Innovative Education & Training

for a Specialist Children & Youth Coaching Workforce

Intellectual Output 3 – Activity 7

Coaching Children Literature Review

Marieke Fix, Nicolette Schipper-van Veldhoven, Sergio Lara-Bercial, Julian North, A.J. Rankin-Wright,
Declan O’Leary, Sheelagh Quinn, Kris Van der Haegen, Manuel Dupuis, Rafael Navarro, Sonia García,
Dave Piggott, Lolita Dudeniene, Ladislav Petrovic, Judith Balogh and Birute Statkeviciene.

www.icoachkids.eu @iCoachKidsEU

Copyright © 2017 by iCoachKids

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 Disclaimer

The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not
constitute and endorsement of the contents which reflect the views only of the
authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be
made of the information contained therein.

2
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction – What is iCoachKids? ........................................................................................................ 6
What will iCoachKids deliver? ............................................................................................................. 6
The iCoachKids Team........................................................................................................................... 6
What makes iCoachKids unique? ........................................................................................................ 7
iCoachKids Project Events: .................................................................................................................. 7
Literature Review Rationale and Format ................................................................................................ 8
Literature Review Rationale ................................................................................................................ 8
Literature Review Process ................................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review Format.................................................................................................................. 11
Literature Review Table......................................................................................................................... 11
1. The Context ............................................................................................................................... 12
2. Values & Beliefs ......................................................................................................................... 18
3. Setting the Vision and Strategy ................................................................................................. 22
4. Shaping the Environment .......................................................................................................... 59
5. Conducting Practice and Managing Competition...................................................................... 76
6. Reflecting and Learning ............................................................................................................. 84
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 87

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Executive Summary

Millions of children and young people take part in sport and physical activity across Europe every day.
However, the majority of their coaches are either not qualified or hold lower level generic
qualifications that do not prepare them specifically to work with this age-group.

iCoachKids (iCK) is an international, collaborative, multi-agency, Erasmus+ co-funded project

aiming to support the development of a Specialist Children and Youth Coaching Workforce across the
EU to ensure all youth sport participants have a positive experience led by suitably trained coaches.

This literature review is a central piece of iCK. It aims to provide the necessary evidence to aid
the development of a European Coaching Children Curriculum (ECCC) to guide those developing
training opportunities for coaches of children and young people in the European Union and beyond. In
the context of iCK, the literature review and the ECCC will inform the development of the three Massive
Open Online Courses that will be the final outputs of the project.

From the multiple options available, the expert group opted to conduct a ‘theory-led’ literature
review. This type of review focuses on identifying key elements of the field or topic in question that
have contributed to forming the currently accepted general viewpoint (i.e., the espoused theories as
to how children’s sport should happen) and interrogating the literature to ascertain their value or
refute them.

The iCK team opted to base the current review on the generally accepted developmental view
of children’s sport presented in literature, programmes and policy documents from North America and
Europe. Examples of this perspective can be found in the International Sport Coaching Framework
(ISCF; ICCE, ASOIF & LBU, 2013), the European Sport Coaching Framework (ESCF; Lara-Bercial et al.,
2017) or UNICEF’s sport policies (2017). This view of children and youth sport emphasises:

• FUN
• A holistic approach to child development
• Wide access and participation
• Developmentally appropriate opportunities to train, play and compete

The results of the review tend to corroborate the overall philosophy and values espoused by the
iCK team, and the fundamental principles identified in development of a theory of children’s coaching.
Notwithstanding this, the review also found that much work is yet to be done to gather conclusive
evidence in various areas. These include:

• Identifying the personal and social developmental outcomes naturally occurring from sport
participation and the conditions that lead to them
• Developing more naturalistic approaches to research in the area of skill acquisition
• Exploring the synergies between different pedagogical approaches to skill acquisition based
on personal stage of development and the nature of the skill in question

Nonetheless, in light of the findings of the review, the iCK expert group have developed the iCK
Pledge which includes 10 Golden Rules for Coaching Children that coaches and sport clubs should
adhere to in order to guarantee positive experiences.

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 We wish you all the best in your coaching and in the development of a specialist children and
youth coaching workforce.

The iCoachKids Team

5
Introduction – What is iCoachKids?

Millions of children and young people take part in sport and physical activity across Europe every day.
However, the majority of their coaches are either not qualified or hold lower level generic
qualifications that do not prepare them specifically to work with this age-group.

iCoachKids (iCK) is an international, collaborative, multi-agency project aiming to support the

development of a Specialist Children and Youth Coaching Workforce across the EU to ensure all youth
sport participants have a positive experience led by suitably trained coaches.

This ambitious project is the result of a successful bid by Leeds Beckett University and the
International Council for Coaching Excellence to the 2016 call of Erasmus+ applications under Key
Action 2 (Cooperation for Innovation and the Exchange of Good Practices – Strategic Partnerships for
Vocational Education and Training). The project started in September 2016 and will be completed in
August 2019.

What will iCoachKids deliver?

iCK will use a learner-centred, community-based, collaborative approach to create innovative learning
and development opportunities for those coaching children and young people. Here are some of the
outputs of the project:

• An interactive online platform where coaches can share and learn from each other – January
2017
• FREE e-learning in the shape of three newly developed Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
– Summer 2018
• A repository of new and existing resources and materials from all over the world aimed at
youth coaches and parents – January 2017
• Regular blogs and articles from expert international contributors – January 2017
• A European Coaching Children Curriculum – Autumn 2017
• A report on the nature of the Coaching Children Workforce across seven European Countries
– Summer 2017
• A collection of case studies of good practice in the education and development of children and
youth coaches – Autumn 2017

The iCoachKids Team

iCK is led by Leeds Beckett University and brings together a consortium of eight organisations including
the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE), Sport Ireland, the Hungarian Coaching
Association, Netherlands Olympic Committee (NOC*NSF), Universidad Europea in Spain, Lithuanian
Sports University and the Royal Belgian Football Association.

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What makes iCoachKids unique?

iCK was designed with a number of unique features:

• A not-for-profit venture: iCK aims solely to improve the education and development of children
and youth coaches across the EU. It is For Coaches By Coaches.
• A community of children and youth coaches and coach developers: led by a broad group of
organisations and individuals with a proven track record, iCK aims to bring all stakeholders
together to collaboratively solve a common problem they will not be able to individually.
• Evidence-Based: all iCK outputs will be based on existing research or new studies conducted by
the project partners during the life of the project.
• A good fit for Formal Education: the MOOCs will be developed based on learning outcomes, units
of learning and credits thus suitable to be adopted by Vocational Education and Training and
Further and Higher Education Institutions globally across the European Union. This will facilitate
transparency, mobility and employability of children’s coaches.
• Contribution to Key Professional Competences: by using ICT and being English-based, paired with
subtitles in 5 other languages (including Arabic), iCK will contribute to enhancing coaches’ overall
employability and quality of life.
• Available and accessible to all in the EU and beyond: thanks to the iCK online platform, English
language-based content and subtitles in 4 languages (French, Dutch, Spanish, and Arabic), coaches
will be able to access training in a flexible and inclusive way thus breaking many barriers to
education.
• Integration of Migrant Communities: by being English-based and providing subtitles in multiple
languages spoken by a large proportion of migrant communities like Spanish, French, and Arabic,
iCK will facilitate the integration of migrants and the contribution they can make to their
communities.
• Sustainable: being member and community driven, iCK will continue to grow beyond the life of
the Erasmus+ funding. Its outputs will be able to support coaches, coach developers and
organisations involved in coach education for years to come.

iCoachKids Project Events:

iCK will deliver three international promotional events:

• Autumn 2017 – 1st iCK Conference: Coaching Children Workforce in the EU – Hungary
• Summer/Autumn 2018 – 2nd iCK Conference: European Coaching Children Curriculum -
United Kingdom
• Spring/Summer 2019 – iCK Closing Conference - Ireland

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Literature Review Rationale and Format

Literature Review Rationale

This literature review is a central piece of iCK. It aims to provide the necessary evidence to aid the
development of a European Coaching Children Curriculum (ECCC) to guide those developing training
opportunities for coaches of children and young people in the European Union and beyond. In the
context of iCK, the literature review and the ECCC will inform the development of the three Massive
Open Online Courses that will be the final outputs of the project.

Literature Review Process

The review was conducted by the consortium expert group comprised of Professor Nicolette Schipper-
van Veldhoven and Marieke Fix (Netherlands), Sergio Lara-Bercial, Dr Julian North, Dr A.J. Rankin-
Wright and Dr Dave Piggott (United Kingdom), Declan O’Leary and Sheelagh Queen (Ireland), Kris Van
der Haegen and Manuel Dupois (Belgium), Dr Rafael Navarro, Dr Sonia García and Dr Pedro Lara
(Spain), Lolita Dudeniene and Dr Birute Statkeviciene (Lithuanias), and Dr Ladislav Petrovic and Judith
Balogh (Hungary). All the above experts have contributed to various sections of this review.

From the multiple options available, the expert group opted to conduct a ‘theory-led’ literature
review. This type of review focuses on identifying key elements of the field or topic in question that
have contributed to forming the currently accepted general viewpoint (i.e., the espoused theories as
to how children’s sport should happen) and interrogating the literature to ascertain their value or
refute them.

The iCK team opted to base the current review on the generally accepted developmental view
of children’s sport presented in literature, programmes and policy documents from North America and
Europe. Examples of this perspective can be found in the International Sport Coaching Framework
(ISCF; ICCE, ASOIF & LBU, 2013), the European Sport Coaching Framework (ESCF; Lara-Bercial et al.,
2017) or UNICEF’s sport policies (https://www.unicef.org/sports/23619_23624.html; Sport,
Recreation & Play). This view of children and youth sport emphasises:

• FUN
• A holistic approach to child development
• Wide access and participation
• Developmentally appropriate opportunities to train, play and compete

In this way, rather than searching widely across vast themes and search terms, the expert group
built a theory of children’s sport to target supportive evidence from across the world, with special
emphasis, where possible, on papers produced in Europe. Evidence contrary to the proposed goals,
processes and methods was also sought out.

The iCK expert group adopted the six Primary Functions of the Coach developed in the ESCF and
refined in the ESCF (p. 26) to guide the development of the theory of coaching children used in this
literature review. The primary functions represent the daily work of the coach and their positive
fulfilment leads to the sportsperson’s development and improvement. Figure 1 offers a diagrammatic
representation of the functions.

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 Figure 1. The primary functions of the coach (Reproduced from ESCF, Lara-Bercial et al., 2017,
p.27.)

1. Set the Vision and Strategy. The coach, in partnership with participants1 and teams, creates a
vision and a strategy based on the needs and stage of development of the children and the
organizational and social context of the programme. The coach develops a specific plan
outlining the steps required to bring the strategy to life and realise the vision.
2. Shape the Environment. The coach works with a group of children and takes responsibility for
the common and individual objectives and the institution’s. In order to do so, the coach seeks
to optimise the environment in which the programme occurs through the procurement and
maximisation of personnel, facilities, resources, working practices and the management of
other coaches and support personnel.
3. Build Relationships. The coach builds positive and effective relationships with children and
others associated with the programme. This includes personnel at the club, school, federation
and other levels, as well as parents/guardians. The coach is responsible for engaging in,
contributing to and influencing the organisational context through the creation of respectful
and effective working relationships with those he/she is accountable to (i.e. performance
managers, board of directors, etc.)
4. Conduct Practices and Prepare and Manage Competitions. The coach organises suitable and
challenging practices using effective pedagogy and methodology to promote learning and
improvement. The coach prepares for targeted and appropriate competitions and also
oversees and manages the participants in these competitions. The coach creates additional
and relevant internal and external competitive opportunities where appropriate to promote
individual and team development.
5. Read and React to the Field. The coach observes and responds to events appropriately,
including all on- and off-field matters. Effective decision making is essential to fulfil this

1
In the context of the iCoachKids, the term ‘participants’ refers to children and young people. iCK focuses
mainly on children up to 12 years of age.

9
 function and is a cross cutting capability that should be developed in all coaches at each stage
of their development.
6. Reflect and Learn. The coach evaluates the programme as a whole as well as each practice and
competition seeking improvements. In addition, personal evaluation and reflection underpin
a process of ongoing learning and professional development. An important element of this
process is the coach’s efforts to support the education and development of other children’s
coaches.

As stated in the ESCF,

These primary functions describe how coaches accomplish their aims in general
terms. Substantial variation may exist depending on the nature of specific coaching
roles and circumstances. Experienced coaches typically are more engaged in all of
the functions than are early-stage coaches. However, all coaches should be aware
of and strive to fulfil these primary functions regardless of experience.

The foundational role of a clear and robust set of values and beliefs, and a sound
vision and strategy informed by the objectives of athletes, teams, and the
organisational and institutional context, cannot be overemphasised. (pp. 26-27)

The table below shows the agreed areas to be covered in this review.

Section Title Content

1. The context • The relevance of the socio-political micro and macro
context
2. Values & Beliefs • The importance of understanding one’s own values and
beliefs in coaching

3. Setting the Vision & • How children develop from a bio-psycho-social

Strategy perspective
• Developmental trajectories in sport
• Developmental outcomes of youth sport participation
• Sport as a tool for personal development
• Coaching curriculum development
• Planning
4. Shaping the • Creating a pedagogical climate
Environment & • The role of motivation
Building • Safeguarding and protecting children in sport
Relationships
5. Conducting Practice • Learning strategies
& Competition • The role of competition
6. Reflecting & • The why and how of reflection in coaching
Learning

The iCK expert group acknowledges the limitations of this approach. Not all areas that potentially
impact or come into creating the most positive experiences for children in sport may have been
covered, nor every single piece of evidence in the literature examined. By contrast, the theory-led
approach allows for a much more pragmatic and focused review of existing beliefs and the literature

10
that either corroborates or refute them. It is our belief that this approach is much more suited to the
needs of iCK and more informative to coaches on the ground.

Literature Review Format

The presentation of this literature review unashamedly adopts a child-centred and coach-focused
approach. Children’s coaches and coach developers, rather than fellow academics are considered to
be the main target group. Therefore, it was agreed to produce a highly practical document wherein
each section and topic includes in tabular form:

• Key theoretical principles

• Explanatory paragraphs including supporting evidence
• Implications for children’s coaches

In addition, as a summary of the literature review the iCK expert group has developed the iCK
Pledge, the 10 golden rules of coaching children that should always be observed to foster positive
developmental experiences.

Literature Review Table

In the following pages, each section will be presented as a table in the format describe above.

11
1. The Context

The Relevance of the Socio-Political Micro and Macro context

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Sport and sport coaching (and • Sport coaching, as an activity, is considered by • Children’s coaches should have an awareness of the
children’s sport coaching) some researchers to be “the result of dynamic social and political context that they are working in.
occur within a particular social interaction between coaches, athletes, and the
and political context. socio-cultural context” (Cushion and Jones, • A thorough research and consideration of existing
2006: 143). In their review of literature, socio-cultural context and resources by clubs and
Abraham and Collins (2011: 378) state that federations is an important part of the
“coaching environments encompass development of effective systems for children’s
pedagogical, social, and socio-political contexts coaching (North et al. 2016).
that require decisions to be made, where
possible against ‘external criteria,’ on how to • Increasing and retaining mass youth participation in
interact with and influence (and be influenced sport clubs can positively affect the performance of
by) various stakeholders”. There is an increasing professional teams (Galatti, et al., 2016).
recognition in academic research of the need to Case study example (Galatti, et al., 2016): a
understand the socio-cultural context and basketball club in Spain - the sport programme is
resources available in a particular country and based on the integration of performance and
sport, etc. in order to appropriately embed sport participation; the development of elite athletes
systems, for example player development while also facilitating long-term participation and
systems, within this (Henriksen, et al., 2010b; positive youth development in sport. It focuses on
Henriksen, et al., 2010a; Larsen, et al., 2013; “internal communication and educational
North, et al., 2016). requirements that foster well-rounded youth
development teams. The coaches are encouraged
• At a macro level, coaching • At a macro-level, the social and political context to talk to the parents, be attentive, and fulfil the
systems are embedded in a impact on national coaching systems in a basketball system, an educational program by the
country’s existing and available country with regards to the existing and club that aims to reinforce a set of values pertaining
socio-cultural and wider available socio-cultural and wider resources to healthy habits, positive attitudes, attendance,
resources. (North, et al., 2016). This includes national interaction with the team, punctuality, respect, and
• What is, or is not, possible attitudes to children’s coaching, children’s good grades” (Galatti, et al., 2016: 26). (Note: a club
within a particular country is participation levels in sport and physical activity; must develop programmes according to its own
wider educational attitudes and practices for operational standards and context. This best

12
 strongly linked to existing children’s sport; sport organisations (e.g. club, practice example can be adapted, but not
socio-cultural resources. school, university), infrastructure and facilities necessarily generalised for other clubs.)
(North et al. 2016). This wider context implicates
the embedding of coaching systems for children. • To shift the behaviour of children’s coaches towards
• North et al. (2016) has cautioned that there are those more facilitative of positive athlete outcomes,
tendencies in both academia and in policy and coaches require training resources, time and
practice to isolate concepts and to work with support. Crucially, targeted behaviours must fit
ideas and programmes that are directly and individual coaches and the specific coaching
uncritically applied to different contexts without contexts in which they work, including the
forethought or modification. E.g. Youth
organisational and cultural setting (Erickson and
development might be reduced to physical
Gilbert, 2013).
components or psychological components.
These are individual (or sub-individual)
reductions rather than conceptualising youth
development as systemic and social.
• Abraham and Collins (2011) argue that coaches
should critically consider the required strategic
socio-political goals of their work: for example,
defining key educational and health goals for the
children’s coach, and be proactive in developing
a socio-political environment that meets their
needs. This includes identifying who will need to
buy into their socio-political goals, how they are
communicated and who they will need to be
communicated to. They refer to this as the
Socio-Political-Strategic Level (Macro).

