Ed.

Roberto Greco & Leslie Almberg

Earth
Science
Education
Global Perspectives
 ROBERTO GRECO
LESLIEALMBERG 


   

 


 
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 Copyright © 2017 of the authors.
Reproduction of this book or parts of it is free for anybody if it is used for other means than
commer¬cial, and if cited the authorship. This permission does not apply to pictures that illustrates
this book.

Cover:
Matheus de Alexandro

Diagramation and layout:

Bruno Balota

Graphic assistant:
Larissa Costa

Editorial coordination:
Kelica Andrea Campos de Souza
Cássia Mara Ribeiro de Paiva
Simone Silva

Editorial assistant:
Carla Lima
Paloma Almeida

ISBN: 978-85-67952-14-7

Earth Science Education : global perspectives / organizado por Roberto

Greco e Leslie Almberg. – Pouso Alegre : IFSULDEMINAS, 2017.
355 p. : il.

ISBN: 987-85-67952-14-7

1. Educação. 2. Ciências da terra. I. Greco, Roberto. II. Almberg,

Leslie. III. Título.
 Index
Preface 9

Editors 11

Chapter 1
The IESO selection process: how Australia does it… 13
Greg McNamara and Bronte Nicholls

Chapter 2
The Austrian Landscape of Geoscience Education and the National
Selection Process for IESO 33
Sabine Seidl

Chapter 3
The System of National Selection and Student Preparation for
IESO in the Republic of Belarus 49
Nadezhda Ganushchenko, Iryna Vlodavskaya, Ludmila Shkel, Henryk Oziem,
Liudmila Fakeyeva, Alexander Zarubov

Chapter 4
Teaching Earth Sciences in Brazil 59
Sindynara Ferreira and Cleiton Lourenço de Oliveira

Chapter 5
The State of Natural Sciences Education in Bulgaria 69
Philip Machev

Chapter 6
Geo-education in Egypt between current and innovative 75
Kholoud Mohamed Abd El-Maksoud

Chapter 7
Earth Science Education in the Schools and Colleges of England 85
Chris King

Chapter 8
Teaching Geosciences in France: Linking Science and Education 101
Gérard Bonhoure and Mathieu Rajchenbach
Chapter 9
Earth Science in German Schools 113
Dirk Felzmann and Sylke Hlawatsch

Chapter 10
Earth Science Education and the National Earth Science
Olympiad for Secondary School in Indonesia 123
Hendra Amijaya

Chapter 11
Geoscience Education in Iran 131
Masoud Kimiagari and Maryam Abedini

Chapter 12
The Israeli Earth science education in schools 139
Nir Orion

Chapter 13
The teaching-learning of earth science in Italy 149
Susanna Occhipinti, Emanuele Piccioni, Lorenzo Lancellotti

Chapter 14
Involving Japanese students into geoscience and growing up them
to send IESO 163
Norihito Kawamura, Ken-ichiro Hisada, and Yutaka Takigami

Chapter 15
Earth Science Education in the State of Kuwait 171
Ibrahim A. Mohammed Ali

Chapter 16
Earth Science Education and National Selection and Preparation
Process for the International Earth Science Olympiad in Malawi 177
Yvonne Chasukwa Mwalwenje and Elyvin Nkhonjera Chawinga

Chapter 17
Earth Sciences Education from Primary School to University:
Case of Morocco 189
Ezzoura Errami, Nasser Ennih, Yamina Bourgeoini, Abdellah Lakhloufi

Chapter 18
Earth Science Education in New Zealand 207
Glenn Vallender
Chapter 19
Earth Science Education in Schools: Present Scenario and Future
Prospects in Pakistan 225
Saima Siddiqui, Safdar Ali Shirazi and Wajahat Majeed Khan

Chapter 20
Teaching Earth Sciences in Basic and Secondary Education
in Portugal 237
Jorge Bonito, Margarida Morgado and Dorinda Rebelo

Chapter 21
Introduction of Korean Earth Science Education and
Preliminary Process for Student Participants in IESO
(International Earth Science Olympiad) 263
Myeong-Kyeong Shin, Hyeong-Bin Cheong, Kiyoung Lee, and Gong-Soo Chung

Chapter 22
Russian Experience of Team Preparation for IESO 279
Marina Sinai, Marianna Kulkova and Eugeny Nesterov

Chapter 23
Current state of Geology Teaching in Spain 291
Amelia Calonge, David Brusi and Xavier Juan

Chapter 24
Earth Science Olympiad Competition and its Influence o
Geoscience Promotion in Sri Lanka 307
Ashvin Wickramasooriya

Chapter 25
Geosciences Education in Primary and Secondary Schools
in Turkey 317
Nizamettin Kazancı, Alper Gürbüz, Mübeccel Kazancı

Chapter 26
Earth Science Education in the United States 333
Mary E. Dowse and Sharon Locke

Chapter 27
Earth science education: the case of secondary school education,
general of Venezuela 345
Adriana Mercedes Camejo Aviles
 Preface
This book presents a huge and disturbing gap between the importance
of Earth science to the fate of humankind and its low status in schools
worldwide.
Nearly every chapter includes an impressive introduction concerning
the involvement of Earth Science in almost every critical component of our
life on Earth, underscoring how crucial this understanding is for the future
of humankind. Some chapters also highlight the central role that Earth Sci-
ence plays in developing high order thinking skills. It provides learners with
the ability to overcome cognitive barriers to spatial and temporal thinking,
retrospection, and understanding phenomena across scales of many orders
of magnitude, to integrate diverse subjects, and to develop the cognitive
capacity for systems thinking. These are the cognitive skills needed to de-
velop environmental insights. Thus, Earth Science can endow citizens with
knowledge and abilities to draw conclusions for effective and proper use
and conservation of energy, water, and other natural resources. Citizens who
understand their environment and its processes are better able to judge and
behave in a more scientifically aligned way. Moreover, a few countries pres-
ent substantial evidence-based data indicating that the Earth systems educa-
tional approach can fulfill its potential and, more importantly, how to do it.
However, as manifested by all chapters here, this great potential and the
knowledge to fulfill it is not echoed in educational systems around the world.
The profile of Earth Science education in schools internationally is low to
minimal. The findings of this 2018 collection of 27 countries is very similar
to a survey published in 2013 of 32 countries across the globe. The 2013 sur-
vey showed that geoscience is taught across the world mostly at the lower age
levels by general science or geography teachers who have a weak background
in Earth Science. Earth Science as an independent discipline for the high-
school level (16-18 year olds) only exists in a small number of countries.
Several chapters herein directly implicate a vicious cycle of ignorance
for this situation. This cycle hinges on the improper practice of Earth
Science education in most countries. As a result, many students leave the
school system with misconceptions and apprehensions about the relevance
of Earth Science to their lives and the importance of Earth Science educa-
tion. These attitudes help perpetuate the narrow perspectives of reduction-
ist education policy makers, including politicians, scientists, and educa-
tors. Consequently, we see no appreciable change in the Earth Science

9
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

status in schools and how it is taught. As a result, this vicious cycle contin-
ues for generations without any significant progress.
The International Geoscience Education Organization (IGEO) was
formally announced in 2000 with the main purpose to promote Earth
Science education at the school level worldwide. Changing the focus and
practice of Earth Science in school is a major mechanism of IGEO to fulfil
this objective. The International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) that was
the launched by IGEO in 2005, was thought to be a powerful tool to lead
IGEO towards meeting its objective. The primary function of IESO is to
inspire Earth Science educators to engage with state of the art teaching
strategies and techniques. It is expected that mentors take Earth systems
inquiry-based education ideas and practices back home and implement
them with school teachers in their countries.
The primary intent of IESO is to share, rather than compete. Un-
fortunately, messages throughout this book indicate that more than a de-
cade after initiation, IESO has had limited influence on the quality and
quantity of Earth Science education in schools worldwide, even in the
participating countries. It seems that the success of IESO to promote and
improve ESE in schools is limited, in part, due to many country’s misin-
terpretation of IESO’s main objectives and ethos. For many countries, the
competition is the primary driver to participate. Instead of focusing on
what can be learned from IESO or contributing to other countries, their
ultimate goal is medals. Thus, in most countries, schools are not involved
with the preparation process and without such teacher involvement there
is no chance to influence Earth Science education quality in schools.
Therefore, bridging the disturbing gap between the potential of Earth
Sciences and its low status in schools requires a genuine teaching culture
change in schools and even universities. Geoscientists should pave the way
for science education within schools through direct political engagement
and negotiation with ministries of education and indirectly through mass/
social media. Then, they should leave the door open for Earth Science edu-
cators with the knowledge and expertise to develop inquiry based Earth
Systems Science curriculum and implement it within schools. As many
countries lack experienced Earth Science educators, they should invite in-
ternational Earth Science education experts to work with local teams to
prepare them to lead national Earth Science education reforms.

Nir Orion

10
 Editors
Roberto Greco

Dr. Roberto Greco’s main interests are

in nature and learning process. He joins
these passions together in his activities as
an Earth science educator and researcher.
After years as a secondary school
natural science teacher in Italy and two
years at the Ministry of Education, he
moved to Brazil to work as an assistant
professor at University of Campinas. He
lectures on basic Earth science to geolo-
gy, biology and geography students and Earth science pedagogy for future
teachers. He supervises Master’s and PhD students undertaking research
devoted to preparing future generation for global changes.
He is involved in the international project Earth Learning Idea, previ-
ously coordinating translation into Italian and now into Brazilian Portu-
guese: http://www.earthlearningidea.com/
He trained the first Italian team selected for the International Earth
Science Olympiad (IESO), and helped train the first Brazilian IESO team.
He was the main organizing chair person for IESO 2011 in Italy and the
scientific commission chair of IESO 2015 in Brazil. In 2015, he created
the first Brazilian Geography Olympiad and in 2017 organized the first
Brazilian Earth Science Olympiad.
Since 2010 Dr. Greco is engaged in the International Geoscience Edu-
cation Organization, initially as secretary and now as chair. He is also the
South American continental coordinator for the International Association
for Promoting Geoethics (IAPG) since 2012. E-mail: greco@ige.unicamp.br

11
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Leslie D. Almberg
Dr. Leslie D. Almberg is an impassioned
Earth Science teacher with over 20 years
of field and lab-based geology experience.
Dr. Almberg gained a wealth of first-hand
experience with all things related to plate
tectonics in her training as a physical
volcanologist, experimental petrologist,
seismic data analyst, and research assis-
tant at the Alaska Volcano Observatory.
Her studies of volcanic conduits, degas-
sing processes, eruption dynamics, and late-stage alteration processes have
taken her around the globe exploring the Ring of Fire and beyond.
Dr. Almberg has worked with students and teachers extensively
throughout her education and career, earning accolades and recogni-
tion from students, institutions, and government bodies for her efforts.
In 2012, she was awarded a Citation for Outstanding Contributions to
Student Learning from the Australian Government Office for Learning
and Teaching.
In addition to her role as the Deputy Director for the Australian Earth
and Environmental Science Olympiad, she is currently the Teacher Earth
Science Education Program Coordinator for the state of Victoria, a board
member for the Australasian Universities Geoscience Educators Network,
and casual lecturer at Monash University. She is a contributing author
to the Earth Science Western Australia Year 11/12 Exploring Earth and
Environmental Science textbooks, and involved in the educational devel-
opment for the AusGeol.org virtual library of Australia project. E-mail:
lesliedalmberg@gmail.com

12
 Chapter 1

The IESO selection process: how

Australia does it…
Greg McNamara and Bronte Nicholls

Abstract

The Australian education system is spread across six states and two
territories. Each jurisdiction operates its own education and teacher regis-
tration system. A recently implemented national curriculum has, for the
first time, produced a relatively uniform approach to education, includ-
ing science education, across the nation. Using an Earth Systems Science
approach, Earth and space science forms 25% of the science curriculum
from Foundation to Year 10. Earth and Environmental Science is offered
at senior level – Years 11 and 12 – in four states and one territory.
The Australian Science Olympiad program is administered by Austra-
lian Science Innovations (ASI), a not-for-profit organisation. Registration is
open to all secondary school students, particular those in years 10 and 11,
to sit national exams designed to identify 24 of the most able students in
each of Biology, Chemistry, Earth and Environmental Science and Physics.
Each discipline trains up to 24 students at a residential Summer School
in January with staff employed by ASI. The Summer School programs are
roughly equivalent to a first year university course in each subject.
Summer School students are assessed for their academic skills and the
most able are invited to represent Australia at the respective Olympiad.
Students selected to represent Australia at the International Earth Science
Olympiad attend a further week of training in July.

Keywords: Australia, Earth System Science, IESO, Australian Sci-

ence Innovations

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

1.1 The Australian education system

1.1.1 History

Australia is a federation of six states and two significant internal ter-

ritories and is the only country on Earth to occupy an entire continent
(Fig. 1.1). Australia is the 6th largest nation by area on Earth but with
a population of approximately 24 million has a low average population
density. However, with the majority of inhabitants living in large cities
near the coast, rural and remote Australia is very sparsely populated and
major cities have population densities more typical of cities elsewhere in
the developed world.

Fig. 1.2 The structure of the Australian Curriculum - Science.

Source: Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.4

Following European settlement in 1788 but prior to federation, the

Australian continent was gradually divided into six self-governing British
colonies. On 1 January 1901, the colonies collectively became states of
the Commonwealth of Australia but each state kept the system of gov-
ernment and its upper house / lower house legislature that was in place
prior to federation with the federal government assuming responsibility
for overarching matters of national importance. The two internal terri-
tories, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory, have
different governance arrangements but are now effectively self-governing
and generally treated as states.Consequently, each state and territory is

14
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

responsible for administering its own education system and maintains its
own government department to administer the delivery of education, for-
mulate the state curriculum, employ teachers and allied professionals, set
the standards students must meet and the exams that they must sit. The
federal government also maintains an education department which aims
to provide quality learning outcomes for all students through the provi-
sion of education services to all stakeholders with a range of programs and
funding arrangements that reflect federal government policy (Department
of Education and Training, 2015).
Historically, each state and territory developed its own school cur-
riculum for preschool (now known as Foundation in Australia) and school
years 1 to 12. This eventually led to significant inconsistencies between
jurisdictions, although the curricula generally had similar standards and
content (Aussie Educator, 2016). There were numerous attempts through
the latter half of the twentieth century to solve the problems induced by
state to state inconsistencies via development of a national curriculum.
These attempts failed to win the support of all jurisdictions, often due to
minor regional priorities, hence each state and territory bureaucracy de-
veloped their own curriculum content and delivery models for most of the
time since federation.

1.1.2 The National Curriculum

The first decade of the current century saw a renewed interest from a
large number of stakeholders in the development of a national curriculum.
A national independent statutory authority, now known as the Australian
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (Australian
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, n.d.1), was established
to oversee the development of a national curriculum through liaison with
state and territory education departments, extensive consultation with all
stakeholders (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authori-
ty, n.d.2), and the employment of world class curriculum development pro-
fessionals (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority,
n.d.3). Writing the now fully adopted national curriculum took place over
several years, with the task divided into two sections: Foundation to Year 10
and Senior years (Years 11 and 12). Each section addressed both the over-
arching curriculum needs for each year level and the specific content to be
developed for each subject area in each year level (or a band of several levels);

15
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

34 learning areas and subjects in all (Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.1).

The Foundation to Year 10 Australian Curriculum recognises the central
importance of disciplinary knowledge, skills and understanding, general
capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities (Australian Curriculum v8.1,
n.d.2). The senior subjects build on this base through Years 11 and 12,
where much greater in-depth learning is undertaken.

1.1.3 School structures and the curriculum

The detailed structure of the Australian school system varies from state
to state but in general students commence formal schooling around age 6
and most students attend a preschool year. The preschool year, known as
Foundation in the National Curriculum, is the start of Primary School,
which encompasses Foundation and Years 1 to 6.
Secondary School commences immediately after Year 6 encompassing
Years 7 to 12. In some areas secondary schooling is divided between Year 7
to 10 school campuses and Year 11 and 12 senior secondary campuses. In
some rural and remote areas primary and secondary schooling takes place
in the one combined campus.
No matter how the Primary and Secondary schools are physically
structured, the Foundation to Year 10 curriculum is partly delivered in
the Primary School environment and partly delivered in the Secondary
School environment. This presents some challenges for teaching science as
most Primary School teachers do not have a strong science background.
Secondary School Science is, ostensibly, delivered by a teacher with some
formal university level training in science, although the majority of science
teachers have little or no Earth Science training at university level.

1.1.4 Teacher education and qualifications

Australian school teachers are usually trained at university by special-

ist departments delivering Bachelor of Education degrees. Some degrees
specialise in Primary or Secondary education, although some offer an F-12
degree that qualifies graduates to teach at any level.
Most students who enrol in a specialist Bachelor of Education (Prima-
ry) degree do not have a strong science background and most Bachelor of
Education (Primary) degree training in Australia does not focus deeply on
specifically teaching science. Bachelor of Education (Secondary) degrees

16
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

in Australia allow students to specialise in several subject areas including

science. This specialisation is further increased by advanced studies in a
discipline such as Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science or Physics. Gradu-
ates employed as science teachers usually teach the general junior science
classes as well as senior classes in their specialist area, although the number
of Earth Science specialists has always been much lower than Biology,
Chemistry or Physics specialists. The result is that many senior Earth and
Environmental Science classes are taught by science teachers without for-
mal qualifications in Earth Science.
Historically, science graduates have also entered the teaching profes-
sion through a one-year Graduate Diploma of Education. This route was
often followed by Earth Science professionals seeking a career change.
All degree and graduate diploma programs require students to spend
time on placement in the classroom with a supervising teacher. Once a
prospective teacher successfully completes all course work and placements
for the degree or diploma, they apply for teacher registration in the state
they intend to work in. New teachers initially obtain a provisional regis-
tration, which is only upgraded to full registration once they demonstrate
proficiency (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, n.d.).

1.1.5 Science in the National F to 10 Curriculum

Science is one of eight key learning areas within the National F to 10

Curriculum and is a subject in its own right (Australian Curriculum v8.1,
n.d.2). In the Primary School environment, the classroom teacher or team
of teachers in the school determine how the mix of eight learning areas is
delivered. Students typically receive all lessons in one non-specialised class-
room. In contrast, Secondary School teachers specialise in teaching science
and work to the curriculum within a timetable designed to deliver an ade-
quate number of student contact hours for each subject. Subjects requiring
specialist facilities, such as laboratories, are delivered in appropriate rooms.
The Science subject is structured around three strands: Science Under-
standing; Science as a Human Endeavour; and Science Inquiry Skills
(Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.3) (Figure 2). In a more traditional syn-
tax these strands might be called Content, Context, and Practical Skills.
The strands are interrelated and delivered in an integrated fashion. Some
states are more prescriptive than others about how subject content is de-
livered, but the classroom teacher or the team of teachers at each school
generally determine the overall subject mix and delivery methods.

