1 ar tai 2

Word meaning, or introduction to lexical semantics

Lecture 2. Meaning variation.
Lexicology: Morphology and semantics
Language as a communicative system: Lexical semantic – meaning and meaning relations.
Inclusion= hyponymy - a hyponym shares a type-of relationship with its hyperonym. For
example, pigeon, crow, eagle and seagull are all hyponyms of bird (their hyperonym).
Exclusion = opposition (single – married; short – long)
Overlapping = synonymy (face; mug; visage) Words that have multiple meanings (called
polysemous words) are often untranslatable, especially with all their connotations.
· Polysemy - is the capacity for a sign to have multiple meanings.
· Homonymy – words similar in sound but different in meaning (Homonyms)
PVZ:"'Mine is a long and sad tale!' said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing.
"'It is a long tail, certainly,' said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse's tail; 'but why
do you call it sad?'"
· paronymy - words with similar form but different meaning or use (Paronyms)
PVZ:children and childish
A word is polysemous if it can be used to express different meanings. The difference
between the meanings can be obvious or subtle. Two or more words are homonyms if they
either sound the same (homophones), have the same spelling (homographs), or both, but do
not have related meanings.
Peculiarities of the word meaning: One meaning, many words/forms (face; visage)
Synonymy - several forms or shapes and one meaning. Take 1 – reach out and hold. Take 2 –
use a bus to go somewhere from one place to another.
Several meanings
Polysemy - the meaning is related. In the homonymy meanings are not related.
Isomorphism – sameness or similarity: one sign/form – one meaning.
Non-isomorphic – one sign/form – many meanings.
Referent – konkretus dalykas (pvz: strazdas, apuokas, strutis)
Denotatum – bendras dalykas ( pvz: paukštis)
Conceptual – basic meaning, conceptualises our experience. It is the core meaning of the word,
which describes our knowledge/experience. These are words usually given in dictionaries
Connotative – more informal meaning arise from speakers emotional attitude or social context.
More EXTRA meaning. There can be emotive, formal/colloquial, slang and MANY MORE
connotatations. :D gelbekit, mano smegenys fried chicken. Stylistic – related to specific social
situations where the word might be used (knyga-traktatas). Affective usually shows emotion,
close relationships, words might be positive, negative. (policininkas - mentas; father - daddy)

PVZ: daddy (triggggrrd)– emotional, an address to someone’s kin. Father – more formal.
Conceptional – include denotative and referential meanings. Some words have only referential
meaning. Referential words (it; this; that; here; there; yesterday; today; tomorrow;…; šis, tas, čia,
ten, vakar, šiandien, rytoj).
Two styles of connotations
1. Emotive (express speakers attitude): Amelioration (positive PVZ: daddy) and
Pejoration (negative PVZ: bastard).
2. Stylistic (refer to social context): Formal (fortitude; rezidencija) Neutral
(courage; namai) Informal (guts; skylė)
Systemic| dictionary: bastard; brute
Contextual: nebūk kiaulė
Lexical and grammatical meaning: Lexical (realizes a concept or emotion) Found in a
dictionary. Grammatical – (expresses relations between words; a closed set and also represents
plurality, case, gender, degree)

Polysemy: related meanings.

The relationship between meaning is motivated, or related, explainable.
Related diachronically or synchronically.
Diachronically: ear 1 (human) < Lat. Auris; ear 2 (of a grain plant that contains seed) < Lat.
Acus. (Tai yra polysemy).
Arthur and his driving licence expired last Thursday. Expired – die; to be no longer valid. (Tai
yra homonymy).
Synchronic - how language is used at the moment
Non- linear relationship:
Metaphor (based on similarity; transfer between different domains) Don’t talk with your
mouth full. It was beautifully situated with views down the mouth of the river.
Metonymy (based on contiguity; transfer in the same domain) Don’t talk with your mouth
full. There are too many mouths to feed.

