What is potentiometer ?

A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring voltage by comparison of an

unknown voltage with a known reference voltage. If a sensitive indicating
instrument is used, very little current is drawn from the source of the unknown
voltage. Since the reference voltage can be produced from an accurately
calibrated voltage divider, a potentiometer can provide high precision in
measurement. The method was described by Johann Christian Poggendorff
around 1841 and became a standard laboratory measuring technique.[1]

In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a resistive slide wire is

compared with an unknown voltage by means of a galvanometer. The sliding
contact or wiper of the potentiometer is adjusted and the galvanometer briefly
connected between the sliding contact and the unknown voltage. The deflection of
the galvanometer is observed and the sliding tap adjusted until the galvanometer
no longer deflects from zero. At that point the galvanometer draws no current from
the unknown source, and the magnitude of voltage can be calculated from the
position of the sliding contact.

This null balance measuring method is still important in electrical metrology and
standards work and is also used in other areas of electronics.
Potentiometer and Voltmeter

A potentiometer is a device that is used to measure the potential difference in a

circuit. We know that potential difference is the amount of work done in bringing a
charge from one point to other. When there is a potential difference in a circuit, the
current flows through the circuit. The unit of potential difference is measured in
volts. The potential difference of a circuit can be measured by a voltmeter.

A voltmeter consists of a coil which is suspended between the North Pole and the
South Pole of a magnet. So when the current through the circuit the coil deflects
and the needle moves on the graduated scale. It also consists of a resistor with
high value of resistance which is connected in series with the coil. We are using
resistor of high value to minimize the error in the measurement of potential
difference. It is because the voltmeter draws a small amount of current from the
voltage source of the circuit connected. So the value shown in the voltmeter may
not be accurate.

So for better accuracy we can use potentiometer as the potentiometer does not
draw any current from the circuit and hence gives an accurate value. A
potentiometer is also used to measure the electromotive force of a cell. It is
possible to compare the emf of two cell with a potentiometer. It can be used to
measure the internal resistance of the cell. The emf is defined as the potential
difference between the positive electrode and the negative electrode when there
is no current flowing through the cell or in an open circuit. The internal resistance
is the resistance that is provided by the electrolyte and electrodes which is present
in a cell. Thus it restricts the current flow.
Principle of operation

The principle of a potentiometer is that the potential dropped across a segment of

a wire of uniform cross-section carrying a constant current is directly proportional
to its length. The potentiometer is a simple device used to measure the electrical
potentials(or compare the e.m.f of a cell). One form of potentiometer is a uniform
high-resistance wire attached to an insulating support, marked with a linear
measuring scale. In use, an adjustable regulated voltage source E, of greater
magnitude than the potential to be measured, is connected across the wire so as
to pass a steady current through it.

Between the end of the wire and any point along it will be a potential proportional
to the length of wire to that point. By comparing the potential at points along the
wire with an unknown potential, the magnitude of the unknown potential can be
determined. The instrument used for comparison must be sensitive, but need not
be particularly well-calibrated or accurate so long as its deflection from zero
position can be easily detected.
The basic working principle of this is based on the fact that the fall of the potential
across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire,
provided wire has uniform cross-sectional area and the constant current flowing
through it.“When there is no potential difference between any two nodes there is
electric current will flow”.

Now the potentiometer wire is actually a wire with high resistivity (ῥ) with uniform
cross-sectional area A. Thus, throughout the wire, it has uniform resistance. Now
this potentiometer terminal connected to the cell of high EMF V (neglecting its
internal resistance) called driver cell or the voltage source. Let the current through
the potentiometer is I and R is the total resistance of the potentiometer.

Construction of a Potentiometer
A potentiometer consists of a long wire with uniform area of cross section. Usually
the wire is made up of manganin or constantan. In some cases the wire may be
cut into some pieces and each piece is connected at the end points by means of
a thick metallic strip. Usually it will be copper strips. Each piece of wire has the
length of one meter. Usually there will be six pieces of wire and the total length of
the wire is six meter. Generally the length of the wire varies from 4 meters to 10
meters.The more the length of the wire, the better the accuracy of the
potentiometer.

The potentiometer consists of a driving circuit which consists of a battery, key and
rheostat. It also consists of a galvanometer and a jockey. The end points or the
terminals of the potentiometer is connected to the points where the potential
difference is to be measured.