17
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 1.2 The structure of the Australian Curriculum - Science.

Source: Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.4

Across all of the science content six key ideas are addressed: Patterns
and organization; Form and function; Stability and change; Scale and mea-
surement; Matter and energy; and Systems (Fig. 1.2). These key ideas are
designed to support the coherence and developmental sequence of science
knowledge within and across year levels (Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.4).
For each year level, Foundation to Year 10, Science Understanding
is divided into four equal areas of content or sub-strands: Biological sci-
ences, Chemical sciences, Earth and space sciences, and Physical sciences
(Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.5). Even though the content delivery is
at the discretion of the classroom teacher, working within state education
department guidelines, in each and every year Earth and space sciences is
designated 25% of the overall content of the Science subject.
Science teaching in Foundation to Year 10 is supported by a variety of
commercially available textbooks written for the Australian Curriculum.
Using these books in state schools is at the discretion of the state’s educa-
tion department, therefore, each state may prescribe a preferred textbook,

18
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

especially at Secondary School level. However, other schools may use dif-
ferent textbooks and all teachers use a variety of sources that help them
meet the educational outcomes required by the curriculum. The Australian
Academy of Science published a suite of Primary level inquiry-based units
that provide clear and practical teaching approaches in response to the
shortage of good quality support materials for Primary School teachers. It
includes comprehensive teacher advice and all student resources required
for classroom use (Primary Connections, n.d.). This is complemented by
an equivalent set of materials suitable for Secondary Schools (Science by
Doing, n.d.). All these printed and online resources are updated to meet
the new Australian Curriculum and all contain appropriate Earth and
space content for each year level.

1.1.6 Earth Science in the F to 10 National Curriculum

The Earth and space science sub-strand is concerned with Earth’s dy-
namic structure and its place in the cosmos. The key concepts developed
within this sub-strand are: Earth is part of a solar system that is part of a
larger universe; and Earth is subject to change within and on its surface,
over a range of timescales as a result of natural processes and human use
of resources (Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.3).
While the Earth and space sciences sub-strand is designed to encom-
pass all relevant material, it is inevitably a compromise. Hence, the depth
and degree to which materials are introduced to students is variable from
classroom to classroom and teacher to teacher. It is however well compli-
mented by the other sub-stands allowing students to have a basic under-
standing of key Earth Science concepts such as rocks and minerals, plate
tectonics and uniformitarianism, a basic understanding of the solar system
and planetary dynamics, as well as an appreciation of the scientific method
and how it applies to Earth Science and Astronomy by the end of Year 10.

1.1.7 Science in the National Senior 11 to 12 Curriculum

Historically, senior science subjects available in most secondary schools

only included Biology, Chemistry, and Physics. These traditional science
subjects, along with one or more mathematics subject, always paved the
pathway for students intending to study science at an Australian univer-
sity. A limited number of secondary schools in most states also offered

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Geology as a senior science but, even at the height of the mineral booms in
the twentieth century, it was never as popular as the three traditional sub-
jects because Australian universities did not set senior secondary Geology
as a Bachelor of Science degree entrance prerequisite, while subjects such
as Chemistry were. Additionally, university geology courses did not set
senior secondary Geology as an entrance prerequisite McNamara, 2012).
Since 1970, Geology as a senior subject progressively became less pop-
ular with students and most states discontinued offering Geology in the
senior years when student numbers and the number of schools teaching
the subject, dropped to impractically low numbers. This coincided with a
rise in the number of alternative science subjects that schools could offer
including Psychology and Environmental Science (McNamara, 2012).
Many states discontinued teaching senior Geology when they com-
menced teaching Environmental Science. This subject proved much more
popular with students, albeit with only a limited number of schools offer-
ing it and enrolment numbers significantly lower than in Biology, Chem-
istry, and Physics.
In Secondary School Years 11 and 12, science subjects are taught in
considerable detail and although in Australia they are most often seen
as a preparation for university the content level in each subject is nearly
comparable to many overseas first year university courses. This is reflected
in the content level found in the senior Geology textbook, Perspectives of
the Earth, produced by the Australian Academy of Science for Australian
schools in 1983 (Cook and Clarke, 1983).

1.1.8 Earth Science in the Senior 11 to 12 Curriculum

In the initial discussions on the Australian National Curriculum for

senior science subjects, it was proposed that a fourth senior science subject,
Environmental Science, be established. The proposed subject would be
written to complement, and be of equal weight to, the existing national
subjects, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics. At the time, New South Wales
was offering a modestly successful Earth and Environmental Science sub-
ject and Earth Science Western Australia (Earth Science Western Austra-
lia, n.d.1) had successfully worked with the Western Australian govern-
ment to produce a senior Earth and Environmental Science curriculum
that was proving very popular with students. It had generated a dramatic
reversal in declining student enrolments in Geology (Earth Science West-

20
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ern Australia, n.d.2) and provided the impetus for a variety of stakeholders
to lobby for the new national subject.
The lobbying was successful and the fourth science subject recognised
by ACARA became Earth and Environmental Science (Australian Cur-
riculum v8.1, n.d.6). This subject, a blend of traditional geology and en-
vironmental science subject matter, is a significant compromise for those
lobbying solely for a Geology or Environmental Science course, but it has
proved a winner with students in states that have adopted it.
Not every state follows the same approach as the national curriculum,
but in general the content and the aims are consistent across the nation.
At the time of writing, this subject has not been fully implemented
in some states and, in a departure from the full implementation nation-
wide of the F to 10 Curriculum, the states of Tasmania and Victoria have
decided to continue offering their Environmental Science courses and not
offer Earth and Environmental Science. South Australia will implement
a new Earth and Environmental Science course in 2017, which replaces
the existing Geology course (South Australian Certificate of Education,
2016). It is noted Victoria has recently rewritten its Environmental Sci-
ence course and the new version does contain considerably more Earth
Science content (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2015).
The Northern Territory does not currently offer either subject.
Senior level Earth and Environmental Science teaching is supported
by several purpose written textbooks with different jurisdictions using dif-
ferent books.
The Australian Earth and Environmental Science Curriculum takes
an Earth Systems approach and is divided into 4 units that are taught
over 2 years. In this context the term Environment encompasses terrestrial,
marine, and atmospheric settings and includes Earth’s interior. Environ-
ments are described and characterised with a focus on systems thinking
and multidisciplinarity rather than with a particular ecological, biological,
physical, or chemical focus (Australian Curriculum v8.1, n.d.7).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

1.2 The Australian Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad program

1.2.1 Background

Australia has participated in the International Biology, Chemistry, and

Physics Olympiads for several decades. This participation is managed by a
not-for-profit organisation, Australian Science Innovations (ASI) (Australian
Science Innovations n.d.1). ASI is funded by a mix of government and in-
dustry grants, partnerships, assistance in-kind and participant contributions.
In 2012, after the establishment of the National Curriculum Earth
and Environmental Science subject for senior students and the consoli-
dation of Earth and space science in the F to 10 Curriculum, numerous
stakeholders lobbied ASI to start an additional program to select and train
a national Australian team to compete at the International Earth Science
Olympiad (IESO). Coincidentally, ASI was renewing partnership arrange-
ments with a number of key stakeholders and in 2013 support was provided
through the BHP Billiton Sustainable Communities fund for all three ex-
isting programs plus the addition of a fourth program to select students for
Australian teams to attend the IESO. Additional funding came through
the Australian government Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate
Change, Science, Research and Tertiary Education. Start-up funding for
the Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad Program was also pro-
vided by the Australian Geoscience Council, a peak body representing
eight major Australian geoscientific societies with a total membership of
over 7000 (Australian Geoscience Council, n.d.).
In early 2014, ASI appointed a program director and deputy program
director tasked with establishing an Australian selection and training pro-
gram for Australian representation at IESO events from 2015 onwards.
The new appointees attended the 2014 8th IESO in Spain as observers in
this development process.

1.2.2 Student selection from the national pool

The ASI selection process for Biology, Chemistry, and Physics Olym-
piad students has operated successfully for many years (Australian Science
Innovations n.d.2). We decided to follow this model both because of its
historical success and the reduction in operational costs by extending the
volume of existing tasks performed by support staff rather than imple-
menting an entirely new regime.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The first step in the student selection process is writing a national en-
trance exam (Australian Science Innovations n.d.3). This two-hour exam
is designed to identify up to 24 of the most capable students from the
pool of students nation-wide who choose to sit the exam. Approximate-
ly1000-1500 students sit each exam for Biology, Chemistry, and Physics
every year. Consequently, the design of this exam is critical for selecting
highly capable students who can be further trained to compete well at the
International Olympiad level.
Given that:
a) senior Earth and Environmental Science is not a widely taught sub-
ject in any jurisdiction;
b) it is understood, at least anecdotally, that the Earth and space com-
ponent of F to 10 Science was somewhat ineffectively taught in many
schools; and
c) students in Year 12 are not eligible to compete at the IESO in the
following year,
it was determined that most students who might sit the national
Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad entrance exam would either
only be in Years 9 or 10 and have relatively poor Earth and space content
knowledge or be in Year 11 studying science but most likely not Earth and
Environmental Science.
These factors influenced the design of the Earth and Environmental
Science Olympiad entrance exam such that:
a) no Earth and space content knowledge beyond Year 10 curriculum
requirements could be assumed; and
b) it could determine a student’s ability to analyse and synthesise com-
plex information. Hence, the majority of questions were based on infor-
mation provided in the questions themselves and focused on thinking
ability rather than memory.
Although enrolment in the first Earth and Environmental Science
Olympiad entrance exam was anticipated to only be 200-300 students,
we decided that the questions needed to be extremely challenging to easily
identify those most able to think through and appropriately solve prob-
lems from a small pool of candidates.
Because the Earth Systems Science approach to teaching the subject is
used in Australia it was also determined that the exam questions should
represent a balance of the content as it is distributed across the spheres:
Atmosphere, Biosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and Astronomy. Con-
sequently, critical friends (external content and teaching experts) were in-

23
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

vited to review the exam questions to ensure they were scientifically valid
and set at a level appropriate to select highly capable Australian Year 9 to
11 students from those who would take the exam.
The structure of the 2 hour exam varies from year to year but gener-
ally consists of 20-40 multiple choice answer questions and 15-30 short
written answer questions. Unless otherwise specified, the multiple choice
questions are worth 1 mark each and the written answer questions values
range from 1-15 marks each. Multiple choice questions are answered us-
ing a pre-printed sheet that is marked by machine when returned to ASI.
Written answer questions are answered in spaces provided on the exam
paper and returned to ASI for marking by Earth and Environmental Sci-
ence Olympiad program staff.
The usual $10 ASI exam entrance fee was waived to encourage stu-
dents to sit the first Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad entrance
exam. Promotional materials sent to teachers also explained why students
with no senior Earth and Environmental should be encouraged to take the
Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad entrance exam. This material
focussed on our search for problem solving abilities, explaining that any
lack of in-depth content knowledge would be addressed by the subsequent
training from the Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad program
receive by selected students.
Teachers are responsible for managing Earth and Environmental Sci-
ence Olympiad entrance exam enrolments. They must register students
online and registrations can only be made by teachers. An enrolment
cut-off date is set several weeks from the examination day so that final
numbers can be determined and the appropriate number of exam papers
printed. The correct numbers of exam papers for each school are then cou-
riered to the teachers at each school managing the process. Students nation
wide then sit the exam on the appointed day supervised by their teachers.
Teachers then return all completed papers to ASI for marking.
The inaugural Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad entrance
exam in August 2014 (Australian Science Innovations n.d.4) identified 15
top students to invite to attend the intensive Summer School in January 2015
(Australian Science Innovations n.d.5). As this was the program’s inaugural
year, we decided to limit the intake to 15 students and the Summer School
program to 14 days (including travel to and from the venue). The 2016 intake
aimed for 24 students to attend a 17 day program. This is in line with the ASI
program for Chemistry and Physics and is to be the future standard Earth
and Environmental Science Olympiad Summer School intake and duration.

24
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

All students who sit the exam and return a completed paper receive a
certificate to acknowledge their outstanding effort. Students selected for
Summer School receive a gold medal and a formula is applied to the re-
maining results to award silver and bronze medals to the other highest
achievers. These certificates and medals are sent to the schools to present.

1.2.3 The Australian Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad Sum-

mer School

Students who top the exam are invited to attend the Australian Earth
and Environmental Science Olympiad Summer School (Australian Sci-
ence Innovations n.d.5). This is an intense training program held at the
Australian National University in January, during the Australian summer
school break between the end of Term 4 and the start Term 1.
Students who accept the Summer School offer are asked to financially
contribute to the program. In 2016 the fee was AU $1900 each. However, it is
ASI policy that inability to financially contribute is not a deciding factor and
they assist students facing financial hardship to find ways to cover these costs.
The Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad Summer School is coin-
cident with the Biology, Chemistry, and Physics Summer Schools and all
students and staff from all four disciplines live on campus in the residence
halls that are otherwise vacant for the summer. This creates a collegiate
atmosphere and simplifies the process management. Each discipline runs
a slightly different type of Summer School program but the aims of each
are essentially the same. To:
a) teach Summer School students high level science; roughly the
equivalent of first year university studies at an Australian university; and
b) select students from the Summer School cohort for the Australian team.
In Earth and Environmental Science this involves delivering a mix of con-
tent covering the basics students should have encountered in the F to 10
Earth and space science curriculum at school plus higher level materials.
The goal is to extend students’ understanding and knowledge to that of a
top undergraduate student at the end of first year university. Teaching is
conducted using a variety of styles by seven to eight staff members, sev-
eral of whom are qualified geologists and/or qualified teachers. Other staff
include current science postgraduates and undergraduates who are Sum-
mer School or Olympiad alumni. All senior staff are financially rewarded
for their efforts and alumni/student staff receive a gratuity. Travel, food

25
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

and accommodation costs of all staff are fully paid for by the program.
During the Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad Summer School
students work through lectures, hands-on practicals and field experiences.
Additionally, they receive lectures and practical instruction from interna-
tionally renowned Australian scientists and visit world famous laboratories
and institutions based in Canberra. They are constantly challenged by
new concepts and content that commences each day immediately after
breakfast and concludes several hours after dinner in the evening. Stu-
dents also face in-class assessments most days and given constant feedback
on how well they are progressing. Students have only one rest day around
the middle of the Summer School program. At the end of Summer School
students sit in-class final theory and practical exams.
The combined results of the final exams and other assessments are
used to determine the top students in the cohort.

1.2.4 Post-Summer School team training

The Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad Summer School

ends around January 22 and selected students are offered a place on the
team by mid-February. Students who accept the offer are asked to finan-
cially contribute to their ongoing training and attendance at the IESO. In
2016 the fee was AU $2400 each. However, it is ASI policy that inability
to financially contribute is not a deciding factor and students facing finan-
cial hardship are assisted to find ways to cover these costs. Previously, some
students have had some of their costs off-set by donations from profes-
sional societies and other groups.
Membership of all Olympiad teams is formally announced by ASI at a
special ceremony at the Australian Parliament House, Canberra, in June.
Team members are presented with a nationally appropriate blazer and
congratulated on their achievement by a senior member of the Australian
government, usually the Minister responsible for Education.
All Australian Olympiad students attend extra Olympiad-orientated
training prior to travelling to their respective Olympiads. Biology, Chem-
istry, and Physics training occurs during the short break between Term 1
and Term 2 in April or May allowing them to prepare for their Olympiad
events in July. However, because the IESO is held in August-September,
we determined the Earth and Environmental Science Olympiad training
is best set in the break between Term 2 and Term 3 in July. While this

26
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

creates a six month gap between Summer School and their team train-
ing, having a shorter period between the team training and the IESO is
regarded as a better option.
IESO team training involves a week long residential camp, based at
the Australian National University’s coastal campus, Kioloa (Australian
National University, 2015). During this camp, students gain valuable in-
sights into their studies because the spectacular location affords access to
world-class outcrops of a wide range of rock types at the interface with
coastal marine, estuarine, and freshwater environments. This provides
staff-mentors and students with excellent opportunities to discuss all as-
pects of Earth Systems Science while also spending time working through
past IESO exam papers and other challenging test materials. The location
also provides good opportunities for astronomy, weather permitting.
After the training week, mentors do not met with the students again
until they arrive at the airport to board their flight to the IESO. By this
time the four team members are comfortable communicating with their
mentors via email and telephone allowing additional training to occur
through these mediums. Mentors are, however, cognisant of the fact that
all team members are still fully engaged in their schools and one or more
of them will be in their final year of studies before attending university. It
is therefore very important that all staff and students involved in prepara-
tions for the IESO understand that the students’ school work and overall
wellbeing must take precedence over IESO training.

1.2.5 Outcomes of this selection process

There can be no doubt that the entrance exam does identify high abil-
ity students with excellent science skills and problem solving ability. These
students have good content knowledge in some science areas but not oth-
ers. Most students’ weakest area of content knowledge is in the Earth and
space sciences.

More often than not, the selected students’ understanding of Earth

Systems Science is limited. However, their ability to rapidly process new
information and use it to problem solve is not. Staff involved in the first
two years of the Summer School training to date are constantly amazed
by the ability of these students to meet the challenges put before them
and to then continue to learn and develop under their own recognisance.

27
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

These abilities are reflected in the Australian team’s results at the 9th IESO
in Brazil (1 gold and 2 silver medals plus 2 international team awards for
individual students). Hopefully this will continue!

1.2.6 Impact of the Olympiad program

At the time of writing the Australian Earth and Environmental Science

Olympiad program is in its third year. It is too early to determine if the
program has had any impact on student study intentions as they transi-
tion from Secondary School to university. However, the career outcomes of
students participating in the program will be monitored. It is expected that
some high ability students who have experienced the Australian Earth and
Environmental Science Olympiad program will include some Earth Science
in their undergraduate studies when they might not have done so otherwise.
It is also hoped some will even find an Earth Science career pathway!