Direct vs indirect, primary and secondary meaning

Direct (literal) is readily recognized without context: Mouth 1 – human
Indirect (figurative) is understood from the context on the basis of the direct meaning:
mouth 2 of the river, mouth of the vase, tunnel etc.
Abstract vs concrete meaning
Concrete – less general, refers to what we can see, taste, touch etc. – Table, cat and etc.
Abstract – more general. Love, life.
Linguistic semantics – study of meaning expressed by human language.
Lexical semantics – subfield of LS focused on the meaning of word and word groups.
Meaning and motivation
Motivation – explainability of meaning or understanding meaning from the phonemic and
morphemic composition and structural pattern.
Phonetic – similarity between the sound and meaning.
Morphological – well established meanings of morphemes. Retype – morpheme show repetition,
Semantic – explaining of meaning.
Elevation – kai keičiasi bloga žodžio reikšmė į pozityvią. Elevation refers to a change in the
connotations of a word, occuring in one of two ways. A word that loses its negative connotaions
is an example of elevation, but elevetation can also occur when, rather than losing bad
connotations, a word gains positive ones.

One example of elevation through loss of negative associations is intensifying expresions like
'terribly' and awfully'. These words have lost their negative stigmas and now mean little more
than 'very', this is evident in that we can now use expressions such as 'terribly good.'

An example of a word gaining positive connotations would be "sick". It has obvious negative
connotations of illness that are still connected to the word today, but it has also become a popular
slang term for something cool. for example, "that's sick!"
Degradation – atvirkščiai. 'A villain', for example, was originally a man who worked on a
farm, or villa. Such a person was believed to have a low sense of morality because his social
status was low, and the word came to mean 'a scoundrel.' EXMPLS: knave — a boy; gossip -
a godparent; silly – happy.

WORKSHOP 2. WORD MEANING. TYPES OF MEANING

1. Briefly describe the area of study of lexical semantics and how it differs from
syntactic (and other) semantics. (205 psl.)
Lexical semantics is dealing with word and word groups, meaning and relations of meaning;
it is not concerned with meaning of smaller units, like morphemes or phonemes, nor larger
units, such as phrases. Such units would only concern lexical semantics if it was relevant to
explain word meaning.

2. Language is often defined as a system of arbitrary signs. Explain what makes

language different from other systems of signs, such as, for example, traffic signs.
(213 psl.)
most of the meaningful elements in languages are arbitrary, with no intrinsic connection to
their meaning. This is a key characteristic of language: Arbitrariness. In linguistics,
the absence of any natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its
sound or form.
Well, I guess dar kitaip sakant, nes angliškai neina paaiškint. Language is arbitrary nes
ne visi ženklai kalboje yra susiejami tiesiogiai su reikšmėm? Ir kad vienas ženklas
nebūtinai reiškia vieną dalyką, kaip yra su kelio ženklais.
3. Give your understanding of meaning and why it is so difficult to define. Make use
of the following examples of meaningful/meaningless utterances in English
and any other languages that you might know: unbelievable, believableun, oops,
 we, wee, cap, cik, kick, ku-kū, goblin, I, put.
Meaning is difficult to understand because a lot of meanings of words are connected to non-
linguistic reality (items in the world) and to truly understand meaning we should
know the entire universe of a certain speaker. There also are many different forms to
describe one single meaning.
4. Give your understanding of the triangle of signification and define its key
notions: form, idea, referent, denotatum.(217 psl)
Form – written and/or spoken form of a word. Cat - /c/ - /k/ - pronunciation doesn’t change
while it is seen as the same word.
Concept – idea behind the word, what the form stands for
Referent – is an item in the non-linguistic reality, aka object of any kind.
Denotatum – denotatum could be easily defined as a class of things (category). Relationship
between word forms and specific referents.
This triangle captures a connection between the outside world and our languages.
5. Identify conceptual and connotative meanings in the following words: mother
(conc., mom (conn.) ; girl (conc.) , lass (conn. Aff.) , sheila (conn. aff) ; sweet
(conc.) , sweetie (conn aff.) , bastard (conn. aff) ; offer (conc.), proposition
(conn.stylisticl); a piece of writing (conc.), treatise (stylistic conn.); knygiūkštė
(conn. aff.), knyga (conc.) , traktatas (conn.stylistcl) ; policininkas (conc), mentas
(conn. Neg. aff.); užmigti (conc.) , smigti (conn. aff); rezidencija (conn.stylisticl),
namai (conc.). Specify the type of connotative meaning (affective or stylistic).
Make use of a dictionary, if necessary. (229 psl.)
Conceptual – very general meanings of words, usually a form that is given in dictionary.
Conceptual meaning is necessary for human communication as is usually gives a link
from verbal to non-verbal item.
Connotative meaning usually provides some extra meaning to the word, it might give new
emotional meaning, can appear more formal, colloquial. Etc. Stylistic – related to
specific social situations where the word might be used (knyga-traktatas)
Affective usually shows emotion, close relationships, words might be positive,
negative
6. Give your understanding of lexical and grammatical meaning. In the
following sentences identify elements that carry lexical and grammatical
meaning: It was a very enjoyable weekend and many congratulations are due to
Ann and Paul. Nerandu naujo muzikos įrašo. Nerandu naujų muzikos įrašų.
Grammatical meaning is mostly concerned with meaning of separate morphemes
which give the word a new meaning. Plural, gender, tense, etc.
Not only with morphemes (‘s ,etc.), but also with words which add something to
grammar (auxiliary) and grammatical structures (there is, there are).
Lexical meanings are simply meanings of words, word groups and their relationship.

