Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Certificate in
Power System Modeling and Analysis

Training Course in

Load Flow Analysis

U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER

NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 2

Course Outline
1. The Load Flow Problem
2. Power System Models for Load Flow
Analysis
3. Gauss-Seidel Load Flow
4. Newton-Raphson Load Flow
5. Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow
6. Principles of Load Flow Control
7. Uses of Load Flow Studies

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 3

The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution

Load Flow of Distribution System

Load Flow of Transmission and
Subtransmission System

Load Flow of a Contemplated System

Load Flow of a Single Line

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 4

The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and
power factor at various points in a power system?

Sending Line Receiving

End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Solve for:
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL 1) ISR = (SR/VR )*
Load 2) VD = ISRZL
2 MVA, 3Ph
VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR 85%PF 3) VS = VR + VD
4) SS = VSx(ISR)*

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 5

The Load Flow Problem

Sending Line Receiving
End End Solve for:
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
1) ISR = (SR/VR )*

VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL 2) VD = ISRZL

S1φ = ( 2,000,000 / 3 )∠ cos −1 ( 0.85 ) Load

3) VS = VR + VD
2 MVA, 3Ph
= 666 ,666.67 ∠31.79 VA 85%PF
4) SS = VSx(ISR)*

VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )∠0 = 7621.02∠0 V

∗
 666 ,666.67 ∠31.79 
I SR =   = 87.48 ∠ − 31.79 A
 7621.02∠0 
VD = ( 87.48 ∠ − 31.79 )( 1.1034 + j2.0856 ) = 178.15 + j104.23 V
VS = (7621.02 + j0 ) + ( 178.15 + j104.23 ) = 7,799.87 ∠0.77 V
VS = 7,799.87 ∠0.77 /1000* 3 = 13.51 k V
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 6

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow From the Real World
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ?

Load
How do you solve for: 2 MVA, 3Ph
85%PF
1) ISR = ?
2) VD = ?
3) VR = ?
4) SS = ?

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 7

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2
I23 , Loss23 = ? Bus3
Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ?
V3 = ?
Utility P3 , Q3 = ?
I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ?
Grid P4 , Q4 = ?
V1 = 67 kV Bus4
P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? Lumped Load A
P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
1 MVA 85%PF
How do you solve
for the Voltages,
Currents, Power and
Losses?
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 8

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of Transmission and
Subtransmission System
G Line 1 G
1 2
How do you solve
for the Voltages, Line 2 Line 3
Currents and Power
of a LOOP power 3
system?

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 9

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Contemplated System
How about if there are contemplated changes in the
System?
How will you determine in advance the effects of:
• Growth or addition of new loads
• Addition of generating plants
• Upgrading of Substation
• Expansion of distribution lines
before the proposed changes are implemented?

Answer: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 10

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow Analysis

simulates (i.e.,
mathematically determine) the performance
of an electric power system under a given
set of conditions.
Load Flow (also called Power Flow) is a
snapshot picture of the power system at a
given point.

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 11

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF

Injected Power at Receiving End Voltage at Sending End

SR = VR x (ISR)* VS = VR + Z x ISR

Solving for the Current Voltage at Receiving End

ISR = (SR / VR)* VR = VS - Z x SR*/VR*

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 12

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF

Converting Quantities in Per Unit

Base Power = 1 MVA VS(pu) = 13.2 /13.2 = 1/0
Base Voltage = 13.2 kV SR(pu) = 2/cos-1(0.85) / 1
Base Impedance = [13.2]2/1 Zpu = (1.1034 + j2.0856)/174.24
= 174.24 ohms = 0.00633 + j0.01197
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 13

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

Let VR(0) = 1/0
For k = 1 For k = 2
VR(1) = __________ VR(2) = __________
∆V(1) = __________ ∆V(2) = __________
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 14

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

VR(2) = __________
For k = 3 For k = 4
VR(3) = __________ VR(4) = __________
∆V(3) = __________ ∆V(4) = __________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 15

The Load Flow Problem

Load Flow of a Single Line

Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = 13.2 kVLL ISR = ? VR = ? 85%PF

VS = __________ ISR = __________

VR = __________ SR = __________
VD = VS – VR SS = VS x [ISR]*
VD = __________ SS = __________
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 16

Power System Models for

Load flow Analysis

Bus Admittance Matrix, Ybus

Network Models

Generator Models

Bus Types for Load Flow Analysis

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 17

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
The power system components are
interconnected through the buses. The buses
must therefore be identified in the load flow
model.

Generators and loads are connected from bus to

neutral.

Transmission lines and transformers are
connected from one bus to another bus.

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 18

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Network Models
The static components (transformers and lines) are
represented by the bus admittance matrix, Ybus
 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 L Y 1 n 
 
 Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 L Y 2 n 
 
[YBUS] =  Y 31

Y 32 Y 33 L Y 3 n 

 M M M M 
 
Y n 1 Yn2 Y n 3 L Y nn 
 
The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus)
determines the dimension of the bus admittance, Ybus.
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 19

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Network Models
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.)
1 1 -2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1 -3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2 -3 0.06 + j0.18

Line 1
1 2

Line 2 Line 3 Set-up the

Ybus
3
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 20

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Network Models

Compute the branch admittances to set up Ybus:

1
y12 = ____ 1
______________
= = 1.25 - j3.75
z12 0.08 + j0.24

1
y13 = ____ 1
______________
= = 5 - j15
z13 0.02 + j0.06

1
y23 = ____ 1
______________ = 1.667 - j5
z23 = 0.06 + j0.18
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 21

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Set-up the bus admittance matrix:
Y11 = y12 + y13
= (1.25 - j3.75) + (5 - j15)
= 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 ∠ -71.5651°
Y12 = -y12
= -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349°
Y13 = -y13
= -5 + j15 = 15.8114 ∠ 108.4349°

Y21 = Y12 = -y12

= -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349°

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 22

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Y22 = y12 + y23
= (1.25 - j3.75) + (1.6667 - j5)
= 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 ∠ -71.5649°
Y23 = -y23
= -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349°
Y31 = Y13 = -y13
= -5 + j15 = 15.8114 ∠ 108.4349°
Y32 = Y23 = -y23
= -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349°
Y33 = y13 + y23 = (5 - j15) + (1.6667 - j5)
= 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 ∠ -71.5650°
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 23