References
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<http://www.aussieeducator.org.au/education/other/history.html>

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority n.d.1, accessed

June 10 2016, < http://www.acara.edu.au/default.asp>

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June 10 2016, < http://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum/consultation.html>

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority n.d.3, accessed

June 10 2016, < http://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum/curriculum_design_and_
development.html>

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.1, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/>

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.2, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/overview/structure>

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liancurriculum.edu.au/science/structure>

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.4, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/science/key-ideas>

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.5, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/science/curriculum/f-10?layout=1>

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.6, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/seniorsecondary/science/earth-and-environmental-sci-
ence/curriculum/seniorsecondary#page=1>

Australian Curriculum v8.1 n.d.7, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.austra-

liancurriculum.edu.au/seniorsecondary/science/earth-and-environmental-sci-
ence/rationaleaims>

Australian Geoscience Council n.d., accessed June 10 2016, < http://www.agc.

org.au/>

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, n.d., accessed June 10
2016 <http://www.aitsl.edu.au/registration/nationally-consistent-registration-of-
teachers>

Australian National University 2015, Kioloa Coastal Campus, accessed June 10

2016, <http://kioloa.anu.edu.au/>

Australian Science Innovations n.d.1, accessed June 10 2016, <https://www.asi.

edu.au/>

Australian Science Innovations n.d.2, accessed June 10 2016, <https://www.asi.

edu.au/programs/australian-science-olympiads//>

Australian Science Innovations n.d.3, accessed June 10 2016, <https://www.

asi.edu.au/programs/australian-science-olympiads/australian-science-olympiad-
exam/>

Australian Science Innovations n.d.4, accessed June 10 2016,

<https://www.asi.edu.au/programs/australian-science-olympiads/past-exams/>

Australian Science Innovations n.d.5, accessed June 10 2016,

<https://www.asi.edu.au/programs/australian-science-olympiads/australian-sci-
ence-olympiad-summer-school/>

Cook, B. J. and Clarke, I. F. 1983, Perspectives of the Earth, Australian Academy

of Science, Canberra.
Department of Education and Training 2016, Corporate Plan 2015-2019, The
Australian Government, accessed June 10 2016, <https://docs.education.gov.
au/system/files/doc/other/department_of_education_and_training_corporate_
plan_2015-19_0.pdf >

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Earth Science Western Australia n.d.1, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.

earthsciencewa.com.au/mod/resource/view.php?id=647>

Earth Science Western Australia n.d.2, accessed June 10 2016, <http://www.

earthsciencewa.com.au/course/view.php?id=38>

McNamara, G.C. 2012, Earth Science Education in Australian Schools: Where

have we come from, where are we now and where are we going? In: Abstracts of
the 34th International Geological Congress, Brisbane 2012.

Primary Connections n.d., accessed June 10 2016, <https://primaryconnections.

org.au/>

Science by Doing n.d., accessed June 10 2016, < https://www.sciencebydoing.

edu.au/>

South Australian Certificate of Education 2016, Earth and Environmental Sci-

ence Subject Outline, accessed June 10 2016, <https://www.sace.sa.edu.au/docu-
ments/652891/ae8b91cf-5db5-4f76-a4d4-570a288ffba7>

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015, accessed June 10 2016,

<http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/studies/envscience/envscunits1and2.aspx>

30
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Greg McNamara

Greg has a Bachelor of Science with First

Class Honours in Geology from Monash
University and a research-based Master of
Science in Geology from James Cook
University. While teaching undergraduate
Earth Science to both science and
education students at JCU, Greg became
interested in education and completed a
Graduate Diploma of Education through
JCU while managing the Earth Science
department’s collections and facilities and
helping CSIRO establish the North Queensland Science Education Centre.
After a two-year placement in Broken Hill managing the GeoCentre
Interactive Rock and Mineral Museum, Greg moved to Canberra to estab-
lish and run Geoscience Australia’s Earth Science Education Centre where
he ultimately managed the education program before starting a consul-
tancy in Victoria.
Greg has provided quality geoscience education and outreach advice and
products to national and international clients including Australian Science
Innovations since 2004. In addition to his role as Earth and Environmental
Science Olympiad Program Director, Greg is Executive Officer of the highly
successful Teacher Earth Science Education Programme. He is also editor
of GeoEdLink, the e-newsletter of the Australian Geoscience Council, and
GEOZ, the e-newsletter of the Geological Society of Australia. Australian
Science Innovations. E-mail: greg.mcnamara@asi.edu.au

31
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Bronte Nicholls

Bronte initially undertook studies in Nat-

ural Resources at the University of Ade-
laide, changing paths to pursue science
teaching through a university degree at
the University of South Australia. In
2003, her years of teaching and research
into science education in the field of
education led to her completing a
Doctorate of Science Education through
Curtin University, Western Australia.
Early in her career, Bronte was recognized for her dedication to geosci-
ence education and in 1992 was awarded the Australian Science Teachers
Association/ CRA Fellowship allowing her to travel to the United King-
dom to participate in the first conference of the International Geoscience
Education Organisation (IGEO) and to visit schools across the UK; she has
been a Senior Officer of the IGEO since 2003. She has travelled extensive-
ly, delivering academic papers about Geoscience Education and strategies
to reduce educational disadvantage.
She has held a range of non-school based policy positions with the
Department of Education and Children’s Services, SACE Board and fu-
ture SACE Office. The majority of her career has been in school-based
leadership positions in both non-government and government schools and
has been Director of Innovative Pedagogy at the Australian Science and
Mathematics School in Adelaide since 2010. Australian Science and Math-
ematics School. E-mail: bronte.nicholls@asms.sa.edu.au

32
 Chapter 2

The Austrian Landscape of Geoscience

Education and the National Selection
Process for IESO
Sabine Seidl

Abstract

The chapter elaborates on the status quo of Austria’s geoscience edu-

cation as well as the genesis of Austria’s participation at the IESO since
2012. Commencing with geoscience implementation in primary schools
(Sachunterricht) and in secondary schools (Geography and Economic Studies)
the article also examines how geoscientific content is split up among several
scholastic subjects throughout different academic years. In Austrian second-
ary education Geography was changed in 1962 to Geography and Economic
Studies to include economic issues in addition to geographic. This significant
change reduced the allocation for physical geography. However, major geo-
scientific content is embedded in the Austrian biology curriculum.
Next the Austrian IESO selection and preparation process is high-
lighted, including successful cooperation with sponsors and scientific in-
stitutions nationwide. The article closes with an examination of the new
national selection process in place since 2015 at Styrian High School in
Leoben. This school implemented a dominant geoscientific curriculum and
thus represents the national center for the Austrian IESO selection process.

Keywords: Austrian school system, Sachunterricht, Geography and

Economic Studies, geoscience high school in Leoben

33
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2.1 The Austrian School System

Austria offers a variety of school types. Table 2.1 provides a broad

overview of the entire Austrian school system.

Tab. 2.1 The Austrian school system (simplified)

Post-secondary courses University colleges of Universities of applied Universities
(ISCED 5B) teacher education sciences (ISCED 5A, 6)
(ISCED 5A) (ISCED 5A)

Secondary school leaving certification (Matura), Higher education entrance examination, Berufs-
VET diploma reifeprüfung

Age 14-18/19
Higher secondary
(ISCED 3A/3B/3C/4A)

Age 10-14
Lower secondary
(ISCED 2)

Age 6-10
Primary school
(ISCED 1)

Kindergarten
By courtesy of http://www.bifie.at

Kindergarten (age ~3 to 6) usually offers a bilingual pathway, ensur-

ing a first exposure to English or Slovenian (southern Austrian counties).
Subsequently, primary schools (age 6 to 10) also offer age-adequate foreign
language preparation (geoscience implementation at this age is addressed
in the next section).
In lower secondary education (age 10 to 14), students may choose be-
tween several types of secondary education with the focus ranging from
economic to technical, foreign languages or natural sciences. After lower
secondary education students may continue to attend (age 14 to 18 or 19)
the chosen school type or switch to another higher secondary education
institution. Higher secondary education offers the possibility to graduate
with A-levels.

34
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Upon graduating from high school, students have the option to choose
an academic career and attend university or a university college to graduate
with Bachelor’s, Master’s and eventually PhD degrees. Post-graduate studies
are very common in Austria and highly appreciated in all academic realms.

2.2 Geoscience Implementation in the School System

2.2.1 Primary School

Austria’s youngest students (age 6 to 10) learn about geoscience quite

early; in primary school they have a subject called Sachunterricht com-
prised of age-appropriate biology, chemistry, physics and geoscience con-
tent. Moreover, young students get a glimpse of economics and how the
world is connected by it, how a community works or how time, space and
technical issues affect their lives.
Children get to know their immediate geographic surroundings, with
all of Austria and the European Union included in the curriculum. Some
primary schools also offer practical work in natural scientific laboratories
to discover natural principals, weather, or other basic scientific phenomena.
A further important aspect of primary school curriculum is elabora-
tion on the connection between human beings and nature. Apart from
learning different landforms and water bodies, they reflect on environ-
mentally responsible living.
In primary school one teacher is responsible for all subjects in a class
(except for religious studies). Teachers earn a teaching degree from a Uni-
versity College for Teacher Education.

2.2.2 Secondary Education

Classic geography is taught by teachers with a university degree in Ge-

ography; they teach the Austrian school subject Geography and Economic
Studies. In secondary schools (age 10 to 18 or 19), geoscience education is
slightly differentiated depending on the school type. Specific to Austria is
the fact that after 1962 Geography was changed to Geography and Economic
Studies to include economic issues. Therefore, geoscience education is in-
cluded within the two main areas, geography and economics. This signifi-
cant change reduced space for physical geography within the newly created
subject. However, several geoscientific issues are found in the Biology curric-

35
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ulum (see Table 2.2). Geochemical content is a small part of the Chemistry
curriculum taught by chemistry teachers. Finally, astronomy, cosmology or
astrophysics are found in the Physics curriculum taught by physics teachers.
With the exception of the geoscience high school in Leoben, which
has a dominant focus on Earth sciences (HTL Leoben, Styria, http://www.
htl-leoben.at), the traditional high school curriculum is comprised of the
content outlined in Tab. 2.2. There are, however, slight variations in cur-
ricula among secondary school types, which are detailed for any Austrian
school at http://www.bmbf.gv.at:

Table 2.2 Subjects with geoscience-relevant content

Year Traditional high school curricula – abbreviated and summarized
Geography and Economic Studies Biology
(geoscience-relevant content only)
1 natural areas ecology of forests
working with maps, pictures and globes environmental protection
economic differences in selected parts of the
Earth
how resources and energy are claimed and
reclaimed
simple economic structures
global regularities of climate zones
2 natural areas forest ecosystems
living in metropolitan areas national hydrosphere
industry, facilities and enterprises
Earth as a living and economic space
Year Classic high school curricula – abbreviated and summarized

Geography and economic studies Biology

(only geoscience-relevant content)
3 living space Austria: landscape studies with
maps and other devices ecosystem soil and agricultural usage
evironment cycle of materials
living space coined by human beings
first insights into the working world
connection Austria-Europe
4 community Europe rain forests
centeres and peripheries of the world economy oceans
living in a world of varieties environment and pollution
globalization
environment

36
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

5-6 landscape ecology: zones of the Earth distribution of resources

how Earth can be divided into natural, cul- agricultural issues
tural political and economical points of views cycle of materials
natural areas bioplanet Earth: composition and struc-
population and society ture of Earth, geodynamics
people and economic needs development of Austrian landscapes
natural resources climate change, sustainability
diversity and unity: European Union
7 Austria: region, society and economy from Biology in year 7 only in highschools with
20th century to today focus on natural sciences
demographic development and sociopolitical
implications energy, traffic, tourism and sustainable
economic zone Austria developments
enterprises and professional orientation
8 globalization: chances and challenges No geoscientific content
political and economic systems
cities as living space and economic centers
money and currencies
Source: http://www.bmbf.gv.at

2.3 National IESO Selection and Preparation Process

2.3.1 History

In 2012 Sabine Seidl, head of the Austrian IESO Delegation, par-

ticipated in the IESO in Argentina as an observer. She gained valuable
insights there with respect to the organization, task selection, translation
and overall performance of an IESO. Financial support for Austria’s par-
ticipation in 2012 came mainly from governmental institutions.
From 2013 onwards Austria was able to front a national team (Table 2.3).

Tab. 2.3 Student participation and gender distribution. (* participants’ county of origin)
IESO Total participating Counties* Gender
students
Male Female
2013 3 Carinthia 1 2
2014 4 Carinthia, 1 3
Styria
2015 4 Carinthia, 1 3
Styria

37
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2.3.2 Scientific and organizational team

Peter Holub Initial coordination

University College of Teacher Education
Carinthia

Sabine Seidl Head of IESO National team| IESO

Mentor
University College of Teacher Education
Carinthia
Chemistry teacher

Bernhard Sallay IESO Mentor

Peraugymnasium Villach Austria
Physics teacher | Astronomer

Kirsten von Elverfeldt IESO Mentor (from 2014 onwards)| Alpen

Adria University Klagenfurt
Professor, Department of Geography and
Regional Science

2.3.3 Sponsorship

As expected, landing financial sponsors and infrastructural supporters

was a challenging undertaking. Eventually, meetings with governmental
officials and enterprises with geoscientific background launched in spring
and summer 2012. Intense talks and meetings followed to finally conclude
the entire financing and realization of Austria’s IESO participation. The
following institutions are now major supporters with respect to infrastruc-
ture, organization, and financing:

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38
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

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2.3.4 Selection Process

The initial national selection commenced by contacting geoscience

teachers across Austria by sending information folders to schools. Two of
eight Austrian counties were involved at that point. Since IESO participa-
tion was still a pilot project back then, we had to select from a small num-
ber of students. However, the selection process will expand to all counties
once the geoscience high school Leoben becomes the national selection
center from 2016 onwards.
Potential participants then submitted written applications elaborating
why they wanted to take part in the IESO selection phase. Pre-selected
students underwent a two-day selection phase called Talentecamp, orga-
nized by Landesschulrat Carinthia. On day one, students were asked to do
practical experiments and theoretical problems covering the entire range
of geosciences. The county museum Rudolfinum Carinthia and resident
geoscientist, Dr. Claudia Dojen, were in charge of that sophisticated and
well-organized selection phase (Figs. 2.1-2.4).
Day two consisted of intense work on hydrosphere and atmosphere
problems, again both practically and theoretically (Figs. 2.5-2.6). The sci-
entist in charge was Dr. Michael Lukas, geographer and chemist at geo-
science high school Leoben, Styria. The selection phase concluded with
written and experimental exams, which allowed definitive selection of an
appropriate national team (Figs. 2.7-2.9).

39
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Figures 2.1-2.4 Geosphere selection phase with Dr. Claudia Dojen, Landesmuseum
Rudolfinum Carinthia.

Figures 2.5-2.6 Selection phase for atmosphere and hydrosphere, with Dr. Michael
Lukas, geoscience teacher at HTL Leoben.

40
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Figure 2.7. IESO 2013 India. From left: Kerstin Kullnig, Tobias Jechtl, Naomi Lutskes
at TU Graz.

Figure 2.8 IESO 2014 Spain. From left: Sabine Seidl, students: Katharina Lachner,
Magdalena, Sara Roth, amRus. Mentor: Kirsten vonElverfeldt

41
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Figure 2.9 IESO 2015 Brazil, Austria team. From left: Sabine Seidl; students: Chris-
toph Gruber-Veit, Jasmine Pfeifer, Anna Rupp, Selina Lösch; mentor: Bernhard Sallay.

2.3.5 Preparation Process

After selection and nomination, students undergo rigorous prepara-

tions at national institutions spread out over the entire year prior to the
competition. This preparation phase remains unchanged from 2016 on-
wards. Several Austrian universities, museums and other geoscientific in-
stitutions are involved in that preparation phase (Table 2.4).

Tab 2.4 IESO scientific team. Institutions involved and responsible for scientific
preparation of the IESO national team. Blue: hydrosphere and atmosphere content;
green: geosphere content; red: astronomy content
SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS COUNTY SCIENTISTS IN
CHARGE
Alpen Adria University Klagenfurt Carinthia Dr. Kirsten vonElver-
Department of Geography feldt
geo.aau.at
Astronomy Society Carinthia Carinthia Bernhard Sallay, MSc.
avk.at

42
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Geo-Center ERKUDOK Gmunden Upper Austria Dr. Johann Weidinger

gmunden.ooe.gv.at
-BOEFTNVTFVN
3VEPMmOVN
,ÊSOUFO Carinthia Dr. Claudia Dojen
landesmuseum.ktn.gv.at
Technical University Graz Styria DI Gudrun Haage
Department of Geosciences Elisabeth Uhlig, BSc.
tugraz.at BSc.
Kathrin Hollersbacher,
BSc.
Ao.Univ.-Prof. Dr.
Dietmar Klammer
Natural Science Society Carinthia Carinthia Dr. Claudia Dojen
naturwissenschaft-ktn.at
University College for Teacher Education Carin- Carinthia Peter Holub, MSc.
thia Sabine Seidl, MSc.
ph-kaernten.ac.at Bernhard Sallay, MSc.
Regional Network for Natural Sciences and Carinthia Peter Holub, MSc.
Mathematics Carinthia
rnkaernten.at
Regional Network for Natural Sciences and Styria Peter Holub, MSc.
Mathematics Styria
imst.ac.at/rn_steiermark
ZAMG | Center for Meteorology and Geody- Carinthia Christian Stefan, MSc.
namics Austria Gerhard Hohenwarter,
zamg.ac.at MSc.

The IESO preparation comprised of theoretical lectures, interactive

geoscience learning, as well as inquiry-based practical experiments (Figs.
2.10-2.18). Most of these lectures, seminars, pre-seminars and experimen-
tal laboratory work were based on former IESO tasks. Results were dis-
cussed in a group session. On average each institution worked an entire
day with the national team:

Figures 2.10-2.11 Technical University Graz, Department of Geosciences.

43
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Figures 2.12-2.13 Center for Meteorology and Geodynamics Austria, Klagenfurt Airport

Figures 2.14-2.15 ERKUDOK Geo-Center, Upper Austria

Figures 2.16-2.17 Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt, Department of Geography and

Regional Science

Figures 2.18 Astronomical observatory Klagenfurt

44
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2.3.6 National Selection Center From 2016 Onwards

Dr. Michael Lukas, representing the geoscience high school in Leoben,

Styria, is confirmed to coordinate the national IESO selection process to
recruit potential students in the future. The goal is to recruit students from
all nine Austrian counties to draw from a bigger selection pool. Further
sponsorship and organizational support is accessed for this endeavor. The
former selection structures such as Talentecamp will, however, be incorpo-
rated into the new system.