• The social and political context • Gendered cultural assumptions and stereotypes
impacts on organisational held by those in influential positions within sport
cultures in sport settings (e.g. organisations and clubs have, in some cases,
clubs). This influences how resulted in women, rather than men, being
children’s coaches are viewed, positioned in coaching roles working with junior
for example who is best suited age groups (Rankin-Wright, 2015). For example,
to coach children and who is research in the UK has documented the
challenges that women coaches face in trying to

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 best suited to coach senior progress in sport coaching when colleagues,
athletes/players. managers, and parents hold gendered
stereotypes regarding the suitability of women
as coaches (Norman, 2010;2012).

• A children’s coach’s work is • The term micro-politics is used to describe these

linked to, and influenced by, “political interactions between social actors in
their interactions with others, different organizational settings, such as schools,
and takes place within a sports clubs and teams, companies, and
particular social and cultural families” (Potrac and Jones, 2009a: 225). At a
context. micro-level, a children’s coach’s work is linked to
• The role of coaches, family, others, including children and colleagues in a
friends, and immediate social particular social and cultural context (Potrac, et
support is important for al., 2002). As a result, the physical setting in
increasing children’s lifelong which sport coaching takes place and the social
participation in sporting support and involvement from relatives and
activities. friends are important elements that affect the
likelihood of children continuing to participate in
sporting activities (Côté, et al., 2013; Galatti, et
al., 2016). Potrac, et al. (2002: 184) state that
the coaching process is “inextricably linked to
both the constraints and opportunities of human
interaction”. Potrac and Jones (2009a) argue for
coaching to be investigated from a micro-
political perspective in order to examine the
power and interpersonal relationships inherent
in sport coaching.

• The social and political context • The beliefs and assumptions of stakeholders,
influences coaching objectives including coaches, children and youth
and behaviours. participants, parents, etc. drive much of the
behaviour observed in social interactions in
coaching (Abraham and Collins, 2011). For
example, d'Arripe-Longueville, et al. (1998)
found that elite judo coaches engaged in a

14
number of strategies to entice the best
performance from athletes, including verbally
provoking, displaying difference, and direct
confrontation, and these actions were justified
as being culturally appropriate within a ‘winning
system’. Coaches have also been found to
engage with conscious strategies for impression
management, to manipulate situations and to
gain the respect of athletes based on beliefs of
needing to act in a “coach appropriate” way
(Potrac, et al., 2002; Cushion and Jones, 2006;
Potrac and Jones, 2009b; Thompson, et al.,
2015). In their review of literature for children’s
sport (predominantly from the United States of
America and Canada), Erickson and Gilbert
(2013) reported that studies had examined
differences in coach-youth athlete interactions
and coach behaviours according to contextual
features of specific sport settings, as well as
situational characteristics, such as game
situation (e.g. winning or losing). Based on their
review, they concluded that coach-athlete
interactions in children’s sport were typically
characterised by high amounts of instruction,
support and encouragement, and management
behaviours with a positive focus. Studies
employing interventions to target coach-athlete
interactions have suggested that it is possible to
shift children’s coaches’ behaviour towards
those more facilitative of positive athlete
outcomes (Barnett, et al., 1992; Smoll, et al.,
1993; Smith, et al., 1995; Smith, et al., 2007). For
interventions to be successful, children’s
coaches require training resources, time and
support, and targeted behaviours must fit

15
 individual coaches and the specific coaching
contexts in which they work, including the
organisational and cultural setting (Erickson and
Gilbert, 2013).

References
Abraham, A. and Collins, D. (2011) Taking the Next Step: Ways Forward for Coaching Science. Quest (00336297), 63, (4), pp.366-384.
Barnett, N. P., Smoll, F. L. and Smith, R. E. (1992) Effects of Enhancing Coach-Athlete Relationships on Youth Sport Attrition. Sport Psychologist, 6, (2),
pp.111-127.
Côté, J., Erickson, K. and Abernethy, B. (2013) Practice and Play in Sport Development. In: Côté, J. and Lidor, R. (Eds.): Condition of Children’s Talent
Development in Sport. Morgantown, Fitness Information Technology, pp.9-20
Cushion, C. and Jones, R. L. (2006) Power, Discourse, and Symbolic Violence in Professional Youth Soccer: The Case of Albion Football Club. Sociology
of Sport Journal, 23, (2), pp.142-161.
d'Arripe-Longueville, F., Fournier, J. F. and Dubois, A. (1998) The Perceived Effectiveness of Interactions between Expert French Judo Coaches and
Elite Female Athletes. Sport Psychologist, 12, (3), pp.317-332.
Erickson, K. and Gilbert, W. (2013) Coach-Athlete Interactions in Children's Sport. In: Cote, J. and Lidor, R. (Eds.): Conditions of Children's Talent
Development in Sport. Morgantown, Fitness Information Technology, pp.139-156
Galatti, L. R., Côté, J., Silva Reverdito, R., Allan, V., Montero Seoane, A. and Rodrigues Paes, R. (2016) Fostering Elite Athlete Development and
Recreational Sport Participation: A Successful Club Environment. Motricidade, 12, (3), pp.20-31.
Henriksen, K., Stambulova, N. and Roessler, K. K. (2010a) Holistic Approach to Athletic Talent Development Environments: A Successful Sailing Milieu.
Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 11, 1/1/2010, pp.212-222.
Henriksen, K., Stambulova, N. and Roessler, K. K. (2010b) Successful Talent Development in Track and Field: Considering the Role of Environment.
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, pp.122-132.
Larsen, C. H., Alfermann, D., Henriksen, K. and Christensen, M. K. (2013) Successful Talent Development in Soccer: The Characteristics of the
Environment. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2, (3), pp.190-206.
Norman, L. (2010) Bearing the Burden of Doubt: Female Coaches' Experiences of Gender Relations. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 81, (4),
pp.506-517.
Norman, L. (2012) A Crisis of Confidence: Women Coaches' Responses to Their Engagement in Resistance. Sport, education and society, 19, (5), pp.1-
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North, J., Lara-Bercial, S., Rankin-Wright, A. J., Ashford, M. and Whitaker, L. (2016). Player Development Systems in the Performance Pathway in Four
World-Leading Badminton Nations: A Literature Review and Interviews with Experts from Indonesia, Korea, Denmark and Spain. . Leeds, Leeds
Beckett University.
Potrac, P. and Jones, R. (2009a) Power, Conflict, and Cooperation: Toward a Micropolitics of Coaching. Quest (00336297), 61, (2), pp.223-236.
Potrac, P., Jones, R. and Armour, K. (2002) ‘It’s All About Getting Respect’: The Coaching Behaviors of an Expert English Soccer Coach. Sport,
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Potrac, P. and Jones, R. L. (2009b) Micropolitical Workings in Semi-Professional Football. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, (4) 12//, p.557.
Rankin-Wright, A. J. (2015) Racial and Gender Equality and Diveristy in Sport Coaching in the United Kingdom. Leeds, Leeds Beckett University
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L. and Barnett, N. P. (1995) Reduction of Children's Sport Performance Anxiety through Social Support and Stress-Reduction
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17
2. Values & Beliefs

The importance of understanding one’s own values and beliefs

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Expert coaches have a well- • Coaches’ values and beliefs, what is • Children’s coaches need to familiarise themselves
developed philosophy which sometimes referred to a coaching with the prevailing values and beliefs of the
guides their practice philosophy, guide their decision-making contexts in which they coach. Where alignment is
• Understanding one’s own values process and, ultimately, their actions not possible, coaches must decide whether they
and beliefs in coaching and life is (Collins, in press; Gilbert, 2017). can still coach there, change or move to a different
central to effective coaching • Coaching philosophies are personal and setting that is more aligned to their values and
practice individual, yet the values espoused by the beliefs.
• Effective coaches continuously context in which the coach work need to be • Children’s coaches should have an open-mind. As
reflect on their practice and how it considered. their knowledge grows and they gain experience,
matches their philosophy • An example of the current values espoused their beliefs and values will change
• The interplay between context, in youth sport policy is included in the • Beginner coaches may adopt ‘an approach to their
values and beliefs and coaching European Sports Coaching Framework (ESCF, coaching’ without being able to define their
behaviours (i.e., (mis)-alignment) Lara-Bercial et al., 2017) The ESCF flags up coaching philosophy. This will develop over time if
is pivotal to coaching practice that ‘A prerequisite of coaching should be a they write it down and are reflective (a learned skill)
commitment to the positive sport experience • A stepped approach to the development of a
and development of each athlete.’ (p. 18). philosophy should be introduced in coach
According to the ESCF, the goals of sport development, which links:
participation can be grouped into 3 o beliefs/values
categories of outcomes (p. 22-23): o coaching approach/philosophy
1. Sport competencies o coaching objectives
2. Personal competencies o coaching practice
3. Life experience. o coaching context (club/children)
These are, however, outlined in more detail o challenges to the adopted philosophy
in other sections of the literature review. • Children’s coaches should engage with other
• The ESCF also identifies, ‘The clear coaches to discuss their approach/philosophy, why
expectation that coaches will perform their they have adopted it and the challenges they face
duties in an ethically responsible way, play by matching it to their practice
the rules at all times and protect the integrity

18
 of the sport.’ (p. 18) (http://truecoach.wada- • Coaches should make time and space to reflect on
ama.org) their coaching – approach/philosophy, behaviours,
• These external guidelines contribute to the alignment of actions. This should be done at regular
broad context in which sports coaches intervals and when they face challenges in their
operate and should therefore inform their coaching
philosophy.
• Specifically, the coach will need to consider:
1. the specific club/school in which they
coach and its approach to children –
programmatic values & beliefs (Camire
et al., 2012)
2. the parents/families of the children they
coach
3. the specific needs of the children they
coach (growth & development, LTAD
(Balyi et al. 2013).
• Each coach will need to develop a coaching
philosophy, taking their context into account
but based on their personal values and
beliefs (Vealey, 2005; Lara-Bercial & Mallett
(2016); www.ausport.gov.au). This is a
learned process and should be considered in
coach development.
• Martens (2012) outlines a practical approach
to coaches developing a Coaching Philosophy
and with reflection included, allows for it to
evolve over time.
• Cote and Gilbert (2009) flag the concept of
expertise in different coaching domains,
including coaching children. In this respect
they propose a set of recommendations that
could form the basis of a coaching
philosophy for coaching children:

19
 1. Adopt an inclusive focus as opposed to
an exclusive selection policy based on
performance
2. Organize a mastery-oriented
motivational climate
3. Set up safe opportunities for children to
have fun and engage playfully in low-
organization games
4. Teach and assess the development of
fundamental movements by focusing on
the child first
5. Promote the social aspect of sport and
sampling
• Jenkins (2010) collates the research on
Coaching Philosophy and flags three things:
1. the need for coaches to be self-aware
2. that a coach’s stated philosophy and
their actions may not always align
3. a coach’s philosophy can evolve over
time
• To act on these points, a coach needs to have
a growth mind-set (Chase 2010). This results
in the coach setting an environment for the
children they coach to be challenging and
provide positive development. It also allows
the coach to be self-reflective (a learned
skills) on whether their coaching actions
match their coaching philosophy. Coaches
should self-reflect after a season, after
significant events during the season and on a
session/event basis, particularly if they felt
their emotions got the better of them or an
aspect was out of their control and how they
reacted to it.

20
References
Balyi, I., Way, R., & Higgs, C.(2013) Long term athlete development. Human Kinetics, Champaign: IL.
Camiré, M., Trudel, P., & Forneris, T. (2012). Coaching and transferring life skills: Philosophies and strategies used by model high school coaches. The
Sport Psychologist. 26, 243-260
Chase, M. (2010). Should coaches believe in innate ability? The importance of leadership mindset. Quest, 62(3) 296-307.
Collins, K. (in press). Philosophical perspective. In D. Gould and C. Mallett (Eds.) The Sport Coaching Handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Cote, J., & Gilbert, W. (2009). An Integrative Definition of Coaching Effectiveness and Expertise. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching,
4(3), 307-323.
Jenkins, S. (2010). Coaching Philosophy. In J. Lyle & C. Cushion (Eds), Sports Coaching: Professionalisation and Practice (pp. 233-242). London, UK:
Churchill Livingstone Elsevier
Gilbert, W.D. (2017). Coaching Better Every Season. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gilbert, W.D. & Trudel, P. (2001). Learning to Coach through Experience: Reflection in Model Youth Sport Coaches. Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education, 21, 16-34.
Lara-Bercial, S., & Mallett, C. J. (2016). The Practices and Developmental Pathways of Professional and Olympic Serial Winning Coaches. International
Sport Coaching Journal, 3(1), 221-239.
Martens, R. (2012). Successful Coaching. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Vealey, R. (2005). Coaching for the Inner Edge., Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

21
3. Setting the Vision and Strategy

How Children Develop from a Bio-psycho-social Perspective

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Children’s development is Children’s development in sport is conditioned by the • Selection and De-selection of children before
conditioned and driven by same processes that impact on wider human development, puberty should be avoided in most sports, or at
the interaction of biological, yet the literature on performer development systems only least re-considered.
psychological and social occasionally or implicitly makes reference to theory and o The multiple and interacting components
interactions throughout the evidence from the human development literature (e.g. and processes mean that human
life-course Henriksen et al., 2010a; Martindale et al., 2005). development is highly heterogeneous and
individualised. The number of variables
• Development is thus driven The three main theoretical positions on human involved and the interaction between
by a combination of genetic development are: them in player development suggest that it
(nature) and environmental (1) genetically determined/centred development; (2) is non-linear and unpredictable.
factors (nurture: environmentally determined/centred development; and o It is difficult, if not impossible to
(3) an interactionist position between the two. identify/predict talented children in most
socioeconomic; structural;
sports before puberty.
constrains/enablers; etc.) An interactionist position between genes and environment o Therefore, a key issue appears to be
• This interactive process is almost unequivocally the mainstream position in keeping children in the system long
philosophy (Bhaskar, 2012), biology (Lewontin, 2000; enough to reach their potential and avoid
suggests children’s
Noble, 2008; Ridley, 2011), psychology, and developmental early deselection.
development is
science (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Gagné, 2013; • There is a limit to what system architects,
individualized, non-linear Gottlieb, Wehlsten, & Lickliter, 2006; Sigelman & Rider, coaches and players can realistically hope to
and discontinuous with 2012) though there are differences in models and in the control. The interactionist model suggests that
moments of engagement, importance of genetic contributions. Not only do genes participant and performer development will
disengagement, and re- and the environment contribute to human development, necessarily be subject to a range of influences
engagement, and they do so in a particular way. From the moment of and forces. This means stakeholders have to
developmental conception, genes and the environment work together accept that their interventions will only be
acceleration, stalling, and epigenetically and emergently (Carey, 2012; Gottlieb et al., successful under certain indeterminate
potentially regression. 2006). conditions. Consequently, systems have to be
flexible, adaptable and above all patient
As Sigelman and Rider suggest: (Martindale et al., 2005). Coaches need to

22
 “human development is an incredibly complex process that recognise that their role is important whilst
grows out of transactions between a changing person and repositioning themselves from ‘controllers’ to
a changing world and out of dynamic relationships among ‘facilitators/guiders/influencers’ working with
biological, psychological, and social influences. No the resources available to them and doing the
contributor to development – a gene, a temperament, a best they can.
parent, a culture – acts alone and is unaffected by other • Whilst from one point of view it could be argued
influences on development” (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. 2 this eases the expectations and pressures on
italics added). coaches ‘to get it right’, it will remain to be the
case that certain coaching strategies and
approaches that can be used to influence and
• There appear to be broad In sport, research has increasingly conceptualised guide performer development will be better
identifiable age/stages in a participant development as a multi-layered complex than others and these places a new kind of
child’s development that emergent process involving the dynamic and non-linear pressure on coaches as they attempt to manage
have important lessons for interaction of multiple variables – genetic-environmental; and influence myriad factors.
establishing appropriate physical, psychological, social; luck etc. (Bloom, 1985; • Coaches’ need to be aware of their role and
development Button, 2011; Helsen, Hodges, Winckel, & Starkes, 2000; influence within the broader development
environments, programmes Phillips, Davids, Renshaw, & Portus, 2010; Simonton, 1999; pathways of their youth athletes
and sessions Singer & Janelle, 1999; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, &
Philippaerts, 2008).