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Generator Models
 Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a
scheduled active power (P) at a specified voltage
(V). The generating units are equipped with voltage
regulator to adjust the field excitation so that the
units will operate at particular reactive power (Q) in
order to maintain the voltage.
 Swing generating units to maintain the frequency
at 60Hz in addition to maintaining the specified
voltage. The generating unit is equipped with
frequency-following controller (very fast speed
governor) and is assigned as Swing generator
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 24

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Bus Types for Load Flow

Generators and loads are connected from bus to
neutral.
Four quantities must be specified to
completely describe a bus. These are:

Bus voltage magnitude, Vp

Bus voltage phase angle, δp

Bus injected active power, Pp

Bus injected reactive power, Qp

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 25

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus
losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled
generations is supplied by the swing bus. The
voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified
for the swing bus.
P,Q

+ Specify: V, δ
Type 1:
Swing Bus
V∠δ G Unknown: P, Q
-

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 26

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus or
PV Bus
The total real power Pp injected into the system
through the bus is specified together with the
magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus
voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive
power injection. P,Q
Specify: P, V
+
Type 2:
G Unknown: Q, δ
Generator Bus V∠δ -

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 27

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis

Load Bus or PQ Bus

The total injected power Pp and the reactive power
Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant,
independent of the small variations in bus voltage.
P,Q

+
Type 3: Specify: P, Q
Load Bus V∠δ
Unknown: V, δ
-

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 28

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
SUMMARY OF BUS TYPES
Bus Know n Unknow n
Type Q u a n t it ie s Q u a n t it ie s
Type1:
S w in g V p, δ p P p, Q p
Type 2:
G e n e ra to r P p, V p Q p, δ p
Type 3:
Load P p, Q p V p, δ p
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 29

Power System Models for

Load Flow Analysis
G Line 1 G
1 2
Bus Types
Line 2 Line 3

3
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.) δ P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 30

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution

Numerical Example

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 31

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow
Equations
The real and reactive power into any bus P is:
Pp + jQp = Vp Ip*
or
Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip (1)

where Pp = real power injected into bus P

Qp = reactive power injected into bus P

Vp = phasor voltage of bus P

Ip = current injected into bus P
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 32

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Equation (1) may be rewritten as:
Pp - jQp
Ip = _________ (2)
Vp*
From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the
current injected into the bus are:
Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + … + YppVp + … + YpnVn (3)

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3
I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 33

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Substituting (3) into (2)
Pp - jQp
_________ = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + … + YppVp + … + YpnVn (4)
Vp*
P1 – jQ1
_________ = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3
V1*
P2 – jQ2
_________ = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3
V2*
P3 – jQ3
_________ = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
V3*
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 34

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Solving for Vp in (4)
P1 – jQ1
_______
Y11V1 = - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3)
V1*
1  P1 − jQ1 
V1 =  *
− Y12V2 − Y13V3 
Y11  V1 
P2 – jQ2
_______
Y22V2 = - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3)
V2*
1  P2 − jQ2 
V2 = − Y V − Y V
Y22  V2*
21 1 13 3 

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 35

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

P3 – jQ3
_______
Y33V3 = - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___)
V3*
1  P3 − jQ3 
V3 = − Y V − Y V
Y33  V3*
31 1 32 2 

Pp - jQp
1 _______ n
Vp = ___ - Σ YpqVq
Ypp Vp* (5)
q=1
q≠p

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 36

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution

Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the

estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth
iteration is:

Pp - jQp n
1
- Σ YpqVqα
___ _______ (6)
Vpk+1 = k *
Ypp (Vp ) q=1
q≠p

where, α = k if p < q
α=k+1 if p > q

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 Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 37

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6)
are written for all buses except for the swing bus. The
solution proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus
voltages

For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive
power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used
directly to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage.

For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage
magnitude is specified, an estimate of Qp must be
determined first. This estimate is then compared with the
reactive power limits of the generator. If it falls within the
limits, the specified voltage is maintained and the
computed Qp is inputted, in the Gauss-Seidel equation.
Otherwise, the reactive power is set to an appropriate limit
(Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated as a load bus in the
current iteration.

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 38

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus
data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive
limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively.
Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem
using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005
convergence index.
G Line 1 G
1 2

Line 2 Line 3

3
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 39

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.)
1 1 -2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1 -3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2 -3 0.06 + j0.18

Bus Data
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.) δ P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 40

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Specified Variables:
V1 = 1.0 δ1 = 0.0

V2 = 1.0 P2 = 0.2
Note the negative sign of P
P3 = -0.6 Q3 = -0.25 and Q of the Load at Bus 3

Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables:

δ20 = 0.0
V30 = 1.0
δ30 = 0.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 41

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The Bus Admittance Matrix elements are:
Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 ∠ -71.5651°
Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349°
Y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 ∠ 108.4349°
Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349°
Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 ∠ -71.5649°
Y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349°
Y31 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 ∠ 108.4349°
Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349°
Y33 = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 ∠ -71.5650°

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 42

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Gauss-Seidel Equations
Bus 1: Swing Bus
(k + 1 )
V1 = 1∠ 0 for all iterations

Bus 2: Generator Bus

Q2 must first be determined from:
P2 - jQ2(k+1) = (V2(k))* [Y21V1(k+1) + Y22V2(k) + Y23V3(k)]
then substitute it to:
(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1  P2 − jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k )

=  − − 
( )
V2 Y V Y V
Y 22  (k ) * 21 1 23 3

 V 2

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 43

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Bus 3: Load Bus

(k + 1 ) 1  P3 − jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 )

=  − − 
( )
V3 Y V Y V
Y 33  V (k ) *
31 1 32 2
 3


Iteration 1 (k = 0): V1 (1) = 1.0∠0°

P2 - jQ2(1) = (1.0∠0°) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0∠0°)
+ (2.9167 - j8.75)(1.0∠0°)
+ (-1.6667 + j5)(1.0∠0°)
= 0.0 + j0.0
Q2(1) = 0.0 [This value is within the limits.]
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 44

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1  P2 − jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k )

=  − − 
( )
V2 Y V Y V
Y 22  (k ) * 21 1 23 3

 V2
( k +1 )
1 0.2 - j0.0 P2 − jQ2
___________________ ___________
V2(1) =
9.2233∠-71.5650 1.0∠0°
Y22
Y21 V1
(k +1 ) (V ( ) )
2
k *

- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0∠0°)

(k )
Y23 V3
- (-1.6667 + j5) (1.0∠0°)

= 1.0071∠1.1705°
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 45

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 ) 1  P3 − jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 )