Potential Gradient

Potential Gradient is the decrease in potential per unit length. It is calculated as V

/ L, where V is the potential difference between two points and L is the distance
between two points. The longer the wire the lesser the potential gradient and the
greater the sensitivity of the potentiometer. Let us see the principle of
potentiometer. In the figure we can have a cell with emf E and internal resistance
r, a rheostat and the wire. Consider the length of the wire as L and the resistance
of the wire as R. This is the primary circuit of the potentiometer. Now consider the
point Q along the wire. So the length of the wire from point P to Q is taken as LPQ.
The principle of potentiometer states that the potential difference between two
points across the potentiometer is directly proportional to the length of the
corresponding points.
Thus the voltage across the point P and Q, VPQ ∝ LPQ. To remove the
proportionality a constant is called which is the potential gradient. It is denoted as
K. So VPQ = K LPQ

For a primary circuit of the potentiometer the potential gradient remains the same.

Potential gradient is calculated as K = V/L, where V is the voltage across the

potentiometer wire and the L is the length of the wire in the potentiometer. So the
unit of potential gradient is volts/meter. We know that by Ohm’s law Voltage V = I
R, where I is current flowing through the circuit and R is the resistance.

So K = V/L = IR/L – equation 1

Now we know that I = V/R

So in this case, Voltage V = E and the total resistance = R + r + Rh, where R is the
total resistance of the wire, r is the internal resistance of the cell and Rh is the
resistance of the rheostat. So substituting in the equation we get

K = I R/L

= V/R * R/L

= [E/(R + r + Rh)] * R/L

Rearranging the equation we get K = E R/(R + r + Rh) L

The potential gradient can also be written in terms of resistivity. We know that R =
ρ L /A, where ρ is the resistivity, L is the length and A is the area of cross section.
Substituting the value of R in equation 1 we get

K = (I ρ L/A)/L = I ρ / A.

Measure e.m.f of Cell or To Compare e.m.f of Two Cells

Let E1 and E2 be the e.m.f.'s of the two cells to be compared by using the
potentiometer. The positive terminal of the cell of e.m.f. E1 is connected to end A
and negative terminal is connected to jockey through galvanometer. By closing
the key the jockey is moved along wire AB and null point P is determined such
that galvanometer shows no deflection. The length of wire AP =It is measured.
The p.d. across this length balances e.m.f. E1

e.m.f. of the cell = potential difference across AP

𝐸1 = 𝐾𝐼1 . . . … … (𝑖)

where K is the Potential gradient of the wire

● Then cell of e.m.f. 𝐸1 , is disconnected and cell of e.m.f. 𝐸2 , is connected in
circuit and procedure is repeated

𝐸2 = 𝐾𝐼2 … . . . … … (𝑖𝑖)
 Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
𝐸 1 𝐼1
=
𝐸2 𝐼

Thus knowing the values of𝐼1 and 𝐼2 we can compare e.m.f.s of two
cells.

Measure e.m.f. of a Cell or to Compare e.m.f.s of

Two Cells by Sum and Difference Method:

● Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the e.m.f's of the two cells to be compared by using

the potentiometer. In this method both the cells whose e.m.f.s are to
be compared are connected together.
● When the two cells are connected in series such that negative
terminal of one cell is connected to positive terminal of the other,
then the two cells are said to assist each other and their resultant
e.m.f. is given by sum of the e.m.f.s of the two cells. (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 )

● When the two cells are connected in series such that negative terminal of
one cell is connected to negative terminal of the other, then the two cells
are said to oppose each other and their resultant e.m.f. is given by the
difference of the e.m.f.s of the two cells. ( 𝐸1 - 𝐸2 )
● In the first step, the cells are connected to assist each other. The positive
terminal of the combination of cells is connected to end A and another
terminal is connected to jockey through galvanometer. By closing the key
the jockey is moved along wire AB and null point P is determined such that
galvanometer shows no deflection. The length of wire AP = 𝑖1 , is
measured. The p.d. across this length balances e.m.f. ( 𝐸1 +𝐸2 ) .

⇒ e.m.f. of the cell = potential difference across AP.

𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐾 𝐼1 . . . . . . . . . (𝑖)

Where K is potential gradient of wire

● In the second step , the cells are connected to oppose each other

𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐾𝐼2 . . . . . . . . . . . (𝑖𝑖)
Dividing (i) by (ii)

Thus we can calculate 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 emf of two cells.

