Experiment No.

1
Ohm's law for linear and nonlinear circuit

Object
To study the relation between voltages and currents for linear elements.
Theory
In any electric circuit, the larger charge flows(current), the large amount of
amount of energy converted to heat. This characteristic behavior of materials is
referred to as the resistance of the material to the flow of electrical charge. The
symbol for a resistor is shown in Fig.1

Fig.1
Ohm's law describes the relationship between the terminal voltage and current
of a resistor, and stated as follows: -
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any tow points on a conductor
to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, if the temperature of the
conductor dose not change in the words: R=V/I
• V: is the potential difference and measured in volt (V).
• I: is the current flowing through the conductor and measured in
Ampere(A).
• R: is the resistance of the conductor and measured in Ohm(Ω).
Ohm's Law for Linear Elements
The Fig.2 shows the linear (straight-line) graph between the voltage drop and
the current flow through affixed resistance (R=20 Ω) & (R=40 Ω).

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 Fig.2
• Non-linear resistance: the incandescent lamp
The V/I characteristic of Fig.2 is that of a so-called perfect resistor, an ideal device
which keeps a constant and unaltered resistance in all physical conditions.
In practice all materials have a V/I charstristics which is intrinsically non-linear
and dependent on parameters such as temperature, mechanical stress, age, etc.…
In most case it is desirable that the resisters used in electronics have values which
are as constant as possible, and therefore these components are mode out of
materials selected for this purpose. In certain other cases a non-linear V/I
catachrestic may turn out useful for specific purposes.
We shall examine some of these devices, starting, from a common incandescent
lamp, which allows us understand the meaning of non-linear I/V charstristics.
Set up the equipment's as shown in Fig.3

Fig.3
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A variable voltage generator is used to power an incandescent lamp. The voltage
is changed in steps from 0 to 12V and the current in the lamp is measured and
recorded at each step.
The result plotted in a graph appear as in Fig.4

Fig.4
The reason of the progressive bending of the charstristics resides in the
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT of the material of which the filament is made.
The temperature coefficient in this case is positive:
• If the supply voltage is increased, the filament receives more power and
therefore its temperature rises.
• The resistance of the filament increases for rising temperature and the
filament drains less current than if the resistance remained constant.
Let's just note that a positive temperature coefficient for an incandescent lamp is
very healthy for the lamp itself, consider the case of a hypothetical negative
temperature coefficient lamp connected to the mains. An accidental rise in the line
voltage would raise the temperature of the lamp draw more current and power from
the line. This would in turn, further heat the lamp and so on, up to a rapid burning-
out of the filament.
Note the following:
• The current rises for growing voltages.
• If the voltage doubles (e.g. 5V to 10V), the current also doubles (5mA to
10mA).

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Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig.5

Fig.5
2. Increase the applied voltage from the D.C power supply from (0 – 10) V, in
step of (2)V, measure the current through the (1KΩ) resistor in each step and
record the measured result in the second column of table.1.
Power supply I measured I calculated Error
(volt) (mA) (mA) %
0
2
4
6
8
10
Table 1.a
3. For non-Linear resistance.
Power supply I measured R calculated
(volt) (mA) (Ω)
0
2
4
6
8
10
Table 1.b
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Discussion
1. Plot a graph from the measured data of table.1, to show the relationship
between V & I.
2. Calculate the slope and resistance value from the graph above.
3. From the graph above, is the relationship between V&I linear or non-linear?
4. From the result shown in Fig.6, find the resistance and slope value

Fig.6
5. Can you tell me, what is the difference between number (2) and number (4)?

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 Experiment No.2
Kirchhoff's laws

Object
To verify Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws for simple DC circuits.
Theory
❖ Kirchhoff's current law
States that me sum of the currents flowing into a junction or node is equal to
the sum of the current ‘s flowing out of that junction.

∑ 𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛

Example
For node A 𝐼𝐴1 + 𝐼𝐴2 + 𝐼𝐴3 = 0
For node B 𝐼𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐵2 + 𝐼𝐵3 = 0

Fig.1 Setup to study the 1st Kirchhoff law

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❖ Kirchhoff's voltage law
State that the algebraic sum at all voltages around path or loop is zero.