=  − − 
( )
V3 Y V Y V
Y 33  V (k ) *
31 1 32 2
 3

P3 − jQ3
1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
____________
V31 =
21.0819∠-71.5650
(V )
1.0∠0° k *
Y33 3
(k +1 )
Y31 V1
- (-5 +j15) (1.0∠0°)
( k +1 )
Y32 V2
- (5.2705∠108.4349°)(1.0071∠1.1705°)

= 0.9816 ∠-1.0570°
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 46

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

∆V2 = V2(1) - V2(0)
= 1.0071∠1.1705° - 1.0∠0°

∆V2 = 0.0217

∆V3 = V3(1) - V3(0)

= 0.9816∠-1.0570° - 1.0∠0°

∆V3 = 0.0259

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 47

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Iteration 2 (k = 1): V1(2) = 1.0∠0°

Let, V2(1) = 1.0∠1.1705°

P2 - jQ2(2) = (1.0∠-1.1705°)[(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0∠0°)

+ (9.2233∠-71.5649°)(1.0∠1.1705°)
+ (5.2705∠108.4349° )(0.9816∠-1.0570°)

= 0.2995 - j0.0073

Q2 (2) = 0.0073 [This value is within the limits.]

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1  P2 − jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k )

=  − − 
( )
V2 Y V Y V
Y 22  (k ) * 21 1 23 3

 V 2

1
___________________ 0.2 - j0.0073
______________
V2(2) =
9.2233 ∠ -71.5650 1.0 ∠ -1.1705°

- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 ∠ 0°)

- (5.2705 ∠ 108.4349° ) (0.9816 ∠ -1.0570°)

= 0.9966 ∠ 0.5819°

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 49

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 ) 1  P3 − jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 )

=  − − 
( )
V3 Y V Y V
Y 33  V ( k ) *
31 1 32 2
 3


1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
___________________
V3(2) =
21.0819 ∠ -71.5650 0.9816 ∠ 1.0570°

- (-5 +j15) (1.0 ∠ 0°)

- (5.2705 ∠ 108.4349°) (0.9966 ∠ 0.5819° )

= 0.9783 ∠ -1.2166°

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

∆V2 = V2(2) - V2(1)
= 0.9966 ∠ 0.5819° - 1.0071 ∠ 1.1705°

∆V2 = 0.0125

∆V3 = V3(2) - V3(1)

= 0.9783 ∠ -1.2166° - 0.9816 ∠ -1.0570°

∆V3 = 0.004

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 51

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Iteration 3 (k = 2): V1(2) = 1.0∠0°

Let, V22 = 1.0 ∠ 0.5819°

P2 - jQ22 = (1.0 ∠-0.5819°) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0 ∠ 0°)

+ (9.2233 ∠ -71.5649° ) (1.0 ∠ 0.5819°)
+ (5.2705 ∠ 108.4349° ) (0.9783 ∠ -1.2166° )

= 0.2287 - j0.0472

Q22 = 0.0472 [This value is within the limits.]

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1  P2 − jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k )

=  − − 
( )
V2 Y V Y V
Y 22  (k ) * 21 1 23 3

 V 2

1
___________________ 0.2 - j0.0472
______________
V23 =
9.2233 ∠ -71.5650 1.0 ∠ -0.5819°

- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 ∠ 0°)

- (5.2705 ∠ 108.4349° ) (0.9783 ∠ -1.2166° )

= 0.9990 ∠ 0.4129°

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 53

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

(k + 1 ) 1  P3 − jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 )

=  − − 
( )
V3 Y V Y V
Y 33  V ( k ) *
31 1 32 2
 3


1
_____________________ -0.6 + j0.25
___________________
V33 =
21.0819 ∠-71.5650 0.9783 ∠ 1.2166°

- (-5 +j15)(1.0∠0°)

- (5.2705∠108.4349°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)

= 0.9788∠-1.2560°

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

∆V2 = V2(3) - V2(2)
= 0.9990∠0.4129° - 1.0∠0.5819°

∆V2 = 0.003 < 0.005

∆V3 = V3(3) - V3(2)

= 0.9788∠-1.2560° - 0.9783∠-1.2166°

∆V3 = 0.0008 < 0.005

The solution has converged.

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 55

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The bus voltages are:
V1 = 1.0∠0°
V2 = 0.9990∠0.4129°
V3 = 0.9788∠-1.2560°
The power injected into the buses are:
P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ]
P1 - jQ1 = (1.0∠0) [(19.7642∠-71.5651°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (3.9528∠108.4349°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (15.8114∠108.4349°) (0.9788∠-1.25560°)
= 0.4033 - j0.2272
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ]
P2 - jQ2 = (0.999∠-0.4129°)[(3.9528∠108.4349°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (9.2233∠-71.5649°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (5.2705∠108.4349°)(0.9788∠-1.25560°)
= 0.2025 - j0.04286

P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ]

P3 - jQ3 = (0.9788∠1.256°) [(15.8114∠108.4349°)(1.0∠0°)
+ (5.2705∠108.4349°)(0.9990∠0.4129°)
+ (21.0819 ∠ -71.5650°)(0.9788∠-1.25560° )
= -0.600 + j0.2498
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 57

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The branch currents are:

I pq = I line = y pq ( V p − Vq ) I qp = − I line = y pq ( Vq − V p )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2] I21 = y12 [V2 – V1]

I13 = y13 [V1 – V3] I31 = y13 [V3 – V1]

I23 = y23 [V2 – V3] I32 = y23 [V3 – V2]

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Line Currents
Vp ypq Vq
Ipq Iline Iqp

p q
ypo yqo

The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by

I pq = I line + I po = y pq ( V p − Vq ) + y poV p

Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is

I qp = − I line + I qo = y pq ( Vq − V p ) + yqoVq
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 59

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The branch power flows are:
P12 – jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 – jQ21 = V2* I21

P13 – jQ13 = V1* I13 P31 – jQ31 = V3* I31

P23 – jQ23 = V2* I23 P32 – jQ32 = V3* I32

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Power FLOWS
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is

S pq = Ppq − jQ pq = V p* I pq

The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is

S qp = Pqp − jQqp = Vq* I qp

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 Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 61

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

The line losses are:
P12(Loss) – jQ12(Loss) = (P12 – jQ12) + (P21 – jQ21 )

P13(Loss) – jQ13(Loss) = (P13 – jQ13) + (P31 – jQ31 )

P23(Loss) – jQ23(Loss) = (P23 – jQ23) + (P32 – jQ32 )