7. Give your understanding of the notion of the motivation of meaning. In the

following examples, identify words (and their elements) that, in your opinion, are
phonetically, morphologically or semantically motivated:
EN: quack, wow, hiss, gurgle – all phonetically motivated; LT: gegutė; (lapai) čeža;
 (karvės) mūkia;- all phonetically motivated. Meaning of these words is also their
phonetic form. Imitative words.
EN: retype, overeat, underline; LT: perbraukti; surišti; antkaklis; -
morphologically motivated. Some element of a word gives a certain meaning to
each word it is attached.
EN: foot of the mountain, mouth of the river; (computer) desktop; bonnet of a
vehicle;
LT: kalno papėdė; medžio liemuo;kompiuterio pelė; knygos nugarėlė. – semantically
motivated. Semantical motivation varies in every language, since mostly all
languages have (ordon’t) different metaphors to describe the same entities in the
world. Semantical motivation means that one can explain the meaning with primary
meaning of word.

Motivation of meaning means that the word meaning is related to its form.

LECTURE 3 WORKSHOP opaaa

1. Linguistic signs are often claimed to be non-isomorphic. Explain the notion of (non-)
isomorphism. Provide examples. ICH WEISS NICHT
Non-isomorphisim is an idea that one single sign may be connected to various meaning and not
to a single, very strict one. For example, a word “salty” can not only refer to a taste , but also to a
person’s character. :)))
Isomorphisim, on the other hand, is something that is strictly confined to one meaning and when
you see a sign, you only know that it means one thing and nothing else. For example, good ol’
traffic sign ‘PLYTA’ , ir zinai kad vaziuot negalima.

2. Give your understanding of polysemy and homonymy. Explain why a distinction

between them is often problematic. Include examples.

Polysemy - is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple
meanings that are kind of similar. E.g. Crane
1. a bird
2. a type of construction equipment
3. to strain out one's neck
Primary meaning - meaning of word primarily chosen by natives (mouth - žmogaus burna :D);
visi kiti meaning yra secondary.
Direct ir indirect are similar to primary and secondary. Direct meaning is immediately
understood in text and most conventional. Father - male parent. Indirect jau kai reikia readint
tarp eilučių.
Concrete ir abstract , nu tai self explanatory : what can be touched/seen/felt directly ir kiti ten
feelings/invisible shit and so on
Homonymy - a homonym is one of a group of words, which look the same, that have different
meanings. E.g. left (past tense of leave) and left (opposite of right). Spring (spyruoklė; pavasaris;
šokinėti, šaltinis*)

WORKSHOP 4. SOURCES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. SEMANTIC CHANGE

1. Describe the native English vocabulary identifying its main lexical and grammatical
features. Provide examples.

The term vocabulary has at least two meanings. The first is synonymous with lexicon and refers
to the total word stock of a particular language. The second refers to the words assosiated with a
particular specialist activity ( vocabulary of engineering)

Anglosaxon words – short, concrete, everyday words, landscape, colors, animals, body parts,
common adjectives.(dog,black, nose)
Words that are older might have irregular forms.

2. Briefly characterise the vocabulary of English, which at different periods was borrowed
from the languages enumerated below. Include examples.

