14.4 Note on ground resistance of primary electrodes
In general, the ground resistance of any primary electrode depends on the soil resistivity and the size and type of arrangement of all individual conductors comprising the ground electrode. In more complex arrange- ments involving crisscrossed wires and a large number of rods in the same area, the mutual resistance between individual elements plays an important role.
14.5 Soil treatment to lower resistivity
It is often impossible to achieve the desired reduction in ground resistance by adding more grid conductors or ground rods. An alternate solution is to effectively increase the diameter of the electrode by modifying the soil surrounding the electrode. The inner shell of soil closest to the electrode normally comprises the bulk of the electrode ground resistance to remote earth. This phenomenon is often utilized to an advantage, as follows:
a) Use of sodium chloride, magnesium, and copper sulfates, or calcium chloride, to increase the conductivity of the soil immediately surrounding an electrode. State or federal authorities may not permit using this method because of possible leaching to surrounding areas. Further, the salt treat- ment must be renewed periodically. b) Use of bentonite, a natural clay containing the mineral montmorillionite, which was formed by vol- canic action years ago. It is noncorrosive, stable, and has a resistivity of 2.5 Ω·m at 300% moisture. The low resistivity results mainly from an electrolytic process between water, Na2O (soda), K2O (potash), CaO (lime), MgO (magnesia), and other mineral salts that ionize forming a strong electro- lyte with pH ranging from 8 to 10. This electrolyte will not gradually leach out, as it is part of the clay itself. Provided with a sufficient amount of water, it swells up to 13 times its dry volume and will adhere to nearly any surface it touches. Due to its hygroscopic nature, it acts as a drying agent drawing any available moisture from the surrounding environment. Bentonite needs water to obtain and maintain its beneficial characteristics. Its initial moisture content is obtained at installation when the slurry is prepared. Once installed, bentonite relies on the presence of ground moisture to main- tain its characteristics. Most soils have sufficient ground moisture so that drying out is not a concern. The hygroscopic nature of bentonite will take advantage of the available water to maintain its as installed condition. If exposed to direct sunlight, it tends to seal itself off, preventing the drying pro- cess from penetrating deeper. It may not function well in a very dry environment, because it may shrink away from the electrode, increasing the electrode resistance (Jones [B90]). c) Chemical-type electrodes consist of a copper tube filled with a salt. Holes in the tube allow moisture to enter, dissolve the salts, and allow the salt solution to leach into the ground. These electrodes are installed in an augured hole and typically back-filled with soil treatment. d) Ground enhancement materials, some with a resistivity of less than 0.12 Ω·m (about 5% of the resistivity of bentonite), are typically placed around the rod in an augured hole or around grounding conductors in a trench, in either a dry form or premixed in a slurry. Some of these enhancement materials are permanent and will not leach any chemicals into the ground. Other available ground enhancement materials are mixed with local soil in varying amounts and will slowly leach into the surrounding soil, lowering the earth resistivity.
14.6 Concrete-encased electrodes
Concrete, being hygroscopic, attracts moisture. Buried in soil, a concrete block behaves as a semiconducting medium with a resistivity of 30–90 Ω·m. This is of particular interest in medium and highly resistive soils because a wire or metallic rod encased in concrete has lower resistance than a similar electrode buried directly in the earth. This encasement reduces the resistivity of the most critical portion of material