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power
flows Spq and Sqp

S loss = Ploss + jQloss = S pq + S qp

= V p I *pq − V q I *pq
= (V p + V q )I *pq
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 63

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

SUMMARY OF BASIC INFORMATION

Voltage Profile
Injected Power (Pp and Qp)
Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq)
Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq)
Line Losses (I2R and I2X)

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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

OTHER INFORMATION
Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses
Critical and Overloaded Transformers
and Lines
Total System Losses

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 65

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow

Equations

Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution

Numerical Example

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow
Equations
The complex power injected into Bus p is
Pp − jQp = E*p I p (1)
and the current equation may be written as
n
Ip = ∑Y
q =1
pq Eq (2)

Substituting (2) into (1)

n
P p − jQ = E *p • ∑Y E (3)
p pq q
q =1

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 67

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Let E p = V p ∠ δ p E q = Vq ∠ δ q
Ypq = Ypq∠θ pq
Substituting into equation (3),
n
Pp − jQ p = ∑VVY
q =1
p q pq ∠ ( θ pq +δ q − δ p ) (4)

Separating the real and imaginary components

n
Pp = ∑VVY
q =1
p q pq co s( θ pq +δ q − δ p ) (5)
n
Q p = − ∑ V pV q Y pq sin( θ pq +δ q − δ p ) (6)
q =1

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The formulation results in a set of non-linear
equations, two for each Bus of the system.
Equations Pp are written for all Buses except the
Swing Bus.
Equations Qp are written for Load Buses only
The system of equations may be written for
i number of buses minus the swing bus (n-1)
j number of load buses

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 69

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The system of equations may be written as
P1 = P1 ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j )
P2 = P2 ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j )
M M
Pi = Pi ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v 1 ,v 2 ....,v j ) (7)

Q1 = Q1 ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )

Q2 = Q2 ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
M M
Q j = Q j ( δ 1 ,δ 2 ,...,δ i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Equation (7) may be linearized using a First-Order
Taylor-Series Expansion
∂P1 ∂P1 ∂P1 ∂P1 ∂P1 ∂P1
P1spec = P1calc + ∆δ 1 + ∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j
∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2
P2 spec = P2calc + ∆δ 1 + ∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j

M M M M∂P M ∂P M ∂Pi
M ∂Pi
M ∂Pi
M ∂Pi
Pi spec = Pi calc + i
∆δ 1 + i
∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ 2 ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j
∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1
Q1spec = Q1calc + ∆δ 1 + ∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j
∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2
Q2spec = Q2calc + ∆δ 1 + ∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j

M M M M∂Q M ∂Q M ∂Q j M ∂Q j M ∂Q j M ∂Q j
= Qcalc + ∆δ1 + ∆δ 2 +... + ∆δ i + ∆V1 + ∆V2 +... + ∆V j
j j
Q spec
∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j
j j

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 71

 ∂ P1 ∂ P1 ∂ P1 ∂ P1 ∂ P1 ∂ P1 
 P1 s p e c − P1c a l c   ∂δ L L ∆δ1 
  ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j   
 1

    
 spec
− P2c a lc
  ∂ P2 ∂ P2
L
∂ P2 ∂ P2 ∂ P2
L
∂ P2  
∆δ2

 P2   ∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j   
    
    
 M   M M M M M M  M 
    
    
   ∂ Pi ∂ Pi ∂ Pi ∂ Pi ∂ Pi ∂ Pi   
 Pi s p e c − Pi c a l c   ∂δ L L ∆δi 
  ∂δ 2 ∂δ 2 ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j   
=  1

    
 spec   ∂ Q ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1   
Q1 − Q 1c a l c 
1
L L ∆V1
 ∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j   
    
   ∂Q2 ∂Q 2 ∂Q2 ∂Q 2 ∂Q2 ∂Q2   
 Q spec − Q 2c a l c   L L   ∆V2 
 2   ∂δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V j   
    
   M  
 M   M M M M M M   M 
    
   ∂Q  
 spec  ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q j   
− Q ca lc  j j
L
j j j
L  ∆V j
 Q j j   ∂ δ 1 ∂δ 2 ∂δ i ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂ V j   

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 72

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

or simply

 ∂P ∂P 
 ∆P   ∂δ ∂V   ∆δ 
∆Q  =  ∂Q ∂Q  ∆V 
   
 ∂δ ∂V 

 ∂P ∂P 
 ∆P   ∂δ V ∂V   ∆δ 
∆Q  =  ∂Q ∂Q  ∆V 
   V  V 
 ∂δ ∂V 

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 73

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution
∆P   J1 J2   ∆δ 
     
 =    
     ∆V 
 ∆Q   J 3 J4   V 

 ∂ Pp n

 = ∑ V p V q Y p q s in ( θ p q + δ q − δ )
 ∂δ p
p
q = 1 ,q ≠ p
J1 
 ∂ P p = − V V Y s in ( θ + δ − δ )
 ∂δ p q pq pq q p
 q

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 74

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

 ∂ Pp
V
 p = P p + V p2 Y p p c o s θ p p
 ∂V p
J2 
V ∂ Pp = V V Y c o s ( θ
 q ∂V p q pq pq + δ q − δ p )
 q

 ∂Q p n


∂ δ
= ∑ V pV q Y pq c o s ( θ pq + δ q − δ p )
 p q = 1 ,q ≠ p
J3 
 ∂ Q p = −V V Y c o s( θ
 ∂δ p q pq pq + δ q − δ p )
 q

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 75

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

 ∂Q p
V p = Q p − V p2 Y p p s in θ p q
 ∂V p
J4 
V ∂Q p
= − V p V q Y p q s in ( θ p q + δ q − δ )
 q ∂Vq
p


The solution of the load flow equations proceeds

iteratively from the set of initial estimates. These
estimates are updated after evaluating the Jacobian
matrix.