A) Latin (part of latin came through french into english.) It is believed to have lent its vocabulary
in the Old English in the domain of military clothing, religion, buildings and settlements(
strata>>street)
B) Greek a large number of technical terms and scientific terms <mathematics ,philosophy,
philology>
C) French English adopted complete forms and morphemes. Loanwords came at different
periods and from different domains of life. Governing bodies<parliament>, military
rangs<sergeant> Many animals that are kept at home <cow> but when they are used for eating
they become pork,beef,mutton they come from french
D) Scandinavian and other Germanic languages. These words came because of Viking raids.
Place names: Grimsby (farm)/ personal names (Davidson (asmenvardziu daryba)/words
beginning wt -SK/-SC (sky,score)

3. Study the following words in a dictionary. Identify their ultimate

source of origin.
Turquoise, FRENCH
boy, OLD ENGLISH
pork, FRENCH
library, LATIN CIA OLD FRENCH
street, LATIN
mosquito, LATIN THROUGH SPANISH
child, ENGLISH
culture, LATIN THROUGH FRENCH
mathematics, GREEK
landscape, DUTCH
sombrero, SPANISH
apartment, ITALIAN THROUGH FRENCH
tobacco, SPANISH
church, GREEK
revolution, LATIN THROUGH FRENCH
judge, LATIN TH FRENCH
metaphor, GREEK-LATIN-FRENCH-ENGLISH
crime, OLD FRENCH FROM LATIN
drama, GREEK
amber, ARABIC VIA OLD FRENCH
bicycle, GREEK
question. LATIN TH FRENCH

4. Discuss the major non-linguistic causes of semantic change. Make use of the following
entry of the polysemous word cell adopted from the OALDE (2010), especially meanings 3-
8.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL FIELDS.<<internet>> SOCIAL POLITICAL
CHANGES <<brexit>> zodziai kurie atsiranda ju prireikus is ivairiu kontekstu

Cell
1 a room for one or more prisoners in a prison or police station.
2 a small room without much furniture where a monk or a nun lives
3 the smallest unit of living matter that can exist on its own. All plant and animals are
made up of cells. <<scientiific>>
4 each of the small sections that together make a larger structure, for example a
honeycomb <<life developement>>
5 a device for producing an electric current, for example, by the action of chemicals or
light, e.g. a photoelectric cell <<technological>>
6 a small group of people who work as part of a larger political organisation, especially
<<social>> secretly, e.g. a terrorist cell
 7 one of the small squares in a spreadsheet computer program in which you enter a single
piece of data <<technological>>
8 (informal, especially AmE) cell-phone <<technology>>

5. Give your understanding of metonymy and metaphor as the main mechanisms of

semantic change. Identify the mechanism of change in the following cases:

Head1 (part of a human body)—head2 (leader in an organisation) metaphor

Leg1 (part of a human body)—leg2 (of a table) metaphor
Skirt1 (a piece of clothing)—skirt2 (a woman) metonimy
Jacket1 (a piece of clothing)—jacket2 (skin of a baked potato) metaphor
Hand1 (part of a human body)—hand2 (worker on a farm) metonimy<cuz in the same
domain>
Desktop1 (top of a desk)—desktop2 (computer screen) metaphor
Fox1 (wild animal)—fox2 (skin of a fox) metonimy

Generalizasion – wider meaning

specific-narrow meaning

1.narrowing 2.narrowing 3.widening 4.slightly more specific 5.more specific 6.specific 7.

9. Give your understanding of elevation and degradation as types of results of semantic

change. Provide examples.

Elevation (or melioration) is the semantic change in the word which rises it from humble
beginning to a position of greater importance, e.g. minister in earlier times meant merely “a
servant”.
Degradation (or degeneration) is the semantic change, by which, for one reason or another, a
word falls into disrepute, or acquires some derogatory emotive charge, e.g. silly originally meant
“happy”.
Villain - farmer > bad boi.
Queen - woman > ruler

10. Explain how to account for the fact that some time ago the verb will, now used as a
grammatical means signalling futurity, meant ‘to wish, be willing to’ and was used as a full
verb.
Grammaticalization – when full lexical words gradually raise their lexical meaning and become
grammatical. Adopts a grammatical meaning/function. Will - future tense

2017-05-10 SYNTAGMATIC / PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS

Syntagmatic Paradigmatic

Syntagmatic relations define meaning interrelation with other words;

through context ; linear vertical
He got a letter. GET1 GET2
GET3
He got home. Acquire become go
He got tired. Obtain turn move
Relations of words in a sentence; group relations, arranged vertically
Between words in line synonimity, sets of words

Syntagmatic r.: combining power

Distribution; context; co-text - synonymous.
Combinability - combining power of words, ability to take words as partners in
phrases/sentences.
I put my new shoes on - valid.
new my put I shoes on - invalid.
There are two schools discussing combinability : British and American.
British : word combinability is based on meaning
American : focus on structural features of a sentence(?)