Example
The circuit shown in Fig.2. now with clockwise direction.
For Loop A
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑑 = 0
For Loop B
𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑑 = 0
For Loop C
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑒 = 0

Fig.2 Circuit to study the 2st Kirchhoff law

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Procedure
1. Wire the circuit shown in Fig. 2, and adjust the power supply voltage at
(15V)
2. Measure the voltage across each resistor, take in consideration the polarity
across each resistor. Record your measured result in the Third column of
table (1). Determine the sum of these measured voltages. In this stage
Kirchhoff's voltage law should be stratified.
Parameter Calculated Measured Error %
Source 15V 15V ……
𝑽𝒃
𝑽𝒄
𝑽𝒅
Total
Table.1
3. Wire the circuit shown in Fig.1 and adjust power supply voltage at (10V)
4. Measure the three branch currents. Record your measured results in the
third column Table (2). In Kirchhoff's current law should be satisfied.
Parameter Calculated Measured Error %
𝑰𝑨𝟏
𝑰𝑨𝟐
𝑰𝑨𝟑

Discussion
1. In your own words, state Kirchhoff's Voltage and Current law?
2. For the circuit shown in Fig.3. If 𝐼1 =18.4mA and 𝐼4 =2.65mA, then 𝐼2 is:
a. 5.3mA b. 13.1mA c. 7.8mA d. 18.2mA
3. If other resistors values are used for the circuit of Fig.2 in loop A, so that:
𝑽𝒃 =0.54V and 𝑽𝒅 =3.58V, Then Vc should be:
a. 1016V b. 10.88V c. 107V d. 4.74V
4. Determine the branch current in the network of Fig.4.When The value of
each resistance is one ohm.

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Fig.3

Fig.4

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 Experiment No.3
Thevenin's Theorems

Object
To study and apply Thevenin theorem to Eclectic circuit.
Theory
Thevenin's theorem states the following: “Any Two-terminals of 1inear D.C
network can be replaced by a single voltage source 𝐸𝑡ℎ With a series resistance
(𝑅𝑡ℎ ). It makes the solution of a complicated e1ectric network quite quick and
easy .
The application of this theorem will be explaned with the help of the following
simple example.
If it is required to find the current following through load resistance 𝑅𝐿 as shown
in Fig.1(a), the following steps will be handled :

Fig.1(a) The active network with 𝑅𝐿

1. Remove 𝑅𝐿 from the circuit terminal A and B and redraw the circuit as shown
in Fig1(b). Observably the terminal A-B has become an Open circuit.
2. Calculate the. Open circuit voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ ) which appears across
terminals A and B.
As shown in Fig.1(b), 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ =voltage drop across 𝑅2

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 Where:
𝑉𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑅2 where (I) is the circuit current
𝐼 = 𝐸/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑉𝑅2 =𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ = 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐸 ∗ 𝑅2 /(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

Fig.1(b) The equivalent circuit according to the Thevenin Theorem

3. Replace the voltage source by short circuit and redraw circuit as shown in
Fig.1(c) when viewed through terminals A and B, the circuit consist of two
parallel resistance’s (𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 ). The equivalent resistance of the network is
called Thevenin resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ ) or open circuit resistance (𝑅0 ).
𝑅𝑡ℎ =𝑅1 ║ 𝑅2 = (𝑅1 ∗ 𝑅2 )/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

Fig.1(c) The equivalent circuit according to the Thevenin Theorem

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 4. 𝑅𝐿 is now connected back across terminals A and B from whree it was
temporally removed earlier. As shown in Fig.2, the current flowing through
𝑅𝐿 is given by:

Fig.2 The equivalent Thevenin circuit with 𝑅𝐿

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.3

Fig.3
2. Vary 𝑅𝐿 resistance as shown in Table (1), measured 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 in each step.
Record your results in the second and third column of Table (1).
3. Disconnect 𝑅𝐿 , then measure the open loop voltage (𝐸𝑡ℎ ).
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4. Calculate 𝑅𝑡ℎ theoretically and connect Thevenin equivalent circuit as
shown in Figure (4).

Fig.4
5. Repeat step (2) and record your results in the fourth and fifth column of
Table (1).
𝑹𝑳 Fig.3 Fig.4
Ω 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt) 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt)
400
500
600
700
800
Table.1 Practical Result

𝑹𝑳 Fig.3 Fig.4
Ω 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt) 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt)
400
500
600
700
800
Table.2 Theorical Result
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Discussion
1. Calculate 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 theoretically from Fig.3 and Fig.4 then record
your results in Table (2).
2. Compare briefly between the practical and theoretical results.
3. Using Thevenin's Theorem, determine the voltage across 𝑅𝐿 , of the
network shown in Fig.5

Fig.5

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 Experiment No.4
Norton's Theorems

Object
To prove Norton's theorem practically.
Theory
Norton's theorem states the following: "Any two terminal linear D.C
network can be replaced by any equivalent circuit consisting of a constant current
source (𝐼𝑁 ) and a parallel resistance (𝑅𝑁 ), as shown in Fig.1(a).