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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

At the kth iteration,

δ p( k +1 ) = δ p( k ) + ∆δ p( k )
V p( k +1 ) = V p( k ) + ∆V p( k )
The process is terminated once convergence is
achieved whrein

MAX ∆ P( k ) ≤ ε p and MAX ∆Q( k ) ≤ ε q

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 77

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and
bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The
reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS,
respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load
flow problem using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming
a 0.005 convergence index.
G Line 1 G
1 2

Line 2 Line 3

3
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.)
1 1 -2 0.08 + j0.24
2 1 -3 0.02 + j0.06
3 2 -3 0.06 + j0.18

Bus Data
Bus Voltage Generation Load Remarks
No. V (p.u.) δ P Q P Q
1 1.0 0.0 * * 0 0 Swing Bus
2 1.0 * 0.20 * 0 0 Gen Bus
3 * * 0 0 0.60 0.25 Load Bus
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 79

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The elements of the Bus Admittance Matrix are:
Y11 = 6.25 − j18.75 = 19.7642 ∠ − 71.5651
Y12 = − 1,25 + j 3.75 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349
Y13 = − 5 + j15 = 15.8114 ∠ 108.4349
Y21 = − 1.25 + j .375 = 3.9528 ∠ 108.4349
Y22 = 2.9167 − j 8.75 = 9.2233 ∠ − 71.5649
Y23 = − 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349
Y31 = − 5 + j15 = 15.811 4 ∠ 108.4349
Y32 = − 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 ∠ 108.4349
Y33 = 6.6667 − j 20 = 21.0819 ∠ − 71.5650
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Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Bus 1: Swing Bus (Not included)
Bus 2: Generator Bus (Compute for P2)
Bus 32: Generator Bus (Compute for P2 and Q2)

 ∂P ∂P2 ∂P2   
 ∆P2   2 V3   ∆δ2 
   ∂δ2 ∂δ3 ∂V3   
    
   ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3  
 ∆P3  =  ∂δ V3 ∆δ3 
∂δ3 ∂V3   
   2  
  
∆Q3   ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ∂Q   ∆V 
V3 3   3 
 ∂δ2 ∂δ3 ∂V3   V3 
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 81

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Specified Variables:
V1 = 1.0 δ1 = 0.0

V2 = 1.0 P2 = 0.2
P3 = -0.6 Q3 = -0.25

Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables:

δ20 = 0.0
V30 = 1.0
δ30 = 0.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 82

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Initial Power Estimates

P20 = V2V1Y21 cos( θ 21 + δ 1 − δ 2 )

+ V2V2Y22 cos θ 22 + V2V3Y23 cos( θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( − 71.5649 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 )
= 0.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 83

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

P30 = V3V1Y31 cos( θ 31 + δ 1 − δ 3 )

+ V3V2Y32 cos( θ 22 + δ 2 − δ 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos θ 33
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 )cos( −71.5650 )
= 0.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 84

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Q 30 = V 3V1Y31 sin( θ 31 + δ 1 − δ 3 )
+ V 3V 2Y32 sin( θ 32 + δ 2 − δ 3 ) + V 3V 3Y33 sin θ 33
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 ) sin( − 71.5650 )
= 0.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 85

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch

∆ P20 = 0 . 2 − 0 .0 = 0 . 2
∆ P30 = − 0 .6 − 0 .0 = − 0 .6
∆ Q 30 = − 0 .2 5 − 0 .0 = − 0 .2 5
Evaluate elements of Jacobian Matrix
 ∂P ∂P 
 ∂δ V
∂δ 
J =  
 
 ∂Q V
∂Q 
 ∂ δ ∂ V 
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 86

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:
∂P2
= V2V1Y21 sin( θ 21 + δ 1 − δ 2 )
∂δ 2
+ V2V3Y23 sin( θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= 8.75

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 87

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:

∂P2
= −V2V3Y23 sin( θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )
∂δ 3
= −( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= −5
∂P3
= −V3V2 Y32 sin( θ 32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
∂δ 2
= −( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= −5
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 88

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:
∂P3
= V3V1Y31 sin( θ 31 + δ 1 − δ 3 )
∂δ 3
+ V3V2Y23 sin( θ 32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= 20

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 89

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J2:
∂P2
V3 = V2V3Y23 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 + δ 2 )
∂V3
= (1.0 )(1.0 )(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= −1.6667

∂P3
V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos θ 33
∂ V3
= 0.0 + ( 1.0 )2 ( 8.2233 )cos( − 71.5649 )
= 2.9167

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 90

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J3:
∂Q3
= −V3V2 Y32 cos( θ 32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
∂δ 2
= −( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= 1.6667
∂ Q3
= V3V1Y31 cos( θ 31 + δ 1 − δ 3 )
∂δ 3
+ V3Y2Y32 cos( θ 32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
= ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.0 )
= − 6.6667
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 91

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J4:
∂Q3
V3 = Q3 − V32Y33 sin θ 33
∂V3
= 0.0 − (1.0) (21.0819 )sin (− 71.5649 )
2

= 20
In Matrix Form,

 8.75 −5 −1.6667 
 −5 20 2.9167 

1.6667 −6.6667 20 
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 92

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Solving for Gradients,
 0.2   8.75 −5 −1.6667  ∆δ2 
 −0.6  =  −5 20 2.9167   ∆δ3 
  
−0.25 1.6667 −6.6667 20  ∆V3 / V3 

∆δ 20 = 0.003984rad . = 0.2283 deg

∆δ 30 = −0.02587rad. = −1.4822deg
∆V30
= −0.02145 ∆V30 = −0.02145
V3
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 93

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Initial Estimates
δ 21 = δ 20 + ∆δ 20
δ 21 = 0.0 + 0.2283 = 0.2283
δ 31 = δ 30 + ∆δ 30
δ 31 = 0.0 − 1.4822 = −1.4822
Specified Variables
V31 = V30 + ∆V30
V11 = 1.0
V = 1.0 − 0.02145 = 0.97855
1

δ 11 = 0.0
3

V21 = 1.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 94

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power

P21 = V2V1Y21 cos(θ 31 + δ1 − δ 3 )

+ V2V2Y22 cos(θ 22 )
+ V2V3Y23 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )
= (1.0)(1.0)(3.9528) cos(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822)
+ (1.0)(1.0)(9.2233) cos(− 71.5649)
+ (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705) cos(108.4349 − 1.4822 − 0.2283)
= 0.1975

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 95

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power
P31 = V3V1Y31 cos( θ31 + δ1 − δ 3 )
+ V3V2Y32 cos( θ32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
+ V3V3Y33 cos( θ 33 )
= ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 )
+ ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 )
+ ( 0.97855 )( 0.97855 )( 21.0819 )cos( −71.5650 )
= −0.66633

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 96

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Estimates of Injected Power
Q31 = −[V3V1Y31 sin( θ31 + δ1 − δ3 )
+ V3V2Y32 sin( θ32 + δ2 − δ3 )
+V3V3Y33 sin( θ 33 )]
= - [(0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 )
+ (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 )
+(0.97855 )(0.97855 )( 21.0819 )sin( −71.5650 )]
= −0.2375