As for the preparation phase, all scientific institutions mentioned will re-
main key institutions once the national team is recruited. It took a lot of ini-
tiative and meetings to get this network of scientists together ensuring high
quality training. At this point I want to thank the entire IESO scientific and
organizational team once again for their dedicated and hard work. Last but
not least, I have to thank Peter Holub who laid the project into my hands.

In conclusion, an increasing interest in geosciences is observed in Aus-

tria, especially with regard to sustainability, environmental and global is-
sues. Geography teachers as well as other natural science teachers continue
connecting the required curricula to cutting-edge geoscience topics, i.e.
smart phone industry and resources such as Rare Earth Elements.

The bottom line is that IESO provides a network and a modern motor
for a kaleidoscope of natural scientific projects and it has definitely become
an inevitable platform in Austria for promoting Earth sciences.

2.3.7 Media 2013-2015

Austrian daily paper kleinezeitung online about IESO in Brazil 2015:

http://www.kleinezeitung.at/k/kaernten/kaerntnerdestages/4836478/Kaerntnerin-
des-Tages_Anna-Rupp-ist-ein-echtes-Naturtalent

Weekly paper www.meinbezirk.at Sept 30, 2015:

http://www.htl.at/htlat/news/news.html?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%
5D=27144&cHash=a15bcbfde265f258f0f88c55f1eec64c

High school for geosciences in Leoben, Styria, school homepage:

http://www.htl.at/htlat/news/news.html?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D
=27144&cHash=a15bcbfde265f258f0f88c55f1eec64c

45
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Website of the Education authority Carinthia 2013 to 2015. Governor of Carin-

thia, Dr. Peter Kaiser, honoring the IESO national teams:
http://www.meinbezirk.at/klagenfurt/lokales/kaerntner-nachwuchs-naturwissen-
schaftler-raeumten-ab-d704892.html
http://www.mein-klagenfurt.at/aktuelle-pressemeldungen/pressemeldungen-sep-
tember-2015/kaerntner-schuelerin-holte-gold-bei-ieso-in-brasilien/

Online platform Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt:

https://www.facebook.com/geographie.klagenfurt/photos/a.251434741567480.6
2920.250094325034855/619688778075406/?type=3&theater

Geo-Center ERKUDOK, Upper Austria:

http://www.salzi.at/2013/09/erkudok-institut-als-trainingszentrum-fur-die-in-
ternationale-erdwissenschaftliche-olympiade-2013/

2.3.8 Print media

In all competition years print media provided wide coverage on Aus-

tria’s participants and thus promoted geosciences in the public.

***
References
used in a time frame between November 2015 and December 21, 2015:
www.bmbf.gv.at
www.bmbf.gv.at/schulen/unterricht/lp/gwk_ost_7034.pdf?4dzgm2
www.bifie.at
www.schule.at
www.ieso-info.org
www.talentecamp.at
htl-leoben.at

46
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Sabine Seidl

Sabine Seidl, MSc. (*1974, female) re-

ceived her Masters of Science Degree in
Chemistry from Karl Franzens University
Graz, Austria in 2001. From fall 2000 to
spring 2001 she worked at the University
of California San Diego School of Medi-
cine for her Master’s Thesis in the realm of
biochemical medicine. After that, she
taught Chemistry and English in Austria
until the present. From 2009 onwards,
she was a chemistry mentor for the Euro-
pean Union Science Olympiad (EUSO), responsible for the entire nation-
al training since 2012. She successfully participated in EUSOs all over
Europe. Since 2012, besides teaching her subjects, she has also worked at
the University College of Teacher Education (UCTE), with responsibili-
ties for chemistry teacher trainings. Next she launched Austria’s participa-
tion in the International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) landing finan-
cial, infrastructural and scientific partner institutions nationwide. In 2015,
Austria hosted the EUSO in Klagenfurt where she, together with Chris-
tina Morgenstern and others, represented the core executive organization-
al team. Also in 2015, she was nominated for her teacher training project
“A journey into the depths of a smartphone” at the Science on Stage Festi-
val in London. The project focuses on exploring the chemistry of smart-
phone components including addiction, problematic compounds, exploi-
tation of cobalt mining countries, and recycling. She now offers this
project at UCTE. University College of Teacher Education Carinthia Viktor
Frankl Hochschule. Hubertusstrasse 1, A-9020 Klagenfurt, Austria, +43 699
107 44 199. E-mail: sabine.seidl@ph-kaernten.ac.at

47
 Chapter 3

The System of National Selection and

Student Preparation for IESO in the
Republic of Belarus
Nadezhda Ganushchenko, Iryna Vlodavskaya, Ludmila Shkel, Henryk Oziem, Liudmila
Fakeyeva, Alexander Zarubov

Abstract

This article considers the Republic of Belarus’s national selection

process for participation in the International Earth Science Olympiad
(IESO). The main foci of preparation for participation in the IESO are
forming spatial reasoning skills and process knowledge, developing the
ability to apply knowledge in practice, and gaining experience using skills
in different situations. The main goal fostering students’ general ideas and
knowledge about the spatial peculiarities of geographic patterns of the
geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Participation experi-
ence shows the advantages and disadvantages of our general secondary
education system for training students.

Keywords: Geosphere of the Earth, Man and the World, Geography,

Physics, Astronomy

3.1 Introduction

The current procedural instructions for the national academic sub-

ject Olympiads determine the organization and conduct of the Geography
Olympiad for students and training Belarusian teams to participate in
international competitions1.
The main goals for preparing students to participate in international

1. Resolution of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus 20.11.2003 N 73 (as worded by
resolution of the Ministry of Education dd 13.09.2011, and 05.08.2014).

49
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

competitions are the following: to raise students’ interest in studying Earth

sciences; to develop their creative abilities, deepen their theoretical knowl-
edge and practical skills, and promote their self-realization; prepare gifted
students to continue their studies in institutions of higher education; to
encourage teachers to develop the abilities of gifted students; to revitalize
the work of interested associations; to entice researchers, teaching staff, and
graduate students to assist with educating and organizing students; and to
promote scientific understanding and develop students’ interest in science.

3.2 National selection process

In Belarus, the Olympiad progresses through four stages each aca-

demic year:
First stage – educational institutions;
Second stage – district (city);
Third stage – regional (Minsk city);
Fourth stage – final (national).

Each step of the Olympiad includes a theoretical, project/practical

(field and laboratory stages), and multimedia component specific to Geog-
raphy. Any participant of the final stage can participate in an additional
component in English, which includes a theoretical part and an interview.
At each stage of the Olympiad, a jury determines the winners from
among the members of the relevant stage. One team from each region and
the city of Minsk takes part in the final stage. Only the winners of the
third step are included into the team of no more than 15 people.
The jury for the final stage of the national Olympiad determines the
Republic of Belarus team members who will participate in the Interna-
tional Earth Science Olympiad (IESO). The National Institute of Educa-
tion at the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus organizes and
conducts training camps for the team’s candidates. In particular, it provides
accommodation, meals and training for participants while preparing for
the IESO according to the schedule for the team of the Republic of Belarus.
Most of the subject instruction at the training camp is given by teachers
from higher educational institutions in Belarus, in particular the Belaru-
sian State University. The Belarusian Geographic Society, a Non-Govern-
ment Organization, is also involved in preparing and motivating students.

50
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

3.3 Students’ preparation for IESO

The main emphases during training for participation in the IESO are
on developing an understanding of spatial relations and processes, devel-
oping the ability to apply practical knowledge, and gaining experience
applying practical skills in different situations. The overarching goal of
the training is to form students’ general ideas and background knowledge
of the particular expressions of geographic patterns within the geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
The ancillary goals of training are: developing sufficient knowledge to
perform practical work and deal with a variety of instruments and equip-
ment; improving abilities to use various sources of information about geo-
graphic objects and phenomena, to work from books, educational map-
ping publications, reference materials, study materials, electronic and other
information sources; to solve simple everyday tasks, as well as qualitative
graphic and design problems; gaining practical skills to navigate the ter-
rain, calculate distances using scales, determine geographic coordinates us-
ing a grid, and communicating the results; developing skills to characterize
physical and geographical features, to recognize common and distinctive
landforms; cultivating the ability to understand the essence of geo-ecologi-
cal problems of the geo-biosphere, their manifestation patterns and propose
possible solutions at global, regional and local levels; to establish the ability
to distinguish geographical aspects of global models, and generate strate-
gies for sustainable development for mankind and the Republic of Belarus.

3.4 Teaching Earth Sciences in the Republic of Belarus

The geographic patterns manifested in the Earth’s spheres (geosphere,

hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere) are studied within
such subjects as “Man and the World”, Geography, Physics, and Astrono-
my. Four comprehensive blocks: geology, meteorology, oceanography, and
astronomy are also studied by students.
In 2016-2017, a model curriculum was applied to determine the num-
ber of hours for students to study academic subjects. In 2015 the curricu-
lum underwent its annual review and approval process, to determine its
capacity to fulfill the basic education requirements (Table 3.1).

51
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 3.1 The number of study hours for subjects 2

Man
Subject and the Geography Physics Astronomy
world
Number V grade,
of hours/ 35 / 1 VI grade, 35 / 1
VII grade, 70 / 2
year/ VII grade, 35 / 1
VIII grade, 70 / 2
week VIII grade , 70 / 2
IX grade, 35 / 1
IX grade, 35 / 1
X grade:
X grade: XI grade:
Basic level, 70 / 2,
Basic level, 70 / 2, Basic level, 35
Advanced level, 140 / 4
Advanced level, 105 / 3 / 1,
XI grade:
XI grade: Advanced level,
Basic level, 70 / 2,
Basic level, 70 / 2, 70 / 2
Advanced level, 140 / 4
Advanced level, 105 / 3

The secondary education system of the Republic of Belarus provides

basic education aimed at the ethic, moral, and physical development of the
individual student. It is designed to prepare him for a full life in society by
mastering the basics of Earth sciences, honing mental and physical labor
skills, forming moral beliefs, and engaging in lifelong learning.

The general secondary education is comprised of three stages:

I stage – elementary education (I-IV grades);
II stage – basic education (V-IX grades);
III stage – secondary education (X-XI grades; in extension school – X-
XII grades, night classes – X-XII grades).
The I and II stages of general secondary education make up the funda-
mental education which fulfills the basic education requirements.3

The general nature of the Earth is studied at elementary school (I

stage) within the subject lessons of “Man and the World”. The focus of
the subject is to form an initial understanding of the Earth’s inherent at-
tributes. The concept of individual environmental education provides the
basis for its content. The principal ecology teachings are about the inter-
connectedness of nature in the greater context of the Earth as a whole.
At the V grade (II stage) the curriculum is focused on preliminary instruc-
tion to provide an grounding in the basics of Geography, Biology, and Physics.
The content includes three Earth science themes: “The Earth and the Uni-
verse”, “How People Discovered the Earth” and “The Nature of the Earth”.
2. Resolution of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus dd 12.04.2016 nº 24
3. Code of Education of the Republic of Belarus

52
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

While studying the subject, students are introduced to theoretical and

empirical evidence about the universe, celestial bodies of the solar system,
the place of planet Earth in the universe, and the movement and rotation
of the Earth. Due to the fact that Astronomy is studied only at the XI
grade, “Man and the World” is not an introduction to astronomy.
The structure of the section “Nature of the Earth” is a component-
based approach to learning. It aims to form students’ holistic view of the
nature of the Earth while studying its component spheres (atmosphere,
hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere). Developing students’ empirical
knowledge of the planet through personal experience and practice is the
prevailing pedagogy. The section includes 12 different observations of
phenomena and objects of nature and one excursion.
At the V grade students learn to find stars and constellations on the
atlas map and in the sky. They watch the position of the Sun change in
the sky, observe sunrise and sunset, mark the apparent motion of the sun
across the sky, and determine the phase of the Moon. They examine dif-
ferences between various geologic samples including chalk, sand, granite,
and salt. They also learn to work with a geographical map.
The study of Geography aims to develop students understanding of
objects of nature, Earth processes and phenomena, plus geo-spatial fea-
tures and their manifestations at local, regional and global levels.
Innovative key approaches to content delivery in Geography are:

- Using an integrated geographical approach, which takes into ac-

count logical interrelationships and interdependence of natural, so-
cial, economic and political structures, phenomena and processes in
the analysis of any region (e.g. a small local area, country, group of
countries, continent, or entire geographical environment);
- Taking a system-activity approach, represented by three com-
ponents: knowledge (comprehension), practical (skills), and opera-
tional (abilities);
- Developing students’ professional competence via basic geo-
graphic knowledge and practical skills application, which has rel-
evance in their lives and future careers;
- Adopting a cultural (value-oriented) approach, which allows
students to consider the geographic environment in light of human
achievements; it aims to develop spirituality, morality and humanis-
tic qualities of individual students.
- Emphasizing professional competencies and system-activity ap-

53
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

proaches to keep students motivated to acquire the basic knowledge

and skills that form the foundation of a geographical and cultural
world view, encouraging them to think geographically and consider
geography as one of the pillars of everyday life.

3.5 II level - basic education (V-IX grades)

In connection with the step by step implementation (from the 2015-

2016 school year) of the basic education requirements at the II stage, the
study of geography is different in target settings, content, forms and meth-
ods of organizing the learning process.
The key idea of the current geographical curriculum forms a basic mod-
el for a didactic process aimed at stimulating students’ cognitive activity by
including students in the educational process through reflective practices.
Involving students in debating the basis for understanding a variety of vi-
tally important practical situations and the development and promotion of
their reasoning capacity, to defend their view point without conflict. The
content is a single system of interconnected components that ensure the
continuity of the content, forms and methods of student learning activities:

- Geography: Physical Geography (Grade VI);

- Geography: The continents and oceans (Grade VII);
- Geography: Countries and peoples (Grade VIII);
- Geography: Geography of Belarus (Grade IX).

At the VI grade the study of geography becomes an independent aca-

demic subject, but students get necessary background knowledge at el-
ementary school and in the lessons of “Man and the world” at the V grade.
Physical geography’s main goal is to provide a view of the world as a
large natural complex, its structure, and the relationship of the Earth’s
spheres (lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere). The forma-
tion of key competencies is based on a system-activity learning approach.
The main purpose of studying continents and oceans is to form a geo-
graphic world view, through which students’ geographic thinking devel-
ops. Introducing comprehensive information about natural features on
our planet and separate regions provides the foundations for a sense of
personal responsibility for the current and future state of the environment
as a part of the planet Earth.
At VI-VII grades students learn to read maps and the landscape (to de-

54
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

fine objects by conventional signs, the parties of the horizon, azimuth, al-
titude, relative altitude, directions, distances, and their relative positions),
to use a compass, to determine geographical coordinates and directions,
to use a thermometer, barometer. The Geography of Belarus forms the stu-
dents’ integral geographical view of their country. Students study natural
conditions and resources, ecological features of the country’s natural and
economic potential.
At the IX grade students learn to draw and analyze climate charts,
graphs, and wind rose diagrams for the nearest meteorological station.
They calculate the dew point, the amplitude of the annual temperature,
and slope and discharge of river systems. They learn how to plot climatic
parameters diagrams and to use mapping skills.

3.6 III level - secondary education (X-XI grade)

Due to the introduction in the 2015-2016 school year of Field Specific

Education at the secondary education III stage, the study of geography
at X and XI grades is organized into two levels: basic and advanced. The
levels differ in their learning outcomes, number of subject study hours,
content, forms, and learning methods. The curriculum comprises a single
system of interconnected components to ensure continuity of content,
forms, and learning activity delivery methods.
“Global Problems of Humanity” is the culminating section of geo-
graphical education that integrates geographic understanding to analyze
the interaction and interdependence of the environment and humans, spa-
tial and temporal regularities of their dynamics and evolution, and knowl-
edge of the territorial organizational laws of nature and human society.

3.7 Physics Studies

The focus of Physics is on understanding material structures, the basic

laws of mechanical motion, conservation and transformation of energy,
the laws of heat, light and electromagnetic phenomena (VII-IX grades);
the basic laws of electrodynamics, thermodynamics, and statistical, quan-
tum and nuclear physics (X-XI grades). Important components of these
courses are: developing the ability to apply knowledge to explain natural
phenomena, processes, and physical properties of substances; the practical
application of physical knowledge in everyday life; understanding the role
of physics in developing modern technologies to solve critical problems

55
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

facing humanity, and in creating conditions for safe human life and soci-
ety. Forming students’ skills for solving key practical tasks using physics
principles in the areas of environmental management and protection, and
human health and safety is an important part of the content.
The mandatory curriculum content required at each level of prepara-
tion are summarized as: physical methods for natural phenomena inves-
tigation; physical objects and interaction patterns between them; physical
aspects of human life.
At VII grade students practice: making measurements using instru-
ments and discipline specific equipment (e.g. ruler, tape measure, mea-
suring glass/cylinder, stopwatch, thermometer, scales); determining scale
intervals and measurement limits; measuring the distance, size and mass
of bodies, areas, volumes of liquids and solids of different shapes and vessel
capacity, time, and temperature; determining substance density using the
relationship between volume and mass; measuring the average speed of
uneven body motion and frictional forces; graduating a spring dynamom-
eter; using devices (barometers and manometers) to measure pressure; and
expressing measurement results in SI units and millimeters of mercury.
At the VIII grade students use devices (thermometer, calorimeter)
to measure physical quantities: temperature, heat quantity, specific heat.
They also solve simple everyday tasks such as: calculating the cost of elec-
tricity consumed by household appliances to find ways to save electricity,
assessing the current strength in connecting wires when heaters are on,
and meeting safety standards when using electrical appliances.
At IX-X grades students learn to solve qualitative, graphical and design
problems, and evaluate the relationship between a vehicle’s velocity and
stopping distance. They explore electricity and magnetism using multi-
function electrical measuring devices to measure EMF and internal resis-
tance, depict the magnetic field graphically, and determine the direction
of the magnetic field, Ampere and Lorentz forces.

3.7 Astronomy Studies

Astronomy draws on the most fundamental laws of nature, which

form the basis for the Science education curriculum, necessitating an in-
terconnection between teaching astronomy, physics, geography, chemis-
try, biology, and mathematics. The main difficulty in preparing students
for the IESO is the fact that Astronomy is only formally introduced as a
stand-alone subject at the XI grade.