To Find Internal Resistance Of a Cell

● A battery B having an e.m.f. greater than the e.m.f. (E) of the cell whose
internal resistance (r) is to be measured, is connected in series with the
potentiometer wire AB, a key 𝐸1 and a rheostat.
● The positive terminal of the cell of e.m.f. E is connected to the end A of
the potentiometer wire. The negative terminal of E is connected to a jockey
 through the galvanometer G. A resistance box and a key 𝐾2 are connected
across the cell E.
● Initially, the key𝐾2 is kept open. By closing the key𝐾1 current is passed
through the potentiometer wire so that uniform potential gradient is
produced along the wire. By sliding the Jockey along the wire, a point of
contact 𝑃1 for which the galvanometer shows zero deflection is found. The
length of the wire 𝐴𝑃1 = 𝐼 is measured. As the cell is in an open circuit,
e.m.f. of the cell is equal to the p.d. across the length I, of the
potentiometer wire.

𝐸 = 𝐾𝐼 (𝑖)

Where K is the potential gradient of the wire.

● Now a suitable resistance (R) is connected from the resistance box and
the key K2 is closed and once again null point P2 is found on the
potentiometer wire. The length AP2 = li is measured. Let V be the terminal
p.d. of the cell

Thus knowing R, I and h we can calculate the value of r i.e. the internal
resistance of the cell using this formula.
Difference Between Potentiometer & Voltmeter
Key Differences Between Potentiometer and Voltmeter

The following are the key differences between potentiometer and voltmeter.

● The potentiometer is an instrument used for measuring the emf,

whereas the voltmeter is a type of meter which measures the terminal
voltage of the circuit.
● The potentiometer accurately measures the potential difference because
of zero internal resistance. Whereas, the voltmeter has a high internal
resistance which causes the error in measurement. Thus the voltmeter
approximately measures the voltage.
● The sensitivity of the potentiometer is very high, i.e. it can measure
small potential differences between the two points. The voltmeter has
low sensitivity.
● The potentiometer uses the null deflection type instrument whereas the
voltmeter uses the deflection type instrument.
● The potentiometer has infinite internal resistance, whereas the
potentiometer has high measurable resistance.

Precautions to be Taken While Using a Potentiometer

● When a constant current flows through a wire, then the potential

difference between any two points of the wire is directly proportional to the
length of wire between these two points. In such case, the p.d. per unit
length of the wire is constant and called potential gradient of the wire or
voltage drop across the wire.
 ● The e.m.f. of the cell connected across the potentiometer wire should b
greater than the e.m.f. to be compared.

● The positive terminal of the cells whose e.m.f. is to be compared must be

connected to that end of potentiometer wire where positive terminal of the
battery (driving cell) is connected.

● The potentiometer wire must be uniform.

● The resistance of potentiometer wire should be high.

Sensitivity Of potentiometer

A Potentiometer is sensitive if :-

● It is capable of measuring very small potential differences, and

● It shows a significant change in balancing length for a small change

in potential difference being measured

How to Increase Sensitivity :-

Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the

potentiometer wire and by reducing the current in the circuit by using a rheostat.
Both the methods help in decreasing the potential gradient, and thereby increasing
the resistivity.
Contents

1- What is Potentiometer ……………………………………………………… 1

2- Potentiometer and Voltmeter ……………………………………………………2

3- Principle of Potentiometer…………………………………………………………3

4- Construction of a Potentiometer.…………………………………………… 4

5- Potential Gradient …………………………………………………………………… 5

6- Measure e.m.f of Cell or To Compare e.m.f of Two Cells ……… 7

7- Measure e.m.f. of a Cell ………………………………………………………… 8

8- To Find Internal Resistance Of a Cell …………………………………… 11

9- Difference Between Potentiometer & Voltmeter …………………. 12

10- Sensitivity Of potentiometer ……………………………………………… 15

 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Miss Mukta
as well as our principal Mrs Jyoti Kashyap who gave me the golden opportunity
to do this wonderful project on the topic Potentiometer - Principle & Working ,
which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know about so
many new things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
I content in this project has been collected from various websites and our
textbooks.
● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer_(measuring_instrument)
● https://wikivisually.com/wiki/Potentiometer_(measuring_instrument)
● https://www.electrical4u.com/potentiometer/
● https://www.elprocus.com/potentiometer-construction-working-and-
applications/
Name - Vishwajeet Pal

Class - XII - B

Roll No - 23

Topic - Potentiometer
Principle & Working

Subject Teacher -
Signature

External Examiner -
Signature