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 97

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch
∆ P2 = P2 ,s p − P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 − 0 .1 9 7 5
= 0 .0 0 2 5
∆ P3 = P3 ,s p − P3 ,c a lc
= − 0 .6 + 0 .6 6 3 3
= 0 .0 6 3 3
∆ Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p − Q 3 ,c a lc
= − .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 3 7 5
= 0 .0 1 2 5 Proceed to Iteration 2
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 98

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Evaluate Elements of Jacobian Matrix
Elements of J1:
∂P2
2 1 21 sin( θ21 + δ1 − δ2 )
= VVY
∂δ2
2 3Y23 sin( θ23 + δ3 − δ2 )
+VV
= (1.0)(1.0)(3.9528)sin(108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.2283)
+ (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 − 1.4822 − 0.2283)
= 8.6942

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 99

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:
∂P2
= −V2V3Y23 sin(θ23 + δ3 − δ2 )
∂δ3
= −(1.0 )(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 − 1.4822 − 0.2283)
= −4.9393
∂P3
3 2Y32 sin( θ32 + δ2 − δ3 )
= −VV
∂δ2
= −(0.97855)(1.0)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822)
= −4.8419

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 100

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J1:
∂P3
= V3V1Y31 sin( θ31 + δ1 − δ3 )
∂δ3
+ V3V2Y23 sin( θ32 + δ2 − δ3 )
= (0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 )
+ (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 )
= 19.3887

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 101

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J2:
∂P2
V3 = V2V3Y23 cos(θ 23 + δ 3 + δ 2 )
∂V3
= (1.0 )(0.097855)(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 1.4822 − 0.2283)
= −1.4842

∂P3
V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos θ 33
∂V3
= −0.6633 + ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )cos( −71.5650 )
= 5.7205

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 102

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J3:
∂Q3
3 2Y32 cos( θ32 + δ2 − δ3 )
= −VV
∂δ2
= −(0.97855)(1.0 )(5.2705)cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822)
= 1.7762
∂Q3
= V3V1Y31 cos( θ31 + δ1 − δ 3 )
∂δ 3
+ V3Y2Y32 cos( θ32 + δ 2 − δ 3 )
= ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 )
+ ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 )
= −7.0470
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 103

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Elements of J4:
∂P
V3 3 = Q3 − V32Y33 sinθ 33
∂δ 3
= −0.2375 − ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )sin( −71.565 )
= 18.9137
In Matrix Form,

 8.6942 −4.9393 −1.4842

−4.8419 19.3887 5.7205 
 
 1.7762 −7.0470 18.9137 
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 104

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Solving for Gradients,
 0.0025   8.6942 −4.9393 −1.4842  ∆δ 2 
 0.0633  = −4.8419 19.3887 5.7205   ∆δ 
    3 
−0.0125  1.7762 −7.0470 18.9137  ∆V3 / V3 

∆δ 21 = 0.0025 rad x 180 0 / πrad = 0.1458 0

∆δ 31 = 0.0038 rad x 180 0 / πrad = 0.2150 0
∆V30
= 0.0005 ∆ V 31 = (0 .0005 )(0 .97855 ) = 0 .0005
V3

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 105

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates
δ 22 = δ 21 + ∆δ 21
= 0.2283 + 0.1458 = 0.37410
δ 32 = δ 31 + ∆δ 31
= − 1.4822 + 0.2150 = − 1.2672 0
Specified Variables
V32 = V31 + ∆V31
= 0.97855 + 0.0005 = 0.9791 V11 = 1.0
δ 11 = 0.0
V21 = 1.0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 106

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power

P22 = V2V1Y21 cos( θ21 + δ1 − δ 2 )

+ V2V2Y22 cos( θ22 )
+ V2V3Y23 cos( θ23 + δ 3 − δ 2 )
= (1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 0.3741)
+ ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( −71.5649 )
+ ( 1.0 )( 0.9791)( 5.2705 )cos(108.4349 − 1.2672 − 0.3741)
= 0.2018

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 107

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power

P32 = V3V1Y31 cos( θ 31 + δ 1 − δ 3 )

+ V3V2Y32 cos( θ 22 + δ 2 − δ 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos θ 33
= ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 − 1.2672 )
+ ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.3741 + 1.2672 )
+ ( 0.9791 )( 0.9791 )( 21.0819 )cos( −71.5650 )
= −0.5995

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 108

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power
Q32 = −[V3V1Y31 sin( θ31 + δ1 − δ3 )
+V3V2Y32 sin( θ32 + δ2 − δ3 ) + V3V3Y33 sinθ33 ]
= −[(0.9791)(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 − 1.2672 )
+ (0.9791)(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.37411 + 1.2672 )
+(0.9791)(0.9791)( 21.0819 )sin( −71.5650 )]
= −0.2487

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 109

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Compute Power Mismatch
∆ P2 = P2 ,s p − P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 − 0 .2 0 1 8
= 0 .0 0 1 8
∆ P3 = P3 ,s p − P3 ,c a lc
= − 0 .6 + 0 .5 9 9 5
= 0 .0 0 0 5
∆ Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p − Q 3 ,c a lc
= − .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 4 8 7
= 0 .0 0 1 3 The solution has converged
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 110

Newton-Raphson Load Flow

The solution of the Load Flow Problem is

V1 = 1.0∠0 0
V2 = 1.0∠0.37410
V3 = 0.9791∠ − 1.26720

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 111

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow

Load Flow for Radial Distribution System

Procedure: Iterative Solution

Initialization

Solving for Injected Currents through the nodes

Backward Sweep

Forward Sweep

Solving for Injected Power

Solving for Voltage Mismatch

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 112

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow

Bus2 I23 , Loss23 = ?