56
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The study of astronomy allows students to apply their analytical skills

gained through their physics and mathematical preparation by using al-
most all of the concepts and laws studied in these other academic subjects.
Since astronomy is studied in the final stage of education, it is impossible
to base work in this subject on students’ prior knowledge while training
for the IESO. Numerous skills required for the IESO are only acquired by
students at the XI grade, such as: determining the visibility of stars (con-
stellations), the Sun, or the Moon on a given date and time via a mobile
star chart; finding the brightest stars (e.g. Sirius, Arcturus, Vega, Antares,
Betelgeuse, Rigel, the North Star, etc.) and constellations in the sky; using
a star chart to read the coordinates of stars and indicating the position of
the celestial object using the given coordinates; solving problems using the
relationships between the latitude of the observation site with the celes-
tial body’s azimuth; having practical skills to orientate within the terrain
via the sun, moon and stars; solving problems using formulae linking the
synodic and sidereal periods of planets, Kepler’s laws and the universal
law of gravitation; and applying practical skills working with small optical
telescopes. This is a serious drawback of the system.

3.8 Conclusion

Students begin studying the Earth’s spheres in the V grade with an

introduction to geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy. The
essentials of objects and phenomena of nature, the universe, its structure,
features of the motion and rotation of the Earth are included in the V class
studies. At the VI grade, the concept of the geosphere is introduced and
its components are studied at theoretical and empirical levels of individual
continents and countries. The study of physics begins at the VII grade. The
content of the subject logically fits into the system of students’ previously
acquired knowledge and skills. Astronomy knowledge, which is necessary
to participate in the IESO, is only introduced at the XI grade, which is a
serious drawback. Therefore, teachers in the training camp approach the
necessary knowledge and skills in this field with almost no reliance on pre-
vious learning. The experience of the Republic of Belarus teams in IESO
has shown that the student selection system and their further training is
rather effective. Over previous years, Belarus has been rather successful in
this competition. However, it should be noted that participants represent-
ing the Republic of Belarus at future international competitions can strive
for improvements on certain points.

57
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

References
Учебные программы по учебным предметам для
учреждений общего среднего образования с
белорусским (русским) языком обучения X класс
(базовый уровень). – Минск : НМУ “Национальный
институт образования”, 2015. – 296 с.

Учебные программы по учебным предметам для

учреждений общего среднего образования
с белорусским (русским) языком обучения
X класс (повышенный уровень). – Минск : НМУ
“Национальный институт образования”, 2015. – 246 с.

Учебные программы по учебным предметам для

учреждений общего среднего образования
с белорусским (русским) языком обучения V
класс. – Минск : НМУ “Национальный институт
образования”, 2015. – 222 с.

Учебные программы по учебным предметам для

учреждений общего среднего образования с
белорусским (русским) языком обучения XI класс
(базовый уровень). – Минск : НМУ “Национальный
институт образования”, 2016. – 284 с.

Учебные программы по учебным предметам для

учреждений общего среднего образования
с белорусским (русским) языком обучения
XI класс (повышенный уровень). – Минск : НМУ
“Национальный институт образования”, 2016. – 221 с.

Учебные программы по учебным предметам для

учреждений общего среднего образования
с белорусским (русским) языком обучения VI
класс. – Минск : НМУ “Национальный институт
образования”, 2016. – 218 с.

58
 Chapter 4

Teaching Earth Sciences in Brazil

Sindynara Ferreira; Cleiton Lourenço de Oliveira

Abstract

Teaching in Brazil was restructured after the end of the military dic-
tatorship in the 1980s. Previously, teaching that had a professional line
secured by law, came to be treated as scientific, technological, philosophi-
cal and artistic. Now Earth Sciences are taught from the first stage of
elementary school, when it is encompassed within the discipline of science,
followed by second phase of elementary school, when it becomes more spe-
cific within Geography and other interdisciplinary areas. Finally, in high
school the same subjects are approached in greater depth. High school
may be integrated into technical education. For example, the Federal In-
stitute of Education, Science and Technology, from South of Minas Gerais
State, Campus Inconfidentes offers high school integrated with technical
courses, such as Agricultural and Surveying, which have a direct focus on
Earth Sciences, both in high school and in technical education, focusing
on the origin and formation of soils, organic matter, fertility, etc. In ad-
dition to the integrated technical courses, they also offer undergraduate
courses in Agricultural Engineering, Degrees in Biological Sciences, Sur-
veying and Cartography Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Envi-
ronmental Management, etc. that incorporate work topics directly related
to Earth Sciences curriculum. Earth sciences are taught in Brazil using an
interconnected approach, recognizing that the interdisciplinary nature of
these activities. Earth Sciences topics are treated comprehensively and, at
the same time, specifically within each of the disciplines that involve basic,
technical or undergraduate student training.

Keywords: Brazil; Earth Science Teaching; Technical High School

Integrated.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

4.1 Teaching of Earth Sciences in Brazilian schools: A brief national

history

In Brazil, education has always been a prominent theme in every gov-

ernment. The transition from military dictatorship to civilian democracy,
brought to education some modifications that came naturally. The social
movements in Brazil during the 1980s were very important to the pro-
posed educational changes, which contributed to the draft of the new Bra-
zilian Constitution (BRAZIL, 1988). This action clarified that education
is a social right of citizens. As Brazil is a federation of States, the Union’s
responsibility is related to the guidelines and bases of education, and the
State along with the family, are responsible to encourage the cooperation
of society, seeking development the total person, their preparation for the
exercise of citizenship and their qualification for work.
The professional courses under the Brazilian Law of National Educa-
tion Guidelines and Bases from 1971 (LDBEN No 5692/71), that aimed
to unify the old primary and secondary education, eliminating the differ-
ences among the agricultural, industrial, commercial and regular areas,
were gradually being replaced by high school “science”, resulting in con-
tents changing from strictly technical to more scientific, technological,
philosophical, and artistic.
To ensure a minimum standard of quality and equity in education, the
Guidelines and Bases National Education Law was enacted (LDBEN No.
9.394 / 96), adopted on December 20th, 1996, which consolidates and ex-
tends the government’s duty to education. This law reinforces, among other
demands, the need to provide a common basic education to all students.
The law 13.415 / 2017 proposed some changes in the Law No. 9.394 /
96, one of them being the change in the rights and objectives of second-
ary education, following the areas of knowledge: I - languages and their
technologies; II - mathematics and its technologies; III - natural sciences
and their technologies; IV - applied human and social sciences. It is note-
worthy that Law 9394/96 has other changes, however this chapter does
not pretend to exhaust the possibilities of reading and analysis of laws.
The content for this basic training was outlined in the National Cur-
riculum Parameters (PCNs in Portuguese), which presupposed the for-
mulation of guidelines for the curriculum and their minimum content. In
addition to the PCN, the LDBEN indicated that a more precise definition
of the basic content would occur in the National Education Plan (PNE
in Portuguese). This was accompanied by an assessment proposal to assess

60
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

whether those goals were being met. This review is an integral part of the
first PNE 2001 (Law 10.172 / 01), which officially aims to promote institu-
tional management efficiency through curriculum revision and competi-
tiveness triggered by an external evaluation process.
In Brazil, the free education guaranteed by the current legislation is di-
vided between primary and secondary education. Elementary school is di-
vided into two stages, the first encompassing the 1st to 5th years after the
pre-school, and the second for 6th to 9th grade. From the second stage of
elementary school, disciplines are taught by specialist teachers in different
core subjects addressed, proceeding this way until the end of high school,
that constitutes the final three-year period. Additionally, there is also high
school integrated into technical education, where there is additional voca-
tional training, which allows students to prepare for professional work in sev-
eral areas. Following on from this, we address the means and peculiarities of
how Earth Sciences are approached in elementary and high schools in Brazil.
The science teaching is inserted into a continuous historical, social
and cultural process context, in which the knowledge gained makes sense
for students as they contribute effectively to understand, explain and in-
tervene in the world in which they live. Thus, “Earth Sciences” content is
included in the “Natural Sciences”, as addressed in elementary schools,
and it is treated in an interdisciplinary way in all knowledge areas, hence
it is a transversal theme. Moreover, this area that is broadly called “Sci-
ence” in high schools, is distributed into Biology, Physics, Geography, and
Chemistry curricular components. (BNCC, 2015b).
For the initial elementary school years (1st to 5th grade), education
is generally provided by a single teacher with a undergraduate degree,
preferably in Education. In the elementary school second stage (6th to
9th grade) and high school, due to the interdisciplinarity of the content,
natural sciences disciplines require teachers trained for this purpose. These
teachers should have specific training involving undergraduate courses,
such as biology, chemistry, geography, and physics. In absence of qualified
teachers, it is possible to consider those with backgrounds such as Phar-
macy, Physiotherapy, Medicine, among others courses with a sufficient
sciences component in their curriculum.
Currently the school curriculum of Minas Gerais State follows the
Common Basic Contents guidelines (CBC in Portuguese), which were
implemented in public schools of Minas Gerais since 2005, by Resolution
from the State Education Secretary (SEE, in Portuguese) and No. 666 of
April 7, 2005. Officially, CBC’s function is to provide a minimum basic

61
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

content to students, regardless of the region where the school is located. As

well as the PCNs of the Ministry of Education (MEC in Portuguese), the
CBC provides access to established knowledge and recognized expertise
that are necessary for all citizens.
In the early elementary school years, content is treated using an in-
terdisciplinary approach, allowing issues related to Earth Sciences to be
integrated into geography, science, and history. The content covered in
these disciplines is established in accordance with the CBC using a com-
prehensive approach at this stage, initially through concepts introduction,
followed by deepening then consolidation. The science discipline thematic
areas are: Environment and Life; Human Health and Body; Earth and
Universe; Technology and Society. Geography themes included are: Ev-
eryday Geography; Cartography; The Nature and Dynamics: Natural and
Cultural Landscape; Means of Movement: Transportation and Commu-
nication; The Minas Gerais State in the Brazilian Territory. Finally, the
lines in the history of the disciplines include: Historical Subject; Life in
Society; Historical Time; Historical Source.
Earth Science content is worked into geography during the final years
of primary school, in accordance to the CBC, through the themes: Ge-
ographies of Everyday Life; Sociodiversity of the Landscapes and its Spa-
tial-Cultural Manifestations; Globalization and Regionalization in the
Modern World; Environmental and Planetary Citizenship. In the Science
disciplines, the working themes are: Environment and Life, Human Body
and Health; Building Designs. In History, the working subjects are: Life
Stories, Population Diversity and Migration; Construction of Brazil: Ter-
ritory, State and Nation; Nation, Work and Citizenship in Brazil.
The Earth Science content offered in Brazilian high schools is encom-
passed within Geography. The themes, according to the CBC are: Urban
Problems and Prospects; Rural World Changes; Natural World Muta-
tions; Globalization and Fragmentation Scenarios. Some topics are also
included in Biology in subjects such as Energy and Biodiversity, and in
Chemistry in subjects such as Material Properties; Materials Constitution
and Organization, and Energy Involved in Material Transformations.
In 2015 the Brazilian Federal Government along with the Ministry
of Education designated the Common National Base Curriculum Proj-
ect (BNCC in Portuguese), which involves the construction of students’
knowledge and basic skills for further studies in all Brazilian schools. The
implementation of this project aims to improve the teaching-learning pro-
cess. It was proposed after examining the need for a common curriculum
through the results of large-scale assessments proposed by LDBEN and

62
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

PNE, promulgated in 2014, by Law 13005 / 2014, which reiterates the

need to preserve learning rights and objectives and students for each year of
Elementary and High School, respecting regional, state and local diversity.
The BNCC officially ensures that the objectives provided by law, along
with the students’ requisite foundations are effectively met by schools
through a common curriculum, so all students have knowledge based on
the same opportunities, reducing educational inequality. Therefore, students
who transfer between educational units are not adversely affected and may
continue their studies in any city, in any Brazilian state (BNCC, 2017).
The BNCC described a compulsory national curriculum for all Brazil-
ian states. Specifically for teaching natural sciences, including the Earth
Sciences, the essential learning aims of this curricular component were or-
ganized in three thematic units that are repeated throughout Elementary
School: Matter and Energy; Life and Evolution; Earth and Universe. The
last one is the theme that deepens the teaching of Earth Sciences as stated:

“The students of the early years are easily interested in celestial objects,
much because of the exploration and valuation of this subject by the
media, toys, cartoons and children’s books (...) The systematization of
these observations and the proper use of systems of reference allow the
identification of phenomena and regularities that have given humanity,
in different cultures, greater autonomy in the regulation of agriculture,
in the conquest of new spaces, in the construction of calendars, etc.
In the final years, there is an emphasis on the study of soil, biogeo-
chemical cycles, terrestrial spheres and interior of the planet, climate
and its effects on Earth life, so that students can develop a more sys-
temic view of the planet based on principles of social and environmen-
tal sustainability” (BNCC, 2017, page 326).

In accordance with BNCC, Geographical reasoning will favor exercis-

ing spatial thinking, as it applies principles to understand fundamental as-
pects of reality: the location and distribution of facts and phenomena on
the Earth’s surface, territorial ordering, and existing connections between
natural-physical and anthropogenic actions (BNCC 2017, page 357). It is
worth mentioning that it will encompass five thematic units: the subject and
his/her place in the world; connections and scales; world of work; forms of
representation and spatial thinking; nature, environments and life quality.
Therefore, in Brazil, knowledge acquisition and development of atti-
tudes and values grows from interdisciplinary teaching, incorporating all
areas of knowledge.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

4.2 Teaching Earth Sciences in IFSULDEMINAS – Campus

Inconfidentes

Earth Sciences teaching at the Federal Institute of Education, Science

and Technology from South of Minas Gerais State, Inconfidentes Campus
(IFSULDEMINAS - Campus Inconfidentes) is presented here as an exam-
ple. IFSULDEMINAS is a high school integrated into full-time technical
teaching college, with professionals training in Agriculture, Surveying,
Computer Science, and Food Science, as well as undergraduate courses
in Agricultural Engineering, Surveying and Cartographic Engineering,
Food Engineering, Degree in Biological Sciences and Mathematics, En-
vironmental Management Technology and Computer Networks. The
Inconfidentes Campus also offers general post-graduate degrees in Early
Childhood Education and Environmental Management.
The Inconfidentes Campus has as mission to promote excellence in
vocational and technological education, at all levels, forming critically
thinking, creative, competent and humanist citizens, coordinating teach-
ing, research and extension, contributing to the sustainable development
of the South of Minas Gerais State. In this sense, the Inconfidentes Cam-
pus uses integrated methods for Earth Sciences (or Geosciences) teaching,
encompassing different disciplines.
The IFSULDEMINAS - Inconfidentes Campus is based on provisions
of the Law of Directives and Bases of Brazilian Education (LDBEN No.
9.394 / 96 and alterations), and complemented in the changes introduced
by the Law nº 11.741 / 2008 (BRASIL, 2008). The Campus offers techni-
cal courses integrated in modulation to high school as the final phase of
students’ basic training and preparation for the work force and/or further
study. Earth Sciences teaching in high school cross cuts multiple disciplines,
such as biology, geography, chemistry, physics, mathematics, history, sociol-
ogy, and others. Through this technical education, we show that almost all
disciplines within the Sciences are included within the Earth Sciences, such
as the Technical Course in Agriculture Integrated to High School or Tech-
nical Course in Environment. The integrated technical courses show the
possibility for promoting the fundamental formation of the person, precisely
because it allows a holistic view of technical and humanistic knowledge.
Earth Science content is widely spread across the diff erent schools
levels. For secondary schools, it is important to mention the schools that
have special programs with additional schools hours. Ifsuldeminas is an
example of this kind of school, which is characterized by the wide range
of laboratory facilities and tools instructors may use for practical activi-

64
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ties with students. These additional learning provisions support students’

preparations to become good professionals in their field of expertise or
continue their learning at university level.
It is worth mentioning that are many projects of teaching, research,
extension and innovation focused on Earth Sciences, providing human
resources with the applicability of sustainable techniques, focusing on
the quality of life. There are also several national actions implemented
in parallel to promote teaching and learning in this area of the scientific
olympiads, such as the Brazilian Agricultural Olympiad (OBAP), the Bra-
zilian Olympiad of Earth Sciences (OBCT) with the Brazilian Geography
Olympiad, the Geo-Brasil Olympiad (OGB), Olympiad of Knowledge,
among others, within which IFSULDEMINAS participates effectively
whenever possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank everyone who, in some way, contrib-
uted to this work.

References
BNCC. Base Nacional Comum Curricular: educação é a base. Disponível em:
< http://basenacionalcomum.mec.gov.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/BNCC_
EI_EF_110518_versaofinal_site.pdf>. Accessed
28 October 2018.

BRASIL. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988. Disponível

em: <http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituicao.htm>.
Accessed 5 December 2015.
BRASIL. Lei nº 13.415, de 16 de fevereiro de 2017. Altera as Leis nos 9.394, de
20 de dezembro de 1996, que estabelece as diretrizes e bases da educação nacio-
nal, e 11.494, de 20 de junho 2007, que regulamenta o Fundo de Manutenção
e Desenvolvimento da Educação Básica e de Valorização dos Profissionais da
Educação, a Consolidação das Leis do Trabalho - CLT, aprovada pelo Decreto-
Lei no 5.452, de 1o de maio de 1943, e o Decreto-Lei no 236, de 28 de fevereiro
de 1967; revoga a Lei no 11.161, de 5 de agosto de 2005; e institui a Política
de Fomento à Implementação de Escolas de Ensino Médio em Tempo Integral.
Acessed 28 October 2018.

BRASIL. Lei nº 10.172 de 9 de janeiro de 2001. Aprova o Plano Nacional de Edu-

cação. Disponível em: < http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/leis_2001/
l10172.htm>. Acessed 28 October 2018.

65
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

BRASIL. Lei nº 13.005, de 25 de junho de 2014. Aprova o Plano Nacional de Edu-

cação - PNE e dá outras providências. Disponível em: <http://www.planalto.gov.
br/ccivil_03/_Ato2011-2014/2014/Lei/L13005.htm>. Acessed 28 October 2018.

BRASIL. Plano Nacional de Educação. Disponível em: <http://www.planalto.

gov.br/CCIVIL_03/_Ato2011-2014/2014/Lei/L13005.htm >. Accessed 7 De-
cember 2015.

BRASIL. Secretaria de Educação Fundamental. Parâmetros curriculares nacio-

nais: Ciências Naturais. Brasília: MEC/SEF, 1998. 138 p. Disponível em: <http://
portal.mec.gov.br/seb/arquivos/pdf/ciencias.pdf>. Accessed 8 December 2015.