There are increasing concerns about the practice of early

• It is difficult, if not talent identification and selection of children (e.g. Côté &
impossible to
Lidor, 2013b; Régnier, Salmela, & Russell, 1993; Vaeyens et
identify/predict talented
al., 2008). Genetics certainly play a role in development
individuals in most sports
before puberty (Singer & Janelle, 1999) – but it remains highly contentious
whether early genetic markers (or their apparent physical
manifestations) transfer to exceptional performance in
adulthood (Vaeyens et al., 2008).

One of the most consistent results from research

• Development is a long-term
examining the development of talented and expert
process
performance relates to the length of time involved (Baker,

23
 Cobley, & Fraser-Thomas, 2009; Bloom, 1985; Newell &
Rosenbloom, 1981; North, 2012a; Simon & Chase, 1973).
Although estimates of the length of the development
process from novice to elite vary, many researchers quote
the figure of 10,000 hours, or 10 years (e.g. Ericsson et al.,
1993).

In sport, a connection has been established between the

number of practice hours and expertise (e.g. Baker, Côté, &
Abernethy, 2003a, 2003b; Baker, Côté, & Deakin, 2005;
Gould et al., 2002; Helsen et al., 2000; Helsen, Starkes, &
Hodges, 1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996; Larsen et al., 2013;
Mischel, 1973; Starkes, Deakin, Allard, Hodges, & Hayes,
1996).

• Development is Age-stage differentiation is based on the idea that • Coaches must take into account the
staged/phased and these individuals at different ages and stages of development developmental age/stage of the children they
phases/stages can be acquire particular characteristics or can be exposed to coach in the various developmental areas and
roughly identified using a environments that provide the foundation – or enable build programmes, sessions, activities and
variety of theories and them to be ready – for engagement in particular types of competitions that are appropriate.
training activities (though chronological age and stage may
markers • Coaching and competition should be
not always be aligned and there can be considerable
differentiated and inclusive to cater for different
• Identifying and tracking individual differences).
levels of ability/disability
some of these markers can
Age-staged approaches have a considerable history in • Where possible coaches must keep track of
potentially help coaches
physiology, psychology, and education and have also developmental and performance markers to
tailor support to children
featured strongly in the context of player development and guide planning and inform practice
• Development happens at coaching. Moreover, age-stage development has been a • Fundamental motor skills must be prioritized at
different rates and times for central feature of research into physical and neurological an early age
different children and for development (e.g. Scammon, 1930), cognitive
different areas of development (e.g. Piaget, 1952), and movement
development (e.g. Gallahue, Ozmun, & Goodway, 2012).
development
For example, Gallahue, Ozmun, and Goodway’s (2012) life-
span model of motor development suggests there are four

24
• Fundamental motor skills broad stages of movement development: reflexive
are a precursor of movement (from birth to one year old), rudimentary
specialized sport skills movement (one to two years old), fundamental movement
(two to seven years old), and specialised movement (seven
• Development happens at to adult hood). Thus from a movement development
different rates and times for perspective, there is a notable transition age between
boys and girls. seven and upwards.

• Different physical capacities In sport, a number of age-stage models have been

must be worked on at proposed including the Long-term Athlete Development
different intensities/with (LTAD) model (Balyi & Hamilton, 2004; Balyi, Way & Higgs,
different levels of priority at 2013; Balyi & Williams, 2009; Stafford, 2005) and the
different stages of Developmental Model of Sports Participation (DMSP)
development. (Côté, 1999; Côté et al., 2007). A further overview of non-
sport and sport age-stage development models is provided
as an appendix. A collective analysis of these models
suggest a number of key age groups – 5-7 years, 8-11
years, 12-14 years, 15-18 years – and key transition points
around 4-5 years, 7-8 years, 11-12 years, 14-15 years, and
18-19 years.

There is a considerable amount of research and

commentary analysing the use of age-stage thinking both
descriptively and retrospectively, and as a means of
thinking about player development prescriptively.

From a descriptive and retrospective perspective research

has pointed toward a tendency in sport to ignore age-stage
thinking particularly in younger age-groups where children
are often exposed to variants of the adult game, adult
practice structure and adult coaching. Partington and
Cushion (2013) describe professional soccer as a ‘living and
ecologically sensitive’ site for age-stage approaches. Citing
research by Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008a) they suggest that
“a mismatch between children’s developmental needs and

25
coaching behaviours leads to more dropout, injuries and
shorter careers than when children are trained by a
competent age appropriate coach” (p.403).

A key aspect of age-stage thinking is transition points – by

definition, this is when something novel and significant
happens (for example, change, progression, or drop-out).
At the performance end of youth sport, a number of
researchers have commented on the difficulties for players
transitioning between age-stages and this confers
responsibility on coaches and others to ensure that the
former are equipped for what lies ahead (e.g. Larsen et al.,
2013; MacNamara, 2011). Alfermann and Stambulova
(2007) have provided a set of recommendations to
facilitate positive transitions which emphasise the
importance of information provision and communication
between stakeholders (i.e., coaches, managers, elite
athletes).

Age/stage models, both in and out of sport, have been

subject to criticism notably concerning the dynamic,
complex and non-linear nature of human development
suggesting that individual players may be very different to
their chronological age profile (e.g. Bailey et al., 2010; Ford
et al., 2011; McMorris, 1999; Thelen & Smith, 1996).

More specifically, it has been argued that ‘stages’ in their

early behavioural and cognitive formations were general
descriptive categories (individuals of a particular age on
average have the following physical, psychological
characteristics), but were unfortunately reified to become
explanatory or causal categories suggesting a single or
unified causal development process (Brainerd, 1978;
Thelen & Smith, 1996). Piaget’s cognitive development
stages had some empirical validity at the aggregate large

26
scale level, but not “when developmentalists turned up the
microscope” (Thelen & Smith, 1996, p. 22).

Sport researchers have suggested using other markers e.g.

relative age, development age, and skeletal age etc. to
provide a means for coaches to individualise development
programmes, environments and activities. However, some
researchers doubt the coaches’ ability to apply this
information appropriately (Ford et al., 2011). Other
researchers have suggested the use of developmental or
learning phases disconnected from chronological age. For
example, Bloom and colleagues (1985) suggest a sequential
development process – ‘early, middle, late’ that is
disconnected from chronological markers.

It is important to note that there have been other

criticisms of these models. For example, Balyi and
Hamilton (2004) have been criticised for basing their
development model largely on physiological principles
which remain unsubstantiated (Bailey et al., 2010; Ford et
al., 2011). The search is on for a developmental model
which integrates different disciplinary perspectives and has
robust research backing.

Recently, Lloyd and Oliver (2012) have suggested an

alternative model focused on the physical development of
children and young people, the Physical Youth
Development Model (PYDM). The PYDM has certain
similarities with the LTAD model, yet it also brings into
question some of its assumptions.

In addition, other participant development models have

focused on the athletes’ type of engagement. For instance,
the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP;
Cóté & Abernethy, 2007; Cóté & Fraser-Thomas, 2016)

27
 proposes three stages (sampling, specialisation and
investment) based on the degree of specialisation and the
intensity of the engagement. The DMSP indicates that early
diversification and progressive increases in intensity
provide a solid foundation for personal development,
lifelong engagement in sport and for some, expert
performance in the future.

The table below (after the references section) compares

LTAD, PYDM and DMSP models.

Ultimately, age-stage information is just that, information -

it is not a rigid programme - coaches should use the
information when they think it is useful to a child’s
development.

References

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psychology. New York: Wiley.
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31
Comparative Table – LTAD vs YPDM vs DMSP

Key Principles/Recommendations by Age/Stage

LTAD (Balyi, Way & Higgs, 2014) PYDM (Lloyd & Oliver, 2012) DMSP (Côté, 1999)
Active Start 0-6 Early Childhood (2-4) Not applicable
• Learning through unstructured play • Focus on Fundamental Movement Skills and
• Focus on Fundamentals of movement: Strength development
Balance, Coordination, Agility and Speed • Unstructured activities
(ABCs)
Middle Childhood (5-9 Girls/5-11 Boys)
• Early on foster FMS and progressively start
FUNdamentals 6-8 (Girls) 6-9 (Boys) working on Sport Specific Skills Sampling Years (6-12)
• Keep it fun • Maintain join mobility and flexibility • Multi-sport participation is highly
• Multi-sport participation • Focus on agility, speed, power and strength recommended
• Practice and master Fundamental • Endurance and Metabolic Conditioning is • Emphasis on enjoyment and building a
Movement Skills before doing sport desirable broad base of skills
specific skills • Low structure • Unstructured and low intensity
• Continue developing ABCs • Deliberate play should be as important, if
• Work on strength, endurance and not more, as organised sport at this stage
flexibility through games • Less emphasis on selection and
• Avoid specialisation representative teams and more on mass
participation
Learning to Train (9-12) Adolescence (10-19 Girls/ 12-20 Boys) • Diversity offers a foundation, but it does
• Encourage unstructured play • Maintenance of FMS and mobility not distinguish future expert
• Short-season multi-sport engagement • Strong focus on SSS performance
recommended • Up to 15/16 years old this is a critical period • Diversity is linked to lifelong participation
• Narrow to 3 sports at the end of the for the development of agility and speed • Short, multiple seasons within a year
stage • Power and strength should be maximised
• Work on endurance, strength, speed and throughout this stage
flexibility using body weight • Potential for hypertrophy starts grows
• Maintain the fun exponentially in this stage
• Continue to provide Fundamental • Endurance and metabolic conditioning is also
Movement Skills well received at this point
• Single periodisation • Moderate to high structure
Train to Train (12-15) Specialising Years (13-15)

32
• Prioritise aerobic development • Reducing number of sports
• Emphasise flexibility due to rapid growth • Short multiple seasons within a year
• Maximise accelerated adaptation to • Higher intensity
strength training
• Hone sport specific skills
• Focus on 2 sports
• Single and double periodisation
Train to Compete (16-23 Boys; 16-21 Girls) Investment Years (16+)
• Year-round high intensity sport specific • Singular focus on one sport
training • Predominance of deliberate practice
• Tailored programmes for each individual • Very high intensity
• Specialise into events and positions Adulthood (21+ Girls/ 20+ Boys)
• Periodisation based on competitive • Continue to maintain FMS and mobility
calendar • Strong focus on SSS
• Monitor ancillary capacities • Maintain and develop agility and speed
• Focus all training on the needs of • Power and strength should also be maximised
competition throughout this stage
• Less receptive to hypertrophy, but still
important
• Endurance and metabolic conditioning is
maximised at this point
Very high structure

33
Developmental Trajectories in Sport

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Research provides a number of • Examples of development models include: Balyi’s • Children’s coaches need to think about the kind of
tools or models for coaches to Long Term Athlete Development (Balyi & development environments they establish in
think about the kind of Hamilton, 2004; Stafford, 2005), Côté’s relation to the age/stage and motivations of
development environments Developmental Model of Sports Participation children and young participants
they should set up for children (Côté, 1999; Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2007), and • There is a clear difference between children, young
• Most of these tools/models more recently, Lloyd and Oliver’s Composite Youth people, and adults, and thus coaches must
differentiate between the Development Model (Rhodri S. Lloyd et al., 2015) differentiate between them when setting up
age/stage of the • There are a number of policy and practice based sessions
participant/performer and/or research reports which also discuss applied • There is a clear difference between more
the latter’s motivation for development models and the principles and the recreationally and performance orientated
engagement in sport details underlying them (e.g. North, 2012; North, participants, and thus coaches must differentiate
• Models generally differentiate Lara-Bercial, Morgan, & Rongen, 2014; North, between them when setting up sessions
between children aged 5-7 Lara-Bercial, Rankin-Wright, Ashford, & Whitaker,
• Coaches also need to think carefully about
years, 8-11 years, 12-14 years, 2016; North, Morgan, & Rongen, 2012) individual participant needs and carefully apply
15-16 years, 17-18 years, 19-21 • There are a number of applied examples of research guidance.
years, and 22 years and over – development models e.g. England football – DNA • Coaches must sensibly apply the information from
although the age/stages phases, New Zealand football – national player development models to their contexts and
identified vary between development framework, Scottish football – individual participants/performers – they must
models ‘national player pathway’ certainly not over-apply this information in a rigid
• Models also generally • Research suggests participant and performers one size fits all approach. This requires appropriate
differentiate between vary physically (Gallahue, Ozmun, & Goodway, judgement and decision making from the coach
beginning, recreational, 2012; R.S. Lloyd & Oliver, 2012), psychologically
performer development, and (MacNamara, 2011; MacNamara, Button, &
high-performance motivations Collins, 2010a, 2010b; Piaget, 1952) by age
for engagement in sport • Children, young people and adults have different
• Placed together the models motivations for engaging in sport (Russell, 2014)
provide a great deal of • There are a growing number of research based
information on how sporting discussions of early vs late specialization (e.g.
environments change by Baker, Cobley, & Fraser-Thomas, 2009; Gonçalves
age/stage and motivation C, Rama L, & Figueiredo, 2012)
which requires further reading. • There are a growing number of discussions of
However, broadly speaking: practice structure and its variations (e.g. Côté,

34
• In the beginner/recreational Erickson, & Abernethy, 2013; Muir, Morgan, &
pathway (which a majority of Abraham, 2011)
participants will move through) • Contrasting views on how coaches should think
the models emphasize: about a position research is provided by Ford et
o Young children: al. (2011) specifically on long term athlete
psychological and social development and North (2017) more generally
security, enjoyment, fun,
games, chance to develop
fundamental movement
skills
o Older children: chances for
social interaction,
challenge, greater
ownership of structure of
activities
o Adults: social interaction,
some challenge, even
greater ownership of
structure of activities
• In the performer development
/high performance pathway
(which only a minority of
participants will move to)
o Young children:
psychological and social
security, enjoyment, fun,
games, chance to develop
fundamental movement
skills (thus similar/identical
to the
beginner/recreational
pathway)
o Older children:
development
environments, practice

35
 activities and coaching
behaviours that encourage
physical, psychological,
social/lifestyle, movement/
technical and tactical
(PPSTT) development in
the chosen sport(s). There
is also preparation
required for more serious
competition stages.
o Young adults: focus on fine
tuning PPSTT
characteristics with a view
to competition success
• Note: There remain debates
about how early children and
young people should specialize
in one sport in the
beginner/performer
development/high
performance pathway
• Note: There remain debates
about the structure of practice
activities i.e. technical skill
based or tactical game based
for children and young people
in all pathways but notably in
the beginner/performer
development/high
performance pathway

References
Baker, J., Cobley, S., & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2009). What do we know about early specialisation? Not much! High Ability Studies, 20(1), 77-89.

