Comparative Politics Theories

1. Rational Choice Theory (a.k.a. public choice theory)

 Three key principles
o People are rational
o People can interact with others, but only to advance their own
interests and achieve their own goals
o Individual’s choices can be constrained, especially by institutions
 The dominant school of thought in political science in the late 20th century
 History / culture are irrelevant to understanding political behaviour –
although a modern take on rational choice theory suggests that culture and
history can affect our individual preferences
 People make decisions so that they best satisfy their personal / individual
preferences i.e. decisions are self- interested
 This can imply that politicians are opportunistic and vote-seeking

 Example: most voters have 'centrist preferences' therefore will be more

likely to vote for the centrist parties - this forces parties to adopt a centrist
position
 Political structures and institutions can, however, influence people's
preferences e.g. shorter gaps between US Congressional elections than UK
parliamentary elections changes the preferences and behaviour of
Congressmen/women vs MPs
 Common goals, or working collectively in a group is only achievable if it is
in accordance with the individual's preferences / self interest

2. Cultural approach (a.k.a. political culture approach)

 A sociological approach to comparative politics
 That is, political change and events are dependent on the backdrop of society
o Culture organizes our world, helps us to make sense of ‘ourselves’
and others, encourages us to take action (or not)
o Political culture refers to the basic attitudes that people have towards
the state, each other, authority, and wider institutions
 Political culture interacts with our political structures and institutions – each
informs the other
 Culture refers to a ‘web of significant’ shared and public beliefs – this
means that we need to look at groups within the political system, and
their shared ideas, beliefs and values
o Understanding this allows us to analyse and determine the actions of
individuals within those groups
 Political culture is different in different societies because of the different
histories, and this therefore causes political behaviour to be different in
different societies

 Example: members of the US Supreme Court are selected by a President and

are partly selected as a result of sharing the same conservative or liberal
views as that President, therefore their shared beliefs cause them to
become a Supreme Court Justice; in the UK, members of the UK Supreme
Court are selected by the independent JAC and therefore need shared
beliefs in the importance of neutrality and independence

3. Structural approach (a.k.a. the institutional approach)

 Institutions, and the processes within them, are the focus of this approach
o Institutions are “social structures that have gained a high degree of
resilience” [William R. Scott]
 This means that political behaviour is determined by the institutions and
processes within those institutions
 In order to survive or progress, political behaviour must ‘conform’ to the rules
and belief systems of the institutions within the political system

 Example: a country’s constitution ultimately determines the political

behaviour of people within that country i.e. the US constitution embeds
decentralisation by distinguishing between federal and state powers,
whereas the UK constitution is adapting and allowing more decentralisation
as a result of devolution over time

 The law is extremely important to institutionalists / structuralists

exam success; Comparative politics and theoretical

approaches – Simon Lemieux
Simon Lemieux identifies key points and provides advice to help you make sense of two
crucial concepts ahead of your exams
Exam links
Whether taking AQA or Edexcel politics, you will need to know about the comparative
politics of the UK and USA, how they are similar and how they differ. You also need to
demonstrate some understanding of the three comparative theories: structural, cultural and
rational.

Where do comparative politics fit into your exams? Questions on this topic are 29% of the
marks for Edexcel Paper 3 and 44% of AQA Paper 3, or roughly 10% and 15% respectively of
your overall A-level marks.
With AQA, comparative politics comes in Paper 2. One Section A 9-mark question will
require use of a theoretical approach to one area of comparative politics, such as
legislatures or political parties. In Section C you must answer a 25-mark essay question
comparing the two political systems.
For Edexcel, comparative politics appears in Paper 3 Section A, where you must choose one
from two 12-mark questions that will ask you to compare key areas of UK and US politics.
Section B requires you to write a 12-mark answer analysing differences between the two
political systems, incorporating at least one comparative theory.
Key points
The following points will help you gain good marks when answering questions on
comparative politics in the UK and USA.
Your own take
From the start, ensure that you provide an overarching, clear response and ‘take’ on the
question, especially for essays. Do you largely see similarities or differences between the
two countries? Most of the time, analysis will be more nuanced. For example, the UK prime
minister is usually more powerful in domestic policy thanks to parliamentary sovereignty
and being the leader of the largest party in Parliament. In contrast, by virtue of being
commander-in-chief of the largest military power on the planet, the US president normally
wields greater global power in foreign affairs. Ensure that your conclusion is consistent with
the stance taken in the introduction.
Give examples
Include specific details and examples when examining differences and similarities. If
comparing how well the courts defend civil rights, cite a relevant case from both countries.
Also, analyse and comment when citing evidence. For example, in the UK, much defence of
civil liberties (such as the right to a family life) comes via the European Convention on
Human Rights, embedded in the Human Rights Act 1998. In the USA, these rights are
derived mainly from the 1791 Bill of Rights, such as 1st Amendment rights to freedom of
expression and political activity.