Notion of context.
4 meanings:
1) preceding and following utterances (co-text)
2) immediate physical situation
3) wider situation (political, scientific : ‘..in political context we can’t…’)
4) knowledge shared by participants of the conversation.

Valency and transitivity :

Lexical and grammatical relations are interrelated : books fly vs birds fly.
That is why some combinations are impossible.
 ● Valency - for verbs. Central element of the sentence is a verb. Attraction power of verbs.
● Transitivity - ability of verbs to connect items
The sun is shining. shine : subject (S).
I bought a book yesterday. buy : subject (S) + object (experiencer) + AdvMod (time).
They live in London. live : subject (S), AdvMod (place).

Syntactic and semantic valency.

Syntactic : the ability of verbs to take partners according to function in a sentence.
I wrote a letter.
Semantic : the ability of verbs to take partners according to meaning.
Country gained independence. (not dependence, you can lose independence, not
become dependent. Nu, you get it.) Some words connect to meaning.

Syntactic valency : obligatory / non-obligatory valence

Non-obligatory valency : sentence still makes sense when you remove an element.
Obligatory : sentence makes no sense when you remove an element.
Paul bought a book for 10 pounds.
Paul bought a book. +
Bought a book for 10 pounds. - (maybe in some context, but no)
Paul bought. -
Paul bought a book for. -
10 pounds - non obligatory, Paul - obligatory, a book - obligatory.
BUY : 3-valent, 2 obligatory : S, O-dir., 1 optional : AdvMod

She gave me a present.

GIVE : trivalent, OBL : S, O-dir, O-ind.

Semantic valency: (semantiniai linksniai)

Agent, Object, Location, Benefactor, Experiencer, Patient, Instrument, many more.
JOHN | GAVE | A BOOK | TO JANE.
Agent | indicates benefactor | Object | Benefactor
JOHN | WAS | SCARED.
Experiencer | |.

Syntactic VS Semantic valency.

Paul | hit | Bill | with a stone
S | P/V | O-Dir | AdvMod + O-ind
Agent | -- | Patient | Instrument
 Bill | was hit | by Paul | with a stone
S | P/V | O-dir | AdvMod
Patient | P/V | Agent | Instrument
Semantic roles are carried over even if word order is changed, syntactic roles stay the same.

Free combination

Words. Party : organise, throw, hold : you can make many phrases with one word. Such words
are compositional.
Collocations. Decision : make; do a decision - no. Collocations have limited replacements.
Idiom. Spill the beans : spill the peas (not). Most powerful connection. Conventionally accepted
word combinations which do not allow any changes.

2017-05-17 Paradigmatic relations

Context - semantic environment of a word? It is a non-verbal environment in which a word is

used (maybe a name?) Words preceding and following the unit in question.
“Is there too much light?” - turn off the light, if interpreted in class.
“It’s hot in here” - open the window, if interpreted in a building on a hot day.
Co-text - words before and after unit in question; most obvious examples are collocations. It is a
linguistic environment of a word

PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS (vertical)

Inclusion : hyponymy, meronymy, lexical gaps
Overlapping : sinonimy
Exclusion : complementation, continuity, antonymy

Inclusion deals with generality and specificity of word meanings.

Fruit : Apple - fruit is general, apple is more specific.
Inclusion is taxonomic, meaning that is is categorized and schematic, it groups most specific
words on top, and general on the bottom, like a tree. More general words include more specific
words.
(Inclusion) Hyponymy is a ‘kind of’ relations. ‘Kind of’ means that elements are of different
levels. For example there is a head of the group, which is called superordinate (fakin
prototype.) and ‘lesser’ , ‘kind of’ members - subordinate. In hyponymy, there are many
different items in a group (species of insects, types of trees, flowers).
To identify hyponymy you can use the entailment test:
If it is X, then it is Y > If it is a LILY (hyponym, subordinate), then it is a FLOWER
(superordinate/hyperonym)
First goes the subordinate , then the superordinate and so the ‘equation’ should make sense. If it
doesn’t, you’re stupid :))

(Inclusion) Meronimy is a relation which indicates that a thing is a part of something. Usually,
there is one small sub-item or many identical ones.
hand : finger - holonym : partonym
wheel : spoke - holonym : partonym
tree : branch - holonym : partonym
You can identify holonyms and partonyms like this :
A/An X is a part of Y. > A finger is a part of a hand. A wheel is a part of a car.