36
Balyi, I., & Hamilton, A. (2004). Long-term athlete development: Trainability in childhood and adolescence. Windows of opportunity. Optimal
trainability. Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia and Advanced Training and Performance Ltd.
Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 395-417.
Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2007). Practice and play in the development of sport expertise. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of
sport psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Côté, J., Erickson, K., & Abernethy, B. (2013). Play and practice during childhood. In J. Côté & R. Lidor (Eds.), Conditions of children's talent development
in sport (pp. 9-20). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Ford, P., De Ste Croix, M., Lloyd, R., Meyers, R., Moosavi, M., Oliver, J., . . . Williams, C. (2011). The long-term athlete development model: physiological
evidence and application. Journal of Sports Science, 29(4), 389-402.
Gallahue, D. L., Ozmun, J. C., & Goodway, J. (2012). Understanding motor development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gonçalves C, E. B., Rama L, M. L., & Figueiredo, A. B. (2012). Talent identification and specialization in sport: an overview of some unanswered
questions. International Journal Of Sports Physiology And Performance, 7(4), 390-393.
Lloyd, R. S., & Oliver, J. (2012). The youth physical development model: A new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength and Conditioning
Journal, 34(3), 61-72.
Lloyd, R. S., Oliver, J. L., Faigenbaum, A. D., Howard, R., De Ste Croix, M. B. A., Williams, C. A., . . . Myer, G. D. (2015). Long-Term Athletic Development-
Part 1: A Pathway for All Youth. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(5), 1439-1450. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000756
MacNamara, A. (2011). Psychological characteristics of developing excellence. In D. Collins, A. Button & H. Richards (Eds.), Performance psychology: a
practitioner's guide (pp. 47-64). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
MacNamara, A., Button, A., & Collins, D. (2010a). The role of psychological characteristics in facilitating the pathway to elite performance: Part 1:
Identifying mental skills and behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 52-73.
MacNamara, A., Button, A., & Collins, D. (2010b). The role of psychological characteristics in facilitating the pathway to elite performance: Part 2:
Examining environmental and stage-related differences in skills and behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 74-96.
Muir, B., Morgan, G., & Abraham, A. (2011). Player learning: Implications for structuring practice activities and coach behaviour Commisioned report for
the Football Association. Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University.
North, J. (2012). Further development of the gymnastics participant model Commissioned report for British Gymnastics. Leeds: Sport Coaching
Innovations, Leeds Metropolitan University.
North, J. (2017). Sport coaching research and practice: Ontology, interdisciplinarity, and critical realism. London: Routledge.

37
Developmental Outcomes of Youth Sport Participation
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Coaches should strive to Although researchers – driven by their disciplinary • The traditional remit of the children’s coach as an
develop children holistically instincts – remain largely focused on the ‘activity leader’ must be broadened
• Coaches should aim to development of particular characteristics (e.g. • It is important for coaches to have a general idea of
develop children at various physiology (Lloyd & Oliver, 2012) and psychology the capabilities they hope to develop in children and
levels: (MacNamara & Collins, 2012)), more recent how these vary across different age groups to
o Technical development models are increasingly working with inform a progressive/spiral curriculum
o Tactical notions of holistic development (e.g. García • Coach education must widen the curriculum to
o Movement Skills Bengoechea, 2002; Erickson, in press; Haskins, Jolly, cover all these areas
o Physical & Lara-Bercial, 2011; North, 2009). This rationale has • Coaching programmes must specify what
o Social/Lifestyle also been applied to conceptualisations of coaching developmental outcomes they are trying to impact
o Life-Skills effectiveness where the holistic development of the upon and how – purposeful planning and integrated
• Sport can also provide sport participant has been given similar value to delivery
lifecourse opportunities and increased performance (Cóté & Gilbert, 2009) • The above must be done in a realistic manner,
experiences bearing in mind the expertise of the coach, contact-
Recent studies have identified Physical,
Psychological, Social, Technical and Tactical (PPSTT) time, age/stage of development and youth
characteristics of developing youth sport performers athlete/parent expectations
(North et al, 2014; 2016). Applied to all participants, • Development of all these areas is not independent
and specially children, these PPSTT characteristics but interdependent and thus delivery must be
can also be understood as desirable and potential integrated
developmental outcomes of sport participation. • Coaches must work with clubs and parents to agree
From a holistic perspective, this is particularly and manage expectations and work collaboratively
relevant for psychological and social outcomes • Coaches must track development in all agreed areas
(Weiss & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2009). for development. How this is done will vary
according to expertise and resource.
It is therefore increasingly acknowledged that • Coaches must understand ‘typical’ developmental
coaches need to think about children as human trajectories in each of the areas, developmental
beings – as individuals with their own histories, hierarchies, and interdependencies.
personalities, ideas, preferences, strengths and
weaknesses (Erickson, in press). This approach need
not only apply to elite or developing athletes, but to
all sport participants. In fact, it has been argued that
this is even more important with younger

38
participants to guarantee their lifelong participation
and interest in sport (Cóté & Erickson, 2015;
Whitehead, 2011).

There are a range of theories and studies which

suggest that if the coach focuses more on these
human qualities then there is a greater chance of
achieving both successful development and sporting
performance (see, for example, Jones, Armour, &
Potrac, 2004; Jowett, 2007). If coaches are enabling
and supporting these development processes they
need both disciplinary and multidisciplinary concepts
and ideas to work with.

Various psychological and social developmental

outcomes have been suggested in the literature. For
instance, Weiss and Wiese-Bjornstall (2009), based
on the work of Wiese-Bjornstall & LaVoi (2007)
propose the following two sets of assets that can be
obtained through physical activity:
Psychological Assets Social Assets
Self-determined Support from
motivation toward significant adults and
physical activity peers
Positive values toward Feelings of social
physical activity acceptance
Feelings of self- Close friendship and
determination, friendship quality
autonomy, and choice Leadership, teamwork,
Positive identity, body and cooperation
image, and self-esteem Respect, responsibility,
Perceived physical courtesy, and integrity
competence and self- Sense of civic
efficacy engagement and

39
 Positive affect and contribution to
stress relief community
Moral identity, Resistance to peer
empathy, and social pressure to engage in
perspective-taking risky behaviours
Cognitive functioning
and intellectual health
Hope and optimism
about the future

Researchers and practitioners working from a

holistic perspective have recently put forth different
models of the psychosocial developmental outcomes
that can be achieved through sport. One of the most
popularly used to date is the 5Cs developed by
Professor Richard Lerner and colleagues at Tufts
University in the USA.
This work originates from developmental psychology
and positive youth development. It is thus a
strength-based approach focused on ‘what young
people can become, not what they are lacking’ and
‘sees young people not as problems to be managed,
but resources to be developed’ (Roth, Brooks-Gunn,
Murray & Foster, 1998). This approach runs counter
to the traditional deficit-based culture which
considers children and young people as ‘broken’ or
at risk of becoming ‘broken’ (Benson, 2003; Lerner,
Alberts, Jelicic & Smith, 2005.

Lerner and collaborators have suggested a set of

developmental characteristics/outcomes – the 5Cs:
competence, confidence, connection, character, and
caring/compassion (e.g. Lerner et al., 2005; Lerner,
2008). The premise of Lerner’ model is that when

40
children achieve higher levels of development in
these areas, the make more positive and adaptive
transitions through adolescence and into adulthood.
In turn, this allows them to make greater
contributions to themselves, their communities, and
society in general.

Some researchers and practitioners have suggested

that youth sport programmes could and should be
used to develop these 5C outcomes in sporting
participants (Erickson, in press; Fraser-Thomas, Côté,
& Deakin, 2005; García-Bengoechea, 2002; Haskins,
2010; Lara-Bercial, Jolly & Haskins, 2011).

The 5Cs are becoming increasingly well known in

sport and coaching in the US, Canada and the UK.
The relevance of the 5Cs would appear to be in
drawing coaches’ attention to a wide range of
development characteristics/outcomes for young
participants and performers related to, but
conceptually different from, the physical,
psychological, social, technical and tactical
characteristics traditionally identified earlier. In
other words, it is another conceptual approach for
thinking about holistic development.

There is certainly overlap between the

characteristics identified through the 5Cs and those
proposed by the wider research literature notably on
the psychological aspects of player development as
desirable e.g. respect, humility and so on. The 5Cs
information could be useful to children’s coaches to
explore this kind of thinking as long as it does not
get confused with more disciplinary-focused
approaches.

41
 Similarly, various policy documents have suggested
that sport c also be an important source of
opportunities for young people to further their
personal lives and professional careers. The
International and European Sport Coaching
Frameworks (ICCE, LBU, ASOIF, 2013; CoachLearn,
2017) refer to these as ‘lifecourse competencies’ and
‘life experiences’ respectively. These include for
example, developing a greater network, learning
about other cultural groups, or increasing one’s own
geographical boundaries and range.
An additional area of interest relates to the
development of life-skills through participation in
sport. This is treated in detail in the following section
‘Sport as a tool for personal development.’

References
Benson, P. (1997). All kids are our kids: what communities must do to raise caring and responsible children and adolescents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
CoachLearn (2017). European Sport Coaching Framework. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Cóté, J. & Gilbert, W. (2009). Towards an integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. International Journal of Sport Science and
Coaching, 4(3), 307-23.
Cóté, J. & Erickson, K. (2015). Diversification and deliberate play during the sampling years. In J. Baker & D. Farrow (Eds.) Routledge Handbook of Sport
Expertise (pp. 305-316). Abingdon: Routledge.
Erikcson, K. (in press). Psychological and Social Development of Athletes. In D. Gould & C. Mallett (Eds.). The Sport Coaching Handbook. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics
Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Youth sport programs: an avenue to foster positive youth development. Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy, 10(1), 19-40. doi: 10.1080/1740898042000334890
García Bengoechea, E. (2002). Integrating knowledge and extending horizons in developmental sport psychology: A bioecological perspective. Quest,
54(1), 1-20.
Haskins, D. (2010). Coaching the whole child. Leeds: Sports Coach UK
Haskins, D., Jolly, S., & Lara-Bercial, S. (2011). UK Coaching Children Curriculum: A guide for governing bodies of sport. Leeds: Sports Coach UK.
ICCE, ASOIF, & LMU. (2013). International Sport Coaching Framework v1.2. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.
Jones, R. L., Armour, K. M., & Potrac, P. (2004). Sports coaching cultures: From practice to theory. London: Longman.

42
Jowett, S. (2007). Interdependence analysis and the 3+1Cs in the coach-athlete relationship. In S. Jowett & D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Lerner, R. (2008). The Good Teen. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press
Lerner, R., Lerner, J., Almerigi, J., Theokas, C., Naudeau, S., & Gestsdottir, S. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth
development programs, and community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study of positive youth
development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 17-71.
Lerner, R., Alberts, A.E., Jelicic, H. & Smith, L.M. (2006). Young People Are Resources to Be Developed: Promoting Positive Youth Development through
Adult–Youth Relations and Community Assets. In E.G. Clary & J.E. Rhodes (Eds.) Mobilizing adults for positive youth development: strategies for
closing the gap between beliefs and behaviours. New York, NY: Springer
Lloyd, R.S. & Oliver, J.L. (2012). The youth physical development model: a new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength and Conditioning
Journal. 34(3), 61-72.
MacNamara, A., & Collins, D. (2012). Building talent development systems of mechanistic principles. In J. Baker, S. Cobley & J. Schorer (Eds.), Talent
identification and development in sport: International perspectives (pp. 25-38). Abingdon: Routledge.
North, J. (2009). The coaching workforce 2009-2016. Leeds: Sports Coach UK.
North, J., Lara-Bercial, S., Morgan, G., & Rongen, F. (2014). The identification of good practice principles to inform player development and coaching in
European youth football. A literature review and expert interviews in Belgium, England, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain in the
performance pathway: A research report for UEFA. Leeds: Research Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure. Leeds Beckett University.
North, J., Lara-Bercial, S., Rankin-Wright, A.J., Ashford, M. & Whitaker, L. (2016). Player development systems in the performance pathway in four
world-leading badminton nations. A research report for BWF. Leeds: Research Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure. Leeds Beckett
University.
Roth, J., Brooks-Gunn, J. Murray, L., Foster, W. (1998). Promoting healthy adolescents: synthesis of youth development program evaluations. Journal of
Research on Adolescence, 8, 423-59
Weiss, M. R. & Wiese-Bjornstal, D.M. (2009). Promoting positive youth development through physical activity. Research Digest of the President’s
Council on Physical Fitness and Sport. 10(3).
Whitehead, M. (2011). Physical literacy through the lifecourse. Abingdon: Routledge.
Wiese-Bjornstal, D.M., & LaVoi, N.M. (2007). Girls’ physical activity participation: Recommendations for best practices, programs, policies, and future
research. In M.J. Kane & N.M. LaVoi (Eds.), The 2007 Tucker Center Research Report, Developing physically active girls: An evidence-based
multidisciplinary approach (pp. 63-90). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

43
Sport as a Tool for Personal Development
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Sport has physical benefits • The literature provides evidence for the benefits of • Physical benefits last, only as long as the child
for children sport on children’s physical health, for example (1) is active. In order to develop a long-lasting
maintaining appropriate weight (2) enhancing the enthusiasm for sport and physical activity in
cardio vascular system and (3) protecting against children, coaches have to develop attractive
psychological issues like depression (Andersen et sport activities that are aimed at fun and are
al., 2011; Burnsnall, 2014; Fraser-Thomas et al., cognizant of child development principles.
2005; Fritz et al., 2010; Holt et al., 2011; Janssen et • Coaches are a role model for the
al., 2010; Kamijo et al., 2016; Koning et al., 2016; development of healthy lifestyles and should
Thomas et al. 2008; Ubago-Guisado et al., 2016). therefore pay attention to how they
However too much exercise or exercise delivered in represent the behaviours they want to see in
the wrong way can also cause negative effects on the children they coach.
physical child development. (Mitz et al. 2011; Vidal • Coaches must ensure that all activities are
Conti et al., 2014; Steiner et al., 2000) developmentally appropriate and that
• There is also evidence of the long-term effects of children are never put at risk physically or
sport on the development of future healthy emotionally.
behaviours like smoking and drugs use (Castillo et
al., 2007; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005; McHale et al.
2005; Melnick et al., 2001; Taliaferro et al., 2010)
• However, this evidence is somewhat confounded by
the fact that different concepts of health are used
in the literature. For instance, health can be a self-
perceived measure (e.g. Gadermann 2015; Holt et
al., 2011; Kirckaldy et al., 2002; Steiner et al., 2000)
whereas on other occasions, health is measured by
physical indicators. These indicators, however, also
differ among different studies (running tests, blood
pressure, BMI, muscular strength) (e.g. Andersen et
al. 2011; Burnsnall, 2014; Fritz et al., 2010)

• Sport has social/emotional • The literature also provides evidence of the • Social and emotional benefits for children
benefits for children beneficial effects of sport and physical activity on may result through sport participation, but
social and emotional child development. For

44
 example, self-image and self-esteem, perceptions are not guaranteed; good and positive
of emotional well-being and self-efficacy (Alonso et relationships with peers and coaches are
al., 2002; Contreras Jordán et al., 2010; Donaldson central conditions. Coaches should do
et al., 2006; Hansen et al., 2003; Holder 2009; Kay, everything in their power to prioritise the
2009; Kirkcaldy et al., 2002; Kulmatycki et al. 2005; development of good relationships with
Mc Carthy et al., 2008; McHale et al., 2005; children.
Richman et al., 2000; Shaffer et al., 2006; Slutzki et • Coaches should be aware of the different
al., 2009; Steiner et al., 2000; Roesch et al., 2009; impact of sport at emotional and social level
Spruit et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2006) and social skills mediated by time/intensity of engagement,
(Garcia-Lopez et al., 2012; Gombocz, 2005; Holt et gender, age and sport context.
al., 2009; Holt et al., 2011; Holt & Neely, 2011). • Different developmental outcomes need to
• However, this beneficial effect must be carefully be seen as interconnected. Changes to one
interpreted. The literature shows how it is area may impact on another. Children’s
dependent upon context and relations with others coaches should be aware of this and where
like peers, parents and coaches (Armour & possible use these interconnections to
Sandfort, 2013; Bruner at al., 2011; Coakley, 2011; maximize the impact of developmental
Hartmann, 2003; Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011; strategies.
Sandford et al, 2006; Rutten et al.,2007). • Sport and the sport environment is also
Furthermore, benefits depend on the time that the reported to be negatively correlated to social
child was involved (Armour & Sandfort, 2013; and emotional child development. Too much
Contreras Jordán et al., 2010) and the perceived pressure, negative peer interactions or
competences of the child (Donaldson et al., 2006) negative judgements may deprive children’s
• Research determined a gender effect on the social self-image. Children’s coaches should be
and emotional development of the child (Fernández aware of that risk.
et al., 2010; Garcia-Lopez et al., 2012; Kulmatycki et
al., 2005; Yu et al., 2006).
• Benefits are not independent - changes in one area
may affect others (Kovács et al., 2015).
• Unfortunately, the literature also contains evidence
in relation to the negative side of sport
participation. Sport has been shown to lead to
detrimental effects at a social and emotional level
for children. Most of these effects are caused by
negative experiences with coaches and peers
(Fernández et al, 2010; Gombocz, 2005; Hansen et

45
 al., 2003; Liberal et al., 2014; Kulmatycki et al.,
2005; Richman et al., 2000).