0.635 + j1.970 Ω Bus3
Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ?
V3 = ?
Utility P3 , Q3 = ?
Grid I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ?
0.131 + j1.595 Ω
V1 = 67 kV P4 , Q4 = ?
0.4223 + j0.7980 Ω Bus4
P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? Lumped Load A
P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
1 MVA 85%PF

Load Flow for Radial Distribution System

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 113

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Equivalent Circuit
Bus2
V1 = 67 kV Bus1 0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458pu j0.10536
V2 0.085 + pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
j0.05267
Base Values pu
Sbase = 10 MVA
Vbase1 = 67 kV
Base Z =13.22/10 =17.424Ω
Vbase2 = 13.2 kV

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 114

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution
1. Solve Injected Currents by Loads
2. Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep)
3. Update Voltages (Forward Sweep)
4. Solve for Injected Power
5. Solve for Power Mismatch
Continue iteration by Backward-Forward Sweep until
convergence is achieved
After convergence, solve Iinj, Pinj, Qinj, PF, PLoss, QLoss
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 115

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Initialization
Bus2
V1 = 67 kV 0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
V2 0.085 + pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
j0.05267
Initialize, V1(0) = 1/0 pu

V2(0) = 1/0
V3(0) = 1/0
V4(0) = 1/0

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 116

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Solving for Injected Currents
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu pu
V2 0.085 +
~ 1 + j0 pu j0.05267
pu
Solve I1(0) = 0
Injected
I2(0) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(0) = S3* /[V3(0)]* = __________
I4(0) = S4* /[V4(0)]* = __________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 117

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Backward Sweep
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu pu
V2 0.085 +
~ 1 + j0 pu j0.05267
pu
Solve Line
Currents
I24(0) = I4(0) = _______
(Backward
Sweep) I23(0) = I3(0) = _______
I12(0) = 0 + I23(0) + I24(0) = _______
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 118

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Forward Sweep
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
V2 0.085 + pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
j0.05267
Update pu
V1(1) = 1/0
Voltages
V2(1) = V1(0) – [I12(0)][Z12] = ________
(Forward
Sweep) V3(1) = V2(1) – [I23(0)][Z23] = ________
V4(1) = V2(1) – [I24(0)][Z24] = ________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 119

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Solving for Injected Power
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4 j0.10536
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
V2 pu
~ 1 + j0 pu 0.085+
j0.05267
Solve pu
S1(1) = [V1(1)][I1(0)]* = ___________
Injected
Power S2(1) = [V2(1)][I2(0)]* = ___________
S3(1) = [V3(1)][I3(0)]* = ___________
S4(1) = [V4(1)][I4(0)]* = ___________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 120

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Solving for Power Mismatch
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
V1 = 67 kV Bus1
V3
Utility
Grid 0.0075+j 0.0915 pu Bus4 0.17 +
V1 V4
0.0242+j0.0458 pu j0.10536
V2 0.085 + pu
~ 1 + j0 pu
j0.05267
Solve pu
∆S1(1) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________
Power
Mismatch ∆S2(1) = S2(sp) – S2(calc) = ____________
∆S3(1) = S3(sp) – S3(calc) = ____________
∆S4(1) = S4(sp) – S4(calc) = ____________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 121

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution

Iteration 2:

Solve I1(1) = 0
Injected
I2(1) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(1) = S3* /[V3(1)]* = __________
I4(1) = S4* /[V4(1)]* = __________
Solve Line I24(1) = I4(1) = _______
Currents
I23(1) = I3(1) = _______
(Backward
I12(1) = 0 + I23(1) + I24(1) = _______
Sweep)

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 122

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Update V1(2) = 1/0
Voltages
V2(2) = V1(1) – [I12(1)][Z12] = ________
(Forward
Sweep) V3(2) = V2(1) – [I23(1)][Z23] = ________
V4(2) = V2(1) – [I24(1)][Z24] = ________

Solve S1(2) = [V1(2)][I1(1)]* = ___________

Injected S2(2) = [V2(2)][I2(1)]* = ___________
Power
S3(2) = [V3(2)][I3(1)]* = ___________
S4(2) = [V4(2)][I4(1)]* = ___________

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 123

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution

Solve ∆S1(2) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________

Power
Mismatch ∆S2(2) = S2(sp) – S2(calc) = ____________
∆S3(2) = S3(sp) – S3(calc) = ____________
∆S4(2) = S4(sp) – S4(calc) = ____________

If Mismatch is higher than set convergence index, repeat the

procedure (Backward-Forward Sweep) [Iteration 3]

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 124

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution

Iteration 3:

Solve I1(2) = 0
Injected
I2(2) = 0
Currents
by Loads I3(2) = S3* /[V3(2)]* = __________
I4(2) = S4* /[V4(2)]* = __________
Solve Line I24(2) = I4(2) = _______
Currents
I23(2) = I3(2) = _______
(Backward
I12(2) = 0 + I23(2) + I24(2) = _______
Sweep)

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 125

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution
Update V1(3) = 1/0
Voltages
V2(3) = V1(2) – [I12(2)][Z12] = ________
(Forward
Sweep) V3(3) = V2(2) – [I23(2)][Z23] = ________
V4(3) = V2(2) – [I24(2)][Z24] = ________

Solve S1(3) = [V1(3)][I1(2)]* = ___________

Injected S2(3) = [V2(3)][I2(2)]* = ___________
Power
S3(3) = [V3(3)][I3(2)]* = ___________
S4(3) = [V4(3)][I4(2)]* = ___________

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 126

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Iterative Solution

Solve ∆S1(3) = S1(3) - S1(2)

Power
Mismatch ∆S2(3) = S2(3) – S2(2) = ____________
∆S3(3) = S3(3) – S3(2) = ____________
∆S4(3) = S4(3) – S4(2) = ____________

If Mismatch is lower than set convergence index, compute

power flows

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 127

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
Bus4
Lumped Load A
VOLTAGE PROFILE 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
V1 = ________ 1 MVA 85%PF

V2 = ________ INJECTED POWER

V3 = ________ P1 + jQ1 = ________ + j ________

V4 = ________ P2 + jQ2 = ________ + j ________

P3 + jQ3 = ________ + j ________
P4 + jQ4 = ________ + j ________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 128

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458 pu
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
POWER FLOW (P-Q) Bus4
Lumped Load A
P12 + jQ12 = ________ + j ________ 2 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load B
P23 + jQ23 = ________ + j ________ 1 MVA 85%PF
P24 + jQ24 = ________ + j ________
POWER FLOW (Q-P)
P21 + jQ21 = ________ + j ________
P32 + jQ32 = ________ + j ________
P42 + jQ42 = ________ + j ________
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 129

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Bus2
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu Bus3
Bus1
Utility
Grid 0.0242+j0.0458 pu
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
Bus4
Branch Currents Lumped Load A
2 MVA 85%PF
I12 = ________ Lumped Load B
1 MVA 85%PF
I23 = ________
I24 = ________ POWER LOSSES
I2R12 + jI2X12 = ________ + j ________
I2R23 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
I2R24 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 130

Backward/Forward Sweep
Load Flow
Line sections in the radial network are ordered by
layers away from the root node (substation bus).