BRASIL. Lei nº 11.741, de 16 de julho de 2008. Altera dispositivos da Lei nº

9.394, de 20 de dezembro de 1996, que estabelece as diretrizes e bases da edu-
cação nacional, para redimensionar, institucionalizar e integrar as ações da edu-
cação profissional técnica de nível médio, da educação de jovens e adultos e da
educação profissional e tecnológica. Disponível em: <https://www.planalto.gov.
br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2008/lei/l11741.htm>. Accessed 28 October 2018.

LDBEN nº 5692/71. Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional de 1971.

Disponível em: <http://www010.dataprev.gov.br/sislex/paginas/42/1971/5692.
htm>. Accessed 28 October 2018.

LDBEN nº 9.394/96. Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional de 1996.

Disponível em: <http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Leis/L9394.htm>. Ac-
cessed 28 October 2018.

MINAS GERAIS. Secretaria de Estado de Educação. Resolução SEE n.

666/2005. Belo Horizonte, 2005. Disponível em: <http://www.casacivil.mg.gov.
br/Sistemas/LegislacaoCompleta.aspx?cod=43021>. Acessed 28 October 2018.

Cleiton Lourenço de Oliveira

Is an agronomist, with a Master’s in

Genetics and Plant Breeding and PhD in
Plant Production. Has experience in
vegetable breeding for biofortification and
resistance to diseases, with emphasis on the
culture in leaves vegetables. Dr. de Oliveira
works as a teacher of Basic, Technical and
Technological Education and researcher in
the higher degree of Agronomic

66
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Engineering, and in the high school ministering Vegetable Crop Science of

the Farming Technical Course of the Federal Institute of Education, Science
and Technology of the South of Minas Gerais State – IFSULDEMINAS -
Campus Inconfidentes, Brazil. Researcher professor. Instituto Federal de
Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Sul de Minas Gerais – Campus Inconfidentes.
Praça Tiradentes, 416, Centro, CEP: 37576-000, Inconfidentes, (MG) Brazil.
Tel. 55 35 99918-8579. E-mail: cleiton.oliveira@ifsuldeminas.edu.br

Sindynara Ferreira

Earned the degrees of Farming Technical

(1999), Agronomist (2006), Master (2008)
and PhD (2010) in Plant Production and
Bachelor in Biological Sciences (2010).
Has experience in Plant Breeding, work-
ing mainly on the following topics: vegeta-
bles crop, nematodes, resistance and selec-
tion. Works as a teacher of the Basic,
Technical and Technological Education of
the Federal Institute of Science and Tech-
nology Education of the South of Minas
Gerais State - IFSULDEMINAS - Campus Inconfidentes, Brazil. Research-
er professor. Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Sul de
Minas Gerais – Campus Inconfidentes. Praça Tiradentes, 416, Centro, CEP:
37576-000, Inconfidentes, (MG) Brazil. Tel. 55 35 99891-6994. E-mail:
sindynara.ferreira@ifsuldeminas.edu.br

67
 Chapter 5

The State of Natural Sciences

Education in Bulgaria
Philip Machev

Abstract

Natural sciences education (mostly geography) in Bulgaria began

when Bulgaria was part of Ottoman Empire. Thus, we identify several his-
torical stages according to their periods of Bulgarian society development,
namely: Bulgarian national revival, post-liberation, socialist, and present
day. The downside of the current period is the reduction of school hours
and subject name change from Geography to Geography and Econom-
ics. The status of geology education is even direr. Up until the 1964/1965
school year, geology was compulsory in junior high school courses, but
was then removed with the argument that geography textbooks provide
the necessary geology knowledge.
Key words: geography, education, Bulgaria, Earth Science

5.1 Natural sciences education in Bulgaria

Natural sciences education in Bulgaria depends directly on the politi-

cal, economical and social processes in its society. Analysis of the education
system is thus determined by development of Bulgarian socio-economic
systems. On this basis, Tzankova (2013) identify four periods.

5.2 Bulgarian National revival period

This period is distinguished by: an economic rise; national revival and

realization; development of trade relations and crafts, and appearance of
the bourgeoisie; foundation of the Bulgarian education and learning sys-
tem; and appearance of the first schools.
During this period, the subject geography is included at the first

69
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

school in the town of Gabrovo, as a result of society’s need for geographic

knowledge of foreign countries, roads, trades, and resources. The textbook
of Fotinov (1843) defines the goals of geography as developing the ability
to describe the Earth and gain knowledge of Earth’s surface and politi-
cal life. Publishing this textbook during the Bulgarian National revival
is a remarkable achievement. The first syllabus, which defines the subject
content, is also developed at this time. Through the textbook and syllabus,
geographic knowledge is converted into an element of national pride and
patriotic education.

5.3 Post-liberation period (1878-1944)

This period is characterized by significant changes in the country’s

economic and cultural development. Education was centralized in the
Ministry of Education, yet the revival traditions of free and compulsory
education remained. Geography became a primary subject in Bulgarian
schools, with study hours ranging from 10-14 hours per week over the
whole high school course (2-3 hours per week during each school year).

5.4 Socialistic period (1944-1989)

Geography education during this period is characterized by several

changes in the program scope and content, along with overall decreasing
study hours, from 14 hours in the mid-1950s, to 10 hours in the mid-
1970s, and finally to 11 hours at the end of the 1980s. Since the mid-
1970s, geography is no longer included in the 11th and 12th year programs.
Decreasing the school hours is unfounded as geography is the only sub-
ject delving into both geographic and economic understanding and skills.
Nevertheless, two separate branches, physical and economic geography,
were established during this education period.
During this period, geology was a compulsory subject in junior high
school along with geography. Unfortunately, since the 1964/1965 school
year, geology is removed based on the argument that physical geography
sections in the geography textbooks provided the necessary geology content.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

5.5 The present day (post-1989)

Is characterized by significant socio-economic changes, incorporation

of Bulgaria into various European programs, along with NATO and EU
membership. The significant political system changes yielded education
reforms, including aspirations to achieve high quality education and the
introduction of modern technologies. A new law for national education
introduced state education requirements and three kinds of schooling,
compulsory, compulsory-chosen, and optional, in 1991.
The period is marked by issues due to a steady decrease in compulsory
geography hours, and furthermore compounded by splitting the subject
from Geography into Geography and Economics. This created difficulties
in the education process, as testified by the results from geography state
school-exit examinations in 2009/2010, with average grades of 3.39 (on a
scale from 1 to 6).
The natural sciences are not taught as a particular subject, but rather
are included in the following subjects: Geography and Economics, Phys-
ics and Astronomy, Chemistry and Environmental Protection, Biology and
Health Education and Man and Nature. Natural science themes are in-
cluded in the curriculum at various levels and classes as follows:

Elementary education

Man and Nature (IVth class) – Planet Earth.

Junior secondary school

Man and Nature (Vth class) – Motion of luminous bodies in the Solar
system; Temperature and heat; Transitions between states of bodies and
matter; Air; Water and aqueous solutions.
Man and Nature (VIth class) – Significance and application of matter and
chemical reaction (constituents of nature: atmosphere, hydrosphere, litho-
sphere; the human role in environmental protection and balance in nature).
Physics and Astronomy (VIIIth class) – Preservation of energy in heat
processes.
Chemistry and Environment Protection (VIIIth class) – Chemical ele-
ments from VI А group (sources of acid rain and influence on animate and
inanimate nature); organic substances (oil and gas, ecological problems).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Biology and Health Education (VIIIth class) – Lessons from section “Or-
ganisms – environment”: Man and biosphere; human influence on the
biosphere; protection of the atmosphere from pollution; pollution of the
hydrosphere; protecting the hydrosphere from pollution; direct destruc-
tion of soils; protecting soils from direct destruction; human influence on
natural ecosystems.
Geography and Economics (Vth class) – Earth: planet in the Solar system;
Earth’s setting; Earth’s nature; Earth’s natural resources.
Geography and Economics (VIth, VIIth и VIIIth classes) – The nature of
continents and oceans.

Secondary education

Physics and Astronomy (IXth class) – Earth’s magnetic field; magnetic

storms; types of magnetic waves; seismic waves.
Chemistry and Environmental Protection (IXth class) – Nitrogen and
carbon groups (diamond, graphite, influence of nitrogen and carbon ox-
ides, ammonia, nitrogen acid, nitrates, phosphates, and cyanides, on hu-
mans and the environment).
Chemistry and Environmental Protection (Xth class) – Heat effects in
chemical processes.
Biology and Health Education (IXth class) – Abiotic factors in the envi-
ronment; the biosphere.
Biology and Health Education (Xth class) – Paleontological evidence for
evolution.
Biology and Health Education (XIIth class) – Life environments: the hy-
drosphere as an environment for life; the pedosphere as an environment
for life; the atmosphere and its influence on organisms; factors in environ-
ments; the biosphere’s composition and boundaries; biomes; biogeochemi-
cal circles in the biosphere; anthropogenic influences on the biosphere and
protection of natural resources; Man and the biosphere in the modern
stage of Earth’s development.
Geography and Economics (IXth class) – Earth’s setting; natural compo-
nents and Earth’s complexes; natural global zones; global natural resource
potentials; global problems – resources, energetic, and ecological; natural
hazards; global problems of the modern world; global problems of the
modern world and their occurrences by region.
Geography and Economics (Xth class) – Natural environments in Bul-
garia; natural-geographic regions.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Geography and Economics (XIth class) – Interactions between natural and ur-
ban environments in urbanized territories; uses of nature; ecological problems.
Geography and Economics (XIth class) – The spatial diversity of the plan-
et as a condition and factor of economic development.
The students obtain additional knowledge of natural sciences in Nat-
ural-Mathematic high schools.
Students’ knowledge is tested by national school-exit examinations at
the end of IV class, VII class, and XII class. There is a national geography
Olympiad every year, through which winners can become University stu-
dents without an entrance examination.

The education process is facilitated by teachers from various profes-

sional branches: the physical, chemical, and biological sciences, and educa-
tors thereof; history and archeology, and educators thereof; geography and
economics; and natural sciences. Limitations of this educational approach
are found in students’ abilities to use experimental methods and limited
theoretical knowledge. Whereas the advantages are their opportunities
work on projects, and impressions of natural sciences, including: “Suc-
cess”, and “I love nature – and I participate”.

References
FOTINOV, K. 1843. Obstee zemleopisanie v kratze za sichkata zemlya.

TZANKOVA, L. 2013. Origin and development of the geography as a school sub-

ject and the didactics of geography as a science. Ann. Univ. “St. Kliment Ohrid-
ski”, Fac. de Geol. et Geogr., v 2 Geographie, 103, 337-361 (in Bulgarian).

Philip Machev

Philip Machev is an Associate Professor in

the Faculty of Geology and Geography,
Sofia University “Sv. Kliment Ohridski”.
His scientific interests are in the area of
metamorphic petrology (specifically high
pressure rocks). He is the author of over 60
publications and one textbook for geology
students. Currently he is a Dean of the
faculty. Faculty of Geology and Geography,
“St. Kliment Ohridski” University, Sofia,
Bulgaria. E-mail: machev@gea.uni-sofia.bg

73
 Chapter 6

Geo-education in Egypt between

current and innovative
Kholoud Mohamed Abd El-Maksoud

Abstract

Geo-education term is still unknown in Egypt nowadays, the term Ge-

ology is not so common in the society, and also on the school student’s lev-
el; Geology or geoscience as a term began to appear in the University Stage.
Although the Egyptian syllabus contain few parts of geology but teachers
and students don’t know that this part is related to a science called Geology.
It was not easy to start dealing with this problem, how and by what
means should we start to deal with the society what is Geo-education? How
can we apply it? What is the impact of teaching students such science?
2012 was the beginning to draw a road map for geo-education in
Egypt, visiting schools of different social levels, monitoring the student’s
level and finally creating a strategy for how we can teach this science in an
interesting and innovative ways to achieve the best outcome. Application
was not only on young aged students, but also on post graduate students
on both genders (males and females).
Knowing the current level of geoscience education in Egypt enables us
to start working on reality, and to enhance our performance in making
geo-science more common as a science and as a term.

Key words: Geo-education, Education in Egypt, Geoscience Education.

6.1 Egypt’s Education System

The education system in Egypt is divided into 4 stages: Primary (age

6 to 11 years), Preparatory (age 11 to 13 years), Secondary (age 14 to 16
years), and University starting from 17 years and ending at 20 or 22 years,
according to the degree program.
Schools in Egypt are classified in to two main categories, governmen-

75
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

tal (public) and non-governmental (private) schools. More specifically, a

school’s classification depends on the social level of pupils, where the more
affluent can send their children to private schools. There is, however, no
difference in syllabus content (Abdel Maksoud et al., 2014).
Geology does not exist as a stand alone subject in the Egyptian syl-
labus except as an optional subject at the secondary stage. We discuss here
geosciences in the curriculum at each stage:
Nothing regarding geoscience or geology has been detected at the Pri-
mary stage; the syllabus contains no information about the Earth.
In the Preparatory stage, we find the introduction of some information
about Earth’s structure, volcanoes, earthquakes, and geomorphology. The sub-
ject at this stage is not classified as geology, rather, it is taught under the guise
of social science and/or geography. There is no mention of geology as science or
connection drawn between information presented to students and geoscience.
In the Secondary stage, students are divided in to two section or are
asked to choose either a scientific or literary stream. This selection qualifies
the student to enter specific faculties at university. (For example, literary
stream students are not qualified to study in the faculty of medicine or
faculty of science). Geology as a subject offered at this stage, but only as an
option for literary stream students, which means that who choose geology
as a subject are not qualified to enter faculty of science to continue study-
ing geology in university!
Only at the University stage are students who enter faculty of science
able to study geology in detail. Geology also taught at an introductory
level in the faculty of engineering.

6.2 Geoscience teaching in Egypt

Abdel Maksoud and others (2014) interviewed teachers to discover

their teaching methods in schools. In each of the schools, there are four to
eight science teachers; only three are allowed to teach geoscience. A total
of 52% responded to the questionnaires (25 questionnaires collected). The
questionnaire was designed to measure specific criteria such as knowledge
of geoscience basics, importance of this science, delivery methods for this
science (if present in the syllabus), and finally, the teacher’s general knowl-
edge. The questionnaire contained 15 questions structured to measure
teacher’s knowledge and awareness of current geologic events.
Five teachers (35% of participants) had good awareness and knowl-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

edge of geology, while nine (65%) were not familiar with geoscience and
did not know whether or not geology is a science. Some teach the from the
geology syllabus without knowing that fossils, volcanoes, and earthquakes
are components this science. Others mentioned that, “we know about
chemistry and physics, but geology is not a science.” One of the teachers
was honest enough to say that although she is a geology subject supervisor,
she has no idea about geology or how to teach it. She further stated that
she never gives the students real examples as she does not understand the
subject. Additionally, the badly written syllabus makes the science unin-
teresting and difficult to understand.
This raises the very important question of who can teach geology in
Egyptian schools and points towards one of the central problems. The fact
is that geologists are not involved in planning geology education in Egypt,
whereas geographers and chemists are allowed to teach geology. This is the
default for many reasons, such as geology’s absence from the syllabus as
a separate subject until university and the general lack of recognition of
geology’s importance by society in Egypt.
Furthermore, it begs the question of how teachers in Egypt teach geol-
ogy in the classroom. The majority use un-engaging and traditional (di-
dactic) teaching methods, without field trips, illustrative figures, presenta-
tions or videos. Despite being written by geology professors, the syllabus
contains incorrect and unbelievable geology content, which erodes this
science’s credibility in Egypt.

6.3 Weak Points in Geoscience Education in Egypt

We categorize the weaknesses into two main points: the education

system and teachers.
Education system: handling geology and geosciences as though they are
not important and have no meaning in our life is a fatal mistake in educa-
tion. Discrimination of sciences is common in Egypt, where decision mak-
ers take engineers’ opinions in building and neglect geologists’ input regard-
ing any potential geo-hazards. From this perspective, society places no value
on creating a syllabus imbued with the importance of all science branches.
Teachers: Teachers are the main building block in the educational sys-
tem; they can make any science interesting and understandable. If they are
not sufficiently qualified to teach a particular subject, the system will fail
in short course. In Egypt teachers are not qualified to teach geosciences, as

77
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

mentioned previously, they have no background in geology, which creates

a huge gap between students and the subject.
The two weaknesses are interrelated; fixing the first point depends on
amending the second point and vice versa.

6.4 Strong Points in Geoscience Education in Egypt:

Our research indicates three strengths on which to draw for improving

geoscience education in Egypt:

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schools (Abdel Maksoud et al, 2014). Post graduate students are also able
to understand and interact with geoscience. Hence, it is clear that there is a
good basis of understanding, which could be a strong starting point from
which to work (Abdel Maksoud, 2014).
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understand geology and how to teach this science to students.
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cially females, to know everything. This could be leveraged as a means to
motivate students to learn more about geology as an important and inter-
esting science (if they were convinced of this).

6.5 What Happened in Geoscience Education from 2012 to 2016

Our investigation into geoscience education in Egypt began in 2012

with visits to nine schools in Cairo to determine the base knowledge level
of students and teachers. In the same year, to develop a complete overview,
a lecture was given to 30 selected 15-year old students to explain what geo-
science is and how important it is. This lecture included one demonstration
done by the lecturer using a puzzle for the continents to illustrate plate
tectonic theory. The feedback from this lecture was very positive, with 98%
of students expressing an interest in learning more about geoscience.
In 2013, we trialed different learning method approaches with 40 post
graduate students ages 26 to 40. This investigation sought to determine
what instruction methods are most effective for different age groups, but
found out that we can use the same methods for all ages. The feedback
from this trial feedback was also positive (Abdel Maksoud, 2014).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

In 2014, as young geoscientists we established the ANGE (African

Network for Geoedcation) to enhance the concept of geoeducation not
only in Egypt but in all African countries. The Network has limited but
effective activity, establishing itself in both Egypt and Morocco in less
than two years and partnering at two international conferences.
In 2015, through the ANGE, the Academy of Science and Technology
in Egypt and Cairo University hosted 200 students from age eight to 13
for a geo-activity day (Figs. 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3). The feedback from these ac-
tivities was great with 60% of the students wanting to be a geologist after
learning geology for only one day!!
In 2016, post graduate students (not studying geology) were asked to
choose a geologic topic and to model it as a demonstration for school chil-
dren. They chose seven topics (rocks, minerals, crystals, continental mo-
tions, geologic time, Earth structure, faults and folds) and created three
effective and creative simulations. This was successful in engaging older
students (with no geologic background) to interact with geology, by trying
to simplify geologic topics for younger students (Figs. 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6).