• Sport has cognitive benefits • It has been suggested that youths’ involvement in
for children physical activity is positively correlated with • Coaches must be aware of the unclear
academic performance and cognitive development character of the relationship between
(Carson et al., 2016; Claddelas Pros et al., 2015; physical activity and cognitive development.
Efrat et al., 2011; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005; Holt
et al., 2011; Olivares et al., 2016; Spruit et al.,
2016). Concrete tasks where sport has been shown
to lead to an improvement include reproduction
(Kay, 2009) and concentration (Taras, 2005).
• Again, these positive effects of sport enrollment on
academic performance have to be carefully
interpreted and further research is needed to
strengthen the results and clarify relations (Carson
et al., 2016 Efrat et al., 2011; Taras, 2005) as these
might be mediated by other concepts as self-
esteem (Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2015; Yu et al.,
2006). The majority of research establishes
correlations, but it is far from establishing causation
or explaining the generative mechanisms.
• It seems, however, that the relationship between
physical activity and academic performance is
gender-dependent (Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2015; Yu
et al., 2006), affected by the type of sport practiced
(Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2015) and the amount and
intensity of the activity (Esteban-Cornejo et al.,
2015).
• It is also important to recognized that academic
performance and cognitive development has been
conceptualized and measured in different ways: i.e.,
tests (Cladellas Pros, 2015; Spruit et al., 2016; Yu at

46
 al. 2006) and self-perception (Holt et al., 2011; Kay,
2009).

• Coaches wishing to develop life skills in

• Sport can be a vehicle to • Research suggests that sport is a possible context children must define what this means in
learn life skills for learning life skills (Fraser-Thomas et al, 2005; their context and what enablers and
Hayball & Jones, 2016; Jones et al, 2009; Petitpas et constraints exist.
al., 2005, Perks, 2007). However, this development
• Whilst certain skills may develop naturally in
does not occur automatically (Gould & Carson,
children as a result of sport participation,
2008a). Coaches and how they plan and deliver
others may need careful planning and
sport play an important role in the development of
delivery.
life skills in sport (Cope et al., 2014; Trottier et al.,
• The transfer of skills from sport to other
2014).
settings may not be automatic and coaches
• The transferability of life skills to other areas of life
must provide opportunities for transfer to
has also been highlighted as an important issue for
happen.
researchers (Camiré et al., 2012; Gould and Carson,
2008b, Pierce et al, 2017, Turnnidge et al., 2014).
Contrary to Gould and Carson (2008), Turnnidge et
al argue that a certain element of transferability
must occur even if life-skills are not taught
explicitly.
• Finally, it is important to consider that life skills
concepts are multiform and not well defined and
that therefore, further research is needed (Gould
and Carson, 2008b)

References
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Coaching Curriculum Development (with a focus on a specific sport)
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for coaching

• When developing a coaching • Determine what is important and keep this the ● Analyse the sport (or sports) and existing
curriculum, especially for a simple focus of the curriculum over the long term. sport/game models in order to define the key
particular sport, but also for The focus on core ‘pillars’ of a subject helps to components or pillars of a curriculum.
multi-skills or fundamental define simple and clear objectives/outcomes for ● Keep the model simple.
movement skills, it is vital to curricula. Research in sport and PE argues that ● Use the model to define the tactical
determine what the core sports can be categorised on the basis of common problems/decisions participants will face
pillars of the sport are. This goals, rules and decisions, which define tactical
frequently.
helps keep the focus on what problems and subsequent solutions. Curriculum
● Align physical and psycho-social
is important design therefore starts with the definition of core
problems and solutions (principles, skills and competencies with tactical and technical
movements). Tertiary content (e.g. physical and performance required.
psychological capacities) needs to be meaningfully
related to the core (Bruner, 1960, 1977, 1966;
Butler & McCahan, 2005; Mitchell, Oslin & Griffin,
2006; Penney et al., 2009; Siedentop, 2002; Rajan &
Basch, 2012; Viciana & Mayora-Vega, 2016; Ward,
2012)

• The coaching curriculum must • An understanding of children’s existing • Spend time trying to understand participants’
be informed by what the preconceptions, skills and ideas is necessary to existing knowledge and ideas.
participants are already calibrate the level of the material to be presented. • Identify where participants stand in relation
capable of doing and shaped Material must be presented in a manner consistent to bio-psycho-social developmental stages
by their current stage of with the child’s abilities and ‘forms of thought’; in • Translate the sport model into a form and
development the form of workable models appropriate for the language appropriate to the participants.
developmental stage. The challenge, therefore, is to • Design activities and games that present
formulate problems and activities that are tactical problems at an appropriate level of
appropriate to the child’s present stage of ‘game complexity.
appreciation’, even with very young children. This • Align skills (even FMS) with the solution to
may entail radical reduction of tactical complexity specific problems, as identified in the model.
by starting with less complex sport forms (e.g. target
games) and/or reducing the number of problems
presented in more complex sport forms (e.g.
invasion games). The development of fundamental

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 movement skills (FMS) can still be achieved through
games as long as they are designed appropriately
and linked to decision-making (Bruner, 1960, 1977,
1966; Butler & McCahan, 2005; Ennis, 2015;
National Research Council, 2000; Rajan & Basch,
2012; Ward, 2012)

• Any curricula must be built in • The shape and sequencing of curricula should be in • Think very long term when designing outline
the shape of a ‘spiral’ where the form of a ‘spiral’ with content matched to curricula (i.e. 10 years or more)
recurrent themes are specific age/stage of the participant. The main • Organise annual plans so as to cover
regularly covered and themes (or problems) are arranged so as to recur fundamental themes with balance
expanded in depth and with active reinforcement, seeking greater depth of • Identify the main ideas, principles of play and
breadth to facilitate understanding each time, within and across years. In technical progressions that enable learners to
progression of the learner a sport and PE context, this means the gradual progress through the major stages of
introduction of tactical principles that are shared by development in a sport
sport forms, through the deliberate sampling of • Use a range of sports, where possible, to
sports to encourage transfer of tactical principles expose participants to common problems,
and skills and, thus, deeper understanding and principles and skills to encourage tactical and
‘progressive formalisation’ towards recognised sport technical transfer
participation. The progression needs to always be • Interleave curriculum themes and gradually
matched to the participants’ physical and cognitive increase the spacing between recurrences as
stage of development. Spacing between recurrences participants mature
of themes should also be extended as children
progress so that recall periods are longer. Topics
should also be ‘interleaved’, with ‘blocks’ of work on
a single topic (tactical principle or skill) to be
avoided.

• Curricula should also be built • Take a problem-solving approach to curriculum • Start sessions by posing a tactical problem
with the notion of problem design to help children develop their own solutions (i.e. a common decision-making situation)
solving in mind. and to make skill acquisition more meaningful (i.e. • Allow participants time to explore multiple
skills are techniques applied to solve tactical solutions to the problem
problems in a given context). As participants • Spent time categorising skills in alignment
progress through curricula, the problems posed by with particular tactical problems (e.g.
games and activities can become gradually more dribbling/attacking space)

53
 complex and demanding of greater physical and • Show how the mastery of skills creates new,
technical effort and precision. Young people are more complex problems (e.g. new defensive
more likely to engage with a curriculum that skills lead to more complex attacking
engages them in problem-solving that establishes problems)
self-reward sequences (i.e. master a skill to solve a
problem, then use the skill to discover a more
challenging problem and the mastery of a still more
powerful skill). (Brune, 1966; Butler, 2006; Mitchell,
Oslin & Griffin, 2006; National Research Council,
2000; Ward; 2012)

• The initial stages of • Curriculum designers need to take a ‘research and • Be clear that curricula are flexible frameworks
curriculum design incorporate development’ approach to the design process, to be used for planning but not set in stone
substantial research and maintaining a ‘reflexive’ approach to design and • Collect data about how participants respond
reflection on the part of the implementation. No research exists to help to different activities and concepts
designer designers to match subject material to stage of • Play with the challenge level (complexity) of
development, accounting for individual differences. activities
The entire design process is therefore an • Always adapt pre-packaged resources to
experiment, with ongoing judgements about the specific contextual needs, based on an
stage of learning, the appropriate material and understanding of the principles behind
mode of presentation to be made, tested and
adjusted. Curricula are gradually refined but never
perfected. This also means that any pre-existing
curriculum resources need to be applied with care
and understanding to specific contexts.

References
Bruner, J. (1960/1977). The process of education. Cambridge, MASS: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MASS: Harvard University Press.
Butler, J. & McCahan, B. (2005). Teaching Games for Understanding as a Curriculum Model, in Griffin, L. and Butler, J. (Eds). Teaching Games for
Understanding: Theory, Research and Practice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Butler, J. (2006). Curriculum constructions of ability: enhancing learning through Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) as a curriculum
model. Sport, Education and Society, 11(3), 243-258.
Ennis, C. (2015). Knowledge, transfer and innovation on physical literacy curricula. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4, 119-124.

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Kirk, D. (1993). Curriculum work in physical education: beyond the objectives approach? Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 12, 244-265.
Mitchell, S., Oslin, J. & Griffin, L. (2005). Teaching sports concepts and skills: a tactical games approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school. National Academy Press.
Penney, D., Brooker, R., Hay, P. & Gillespie, L. (2009). Curriculum, pedagogy and assessment: three message systems of schooling and dimensions
of quality physical education, Sport, Education and Society, 14(4), 421-442.
Petrie, K. (2012). Enabling or limiting: the role of pre-packaged curriculum resources in shaping teacher learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health,
Sport and Physical Education, 3(1), 17-34.
Rajan, S. & Basch, C. (2012). Fidelity of after-school programme implementation targeting adolescent youth: identifying successful curricular and
programmatic characteristics. Journal of School Health, 82(4), 159-165.
Siedentop, D. (2002). Content knowledge for physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 21, 368-377.
Viciana, J. & Mayora-Vega, D. (2016). Innovative teaching units applied to physical education: changing the curriculum management for authentic
outcomes. Kinesiology, 48(1), 142-152.
Ward. G. (2012). Games in the primary school: they can’t catch, so what’s the point of teaching them to play a game? In Griggs, G. (Ed). An
introduction to primary physical education. London: Routledge.

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Planning
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching
• Effective coaching children • Planning is probably the most important step of the • Coaches should develop short, medium and long-
programmes are informed by coaching process (Robinson, 2015). Planning is central to term coaching plans that help them guide
meticulous planning guiding the journey of development we are taking children children’s development and better cope with the
• Effective planning considers a on. Planning, however, is not an exact science (Abraham et natural unpredictability and flow of development
set of nested goals (short, mid al, 2015), but it provides the framework for coaches to and of the environment
and long term) guide and influence development in the most effective way
• Effective planning ensures despite its relatively uncontrollable and unpredictable
alignment between coaching nature (Jones & Wallace, 2006; North, 2013).
activities, daily, short, • The complexity of planning increases based on two factors
medium and long-term goals (Abraham et al, 2015):
and learning pedagogies and o The number of variables present.
coach behaviours o How far into the future we are looking to plan for.
• Planning is paramount to • Abraham and Collins (2011) have suggested that ‘short • Coaches should always be able to establish a link
athlete and programme terms cycles of development should be connected to between a coaching activity (drill, game, etc.), the
evaluation medium term cycles, which are in turn connected to longer session objectives and the short, mid and long-
• Planning is central to coach term cycles of development. In coaching terms, this would term objectives
reflection, learning and mean that a single coaching session should always have a
development connection to the longer term objectives’ (p. 20)
• Abraham and Collins suggest that this approach will avoid
the typical firefighting experienced by coaches and help
them focus on the long-term development of the children
they coach. They have termed this approach ‘Nested Goal
Setting and Planning’
• Therefore, planning happens over different time frames.
• Muir et al. (2011) and Muir (2012) have used the notion of • Coaches should spend time analysing the needs of
‘Constructive Alignment’, developed by Biggs (2003) to the children they coach and planning the most
propose a way to develop and plan learning objectives. A suitable pedagogical methods and coaching
clear understanding of what we want children to learn as a behaviours to achieve the sought outcomes.
result of coaching is the first step of the process (Abraham
et al., 2015). This exercise of practice needs analysis leads
to the development of short, medium and long-term
learning objectives from which a plan can start to emerge.

56
• However, having clear learning objectives is not enough.
Coaches must create a learning environment that supports
children to create their learning and to achieve their
learning outcomes (Abraham et al., 2015).
• At a micro-level (session), this means the development of a • Coaches need an awareness of different
practice structure (i.e., choice of pedagogy, choice of type pedagogies and coaching methodologies and
of tasks, etc.) and series of coach behaviours (i.e., feedback, interventions to be able to build them into their
demonstrations, questioning, etc) which foster participant plans
engagement and learning.
• Researchers and practitioners agree that as part of the • Coach should develop evaluation methods to
planning process, targets and assessment methods need to assess the impact of their practice
be put in place so coaches can evaluate to what extent the
plan is working (Abraham et al., 2015; Gilbert, 2017; Muir et
al., 2011)
• Planning is helped by having appropriate templates that can • Coaches should use existing planning templates or
guide coaches’ thinking process as they plan. From this develop their own to suit their specific needs.
perspective, a planning template does not only remind
coaches about what they want to work on with their
participants, but about the things they should be thinking
about. It can act as a ‘check and challenge’ tool for the
coach (Abraham et al., 2015)
• At the micro level, in terms of the things to think about • Session plans should take into account the
when putting together session plan, Lynn (2010) proposes following features:
the following: o Session objectives
o Session objectives o Session structure
o Session structure o Specific activities
o Specific activities o Range of activities (variety)
o Range of activities (variety) o Time for each activity
o Time for each activity o Likely feedback required
o Likely feedback required o Equipment needed
o Equipment needed o Safety
o Safety o Number of participants
• Other elements include: o Age-range
o Number of participants o Ability and experience range
o Age-range o Number of assistant coaches

57
 o Ability and experience range
o Number of assistant coaches
• Abraham et al. (2015) also indicate that one of the main • Coaches should review their coaching plans to
benefits of planning is that it can instigate and facilitate the both evaluate progress and improve their practice
reflection process of the coach and accelerate personal
learning and development.
References
Abraham, A. and Collins, D. (2011b). Taking the next step: Ways forward for coaching science. Quest 63(4): pp. 366–384.
Abraham, A., Jimenez, S., Mckeown, S., Morgan, G., Muir, B., North, J., & Till, K. (2015). Planning your coaching. A focus on youth participant development.
Practical sports coaching, 16-53. London: Routledge.
Biggs, J.B. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university. Buckingham: Open University Press/Society for Research into Higher Education.
Jones, R. & Wallace, M. (2006). The coach as ‘orchestrator’: More realistically managing the complex coaching context. In R. Jones (Ed.), The Sports Coach as
Educator: Reconceptualising Sport Coaching, pp. 51-64. Abingdon: Routledge
Lynn, A. (2010). Effective sport coaching: a practical guide. Marlborough: Crowood Press
North, J. (2013). A critical realist approach to theorising coaching practice. In P. Potrac, W.D. Ggilbert and J. Dennison (Eds.) The Routledge Handboo of Sport
Coaching, pp. 133-144. London: Routledge
Robinson, P.E. (2015). Foundations of Sport Coaching. London: Routledge

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 4. Shaping the Environment & Building Relationships

Creating a Pedagogical Climate

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching
• The term Pedagogy is typically • A pedagogical climate is a situation in which children and • Coaches must focus on and be able to create a
ambiguous and a variety of youngsters can develop themselves cognitively, socially, sound pedagogical climate
definitions exist. Therefore, psychologically and/or physically and which holds
the term ‘pedagogical educational values (i.e., the pedagogical perspective of Since there is no international agreement on the
climate’ has not one single sport and physical activity). preferred terms, it seems that personal preference and
theoretical framework local traditions (including national language
• Sport has in this way an important socializing context for
accepted internationally. differences) will continue to largely influence the choice
children and adolescents (Kay 2009; Light 2010), also
of term (in Tinning 2012, p.416)
referred to as the third pedagogical environment (Cotterell
1996; Dekovic 1999), next to home and school.
Proposed definition of a Pedagogical Climate for
• The dilemma as regards to the term ‘pedagogy’ is that it iCoachKids:
does not have an unambiguous definition in the
international literature (Tinning, 2012), and is used as a A pedagogical climate is a safe learning climate where
synonymous for terms as varied as education, teaching, pleasure (fun) prevails, created by real experience of
instructions, and didactics. success, a good relationship between coaches and
• The theoretical foundation of what is meant by ‘a athletes which is based on mutual respect – in which
pedagogical climate’ also differs in the literature as it can one acts in the interest of (the development) of young
refer to motivational climate (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Duda individuals (with the aim of becoming the autonomous
2005), caring climate (Fry et.al., 2012), and positive self (Schipper -van Veldhoven, 2017, p.27)
development-oriented climate (Fraser-Thomas et.al., 2005;
Vella et.al., 2011). Different theoretical foundations can
give different outcomes in interventions. Therefore, it is
important that we define what comprises the pedagogical
climate.