However, inclusion can sometimes be very marginal (relates meronimy and hyponymy).
For example, there are words and word groups that are ‘hyponyms’ and ‘meronyms’
Adults and their youngs - dog : puppy (general/more specific, but also dog is also closely
related to puppy and they usually always have a bond, so it is also like a holonym/partonym).

(Inclusion) Lexical gaps mean that one language has a certain word to describe and object or
something else, but the other language doesn’t have the same words, even though its
grammatical rules would allow it.
PARA (LT) is a word that is non-existent in English. In English you can use DAY/NIGHT/
24/7 to substitute it.
Sometimes such words are also a cultural thing and exist in one language because of different
customs, celebrations, habits.
Eskimos and 50 shades of snow. ; Lauktuvės ; Eketė.

Overlapping : synonymy is a similarity of words. At least 2 words that are very similar in
meaning can be called synonyms.
Synonyms can be words in the same language which are the same parts of speech, have a very
similar meaning and are interchangeable in several contexts. Their similarities must be more
visible than differences. Synonymity has degrees :
Absolute : words are changeable in (nearly) all contexts.
Near : words are changeable in some context.
(Overlapping) Synonymy : different similarity?
Some synonymous words might have different denotational meanings. The differences might be
language register (brave-courageous), some words might describe physical things, others feelings
(alone/lonely); some words might also have pejorative meanings (silly-foolish). There can also
be cultural differences (American-British English : garbage-rubbish)

2017-05-24 (Paradigmatic relations)

Exclusion is when meanings of words are excluded from meanings of other words.
Opposition ; continuity
up : down ; dead : alive - very harsh opposites
single-deck : double-deck ; Monday : Wednesday - not so harsh.
big : small - very opposite, but can have something in between.
spectacle : shoes - there’s a visible difference, very opposite

(Exclusion) Opposition
Complimentary opposites is a ‘binary’ relationship between two opposing words . It is almost
like 2 sides of a coin. They’re mutually exclusive, meaning that one side entails what the other
side isn’t. It can be dealt with an ‘equation’ like this:
If X is Y, then X is not W.
If she is DEAD, then she is not ALIVE.
We cannot use the gradeability test here, because opposites cannot be graded. Nothing can be
inserted in between:
She is more dead than alive; She’s rather alive.

(Exclusion : Opposition) Antonymy

Antonyms are usually adjectives. Their meanings lie on a continuous spectrum (hot-cold). There
are several kinds of antonyms, bet Irenka kalbėjo tik apie gradable opposites.
Gradable opposites means that two antonyms can have ‘grades’ in between (Hot - tepid -
lukewarm - cool - chilly - cold (Etc.)) (long - rather long - rather short - short)
Here we can apply the gradeability test.

(Exclusion : Opposition) Converses are words that refer to different roles happening in the
same situation.
parent - child ; teacher - student ; winner - loser ; employee - employer ; bequeath -
inherit.
Gradeability test cannot be applied here. But we can use mutual entailment test:
If A is B’s X, then B is A’s Y.
If Adam is Ben’s child, then Ben is Adam’s parent.
Usage of opposites:
Many opposites are adjectives and are often used in pairs. For example in idiomatic phrases like
Take it or leave it ; East or West home is best.

(Exclusion) Contiguity
Contiguity is conceptual continuity or relations between objects in reality (based on semantic
fields?)
Words are grouped into different fields based on a shared element of meaning. (colours, tools,
clothes, cooking).
COLOUR : blue, red, cherry, scarlet (Adjectives)
SEEING : see, stare, spectacles, binoculars, glasses, visible (various parts of speech)
KINSHIP : mother, father, brother, sister (mostly only nouns)

Words belonging to one area are not necessarily confined to one part of speech, they can be
many (example above). Words can also be split in different categories but still belong to one
single field (COOKING : Cutlery (fork, knife); Spices (salt, pepper), china (teapot, teacup,
plate), etc..)