Activity
Group discussion; Do you think UK and US politics are becoming more similar or more
different?
Which comparative theories are most applicable to the specific topics you have studied so
far?

Key term
Chequebook membership Those who belong to a pressure group primarily because of the
practical benefits of belonging (such as discounts on services) rather than for strongly
political reasons.

Compare and contrast

Ensure that you compare and contrast throughout your answer. This is probably the most
important aspect of writing a strong comparative essay. Do not write an essay of two halves
(UK then USA): integrate the two. Structure your essay thematically. So if comparing the
operation of pressure groups, after the introduction have thematic paragraphs. Possible
paragraph headings could include:
 Aims and objectives: largely similar, i.e. to influence policy-makers.
 Targets: some similarities such as national legislatures and the executive/
government, but also some differences such as the focus on the Supreme Court in
the USA using amicus curiae briefs, and the historically close relationship between
trade unions and the British Labour Party.
 Methods: considerable differences, as US pressure groups are far more active in
election campaigns via advertising and candidate endorsement. Such direct political
activity is far less commonplace in the UK, not least because of charity law and tight
restrictions on political television advertising. In the UK, a 2018 Iceland supermarket
television advert was banned for being too political, as it linked the use of palm oil
with environmental damage.
 Resources: again an area of similarity but also difference. Pressure groups in both
countries often have large memberships but a significant number might comprise
chequebook memberships. But US pressure groups, especially the largest, are far
better funded and often wield considerable influence over the two main parties. Few
Republicans even in the aftermath of mass shootings such as Parkland 2018 can
afford to alienate the National Rifle Association (NRA). Equally, few Democrats can
disagree with the pro-choice platform of NARAL Pro- Choice America.
In summary, to borrow two terms from US federalism, a ‘marble cake’ not ‘layer cake’
approach is required to your answers.

Comparative theory
Probably the most challenging aspect of comparative politics exam questions is the
requirement to reference one of the three specified comparative theories (Boxes 1, 2 and
3).
The following is an example of an Edexcel-style comparative theories question: Analyse the
differences in legislators’ powers in the UK and USA. (12 marks)
Box 1 Structural theory
Structural theory involves comparing political systems by focusing on how they are organised
and structured. For example, an application of this theory to elections could include the
frequency of elections, or the mechanism by which electoral boundaries are drawn up, the
latter is often politicised in the USA due to the role of state governments (e.g.
gerrymandering). It is largely depoliticised in the UK because constituency boundaries are
drawn up by the non-partisan Electoral Commission.

Box 2 Rational theory

This approach essentially looks at outcomes, and how political players will most logically
(rationally) act to achieve their objectives. It could be seen as a form of ‘political common
sense’. Thus, if applying it to cabinet appointments, the president will have to take into
account confirmability (will the nominee get through a Senate vote)? The prime minister, by
contrast, would be wise to take into account factional balance within the party to ensure a
broad range of views is represented. Failure to do either of these will make life considerably
harder for the leader, hence it makes political sense to act this way.
Box 3 Cultural theory
With this theory, the emphasis is more on political and historical tradition. It focuses more
on the legacy of the past than outward appearances and structure, or political tactics. So on
a question comparing political parties and their policies, reference could be made to groups
that have traditionally supported each party, such as the working class and Labour or the
religious right and Republicans. Be aware though that political culture can change over time,
so, if relevant, mention this in your answer with supporting evidence.

An AQA question on a similar topic might be: Examine and analyse three ways that rational
theory could be used to study the power of legislators in the UK and USA. (9 marks)

What might answers look like in practice? Assuming you choose the rational theory for the
Edexcel-style question, answers to both the above questions could mention:
 To stay elected (a rational objective), UK members of Parliament (MPs) must largely
stay in favour with their local party and national leadership. They must therefore
exercise their power to vote in Parliament carefully, and not rebel too often. Hence
historically, there is higher party unity among British MPs.
 By contrast, US senators and House legislators, to stay elected, must focus more on
the concerns and wishes of ordinary voters- ‘all politics is local’ — and look after ‘the
folks back home’ when it comes to voting in Congress. However, they must be
careful not to alienate the core (strongly ideological party supporters who are most
likely to participate in primaries).
 Congressional committees are very powerful in the USA, especially in drafting
legislation. This means that it is logical for US legislators to bid for a seat on an
influential committee or one with important ties to their home area. By contrast, in
Westminster, a backbench MP who wants legislative power might introduce a
private members’ bill, but would need it to be backed by the government to stand a
chance of it passing.
Resource
This short YouTube video offers a basic introduction to some of the broader aspects of
comparative politics: www.tinyurl.com/y5cqdq9e