1 2 3 Layer 1
4 5 6 Layer 2
9
7 8 10 11 12 Layer 3
17
13 8 14 15 18 20
16 19 Layer 4
21 22 23
24 25 26
Layer 5
27 31
28 29 30
Layer 6
32 33 34
Layer 7
35 Layer 8

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 131

Three-Phase Forward/
Backward Sweep Method
The iterative algorithm for solving the radial system
consists of three steps. At iteration k:
Step 1: Nodal current calculation
 I ia 
(k)
(
 S / V ( k −1 )
 ia ia( k −1 )
)  Y
∗ *
ia
 Via 
( k −1 )

I 
 ib  (
=  Sib / Vib )  − 
∗
Yib*
 
 Vib 
 I ic  (
 S / V ( k −1 )
 ic ic )  
∗
Yic*  Vic 
Where, I ia , I ib , I ic Current injections at node i
S ia , S ib , S ic Scheduled power injections at node i
V ia ,V ib ,V ic Voltages at node i
Y ia ,Y ib ,Y ic Admittances of all shunt elements at node i

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 132

Three-Phase Forward/
Backward Sweep Method
Step 2: Backward Sweep to sum up line section current
Starting from the line section in the last layer and
moving towards the root node. The current in the
line section l is:
(k) (k) (k )
 J la   I ja   J ma 
J   
 lb  = −  I jb  + ∑  J mb 
m∈M
 J lc   I jc   J mc 
 
Where, J la , J lb , J jc are the current flows on line section l

l and M Is the set of line sections connected to node j

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 133

Three-Phase Forward/
Backward Sweep Method
Step 3: Forward Sweep to update nodal voltage
Starting from the first layer and moving towards
the last layer, the voltage at node j is:
(k ) (k) (k )
V ja  Via   zaa ,l zab ,l zac ,l   J la 
   
V jb  = Vib  −  zab ,l zbb ,l zbc ,l   J lb 
V jc  Vic   zac ,l zbc ,l zcc ,l   J lc 
 

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 134

Three-Phase Forward/
Backward Sweep Method
After the three steps are executed in one iteration,
the power mismatches at each node for all phases
are calculated:
∆ S ia( k ) = Via( k ) (I ia( k ) ) − Yia* Via − S ia
∗ 2

∆ S ib( k ) = Vib( k ) (I ib( k ) ) − Yia* Vib − S ib

∗ 2

∆ S ic( k ) = Vic( k ) (I ic( k ) ) − Yic* Vic − S ic

∗ 2

If the real and imaginary part (real and reactive

power) of any of these power mismatches is greater
than a convergence criterion, steps 1, 2 & 3 are
repeated until convergence is achieved.
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 135

Principles of Load Flow Control

Prime mover and excitation control of generators

Reactive Var Compensation (e.g., Capacitors)

Control of tap-changing and voltage regulating
transformers

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 136

Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

jX
The complex power delivered to the
bus (Generator Terminal) is
I
Ei∠δ Vt∠0
~  E ∠δ − Vt ∠0 
Pt + jQt = [Vt ∠0]I * = [Vt ∠0] i 
 jX 

EV   EiVt Vt 2 
Pt =  i t sinδ  Qt =  cosδ − 
 X   X X

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 137

Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control
EV   EiVt Vt 2 
Pt =  i t sinδ  Qt =  cosδ − 
 X   X X
Observations:
1. Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation), δ must
be positive (Ei leads Vt)
2. Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation), δ must be
negative (Ei lags Vt)
3. In actual operation, the numeric value of δ is small & since the
slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute
change in δ can cause a substantial change in Pt

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 138

Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control

EV  EV V2

Pt =  i t sinδ  Qt =  i t cosδ − t 
 X   X X

Observations:
4. Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCosδ and Vt
5. Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of
angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
• Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus
• Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the
Bus

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 139

Principles of Load Flow Control

Capacitor Compensation
The voltage of bus q can be
~ q expressed as
Ipq
p + jQc X pqQq X pq Pq
Eq = Vp − −j
PL - jQL Vp Vp
Observations:
1. The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely
affects the magnitude of Eq
2. A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will
consequently reduce voltage drop

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 140

Principles of Load Flow Control

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 The π equivalent circuit of
q r transformer with the per unit
transformation ratio:
1
s p y pq
a

Observation:
The voltage drop in the 1− a a −1
transformer is affected by
y pq y pq
a2 a
the transformation ratio “a”

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 141

Uses of Load Flow Study

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study

Analysis of Existing Conditions

Analysis for Correcting PQ Problems

Expansion Planning

Contingency Analysis

System Loss Analysis

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 142

Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service.
2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses.
3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus.
4) Add new transmission or distribution lines.
5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines.
6) Change bus voltages.
7) Change transformer taps.
8) Increase or decrease transformer size.
9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.
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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 143

Uses of Load Flow Studies

1) ANALYSIS OF EXISTING CONDITIONS
• Check for voltage violations
 PGC: 0.95 – 1.05 p.u. (For Transmission)
 PDC: 0.90 – 1.10 p.u (For Distribution)*
*Recommended 0.95 – 1.05 p.u.
• Check for branch power flow violations
 Transformer Overloads
 Line Overloads
• Check for system losses
 Caps on Segregated DSL

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 144

Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS
• Voltage adjustment by utility at delivery point
 Request TransCo to improve voltage at
connection point
 TransCo as System Operator will determine
feasibility based on Economic Dispatch and
other adjustments such as transformer tap
changing and reactive power compensation

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 145

Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS
• Transformer tap changing
 Available Taps
 At Primary Side
 At Secondary Side
 Both Sides
 Typical Taps
 Tap 1: +5%
 Tap 2: +2.5%
 Tap 3: 0% (Rated Voltage)
 Tap 4: -2.5%
 Tap 5: -5%

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 146

Uses of Load Flow Studies

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS
•Capacitor compensation
• Compensate for Peak Loading
• Check overvoltages during Off-Peak
• Optimize Capacitor Plan
• System configuration improvement

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 147

Uses of Load Flow Studies

3) EXPANSION PLANNING
• New substation construction
• Substation capacity expansion
• New feeder segment construction / extension
• Addition of parallel feeder segment
• Reconducting of existing feeder segment/ circuit
• Circuit conversion to higher voltage
• Generator addition

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 148

Uses of Load Flow Studies

4) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
Reliability analysis of the Transmission (Grid) and
Subtransmission System

5) SYSTEM LOSS ANALYSIS

Segregation of System Losses

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Training Course in Load Flow Analysis 149

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