6.6 Innovative Plan for Future Years

Believing in student capabilities is the main key for successful growth

of geoscience education in Egypt. Our goal is to establish an association
for geo-education in Egypt to train students and qualify teachers. This
aim is not possible to achieve without first making the geology profession
as commonly known as medicine or engineering.
Our plan for the coming years is to:

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phasis on students starting from age seven.
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to illustrate the fundamental ideas of the topic.

79
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

References
ABDEL MAKSOUD, K. M.; EL-SHAFIEY, M. A. and RASHED, T. G. Geo-
education in Egypt, Ideas, Challenges and Vision. International Journal of Edu-
cational Policy Research and Review V. (2), p. 014-020. Available at http://www.
journalissues.org/journals-home.php?id=7© 2014 Journal Issues 2014.

ABDEL MAKSOUD, K. M. Monitoring and evaluation for postgraduate stu-

dents in learning Geo-education- Egypt. 7th International conference on Geosci-
ence education. Abstract only.

Fig. 6.1 Students making paper volcano models using a resource downloaded from the
Geologic Survey of London

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 6.2 Students exploring volcanic eruptions using bicarbonate and vinegar after
making their own models from clay

Fig. 6.3 Students creating their own dinosaur footprints

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 6.4 An interactive illustration of the Geologic time sale as a clock, which allows
students to think about deep time in terms of a single day

Fig. 6.5 An annotated model showing Earth’s internal structure

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 6.6 An interactive model, where the continents are moved freely on the board,
designed to illustrate the relative motion of continents required to form Gondwana
and Pangaea

Kholoud Mohamed Abd El-Maksoud

Lectures geology at Cairo University in

the Institute of African Research and
Studies. She specializes in igneous petrol-
ogy, working on gold mineralization, hav-
ing completed a PhD in 2013 on gold
mineralization in granitic rocks. She
started working in Geo-education for the
public and kids in 2012, teaching more
than 200 students the importance of Ge-
ology and geologic principles. She was
also a key figure in establishing the Afri-
can Network for Geo-education (ANGE) to disseminate best practice
teaching methods and related information within African countries. Cairo
University- Institute of African Research and Studies, Egypt, Mobile:
+201005127479. E-mail: kholoud.mali@staff.cu.edu.eg

83
 Chapter 7

Earth Science Education in the Schools

and Colleges of England
Chris King

Abstract

Earth science formed a small part of the English National Science

Curriculum for 5-16 year old pupils during the past 25 years. It also com-
prises part of the English National Geography Curriculum, compulsory
for 5-14 year olds. Optional geography examination courses containing
some Earth science are taken by many 14-18 year old students, whilst op-
tional geology examination courses are available to some 14-18 year olds.
Two initiatives, funded by the oil industry, support Earth science
teachers. One offers free-of-charge professional development Earth sci-
ence workshops to teachers and trainee (pre-service) primary (elementary)
and secondary (high school) teachers of science and geography – reaching
more than 37,000 individuals over the past 16 years, with excellent feed-
back and positive indicators of classroom change. The second initiative
trained geology teachers through an intensive Summer School over the
past two years, ensuring the supply of geology teachers into the future.
This relatively successful story is the result of dedicated hard work by
a few individuals over many years, supported by some key organizations.
The possibility of developing a national Earth Science Olympiad in the
future to select candidates for the International Earth Science Olympiad
(IESO) is under discussion.

Keywords: Earth science, geology, education, school, UK

7.1 Education in the UK

The National Curriculum was instigated in England, Wales and

Northern Ireland, beginning in 1989. At that time, the new National Cur-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

riculum covered all three countries. Since then, first Northern Ireland and
then Wales, separated from England. Hence, whilst the curricula in the
three countries have the same roots they are now different from one an-
other. Nevertheless, the same external examination system for 16 and 18
year olds still applies across all three countries, resulting in many similari-
ties of teaching and learning. Despite this, the description below focuses
mainly on education in England today.
Education in Scotland is historically different from that in England,
Wales and Northern Ireland, with movement from elementary to high
school occurring at different ages, and similarly from school/college to
university. Scotland also has a distinct examination system from those in
England and Wales. Therefore, the Scottish situation is largely omitted
from the following discussion.

7.2 Education in England

Since the instigation of the National Curriculum in 1989, teaching

in England is subdivided into Key Stages, with the school years shown in
Table 7.1.

Tab. 7.1 Educational terminology and age-ranges in England

Ages in Designated External examinations
Key stage Type of school/ institution
years school years taken at end of phase
Reception/
Key Stage 0 Nursery 3-5
Early years
Key Stage 1 Primary Infant 5-7 1-2
(equivalent
SATs (National curricu-
to elementary
Key Stage 2 Junior 7-11 3-6 lum tests) in English
schools in the
and Maths
USA)
Lower sec-
Key Stage 3 11-14 7-9
Secondary ondary
(equivalent to GCSEs (General
high schools in Upper sec- certificates of secondary
Key Stage 4 14-16 10-11
the USA) ondary education) in around
eight to ten subjects
Post-16 (unof- A Levels (Advanced
16-18 (or
ficially, Key School sixth form or college 12-13 levels) usually in four
19)
Stage 5) subjects
University (3 year undergraduate
18+
courses)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The current National Curriculum (2016) comprises the core subjects of

English, math, and science, along with the foundation subjects of modern
foreign languages, history, geography, art and design, design and technology,
physical education, computing and citizenship, whilst all government schools
must also teach religious education. However, the ‘National Curriculum’ is
not truly a curriculum applied nationally, as approximately 25 percent of
schools have ‘Academy’ status, which excuses them from teaching much of
the national curriculum. Similarly, no independent schools and none of the
new free schools are obliged to follow the national curriculum either.

7.3 Earth Science Teaching in the UK Before 1989

Prior to 1989, Earth science teaching formed part of the geography

curriculum, which was usually taught to most 5-14 years olds and was an
optional subject for 14-18 year olds. School-level science was mostly taught
as three separate subjects: biology, chemistry and physics, with no Earth
science content. Geology was offered as a General Certificate of Secondary
Education (GCSE) subject to some 14-16 year olds and as an A Level to
16-18 year olds in some schools, whilst Higher geology was offered to 17
year olds in some Scottish schools too. Most universities offered geology
degrees within their science faculties.

7.4 Earth Science Teaching in England Beyond 1989

The new National Curriculum for Science, implemented in 1989, re-

quired all pupils to study science up to the age of 16, with most students
studying science as part of ‘double award science’ (worth two GCSE sub-
jects). This included biology, chemistry, physics and, for the first time,
Earth science. Finally, with the introduction of this system, all students
had to study a small amount of Earth science to the age of 16.
A strong memory remains of an Earth science workshop presented at
the national Association for Science Education conference around 1989,
when 20-30 attendees were expected and more than 120 people came,
many of them standing on benches in the lab to find out what this new
strange Earth science subject actually was. Because this was a ‘new’ subject
to many science teachers, a special supplement of ‘non-statutory guidance’
was published by the government alongside the new curriculum, with a
section devoted to this ‘new’ Earth science subject.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Since then, the National Curriculum for Science was re-organized

several times and every time, Earth science educators have argued for
maintaining the quantity and quality of the Earth science component.
This attempted ‘protection’ of the Earth sciences often involved submit-
ting materials against crazy deadlines and sending letters to government
ministers. The result, depending on how the content is subdivided, is that
Earth science remains as ~5-7 percent of the science curriculum. Sadly,
in the latest revision, geological Earth science was removed from the KS4
science curriculum, despite all the efforts of the Earth science education
community to retain it.
Earth science also remains as part of the geography curriculum, with-
in the physical geography component. Unfortunately, this portion of the
geography curriculum also varies, with human geography often seen as
more important than physical geography.
The current Earth science content of the statutory National Curricu-
lum is shown in Table 2.

Tab. 7.2 Earth science curriculum content – part of the statutory National Curricu-
lum. (DFE, 2013 (Science KS1&2); DFE, 2013 (geography KS1&2); DFE, 2013 (Sci-
ence KS3); DFE, 2013 (Geography KS3); DFE, 2014 (Science K4))

Stage Science Geography

Key Stage 1 identify and name a variety of everyday materials, use basic geographical
(5-7 years old) including wood, plastic, glass, metal, water, and vocabulary to refer to:
rock key physical features, in-
describe the simple physical properties of a variety cluding: beach, cliff, coast,
of everyday materials forest, hill, mountain, sea,
compare and group together a variety of everyday ocean, river, soil, valley,
materials on the basis of their simple physical vegetation, season and
properties weather
identify and compare the suitability of a variety
of everyday materials, including wood, metal,
plastic, glass, brick, rock, paper and cardboard for
particular uses

88
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Key stage 2 compare and group together different kinds of rocks describe and understand
(7-11 years on the basis of their appearance and simple physical key aspects of:
old) properties physical geography, includ-
describe in simple terms how fossils are formed ing: climate zones, biomes
when things that have lived are trapped within rock and vegetation belts, rivers,
recognise that soils are made from rocks and mountains, volcanoes and
organic matter earthquakes, and the water
identify the part played by evaporation and conden- cycle
sation in the water cycle and associate the rate of
evaporation with temperature.
recognise that living things have changed over time
and that fossils provide information about living
things that inhabited the Earth millions of years
ago
Key Stage 3 Earth and atmosphere understand, through the
(11-14 years the composition of the Earth use of detailed place-based
old) the structure of the Earth exemplars at a variety of
the rock cycle and the formation of igneous, sedi- scales, the key processes in:
mentary and metamorphic rocks physical geography relating
Earth as a source of limited resources and the ef- to: geological timescales
ficacy of recycling and plate tectonics; rocks,
the carbon cycle weathering and soils;
the composition of the atmosphere weather and climate,
the production of carbon dioxide by human activity including the change in
and the impact on climate. climate from the Ice Age to
the present; and glaciation,
hydrology and coasts
Key Stage 4 Earth and atmospheric science None – KS4 Geography is
(14-16 years evidence for composition and evolution of the not statutory – it is an op-
old) Earth’s atmosphere since its formation tional General Certificate
evidence, and uncertainties in evidence, for addi- of Secondary Education
tional anthropogenic causes of climate change (GCSE) subject.
potential effects of, and mitigation of, increased
levels of carbon dioxide and methane on the Earth’s
climate
common atmospheric pollutants: sulphur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, particulates and their sources
the Earth’s water resources and obtaining potable
water.

Optional geography GCSE courses were taught in England from 1986,

whilst A Level geography courses were available for much longer. Nearly
half the 16 year olds in the country take GCSE Geography as one of their
eight to ten GCSE subjects, whilst a lower but still significant number take
A Level geography as one of their three to four A Level subjects. The Earth
science content of these courses is shown in Table 7.3.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 7.3 Earth science content of optional Key Stage 4 (GCSE) and optional post-16
(A Level) Geography courses [headings only]. Many students in England take these
courses. (DFE, 2014 (GCSE Geography); DFE, 2014 (A Level Geography)).

Stage Geography
Key Stage 4
[Headings only provided]
(14-16 years
Physical geography: processes and change
old)
Geomorphic processes and landscape
Assessed by
Changing weather and climate
GCSE exam
Post-16
(16-18 or 19 [Headings only provided]
years old) Water and carbon cycles
Assessed by A Landscape systems
Level exam

As with geography, optional geology GCSE courses were offered from

1986, whilst A Level geology courses, which are typically taught by trained
geology teachers, were available prior. Both GCSE and A Level geology are
minority subjects, with only a small percentage of students across the country
taking them each year. Although the numbers of A Level entries fell over the
years until 2005, they have mostly risen since (Figure 1). The enrolments con-
sistently remain around one third female to two thirds male. GCSE geology
entry also decreased then rose again recently and is now consistent at about
1000 entries per year. The content of these courses is shown in Table 4.

Fig. 7.1 A Level geology entries 1985-2015.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 7.4 Earth science content of optional Key Stage 4 (GCSE) and optional post-16 (A
Level) Geology courses [headings only]. Few students in England take these courses.
(DFE, 2015 (GCSE Geology); DFE, 2015 (A Level Geology))

Stage Geology
Key Stage 4 [Headings only provided]
(14-16 years Minerals Plate tectonics
old) Igneous rocks Past global temperatures and sea level
Assessed by Sedimentary rocks and their fossil changes
GCSE exam content The origin and development of life
Metamorphic rocks Earth hazards and their mitigation
Structures Earth resources and engineering
Planetary geology
Geochronological principles and
stratigraphy
Rock cycle
Post-16 [Headings only provided] - Core content
(16-18 or 19 Elements, minerals and rocks Internal processes: igneous and meta-
years old) Earth structure morphic rocks
Assessed by A Global tectonics Evolution of the Earth
Level exam Surface processes: sedimentary environ- Earth materials and resources
ments and sedimentary rocks
[Headings only provided] – Non-core content (two of the following seven areas
must be included)
Planetary geology Quaternary geology
The lithosphere Critical resources
The stratigraphy of the British Isles Geohazards
Basin analysis

Data published by the UK Universities and Colleges Admissions Service

(UCAS) shows that more than 40 percent of the applicants for undergradu-
ate geology courses (2010 – 44%; 2012 - 43%) took A Level geology. A 2015
survey by the Earth Science Teachers’ Association showed that 44 percent
of those who passed A Level geology went on to study geology at university.
To summarize, in 2016 in England:

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91
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

7.5 Professional Development Available to Science and Geography Edu-

cators Teaching Earth Science

Research conducted in the 1990s (King, 2001) showed that most sci-
ence educators teaching the Earth science component of the new National
Curriculum for Science received little or no Earth science education them-
selves. To help with their Earth science teaching they usually used science
textbooks written for their pupils together with assistance from their sci-
ence colleagues (many of whom had also received a poor Earth science
education). They usually did not use Earth science-specific teaching materi-
als and rarely attended professional development courses on Earth science.
Although they reported that their background, confidence and enjoyment
in teaching Earth science and the interest and achievement of their pupils
were all ‘moderate’, they did very little practical work and no fieldwork
at all. This suggested that, whilst they thought their overall teaching of
Earth science was ‘moderate’, it was more likely to be ‘poor’. This view was
reinforced when a review of the Earth science content of science textbooks
used across England showed that more than half the National Science Cur-
riculum Earth science statements were inadequately covered or not covered
at all, and they were highly inaccurate, averaging one error/misconception
per Earth science page (King et al, 2005; King, 2010).
This research was used as the basis for a bid to the oil industry (the
oil industry trade association, Oil and Gas UK, formerly UKOOA) for
funding to provide professional development to secondary (high school)
science teachers in their own institutions, free-of-charge. The bid was suc-
cessful, allowing the Earth Science Education Unit (ESEU) to form in
1999 and roll out this strategy across the UK. The oil industry funding
was maintained for 16 years, and the remit was expanded to encompass
primary and geography teachers, providing ESEU workshops to 11,979
teachers and 25,512 trainees (pre-service teachers), a total of 37,491 in-
dividuals by December 2015. Throughout this time, feedback remained
excellent with ‘effectiveness’, ‘interest’, ‘relevance’ and ‘value’ on a 1 (high)
to 5 (low) Likert Scale ranging from 1.57 at best to a low of 1.96. This was
accompanied by many positive comments: ‘I won’t think rocks are so boring
in future’, ‘I was made to feel enthusiastic about Earth sciences, which I never
thought would happen’, and ‘The best INSET day I have ever had’.
ESEU research conducted in 2003/4 and 2007/8 for all secondary
school science departments visited in those years (31% return) showed that
nearly all the schools changed their teaching Schemes of Work in response
to the professional development (King & Thomas, 2012; Lydon & King,

92
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2009). This positive impact was supported by anecdotal evidence, such as

a comment from Newman University, ‘PGCE tutors at Newman Univer-
sity, Birmingham had observed a noticeable improvement in Earth science
teaching over the last few years when visiting schools and that was down to
ESEU.’ By 2015 ESEU was visiting more than half the university second-
ary science training institutions in the country, showing that return visits
were welcomed by the university tutors concerned.
These indicators suggest that Earth science education across England
improved as a result of ESEU efforts.

7.6 Training Geology Teachers

At one stage in the distant past, there were six institutions training ge-
ology teachers across the UK. That number dwindled until the penultimate
institution, Bath University, closed in 2011 and the final institution, Keele
University, closed in 2013. Fortunately this decline was monitored by the
Earth Science Education Unit, realizing that if geology graduates were no
longer trained as teachers, the eventual effect would be the decline of geol-
ogy teaching across the country. So industrial support was sought to run
an intensive summer school to train practicing and newly trained science or
geography teachers, with geology degrees, to teach A Level geology. Run-
ning these summer schools effectively for the past two years (Figure 2) has
reversed the decline in the number of geology teachers trained in the UK.

Fig. 7.2. The number of geology teachers trained in the UK since 2004.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

7.7 Support for Earth Science and Geology Teachers

Support for those teaching geology and Earth science is provided by

the voluntary Earth Science Teachers’ Association (ESTA, formerly As-
sociation of Teachers of Geology, ATG) since 1966. In more recent years,
support for Earth science education is also provided by the Scottish Earth
Science Forum (SESEF), the Earth Science Education Forum (England
and Wales) (ESEF), Earth Science Ireland, and the Education Committee
of the Geological Society (Figs. 7.3 – 7.8).

7.8 The UK and the International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO)

In the UK, national science Olympiads are run by the Learned Insti-
tutions, the Society of Biology, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the
Institute of Physics. When the Learned Institution for geology in the UK,
the Geological Society, was invited to consider involvement in the Olym-
piad movement, they sent an observer and two students to the third IESO
in Taiwan. However, on the return of the observer, the decision was made
to take the matter no further at that stage. Nevertheless, this issue remains
under discussion by the Geological Society.

7.9 Conclusion

Since the implementation of the National Curriculum, all students

from the age of 5-16 study a small amount of Earth science as part of the
science curriculum. This Earth science is mostly taught by science teach-
ers who are specialists in biology, chemistry or physics. When research
showed that their teaching of Earth science might be poor, the Earth Sci-
ence Education Unit (ESEU) was instituted to offer them professional de-
velopment in Earth science teaching. The ESEU work over 16 years shows
a demonstrably positive impact on Earth science teaching in schools.
Throughout this time, Earth science also formed a small part of the
geography curriculum, compulsory for 5-14 year olds and optional for 14-
18 year olds; many students take the geography option, which is usually
taught by teachers trained in geography teaching.
Also over this time, geology was offered as an optional examination
subject to a small number of 14-16 and 16-18 year olds. Geology is usually
taught by teachers trained in geology teaching and, although the govern-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ment training of geology teachers has reduced in the past few years, the
numbers have increased recently through an ESEU initiative.
This fairly positive picture might not have been possible without the
dedicated hard work of a number of key individuals over the years. The
importance of their work and of the institutions that have supported them
cannot be overstated.