Fig.1(a) Equivalent circuit according to Norton theorem

The constant current is equal to the current which would flow in a short circuit
placed across the terminals A and B as shown in Fig.1(b), and is called (𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝐼𝑁 ).
Where:
𝐼𝑆𝐶 : is the short circuit current.
𝐼𝑁 : is the Norton current.
The parallel resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from A-B
open terminals after all voltage and current has been removed and replaced by
short or open circuits respectively, as shown in Fig.2
Then according to Fig.2, the current through 𝑅𝐿 (when 𝑅𝐿 is connected to Norton
equivalent circuit) will be:
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑁 ∗ 𝑅𝑁 /(𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 )
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Fig.1(b) Calculating the constant current source 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝐼𝑁

Fig.1(c) Calculating the equivalent parallel resistance 𝑅𝑁

Fig.2 The equivalent Norton circuit with 𝑅𝐿

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Apparatus
1. Power supply
2. AVO meter
3. Four resistors

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.3

Fig.3
2. Vary 𝑅𝐿 resistance as shown in Table (1), measured 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 in each step,
Record your results in the second and third column of Table (1).
𝑹𝑳 Fig.3 Fig.4
Ω
𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt) 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt)

400
500
600
700
800
Table.1 Practical Result
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 3. Disconnect 𝑅𝐿 , then measure the short circuit current (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ) between A and B
terminals.
4. Calculate 𝑅𝑁 theoretically and connect Norton equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig.4. Make sure that the constant current source is remains constant in each
step of varying 𝑅𝐿 , by means of varying the D.C power supply.

5. Repeat step (2) and record your results in the fourth and fifth column of Table
(1).
𝑹𝑳 Fig.3 Fig.4
Ω
𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt) 𝐼𝐿 (mA) 𝑉𝐿 (Volt)

400
500
600
700
800
Table.2 Theorical Result

Discussion
1. Calculate It and Vi theoretically from Fig.3 and Fig.4, then record your
results in Table (2)
2. Compare briefly between the practical and theoretical results.
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3. Find the voltage between the open terminals A and B for the network shown
in Fig.5 using Norton theorem. And the value of 𝑅𝐿 is one half the value of
𝑅𝑁 , find the current through 𝑅𝐿

Fig.5

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 Experiment No.5
Superposition Theorems

Object
To apply superposition theorem to a D.C electric circuit.
Theory
This theorem states that: "In a network of a linear resistance's containing
more than one sources, the current which flows at any point is the sum of the
currents which would flow that point if each source were considered separately
and all the other voltage sources replaced for the time being by short circuit"
For example: the network shown in Figure (1) curtains two voltage sources 𝐸1 and
𝐸2 , if it is required to find the branch currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 with the directions shown
in Figure (1).

𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟑

𝑰𝟐

Fig.1
Figure (2) shows the branch currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 when the voltage source 𝐸1 is
replaced by short circuit. Figure (3) shows the branch currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 when
the voltage source 𝐸2 is replaced by short circuit.
Now, according to the superposition theorem, if the branch currents according to
the effect of each voltage source are in the same direction, then the resulted current
is sum of two currents in the direction of either current. But if the individual

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currents are in opposite direction through the same branch, the resulting currents
is the difference of the two and has the direction of the larger.

𝐈̇𝟏 𝐈̇𝟑

𝐈̇𝟐

Fig.2

𝑰̈𝟏 𝑰̈𝟑

𝑰̈𝟐

Fig.3
So
𝐼1 = 𝐼1̇ − 𝐼1̈
𝐼2 = 𝐼2̇ + 𝐼2̈
𝐼3 = 𝐼3̇ − 𝐼3̈
Apparatus
1. Set of resistors
2. Two power supply units.
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
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Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure (4).
2. Measure the voltage across (2.3kΩ, 1kΩ, and 2.2kΩ). resistors respectively;
record your results in the second column of Table (1).
Note: consider the polarity of the voltages
3. Leave 𝐸1 and replace 𝐸2 by short circuit, repeat step 1 and record. your results
in the third column of Table (1).
4. Leave 𝐸2 and replace 𝐸1 by short circuit, repeat step 1 and record your results
in the fourth column of Table (1).
5. Find the value of V which is equal to (𝑉̇ = 𝑉̈ ) record the results in the fifth
column of Table (1) and compare them with the firs column of Table (1).
R Fig.4 𝐸2 is short 𝐸𝟏 is short 𝑽̇ + 𝑽̈
Ω V(Volt) V(Volt) V(Volt) V(Volt)
2.2k
1k
2.3k
Table (1) Practical Results

Discussion
1. Calculate theoretically using superposition theorem the voltage across each
resistor in Figure (5) record your results in Table (2).
2. Compare between the practical and theoretical results.
3. For the network shown in Figure (4), Find the voltage across the points A
and B using superposition theorem.

Fig.4
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 R 𝐸2 is short 𝐸𝟏 is short 𝑽̇ + 𝑽̈
Ω V(Volt) V(Volt) V(Volt)
2.2k
1k
2.3k

Table (1) Theoretical Results

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