• The development of a • A pedagogical climate refers to the way in which the • Coaches need to have the intention to create a
pedagogical climate must be intention from coaches to create favorable conditions for climate that can contribute to the development of
intention driven the personal and social development of young people is children. The pedagogical climate starts with
realized. Sport in itself does not immediately yield positive intent.
results, it depends largely on the way in which sport is

59
 offered (Bailey, 2006; Krouwel et.al., 2006; Schipper-van
Veldhoven, 2013, 2017).
• Thus, at the heart of the pedagogical mission lies the
support of the personal and social development of children
and young people, with the purpose of autonomy and self-
determination (Onstenk, 2005).

• The relationships between • In this respect, the pedagogical relationship, the • The key to creating a pedagogical sports
coach and child (pedagogical relationship between the educator (the coach) and the environment is a good relationship between the
relationship) is central to the learner (the athlete), is of eminent importance to create a coach and the young athletes (see values and
creation of a pedagogical pedagogical climate (Kirk & Haerens, 2014). Factors beliefs in coaching)
climate. influencing this include the educator’s style of leadership,
and the moral atmosphere which the educator espouses
and expresses (Moget & Weber, 2007; Olympiou et.al.
2008).

• Fun is a key motivator for • Fun is the number one motivation to practice sport. The • Make sure sport is about fun via experiences of
children to join sport most important factor to quit sports is: ‘sport is not fun success (this is not the same as performance
programmes anymore’ (NOC*NSF/GfK Athletes monitor, 2012). Thus, fun demands) and social support.
is an important determining factor of (continuous) sport
participation.
• Fun is also an important educational tool. The brain
performs better in a ‘positive emotional state’ (LeDoux,
2002).
• One factor leading to a fun experience is success,
particularly when success is attributed to the individual
capacities and supported by the social environment (Bloem
& van der Toorn, 2008).
• Coaching children who want to become great
• A pedagogical climate is set • The main objective of ‘athlete centered coaching’ is to athletes or just want to have fun in sport
with the child’s best interest improve the holistic health and well-being of the athlete, • Being a child comes first, being an athlete is always
at heart. This is part of what via the objective of excellence in sports (Denison et.al., second!
has been termed an ‘Athlete 2015, p.10).
centred approach’.

60
 • Sport has to benefit the young individual. In this respect, • Coaches need to have knowledge of the differences
the educator / the coach is the advocate of the young between age groups
individual. The aim is to assist them in becoming an • An athlete-empowerment approach to coaching is
autonomous adult (Buisman, 2002; Shields & Bredemeier, a pre-condition to developing autonomous young
2001). people (and athletes).
• Young individuals act and think differently to adults
(Buisman & Middelkamp, 2001; Nelis & Stark, 2014). This
specifically requires more knowledge about young
individuals.
• The young athlete is also an important actor himself
(actively involved in their own education, learning process).
From a pedagogical perspective, the focus is on the
empowerment of the young individual (ICES et. al., 2015),
also referred to as internal leadership (De Koning, 2009;
Fransen et.al., 2014)
• As Denison et.al. (2015) conclude: Practice is less rosy.
Many trainers/coaches are primarily task oriented. It
requires a true change in leadership styles, coaching styles
in sports which is dominated by sports results, in which
power and abuse of power still take place at regular
intervals. “Whether coaches would be receptive to real
change remains to be seen” (ibid., p. 10).

References
Bailey, R. (2006) ‘Physical Education and Sports in schools: A Review of the Benefits and Outcomes’, Journal of School Health, 77, 397-401.
Bloem, J. & Toorn, R. van (2008). Positief Vechtsportonderwijs, theoretische en praktische richtlijnen ten bate van een positief leerklimaat in het Nederlandse
vechtsportonderwijs [Positive education in martial arts, theoretical and practical guidelines for a positive educational climate in Dutch martial arts
education]. Arnhem: NOC*NSF, Intern rapport [Internal report].
Buisman, A. (2002). Jeugdsport en fair play in het Nederlanse Sportbeleid van de jaren negentig [Youth sports and fair play in Dutch Sport policy of the
nineties]. Amsterdam: SWP
Buisman, A. & Middelkamp, J. (2001). Jeugdsport, een verhaal apart. Werkboek voor de sportvereniging [Youth sports, a different story. Workbook for the
sports club]]. Maarssen: Elsevier gezondheidszorg [health care].
Cotterell, J. (1996) Social networks and influences in adolescence, London and New York: Routledge.

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De Koning, J. (2009). Empowerment. Empowerde omgeving [Empowerment. Empowered environment]. Nijmegen: DPN.
Dekovic, M. (1999) ‘Risk and protective factors in the development of problem behaviour during adolescence’, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28: 667-685.
Denison, J., Mills, J.P., & Konoval, T. (2015). Sports’ disciplinary legacy and the challenge of ‘coaching differently’. Sport, Education and Society, OnlineFirst:
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2015.1061986
Duda, J.L. (2005). Motivation in sport: The relevance of competence and achievement goals. In A.J. Elliot & C.S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and
motivation (pp.318-335). New York: Guildford Publications.
Fransen, k., Coffee, P., Vanbeselaere, N., Slater, M.J., De Cuyper, B., & Boen, F. (2014). The Impact of Athlete Leaders on Team Members’ Team Outcome
Confidence: A Test of Mediation by Team Identification and Collective Efficacy. The Sport Psychologist. OnlineFirst. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2013-0141
Fraser-Thomas, J., Côté, J. & Deakin, J. (2005). Youth sport programs: an avenue to foster positive youth development. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy,
10(1), 19-40.
Fry, M.D., Guivernau, M., Kim, M., Newton, M., Gano-Overway, L.A., & Magyar, T.M. (2012). Youth perceptions of a caring climate, emotional regulation, and
psychological well-being. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1, 44-57.
ICES et.al. (2015). Safeguarding youth sport, stimulating the individual empowerment of elite young athletes and a positive ethical climate in sport
organisations. Sint-Amandsberg: International Centre Ethics in Sport. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.safeguardingyouthsport.eu/
Kay, T. (2009) ‘Developing through sport: evidencing sport impacts on young people’, Sport in society, 12, 1177-1191.
Kirk, D., & Haerens, L. (2014). New research programmes. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. Sport, Education and Society, 19 (7), 899-911.
Krouwel, A., Boonstra, N., Duyvendak, J. and Veldboer, L. (2006) ‘A Good Sport? Research into the Capacity of recreational sport to integrate Dutch minorities’.
International Review for the Sociology of sport, 41 (2): 165-180.
LeDoux, J. (2002). Synaptic Self. How our brains become who we are. USA: Penguin Books.
Light, R.L. (2010) ‘Children’s Social and Personal Development Through Sport: A case study of an Australian Swimming Club’, Journal of Sport and Social Issues,
34, 379-395.
Moget, P. & Weber, M. (2007). De twee kanten van sport [The two faces of sport]. In E. Wieldraayer, C. van den Brink, P. Moget & M. Weber (eds.), De
weerbare sporter. Macht, misbruik en kwetsbaarheid [The resilient athlete. Power, abuse and vulnerability], Deventer: daM uitgeverij [Publisher], pp. 190-
221.
Nelis, H. & Sark, Y. van, (2014). Puberbrein binnenstebuiten. Wat beweegt jongeren van 10 tot 25 jaar? [Adolescent brain inside out. What motivates young
individuals from 10 till 25 years?] Utrecht: Kosmos uitgevers.
NOC*NSF/GfK (2012). Sportersmonitor 2012 [Athletes’ monitor 2012]. Arnhem: NOC*NSF. Online. Available HTTP: http://www.nocnsf.nl/sportersmonitor
Olympiou, A., Jowett, S. and Duda, J.L. (2008) ‘The psychological interface between the coach-created motivational climate and the coach-athlete relationship
in team sports’, The Sport Psychologist, 22: 423-438.
Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. American
Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Schipper- van Veldhoven, N.H.M.J. (2013). Sports from a pedagogical perspective. In: S. Harvey & R. Light (Eds.). Ethics in Youth Sport: Policy and pedagogical
applications (pp.122-135). London New York: Routledge.
Schipper-van Veldhoven, N. (2017). Sports and physical education from a pedagogical perspective: a golden opportunity. Deventer: …dAM Publishers.

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Shields, D.L. and Bredemeier, B.J. (2001) Character development and physical activity, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Vella, S., Oades, L., & Crowe, T. (2011). The role of the coach in facilitating positive youth development: moving from theory to practice. Journal of applied
sport psychology, 23, 33-48.

The Role of Motivation

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching
• Mastery -oriented goals are • Research shows that in the main, human beings tend to • Coaches must strive to set motivational climates
more adaptable and lead to understand competence or ability in one of two ways where a mastery-orientation and self-determined
higher levels of intrinsic (Achievement Goal Theory, Ames, 1992; Quested & Duda, motivation are fostered
motivation, performance and 2011): • Mageau and Vallerand (2003) propose seven
sustained participation o Mastery-Orientation: competence is understood in a autonomy-supportive behaviours that coaches can
self-reference manner. From this perspective, I am use in their practice:
happy when I improve myself (personal best mentality). 1. Provide as much choice as possible within
o Performance-Orientation: competence is specific limits and rules;
demonstrated only when beating others. I am happy 2. Provide a rational for tasks, limits and rules;
when I prove I’m the best or very good at something 3. Acknowledging other person’s feeling
(win at all cost mentality). 4. Allow opportunity to take initiative and do
• Children carry these ‘thinking modes’ around and research independent work;
shows that which mode they favour has an impact on their 5. Provide non-controlling competence
behaviours, learning and coping strategies when doing feedback;
sport. 6. Avoid overt control and criticisms;
• Mastery-Oriented children tend to be happy when they try 7. Prevent ego-involvement from taking place.
hard, when they improve on previous performance and • Coaches must work with children and parents to
tend to relish challenge and stick with tasks longer. Their educate them around the impact of their
self-confidence is more stable as a result. motivational orientations and behaviours
• Performance-Oriented children tend to only be happy when
they feel superior, shy away from challenges where their
competence may come into question and are affected by
failure or poor results in a much more incapacitating way
than their mastery-oriented companions. Their self-
confidence fluctuates.

63
 • A mastery orientation is often associated with positive
attitudes toward learning, positive emotions, effective
study strategies and selection of challenging tasks. Also,
children with mastery profiles show greater perceptions of
physical competence, feeling happier and higher self-
esteem (Atkins, Johnson and Petri, 2014).
• Both perspective can co-exist in a child (i.e., the same child
can at the same time be high in mastery and performance
orientation). Research shows, however, that regardless of
the performance score of the child, a high mastery score
leads to more adaptive responses in the face of challenges
and difficulties like the ones typically encountered when
doing sport at any level (i.e., learning a skill or competing).
• Coaches play a significant • Importantly for coaches, research also shows that coaches’
role in setting up the actions (and parents!) can have a great impact on the
motivational climate that ‘thinking mode’ adopted by the child. This is called ‘setting
determines children’s the motivational climate’. In other words, the sport
achievement goal participant goal orientation is determined by the
orientations interaction between their own goal orientation profile and
the situation goal climate (Keegan et al, 2009).
Understanding the factors that promote either orientation
provides coaches with a number of strategies to add to
their coaching toolkit.
• Coach Mastery-Oriented Behaviours:
o Focus on personal improvement and personal best
o Focus on effort/process not result
o Encouraging trying and promoting mistakes as
learning opportunities
o Fostering cooperation and collaboration rather than
internal competition
• Coach Performance-Oriented Behaviours:
o Constant and public comparison between children
o Focus on beating others
o Focus on result over effort/process
o Punishing for mistakes

64
 o Favouritism towards more capable children

• Intrinsic and extrinsic self- • One of the main roles of the children’s coach is to keep
determined motives lead to children motivated and enthused about sport so they keep
greater well-being, higher coming back for more and develop a lifelong love and habit
disposition to learn and more for physical activity. Traditionally, when people speak about
sustained engagement in motivation they talk in quantitative terms (high or low), but
sport in reality, what’s more important is the quality of that
motivation. The motivation to do something can be
extrinsic or intrinsic and anything in between.
o Intrinsic: ‘I do it because I love it/enjoy it’
o Identified: ‘I do it because I understand the benefits
of doing it’
o Introjected: ‘I do it because I feel I should’
o Extrinsic: ‘I do because I have to/for an external
reward’
o Amotivation: ‘Don’t know why I do it/Don’t want to
do it’
• Intrinsic motivation in children results when an activity is
pleasant in itself and brings them satisfaction derived only
from their participation of this activity.
• Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, results when
children participate in an activity for external outcomes that
will occur from engaging in this activity (Mageau and
Vallerand, 2003).
• Two types of extrinsic motivation can be differentiated by
the internalization process: self-determined and non-self-
determined (Deci and Ryan, 2000). If extrinsic motivations
are coherent with the children’s value system, they become
internalized and thus self-determined.
• Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) proposes
that the more an activity is carried out for intrinsic or self-
determined extrinsic motivations, the more likely we are to
stick with that activity. Intrinsic and self-determined

65
 extrinsic motivations are thus believed to have a positive
impact on children’s well-being and motivation to learn and
progress.
• In a nutshell, SDT states that human behaviour, in the main,
is driven by the need to satisfy three universal psychological
needs:
o Autonomy: being able to function without needing
(much) support and making own decisions.
o Belonging: feeling that one is part of something
bigger that oneself and the sum of the parts.
o Competence: a sense of being capable of doing things
which are valuable to us and those around us.
• The level to which an activity addresses the need for any or
all three of these basic human needs determines how
intrinsically motivating this activity is to the individual in
question or how ‘self-determined’ this individual becomes.
When children and young people spend too long on the
‘non-intrinsic’ areas of motivation their behaviour,
performance, effort, persistence and well-being tends to
• Coaches actions can decrease.
contribute to generate • Coaches can greatly impact on both the quality and
climates that foster quantity of the motivation of the children we coach. In turn,
Autonomy, Relatedness and this leads to a number of choices and behaviours on their
Competence part that will impact on the quality and quantity of their
participation, engagement and outcomes.
o Autonomy can be supported by using a
facilitative/democratic coaching methodology that
allows participants to have a say about what and
how things are done where appropriate, by
encouraging self-reflection allowing children to
develop their own progress plans.
o Relatedness can be fostered by ensuring children
feel welcome to the session, facilitating children
getting to know each other, and support

66
 cooperative work between participants amongst
other things.
o Competence is about fostering the development of
capabilities by setting tasks that are at the
appropriate level so children can experience success
and progressively improve. As we have seen, the
more we keep children in the Learning Zone, the
more competent they become. However, there is a
couple of things we must look at around the
development of competence that have the potential
to be game-changers for the children we coach.
• Autonomy supportive • Mageau and Vallerand’s motivational model (2003) propose
behaviours on the part of the key features of positive contexts for the coach-children
coach generate increases in relationship. In agreement with self-determination theory
intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 2000), this model emphasizes the
importance of the three central psychological needs of
children: they need to feel connected to their social
environment, autonomous in their actions and competent
in what they undertake. The satisfaction of these three
psychological needs is proposed as a necessary condition
for self-motivation and positive development in sport, as in
all other contexts.
• Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) indicate
that autonomy-supportive behaviours develop a social
context which induce more self-determined motivation,
well-being and healthy development. Moreover,
Coatsworth and Conroy (2009) reported more level of
enjoyment and satisfaction, achievement motivation, self-
perception and goal involvement. They created an
experiment with young members (10-18 old) of a swim
club, which found that autonomy-supportive coach
behaviours influence positively the children need
satisfaction. More specifically, active autonomy-support
strategies (e.g. coaches praising autonomous behaviour)
are more benefit than passive autonomy-support strategies

67
 (e.g. coaches expressing interest in young). Thus, expressing
interest for children appear to be less important that
praising a specific autonomous behaviour.

• The impact of parents and • Children tend to favour mastery goals if their parents
peers in children’s motivation encourage learning, express satisfaction when they try
in sport must be taken into something new, and if they see mistake as a part of learning
account process (Atkins and al., 2014)
• The engagement behaviours of parents in children’s sport
may be perceived by the child as pressure or as support.
Research shows that coaches attitudes impact on parental
behaviour and on children’s perceptions of it. Coaches’
mastery orientations have been associated with parental
support. On the other hand, a performance orientation has
been linked to parental pressure (Dorsch, Smith, Dotterer,
2016).
• Keegan and al. (2009) have shown that peers can influence
the motivation of others through different types of
behaviours: collaborative (e.g. develop confidence in
others), competitive, altruistic (e.g. emotional support), and
evaluative (e.g. rational feedback), but also by
communication and social relationship.
• Le Bars et al. (2009) showed that a peer-induced mastery-
oriented climate was a positive predictor of adolescent
athletes’ continued participation.

References
Ames, C. (1992). Achievement goals, motivational climate, and motivational processes. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in Sport and Exercise (pp.161-176).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Atkins M. R., Johnson, D. M., Force, E. C. & Petrie, T. A. (2015). Peers, parents, and coaches, oh my! The relation of the motivational climate to boys' intention
to continue in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16(3), 170-180. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.10.008
Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Comani, S., & Robazza, C. (2011). Competence, achievement goals, motivational climate, and pleasant psychobiosocial states in youth
sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29, 171-180.

68
Coatsworth, J. D., & Conroy, D. E. (2009). The Effects of Autonomy-supportive Coaching, Need Satisfaction and Self-Perceptions on Initiative and Identity in
Youth Swimmers. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 320–328. doi.org/10.1037/a0014027
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
Dorsch, E. T., Smith, A. L. & Dotterer, A. M. (2016). Individual, relationship, and context factors associated with parent support and pressur in organized youth
sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 135-141. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.12.003
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The contributions and prospects of goal orientation theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 141-184.
doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5
Keegan, R., Spray, C., Harwood, C., & Lavallee, D. (2009). A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early-career sports participants:
coach, parent, and peer influences on sport motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 361-372.
Le Bars, H., Gernigon, C., & Ninot, G. (2009). Personal and contextual determinants of elite young athletes' persistence or dropping out over time. Scandinavian
Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 19, 274-285.
Mageau, G., & Vallerand, R. (2003). The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(11), 883-904, DOI:
10.1080/0264041031000140374
Quested, E. & Duda, J.L. (2011). Enhancing children’s positive sport experiences and personal development: a motivational perspective. In I. Stafford (Ed)
Coaching Children in Sport, pp 123-138. London: Routledge

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Safeguarding and Protecting Children in Sport
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Mere participation in sport • The positive outcomes of sport are constantly alluded to. • Coaches must acknowledge the fact that
does not guarantee positive There is, however, a downside to participation too. And we there is a negative side to sport
developmental outcomes and are required to face that fact! We have to stop inappropriate • Coaches must be aware of the broad range of
experiences. The good, the bad behavior. Athletes at all levels of sport deserve to train and threats to athlete integrity and well-being
and the ugly co-exists in sport. compete in a safe, healthy and stimulating sport environment
For sport to be a positive (Brackenridge, Kay & Rhind, 2012).
experience it must happen in a
• Transgressive behavior occurs in all sports disciplines, with
particular way.
prevalence figures between 2 - 50%, mostly indicating that
girls and elite athletes have a higher risk of unwanted
behavior (Fasting et al; 2003; Fasting et.al., 2011; Kirby et al.,
2000; Leahy et all., 2002; Vertommen et.al, 2015;
Vertommen et.al., 2016).
• Whilst in the last two decades research into the negative
effects of sport participation has particularly paid attention
to sexual harassment and abuse, there has recently been a
broadening of the scope of research to include emotional
abuse, corporal punishments, hazing, bullying and pressuring
young athletes which may result in eating disorders, mental
health issues and self-harm (Baar & Wubbels, 2013; Hughes
& Leavey, 2012; Stafford & Fry, 2013; Stirling & Kerr, 2012).
The negative side, the unsafe side of sport has become more
visible as a result.

• ‘Safeguarding and Protecting’ • Athlete welfare, child protection, safeguarding (youth) sport, • Clubs, sport officials and coaches must make
children in sport must be on ethics in sport have been on the agenda of (inter)national safeguarding a point of discussion in their
the political agenda and governments and sport organizations for the last two clubs, teams, leagues, federations and
resources made available to decades, primarily thanks to the attention that scientists develop strategies to prevent and respond to
put it into practice drew to this topic and the extensive negative media attention abuse.
on sports cases in the mid-nineties and more recently in the
UK with incidents in soccer (Lang & Hartill, 2015). It is not

70
 really a focus point in the practice of sport yet (David, 2004;
Denison et.al., 2015; Serkei et al. 2012; Schipper-van
Veldhoven, 2013).
• Brackenridge considers as follows: “the traditional autonomy
of the sports sector has made governments reluctant to
intervene in sport, resulting in a legacy of traditionalism and
resistance to change, including making sport slower than
other institutions to adopt social reforms for child welfare” (in
Lang & Hartill, 2015, page 2).
• Three main actors/risk factors • The theoretical foundations and accompanying research with
impact on children’s sport regards to transgressive behaviour in sport have primarily
experiences and wellbeing: the focused on three main actors/risk factors: the athlete, the
sports environment, the coach coach and the sports environment. (Brackenridge, 2001;
and the athlete Cense, 1997; Cense & Brackenridge, 2001; Finkelhor, 1986;
Gervis & Dunn, 2004; Harvey & Light, 2013; Kirby et al., 2000;
Moget & Weber, 2008; Moget, et.al,, 2012; Stafford & Fry,
2013; Stirling & Kerr, 2012).

• Coaches must understand the culture of the

• The traditional values of sport (hierarchical position, personal
The sports environment as risk sport and club in which they operate and its
influence, power of expertise, power based on the ability to
factor impact on safeguarding and protecting
give rewards and/ or to force someone to do something) can
be a factor in the rise and continuation of (sexual) children.
harassment in sport.

• Grooming (mostly related to sexual abuse) is the process in • Coaches must have knowledge about the
The coach as risk factor
which the perpetrator (typically the coach, but it could be grooming process so they can spot signs and
any other adult involved in the setting; Vertommen et.al., protect athletes against it.
2017) consciously plans and prepares the abuse. The
perpetrator tries to gain trust from his chosen victim and to
systematically break down the interpersonal boundaries. This
process can take weeks, months and even years.
• Knowledge by other adults of how grooming may take place
is very important because it could look like the athlete
"cooperates voluntarily" with the abuser. Younger athletes

71
 are extremely dependent from the adult/the situation and
therefore very vulnerable in such a relationship/environment
(Brackenridge, 2001; Fasting & Brackenridge, 2005; Finkelhor,
1986; Moget & Weber, 2007).
• The power of a coach or authority figure over an athlete is • Coaches require awareness of their own
very significant. Coach and athlete, certainly at the top level, position of power and of how to protect their
spend a lot of time together. Coaches have a particularly own integrity.
great influence on athletes, often because they have access
to all aspects of their life. The difference in power can cause
a particularly large imbalance in the relationship, which in
turn causes one greater potential risk of abuse.
• Coaches must be role models with regards to
• Sport is a very physical activity, in which a coach may need to
touch an athlete for instruction-related purposes. In most displaying desirable behaviours at all times
cases, this is because of safety considerations or to (see personal philosophy and self-reflection)
demonstrate a particular technique. Yet, this creates a
culture of physicality and proximity in which the athlete may
not always be able to decide what is acceptable behavior and
what is not.

The Athlete as risk factor • Young ambitious elite athletes who spend many hours in
sport every day are an extremely vulnerable group. For
example, due to the power imbalance with the coach and
other adults, and to the existences of vulnerable times and
opportunities (i.e., 1 to 1 training moments, training camps
abroad or trips to tournaments). For some athletes, the
importance of sporting success and the pressure to perform
at top is so great, that everything else takes second place.
This could lead to a situation where a young athlete sees
(Sexual) harassment as only a small price to pay on the road
to sporting success and fame.

The coach as most important • The key requirement to create a safe, healthy and • Coaches must take responsibility to create
person to maintain a safe sport pedagogical sports environment is a good relationship safe sports climate and safeguard all athletes.
environment between the coach/ trainer and the young athletes.

72
 (Claringbould, 2011; Hilhorst et.al 2014; Smoll & Smith, • Coaches must also be aware of their own role
2002). and responsibilities to safeguard and protect
• Reflection on the values and principles of safeguarding is children
needed. Coaches have to take responsibility (Brackenridge,
• Coaches must be able to detect signs of
Kay, & Rhind, 2012; Baar & Wubbels, 2013)
potential or existing unwanted behavior and
• Often the coach is in direct or indirect contact with several
to respond to threats to athlete integrity and
actors in the entourage (sports environment) thus able
well-being.
influencing the process of athlete protection (Romijn et.al.,
• Reflective practice and athlete-
2015; Schipper-van Veldhoven & Steenbergen, 2015).
empowerment approaches to coaching are
great tools to promote safe sporting climates
(see pedagogical climate)
• Communication with board members and
parents on ‘how to we create a safe climate
together’ is crucial.
References
Baar, P.L.M. & Wubbels, Th. (2013). Peer aggression and victimization: Dutch sports coaches’ views and practices. The Sport Psychologist, 27 (4), pp. 380-
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Brackenridge, C.H. (2001). Spoilsports: understanding and preventing sexual exploitation in sport. London & New York: Routledge.
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 5. Conducting Practice and Managing Competition

Learning Strategies
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching

• Effective coaching is • The process of constructive alignment begins with the • When planning, coaches must consider and
constructively aligned question ‘what do coaches want their participants to be able provide alignment between practice structure
• Learning must be individualised to know and do as a result of coaching?’ The intended and types, coach pedagogical behaviours,
and relevant to each child learning objectives that arise from an analysis of participants’ session structure, and objectives. Coaches
needs relative to the sporting context become the basis for must always consider and reflect on how the
designing long, medium and short term plans that will enable following parameters are used: goals, plans,
these objectives to be achieved. drills, practices, communication and
• The principle of constructive alignment consists of: i) the reflections.
needs of development of the participants, for example: • Within this framework, the coach must also
external Standards (participant needs, development be able to answer the WHO (are we
research, Government Sport, Clubs or Goals of Programme). coaching?), WHAT (are we trying to coach?)
ii) The constructive alignment relies on there being a learning and HOW (are we trying to coach it?)
environment that allows the learner to construct their questions.
learning to achieve learning outcomes. From this perspective, • Coaches must build assessment into their
the coach is the catalyst for learning, but children create it iii) practice to evaluate effectiveness.
For this to happen, there needs to be alignment between
micro, meso and macro cycle objectives and player
engagement, coach behaviours, pedagogical choices and
practice structure (Abraham et al., 2014).
• The coach must be able to answer the WHO (are we
coaching?), WHAT (are we trying to coach?) and HOW (are
we trying to coach it?) questions (Abraham & Collins, 2011;
Abraham et al., 2015; Muir et al., 2011).
• In this regard, to assess the effectiveness of training, the
coach must evaluate the transfer of children’s behaviour
from training to competition or to any kind of ‘live’
environment (Pinder et al., 2011)

• Effective coaching fosters • Kidmann (2001) indicates that when coaches give power to • Coaches should promote children’s cognitive
initiative and creativity through athletes, allowing them to make better decisions and engagement, ownership and hand

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 self-organised practices, enhancing their long-term learning, athletes are motivated to responsibility and decision-making to them
promotes understanding participate to the best of their ability. when appropriate and safe.
through appropriate • Along the same lines, Abraham & Collins (2011) have • Coaches must always promote children’s
questioning and participant emphasised the need to promote athlete's understanding of understanding of what and why
reflection both "what" and "why" to consciously involve the learner and
foster long-term learning.
• Less intervention from a coach has also been shown to lead
to greater ownership by the athlete and, in more game-like
situations, to more opportunities to test competence in real
situations (Sagar & Jowett, 2012).
• Coaches should use learning styles where they consciously
involve the learner such as guided discovery and problem
solving (Ramirez & Noguera, 1999)
• Research shows that coaches should know and apply a
combination of styles where “the child reproduces a model”
and encourages the individualization, participation in the
teaching-learning process as well as socialization where the
main objective is based on values and respect for norms. In
this way, “the child is involved in a cognitive way” using
inquiry, search and reflection techniques, teaching methods
based on guided discovery and problem solving are used
(Ramirez & Noguera, 1999)

• A combination of short- and • Abraham and Collins (2011) propose that different types of • Coaches should use a combination of short-
long-term learning pedagogies practice lead to different types of learning and are suitable and long-term learning pedagogies that
should be used to promote for different types of learners: should be used to promote skill-acquisition
skill-acquisition o Massed, blocked and structured practice generate
short-term quick learning, are less mentally
demanding and are suitable for beginners or for the
early stages of skill acquisition
o Random, variable and distributed practice lead to
long-term learning, provide greater transfer to live
situations and are more mentally demanding. This

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 type of practice is more suitable for the refinement
and transfer stages.
• The various types of practice are not mutually exclusive. To
the contrary, coaches need to use a combination of these
different methods available to them at different times to
maximise learning and skill acquisition.

• The balanced used of games • Various practice models have been proposed in the literature • Coaches should explore the balance between
and drills is necessary to to maximize skill learning. The Ecological Dynamics Approach the use of games and drills to maximise skill
develop skills in children to Skill Acquisition (Davids et al., 2013) is based on a sound development at different stages of
understanding of: i) the expertise level of the performer on development an in different aspects of the
the task, ii) the intentions/goals to be understood, and iii) the sport
primary constraints (organismic, task and environmental)
• Other models like Teaching Games for Understanding
(Bunker & Thorpe, 1982) or Game Sense (Den Duyn, 1997)
among others, promote thinking players and foster initiative,
creativity and autonomy in children increasing the motivation
for the activity.
• When using these types of ‘game-based’ approaches, a major
challenge for coaches is to consider the functional
representativeness of training exercises. That is, how well
does the game represent a specific situation or principle of
the sport to maximize learning in context (Pinder et al., 2011)

• Feedback provision is important • Feedback refers all the information available to a child in • Coaches must be aware of the different
to promote skill learning relation to the performance of a skill. Feedback can be types of feedback and use it appropriately
• Effective coaching uses a wide internal/intrinsic (the child can access it without help: i.e., to meet the needs of children
range of feedback types and the feeling of the movement, the outcome (did the ball go
methods to suit children’s stage in?), the sound of contact between ball and racquet, own
of development and situation breathing pattern, etc) or external/extrinsic (the child needs
someone or something to get it: angle of joints, speed, etc).
External feedback can also be called augmented feedback
• Particularly with beginners or with complex skills, coaches
may also need to enhance intrinsic feedback until the athlete

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 develops the skills/feeling to do it him/herself (i.e., through • As a general rule of thumb, beginners
video, etc) should be given more frequent and specific
• Well-developed observational skills are central to providing feedback to help them develop their own
effective feedback (McMorris, 2015). This is because coaches ‘internal feedback loops’ over time
have to be able to accurately determine which elements of • Before providing feedback, coaches should
performance require improvement and thus feedback make sure they have appropriately observed
(Farrow, D., in press). The coach must then decide which the action and decide what elements
element that requires feedback is more salient and will offer require feedback and which one of those
a greater return once corrected (i.e., what needs fixing first) offers a greater ‘return on investment’ (i.e.,
(Phillips et al., 2013). will have a greater impact on performance
• With regards to the timing of feedback, research shows that once corrected).
the feedback delay (the time between performing the action • Feedback should be provided at a time
and the feedback) does not make a difference to skill when the child can straight away attempt to
improvement. What the performer does between receiving correct the action.
the feedback and repeating the skill does have an impact.
This is known as the interpolated activity and it can interfere
with the ability of the performer to act on the feedback
(McMorris, 2015).
• What has been shown to also impact on the effectiveness of
the feedback is the ‘post-feedback delay’ (the time between • Children should be given the time to build a
the feedback and the repetition of the skill). If this time is too new mental model of the skill they need to
short, the performer can’t build a new mental model of the perform
skill and progress halts (McMorris, 2015).
• Feedback can also be prescriptive (i.e., ‘next time do this’) or
descriptive (i.e., ‘this is what you did’). Prescriptive feedback • Children need to be given a mix of
is useful for beginners who may find it difficult to find prescriptive and descriptive feedback to suit
solutions by themselves. Descriptive feedback allows the their needs and to foster further
child to attempt to work out by him/herself what the development
corrections have to be. A certain degree of expertise and
introspection is necessary for this and hence this is
recommended for more experienced athletes. (McMorris,
2015).
• Coaches should give both informational and motivational
feedback

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 o Informational feedback contains concrete • Coaches can provide both informational and
information about what a child is doing and motivation feedback, yet they need to
encourages adjustments on the next practice understand the benefits of each and not
attempt through the use of instruction. confuse them
o Motivation feedback serves as encouragement and
may help to increase self-esteem but has limited
impact otherwise. Coaches should avoid using only
motivational feedback information because it
(Abraham & Collins, 2011)
• The quantity and frequency of feedback given by the coach • Coaches must be aware of the quantity and
needs to be carefully considered. Abraham & Collins (2011) frequency of the feedback they provide and
state that: the effect on the children they coach
o Too much feedback could result in overload and may
cause a decrease in confidence to solve problems
individually. More feedback encourages quick
improvements as coach solves performance blocks
o Less feedback may slow skill acquisition but can
encourage player problem solving
• One method to try and reduce the amount of feedback given
to the athlete is the so-called ‘bandwidth feedback’
(McMorris, 2015). The coach decides on a bandwidth of
acceptable performance of a skill (the parameters between
which the skill is considered as acceptable). When the
performance falls within those parameters the coach offers
no correction. As the athlete becomes more experienced, the
coach can narrow the bandwidth and thus require a more
fine-tuned performance.
• Anderson (1982) estimates that it takes 100 hours of learning
activity to create a significant shift in cognitive knowledge
and understanding. Therefore, coaches must respect
children’s pace of learning. Central to individualized learning
are:
o The relationship between coach and participants
o The expectations/perceptions that those participants
bring to the coaching environment and;

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 o The creation of an effective skill acquisition
environment (Sagar & Jowett, 2012).
References
Abraham, A. and Collins, D. (2011b). Taking the next step: Ways forward for coaching science. Quest 63(4): pp. 366–384.
Abraham, A., & Collins, D. (2011). Effective skill development: How should athletes’ skills be developed. Performance psychology: A practitioner’s guide.
Eds. D. Collins, A. Button, H. Richards. Elsevier. Oxford 2011a, 207, 229.
Abraham, A., Jimenez, S., Mckeown, S., Morgan, G., Muir, B., North, J., & Till, K. (2015). Planning your coaching. A focus on youth participant development.
Practical sports coaching, 16-53. London: Routledge.
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of a cognitive skill. Psychological Review 89(4): pp. 369–406.
Bunker, D., & Thorpe, R. (1982). A model for the teaching of games in secondary schools. Bulletin of physical education, 18(1), 5-8.
Davids, K., Araújo, D., Vilar, L., Renshaw, I., & Pinder, R. (2013). An ecological dynamics approach to skill acquisition: Implications for development of talent
in sport. Talent Development & Excellence, 5(1), 21-34.
Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. (2008). Dynamics of Skill acquisition. A constraints-led approach. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics.
Den Duyn, N. (1997). Game Sense: developing thinking players (Canberra, Australia, Australian Sports Commission).
Dohme, L.C. & Lara-Bercial, S. (2016). Developing Physical Literacy Through Sport: Coaching Children to think. Coaching Ireland.
Farrow, D. (in press). Technical and tactical development. In D. Gould & Mallett, C. (Eds.) The Sport Coaching Handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
García López, L. M. (2001). Hacia una clasificación actualizada y unificada de los modelos alternativos de enseñanza en la iniciativa deportiva.
Kidman, L., Thorpe, R., Jones, R. L., & Lewis, C. (2001). Developing decision makers: An empowerment approach to coaching. IPC Print Resources.
McMorris, T. (2015). The practice session: creating a learning environment. In C. Nash (Ed). Practical sports coaching, 85-109. London: Routledge
Muir, B., Morgan, G., Abraham, A., & Morley, D. (2011). Developmentally appropriate approaches to coaching children. In Coaching Children in Sport. I.
Stafford (Ed.) (London and New York: Routledge).
Payá Pascual, S. (2016). Aplicación de un plan de intervención con juegos modificados en baloncesto de formación.
Phillips, E., Farrow, D, Ball, K. & Helmer, R (2013). Harnessing and understanding feedback technology in applied settings. Sports Medicine, DOI
10.1007/s40279-013-0072-7
Pinder, R., Davids, K., Renshaw, I., & Araújo, D. (2011). Representative learning design and functionality of research and practice in sport. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 146–155.
Ramírez, J. V., & Noguera, M. Á. D. (1999). La programación e intervención didáctica en el deporte escolar (II). Aportaciones de los diferentes estilos de
enseñanza. Apunts. Educación física y deportes, 2(56), 17-24.
Sagar, S. S. & Jowett, S. (2012). Communicative acts in coach–athlete interactions: When losing competitions and when making mistakes in training.
Western Journal of Communication 76(2): pp. 148–174.
Sancho Gómez, L. (2013). Aplicación de un modelo de enseñanza comprensiva en un equipo de baloncesto en Portugal.
Ramírez, J. V., & Noguera, M. Á. D. (1999). La programación e intervención didáctica en el deporte escolar (II). Aportaciones de los diferentes estilos de
enseñanza. Apunts. Educación física y deportes, 2(56), 17-24.

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The Role of Competition
Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching
• Competition plays an important role • The importance of competition as a • Coaches should use coaching as a developmental
in participant development development tool has been highlighted in experience
o It is developmental research (e.g. Abraham et al., 2014; Côté, • Competition has to be appropriate to individuals,
o It is motivational Hancock, Turnnidge, & Vierimaa, 2013; Lyle, age/stage of development etc.
• Competition must be developmentally 1997; Sotiriadou, Shilbury, & Quick, 2008) • Although kids like to win, there should not be an over-
appropriate to meet children’s • The importance of competition as a emphasis on winning competitions in younger age-
want/needs in terms of format, motivational tool has also been highlighted groups
duration and ethos (Côté et al., 2013; Mulvihill, Rivers, & • Coaches should ensure that what children experience is
o Coaches can be flexible in how Aggleton, 2000) ‘true competition’, not ‘de-competition’.
they organize competition, for • Competition should be developmentally o Emphasise effort over outcome
example around selection year appropriate (Côté et al., 2013) – not over- o Focus on enjoyment of the challenge of
o Some activities can be too emphasizing winning (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, competition
competitive & Deakin, 2008a, 2008b) o Recognise opposition as partner not enemies
o ‘Developmentally appropriate’ • Shields and Bredemeier (2009) distinguish o Stress respect for all involved (opponents,
may include having no referee, between ‘true competition’ (i.e., striving referees, parents, etc)
and parents a long distance from with someone for excellence) and • Understanding how to manage competition in children’s
the play area ‘decompetition’ (devalued competition development journeys is a key facet of coaching
o Every child gets a chance to play because of cheating, violence, taunting, etc). expertise.
regardless of their performance In true competition, children are encouraged • Parental education is central to creating appropriate
level to enjoy striving towards excellence. competitive environments
• Children rate their enjoyment of sport • Research suggests coaches should be flexible
more based on coaches’ and other in the selection year, and in team rosters,
stakeholders’ appropriate behaviors between and in games to prevent one-sided
than winning or loosing games (Musch & Grondin, 2001)
• Despite the above, children often • Children’s enjoyment, and evaluations of
want to win in competition settings – their coach were more strongly related to
so coaches and children need to know coaching behaviours than to their team’s
how to position winning and losing won-lost record (Cumming, Smoll, Smith, &
appropriately i.e. focus more on the Grossbard, 2007)
process and keeping trying • Compared to most boys, girls on average,
• Children’s enjoyment of competition tend to be less interested in competition
might be different by gender (Mulvihill et al., 2000).

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• Competition can be used to gain • Coaching can be used to assess participant
assessment information and progress (Salmela, 1995)
participant progress
• Competition must not be used to
over-emphasize winning in younger
age groupsNote: some children want
to play sport but do not want to
compete.
References
Abraham, A., Lorenzo Jimenez Saiz, S., Mckeown, S., Morgan, G., Muir, B., North, J., & Till, K. (2014). Planning your coaching: A focus on youth participant
development. In C. Nash (Ed.), Practical sports coaching. London: Routledge.
Côté, J., Hancock, D., Turnnidge, J., & Vierimaa, M. (2013). Why keeping score matters. The Whig: http://www.thewhig.com/2013/05/29/why-keeping-score-
matters.
Cumming, S. P., Smoll, F. L., Smith, R. E., & Grossbard, J. R. (2007). Is winning everything? The relative contributions of motivational climate and won-lost
percentage in youth sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(3), 322-336. doi: 10.1080/10413200701342640
Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2008a). Examining adolescent sport dropout and prolonged engagement from a developmental perspective.
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20(3), 318-333. doi: 10.1080/10413200802163549
Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2008b). Understanding dropout and prolonged engagement in adolescent competitive sport. Psychology of Sport &
Exercise, 9(5), 645-662.
Lyle, J. (1997). Managing excellence in sports performance. Career Development International, 2, 314-323.
Mulvihill, C., Rivers, K., & Aggleton, P. (2000). Views of young people towards physical activity: determinants and barriers to involvement. Health Education,
100(5), 190-199. doi: doi:10.1108/09654280010343555
Musch, J., & Grondin, S. (2001). Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: a review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental
Review, 21(2), 147-167.
Salmela, J. (1995). Learning from the development of expert coaches. Coaching and Sport Science Journal, 2(2), 3-13.
Shields, D. & Bredemeier, B. (2009). True Competition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Sotiriadou, K., Shilbury, D., & Quick, S. (2008). The attraction, retention/transition, and nurturing process of sport development: Some Australian evidence.
Journal of Sport Management, 22, 247-272.

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 6. Reflecting and Learning

The Why and How of Reflection in Coaching

Key Principles The Evidence Impact for Coaching
• Reflective practice is a central • Expert practitioners take their strengths and • Coaches should have an open-mind. As their
component of professional weaknesses into account and make sure plans are knowledge grows and they gain experience,
practice and learning in place to improve (Klein & Militello, 2005). From their beliefs and values will change
• Expert and successful coaches this perspective, if done correctly, reflective • Reflection is a learned skill. Coaches will get
continuously reflect on their practice (RP) can help coaches develop a better better at it with practice
practice understanding of their practice and help them chart • Coaches should leave time and space to reflect
• Reflection has to be framed their own development (Gilbourne, Marshall & after a coaching session, series of sessions, an
within the coaches’ overall Knowles, 2013; Lemyre et al (2007); Martindale & event, a coaching challenge and after/before a
philosophy, values and beliefs. Collins, 2015). season
Establishing to what degree • All authors express the need for coaches and coach • A user-friendly model of reflection suitable for
practice and philosophy match is developers to recognise the value of reflective coaches of children should be adopted by
paramount. practice, particular when considering the limited iCoachKids
• Effective coaches reflect not only amount of time coaches spend in formal coach • The model of reflection should take account of
on the performance of their education opportunities and how much they can the points outlined in the iCoachKids Pledge
athletes, but most importantly learn from informal and non-formal situations
on their own performance and (Moon, 2004) if underpinned by an effective
develop plans to improve in key reflective approach.
areas • As Gilbert and Trudel suggest (2006) ‘ten years of
coaching without reflection is simply one year of
coaching repeated ten times’
• Reflection should however, not be a box ticking
exercise nor massively time consuming. It should be
as a central element of effective practice
(Martindale & Collins, 2015).
• However, research shows that coverage of
reflection in coach education is insufficient to
develop reflective practitioners. (Knowles et al.,
2001; Knowles et al., 2005).
• Various types or modes of reflection have been
proposed in the literature (Gilbert 2017; Gilbert &

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 Trudel, 2001; Martindale & Collins, 2015; Schön,
1983/1991; Martindale & Collins, 2015)
o Reflecting on action: reflection based on
previous events or on an analysis of
performance gaps
o Reflection in action: reflection during the
actual event
o Critical reflection: based on an analysis of
broader issues like our values and philosophy
• Martindale & Collins (2015) stressed the need for
reflection to be guided by some key questions. They
propose two avenues:
o Structuring reflective questions around the
Who-What-How model of coach decision
making presented by Abraham et al. (2015)
o Using an adaptation of Schön’s (1983/1991)
key reflective themes:
▪ Intuitive judgment
▪ Knowledge
▪ Decision-making
▪ Philosophy and context
▪ Role of the coach
• Gilbourne et al. (2013) and Martens (2014)
emphasise the need to prioritise critical reflection
around philosophy, context and the role of the
coach before meaningful reflection can start at
other levels
• Gilbert and Trudel (2001) put a structure on how
youth coaches learn through experience and
reflection: identify the problem; develop strategies;
test it; adapt your practice.
• Martindale and Collins (2015) note that coaches
should also seek the views of their players, parents
and other coaches in order to further aid reflection.

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 • Martindale and Collins (2015) and Gilbert (2017)
have also stressed the value of networks of coaches
and communities of practice to facilitate and
enhance the power of reflective practice.

References
Abraham, A., Lorenzo Jimenez Saiz, S., Mckeown, S., Morgan, G., Muir, B., North, J., & Till, K. (2014). Planning your coaching: A focus on youth
participant development. In C. Nash (Ed.), Practical sports coaching, 16-43. Abingdon: Routledge.
Klein, G. & Millitello, L. (2005). The knowledge audit as a method for cognitive task analysis. In M. Montgomery, R. Lipshitz, and B. Bremer (Eds.). London:
LEA
Knowles, Z., Gilbourne, D., Borrie, & Neville, A. (2001). Developing the reflective sports coach: a study exploring the processes of reflective practice within
a higher education coaching programme. Reflective Practice, 2(2), 185-207.
Knowles, Z., Borrie, A. & Telfer, H. (2005). Towards the reflective sports coach: Issues of context, education and application. Ergonomics, 48, 11-14.
Moon, J.A. (2004) A Handbook of Reflective and Experimental Learning: Theory and Practice, London: Routledge-Falmer. Background reading on reflection
Gilbert, W.D. (2017). Coaching better every season. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Gilbert, W.D. and Trudel, P. (2001). ‘Learning to Coach through Experience: Reflection in Model Youth Sport Coaches’, Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education, 21, 16-34.
Gilbert, W.D. and Trudel, P. (2006). The coach as a reflective practitioner. In R.L. Jones (Ed.), The sport coach as educator, pp. 113-127. London: Routledge
Gilbourne, D., Marshall, P. & Knowles, Z. (2013). Reflective practice in sports coaching: thoughts on process, pedagogy and research. In R. L. Jones and K.
Kingston (Eds.). Introduction to sports coaching, pp. 3-11. Abingdon: Routledge
Lemyre, F., Trudel, P., Durand-Bush, N. (2007) ‘How Youth Sports Coaches Learn to Coach’, The Sports Psychologist, 21, 191-209. Need to base learning
on how to reflective in this context
Martens, R. (2012) ‘Coaching Philosophy’ in ‘Successful Coaching’ (4th Edition), Human Kinetics. Developing your coaching philosophy
Martindale, A. & Collins, D. (2015). Reflective practice. In C. Nash (Ed.) Practical Sports Coaching, pp. 223-241. Abingdon: Routledge
Schön, D.A. (1983/1991) The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action, New York: Basic Books

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Conclusion

Research into children’s sport and coaching has experienced a rapid growth in the last 20 years. A systematic
review of this body of knowledge was outside the scope of this review. Instead, key areas of focus informed
by the six primary functions of the coach (ICCE, ASOIF & LBU, 2013; Lara-Bercial et al., 2017) were identified
by the iCK expert group.

The results of the review tend to corroborate the overall philosophy and values espoused by the iCK
team, and the fundamental principles identified in the development of the proposed theory of children’s
coaching. Notwithstanding this, the review also found that much work is yet to be done to gather conclusive
evidence in various areas. These include:

• Identifying the personal and social developmental outcomes naturally occurring from sport
participation and the conditions that lead to them.
• Developing more naturalistic and developmental approaches to research in the area of skill
acquisition.
• Providing a greater understanding of the experience of elite sport for young children and children
with a high motivation to become elite athletes.

Nonetheless, in light of the findings of the review, the iCK expert group has developed the iCK Pledge
which includes 10 Golden Rules for Coaching Children that coaches and sport clubs should adhere to in order
to guarantee positive experiences.

We wish you the best of success.

The iCK Team Copyright © 2017 by iCoachKids

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