References
DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2015) Geology: draft GCE AS
and A level subject content. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2015) Geology: GCSE subject

content. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2014) Science programmes of

study: key stage 4. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2014) Geography: GCE AS and

A Level subject content. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2014) Geography: GCSE subject

content. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2013) Geography programmes of

study: key stages 1 and 2. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2013) Geography programmes of

study: key stage 3. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2013) Science programmes of

study: key stages 1 and 2. London: DFE.

DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION (DFE)(2013) Science programmes of

study: key stage 3. London: DFE.

KING, C. J. H. (2010) An Analysis of Misconceptions in Science Textbooks:

Earth science in England and Wales. International Journal of Science Education,
32: 5, 565 – 601. ISSN 1464-5289.

KING, C. (2001) The response of teachers to new content in a National Science

Curriculum: the case of the Earth-science component. Science Education, 85,
636 – 664.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

KING. C. & THOMAS, A. (2012) Earth Science Education Unit workshops –

an evaluation of their impact. School Science Review. 94(347) 25-35.

KING, C., FLEMING, A., KENNETT, P. & THOMPSON, D. (2005) How

effectively do Science Textbooks teach Earth Science? School Science Review, 87
(318) 95 – 104.

LYDON, S. & KING, C. (2009) Can a single, short CPD workshop cause
change in the classroom? Professional Development in Education, 35.1, 63-82.

Fig. 7.3 Presenting Earthlearningideas, 2013 (Elizabeth Devon)

Fig. 7.4 Testing Earthlearningideas (Peter Kennett)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 7.5 Training teachers, Keele, 2014 (Pete Loader)

Fig. 7.6 An Earth Science Education Unit workshop high school activity (Elizabeth Devon)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 7.7 An Earth Science Education Unit elementary workshop activity (Denise Balmer)

Fig. 7.8 Training teachers, Keele 2014 (Steve Kilner)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Chris King

Chris King is Emeritus Professor of Earth

Science Education at Keele University
where he trained geology and science
teachers for the past 20 years. In 2000,
Chris co-led the formation of the Interna-
tional Geoscience Education Organisa-
tion (IGEO) and was the first Chair for
four years; he is now a Senior Officer of
IGEO, Chair of the International Union
of Geological Sciences Commission on
Geoscience Education (IUGS-COGE),
Chair of the Earth Science Education Forum (England and Wales, ESEF-
E&W) and Chair of the Secondary Committee of the Earth Science
Teachers’ Association (ESTA) in the UK. He instigated the formation of
the Earthlearningidea.com website of international Earth science educa-
tional resources, has more than 200 publications and has given keynote
presentations and workshops in more than 15 countries. Emeritus Professor
of Earth Science Education, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG,
UK. E-mail: chrisjhking36@gmail.com

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 Chapter 8

Teaching Geosciences in France:

Linking Science and Education
Gérard Bonhoure and Mathieu Rajchenbach

Abstract

Earth science is taught to all pupils 13 to 15 years old, and mainly to

those specializing in science between ages 16 and 18 in high schools. The
content has been carefully chosen to allow them to build basic knowledge
in geosciences and provide time for an active pedagogy. Memorization is
limited, and understanding the mechanisms is essential. In class, the stu-
dents are encouraged to follow scientific methods, ask questions, investi-
gate problems, conduct experiments, and argue about their results. Teach-
ing geoscience aims to build a systems representation of Earth, although
the roles of the atmosphere and hydrosphere are limited. Astronomy, hy-
drology, oceanography, and meteorology do not appear in the syllabus.
A strong educational impact is sought. Understanding scientific meth-
ods and the relationship between science and human issues is fundamen-
tal. The link between teaching geosciences and education for sustainable
development is included in the syllabus. It is a highly ambitious curricu-
lum for the limited allotted hours.
This highlights the difficulty in preparing and selecting students for
the IESOs. A specific online training (provided by “Sciences à l’école”)
can be used by the candidates with help from their teachers; the subjects
are those of the IESO syllabus which do not appear in official French pro-
grams, especially in the fields of meteorology, hydrogeology, astronomy,
and also geology. The selection is based on the results of the National
Geology Olympiads, wherein students demonstrate their understanding
of geological processes, and on a specific test based on the online training.

Keywords: Earth science education, Education for Sustainable Devel-

opment, investigation

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8.1 Introduction

In France, studying geology begins in middle school (5th lev-

el in the French system for 12 year old students) up to the end of
high school (18 year old students, 2 level, 1st level, and “terminale”
which is final level.1). Middle school is compulsory for all children in
France, and all have the same program. In high school, geosciences
are taught only at “general high schools” representing about 65%
of the students, mainly to those who choose a scientific course of
study (40%). Teaching geology and biology are taught as “Sciences
de la vie et de la Terre” (Life science and Earth science). We begin
with a condensed survey of the syllabus at different levels. Next, we
consider how the geosciences pedagogy in the French system aims to
build different competences, with two main purposes:

- Allowing every student to be more familiar with science and scientific

methods, if they do not plan to become a career scientist.
- Allowing every student to become a knowledgeable citizen and to
understand their responsibilities.

8.2 A continuous curriculum from middle to high school

8.2.1 Middle School: Geology is Considered as a Pillar of the Scientific

Culture

In the national program, teaching sciences is meant to develop a scien-

tific culture, shared by all citizens, to allow them to understand the world
in which they live and have a better analysis of the issues for mankind.
This is written in the introduction for both the biology-geology and phys-
ics-chemistry programs. The unity relies on the status of “experimental
sciences” which constructs world representations through methods based
on measurement, experiments, and all actions meant to check hypotheses
(“how we think it works”) versus reality.
In the 5th level, the subject title is “Geology: Landscape Evolution”. It
is meant to provide the first brush with geological processes starting with
something very practical. The landscape is part of everyday life, it can be

1. In the French system, levels decrease from 6 to 1, followed by “terminale” ! For example, 5th level comes
BEFORE 4th level, etc.

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observed easily, some basic mechanisms can be tested with simple experi-
ments, and it can be easily related the historical dimension of geology. The
program insists that the landscape must first be studied locally to allow for
practical work, and should include some fieldwork. It can also be related to
questions of human development, which are also studied in geography. The
following year (4th level) is organized around initial insights into internal
Earth dynamics. About 18 hours are devoted to those subjects each year.
In the final year of middle school (3rd level), less time (10 hours) is
devoted to the subject: “Evolution of Life and Earth History”. The logic
is that in biology one of the subjects is “unity and diversity of human be-
ings”. Both of these subjects contribute to understanding the foundation
of evolution and biodiversity at different scales (from human genetics to
organisms or ecosystems of the past, tens or hundreds of years for human
generations to billions of years for life history).
At all levels, geology always relates to “Earth systems” and the goal is
not to memorize as much as possible, but rather to understand the mecha-
nisms and main processes. Some interdisciplinary experiences are also de-
veloped with other sciences or geography.

8.2.2 High school: from bases to more specialized approaches of geosciences

High school programs for “Science de la vie et de la Terre” were given

a new structure in 2010. Instead of writing two syllabi, one for biology and
one for geology, it is organized around three themes:

1. Earth in the universe, life, and evolution of life: the purpose is to

understand that scientific methods are based on observation, argumen-
tation, and experimentation leading to a coherent explanation of “how
it works” (mechanisms) and “how it evolved” (history); in addition to
building a scientifically literate culture, this is meant to help students
become more familiar with professions related to fundamental sciences
such as research and teaching;
2. Current “issues for planet Earth”: is designed to show how thorough
scientific knowledge is necessary for every individual, to make rational
decisions and act as a responsible citizens. This perspective is cast on all
professions, and especially toward all those involved in public decision
making, sustainable development, agronomy, architecture, etc.;
3. Human body and health: the third theme relates only to biology.

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In the 2nd form, all students follow the same curriculum in the high
school and there is no specialization.
In theme one, the first question is: “Are the conditions necessary for
life specific to planet Earth?” It leads to some comparisons between plan-
ets (3 hours, which is very short). In the second theme, two subjects relate
to geosciences:

- “Sun: a fundamental supply of energy”: after studying photosyn-

thesis, the subject leads to understanding the origin of fossil organic
sources of energy, such as oil and coal, the limits of those resources,
the consequences on the atmosphere (carbon cycle), and of course
“renewable energies” (solar energy, wind, etc.).
- “Soil: a sustainable resource?”: the subject does not require stu-
dents to build an exhaustive knowledge about soil but only to un-
derstand the issues about soil protection and the link with human
activities, including agriculture.

In the 1st form, students have a choice between different curricula.

Those who will follow a scientific pathway study these subjects:

- Theme 1: Plate tectonics, the history of the model. It is an impor-

tant contribution to scientific culture, as it is a perfect example to
show how science progresses, changes its representations and hy-
potheses with time and new investigation technologies.
- Theme 2: “Plate tectonics and applied geology”: a good theory
supports good predictions as to where resources (oil, minerals, etc.)
are, with economical and geopolitical consequences!

In the last form, finishing with “baccalaureat” (the final exam), for
scientific students the subjects are:

- Theme 1: “evolution of man”, which at this level allows students

to weave very strong links between biology and geology around the
concept and the mechanisms of evolution.
- Theme 2: “dynamics of the continents”: At this intermediate scale
between the landscape and the planet Earth, fundamental knowl-
edge about mountain forming processes, metamorphism, magma-
tism, and erosion are included in a cursory fashion in a very limited
time (20 hours approximately).
- Theme 3: “geothermal energy” is related to the preceding theme.

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To conclude this part, it is necessary to underscore that the time devot-

ed to geosciences is very limited. It requires making difficult choices about
the course content. The emphasis is on “understanding the mechanisms”,
so the knowledge required is carefully selected so as to allow the most rig-
orous, thorough argumentation, for a given level. The result is that French
students do not have a wide knowledge about rocks, minerals, fossils; they
are not asked to memorize lots of names and details. That will be for those
who choose to delve further in university. They are asked to understand
how things work so that, even if they do not become specialists, they can
build connections between information they receive in the news and some
fundamental knowledge. For example, relating an earthquake or volcanic
eruption with plate tectonics; linking a geopolitical issue to the possible
presence of oil; understanding the necessity of keeping some vegetation in
relation to erosion and the history of a landscape.

8.3 Teaching Geosciences: Some Issues in Didactics and Pedagogy

8.3.1 Teaching a Scientific Subject

One of the important decisions made in writing the syllabus for geo-
sciences in France is that “teaching the results of science is NOT teach-
ing science”. Science is a method for constructing a representation of the
world. It is based on facts, questions, and argumentation. On the other
hand, “ideologies” are not to be questioned; they are a “truth” and do
not change with time; those who accept them “believe”. In science, every
model, every representation is meant to be questioned, and the “scientific
truth” is essentially temporary. There are no “mistakes”, but new revela-
tions can demonstrate that the preceding theory no longer holds. There
should be no “belief” in science. If a scientist doubts a colleague’s results,
he or she has the tools to test them, can make the same measurements, and
try the same experiments. Scientific methods aim to be “universal”, as its
vocation is to be shared by all people. In France, it is considered important
this be understood by every citizen. There is no conflict between science
and religion; many scientists are also “believers” and belong to different
religions. Yet when everyone discusses science, the rules are the same for
all: the disagreements or differences, which can occur between scientists,
are not “conflicts of opinions” (or should not be). Rather, it is a way of
continually improving theories by trying to find better explanations, based

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on facts, on which all agree… temporarily at least.

To achieve (or try to achieve) this, the teaching methods may be more
important than the content itself.
Of course, choosing the subject is one thing. The history of plate
tectonics is a very good example to show how models change with the
evolution of technology. Without understanding the asthenosphere’s rheo-
logical properties, Wegener’s theory seemed “unbelievable”, because the
relevant facts were unknown. With new knowledge, a new theory leads to
new opportunities for finding new resources.
Selecting the teaching method is fundamental. In class, pupils are set
in situations where they are allowed:

- to ask questions, criticize an idea found in a document, text, or pho-

tograph showing a difference to what they have learned;
- to discuss, and argue organized into small groups (2 or 3), working
on different objects or documents showing different things. Then take
conclusions from the small groups to exchange ideas with the whole
class. Thus students learn progressively to listen to each other and look
for the best argument in order to progress the discussion.

To help pupils learn what science is, they are given the idea that they
should “act as scientists”, with modesty of course. One of the methods
used in France is the “inquiry method”. The teacher prepares a situation,
by going to an outcrop if possible, looking at a landscape, or preparing a
set of objects and documents. From this starting point, students identify
questions and then look for explanations. Sometimes they are given a set
of facts (objects/documents) that will lead them directly to an answer.
Other times, they are set free to choose their means, either using the Inter-
net or designing an experiment. For example, looking for an explanation
for ocean streams, students are frequently given test tubes, pipes, colored
water, salt, heating devices, ice, etc. and asked to build a model that ex-
plains why water moves due to density differences. They work in teams of
2-4 then compare their models and results. Special classrooms are used for
scientific teaching involving practical work.
The program itself is written in two columns: one for expected learn-
ing outcomes, the other the skills which must be developed. In this way,
teachers have a very precise guide as to what they can prepare and what
actions to expect from their pupils.
This approach takes time, hence why choices were made not to teach a

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lot of topics and to limit the scope of the syllabus. Allowing pupils sufficient
time to act was considered a necessity, not just for those wanting to work
as scientists, but for all citizens. Education follows the scientific formation.
Every citizen should know how wrong it is to state that, “the scientific ex-
perts are not totally sure of this explanation… so there is no reason to take
any action!”; no scientist, in theory, can be 100 percent sure! That’s science.
But the fact that an explanation is the most reasonable and the most widely
accepted is a good reason to take it into account while making decisions.
Geosciences are unique as a subject to teach science, as they follow two
different patterns of scientific methods:

- experimental methods: e.g. mineralogy and petrology, where it is

possible to control conditions (pressure, temperature, etc.) to simulate
different environments;
- historical methods: tectonics, mountain formation, and evolution,
which cannot be examined through experimentation on the same time
scale (except with computer simulations).

Therefore, geosciences afford students a very rich insight into “doing

science”, which is an opportunity not to be missed.

8.3.2 Geosciences: A World of Complexity Requiring a Global Approach

In accordance with the complexity of all geological events, “systems

analysis” is found throughout geoscience teaching, at age appropriate lev-
els. For example, the first exposure to geology, trying to explain how the
landscape is shaped, leads to searching for explanations in rock properties,
the action of water, tectonic history, human actions, the climate, etc. Be-
coming conscious of the multiple interactions, the necessity of a systems
approach, and the limits of prediction reliability, is a very rich entry into
science and in the relationships between science and human endeavors.
Studying a mountain’s formation history, in the last level, also leads to
complex analysis at a higher conceptual level.
The “Earth system approach” is also in the French syllabus: interac-
tions between atmosphere-hydrosphere-geosphere with erosion, and inter-
action with the biosphere included in many subjects such as evolution, for-
mation of oil and coal, and the carbon cycle. It leads to the contribution of
geosciences to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD, in French:
EDD – Education au Développement Durable).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

But the content is often limited. Meteorology is not a significant sub-

ject, included mainly within the physics syllabus, or as extracurricular
activities in “meteo clubs”. The study of planets represents at most 1 or
2 hours in 7 years of the whole curriculum. This explains in part the char-
acteristics of the French preparation and selection process for the IESOs!

8.3.3 Teaching Geology and ESD

The relationship with ESD is explicitly mentioned in the syllabus at all

levels. The high school program (Theme 2) is meant to be taught so as to
associate scientific content with educational goals.
This can be done with all subjects dealing with geological processes
influenced by human activity, or with direct impacts on people, their life
and/or their activity, or both. The main topics become:

- all questions about external geological processes involving atmo-

sphere/ hydrosphere/ geosphere such as erosion, sedimentation, and
soil formation, as man is subjected to those phenomena with posi-
tive or negative outcomes;
- geosphere/hydrosphere resources: minerals, fossil energy, water;
their location, their limits;
- risk reduction at different scales, linked with natural phenomena
such as volcanic eruptions, seismic activity, tsunami, or related to
human activity like air or water pollution, climate change, etc.

In brief, the general idea in ESD in France is to raise students’ con-

sciousness of the complexity of the situations and of the possible human
influences. Every citizen should know that indetermination goes with
complexity, and nothing is precisely predictable. Therefore, choices should
be made by carefully balancing different issues according to the classical
“three pillars of sustainable development”: economy, social equity, and en-
vironment. But once the choice is made, everyone is responsible for the
consequences. Understanding moral and ethical values such as responsi-
bility and solidarity is a fundamental educational goal.
On the pedagogical point of view, a central principle is: “Eduquer
au choix et non pas enseigner des choix”, that is “Educate to choose but
do NOT teach choices”. The teacher should not say: “This is the correct
choice”, because he or she would have made the choice, not the pupil.
There are many pedagogical or didactical solutions for this. One ap-

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proach is to start with a case study, requiring asking questions related to

human decisions, or a problem occurring in a particular place (e.g. human
consequences from an earthquake). This requires one to understand the
geological process, to know why it occurs where it does, and to understand
the consequences for Earth systems (that is “pure geology”, with content
and scientific methods) and for man. Then follow with a debate about
“what can we do now”, preferably with teachers from other disciplines
(such as geography or economics). In this debate, the professors never give
their solutions or their opinions, they are facilitators who allow the pupils
to listen to each other, argue, discuss, and finally make their own choices.
It is not particularly easy. It takes time. The geologist must find rele-
vant situations, cooperate with other teachers, and very often organize the
debate outside the ordinary school timetable. The educational goal is not
reached immediately. This method can also be applied with other subjects:
life in the school, health, etc., where the ethical values of responsibility and
solidarity also have strong meaning. Ideally, this teaching method can,
eventually, contribute to the development of better citizens.

8.4 Selecting the French Team for the IESO

“Science à l’école” (SAE = “Science at school”) is the organization that

supports the selection process for IESO. All students studying in 1st form
can compete. There is one condition: one teacher is responsible to register
his or her team on site and agrees to help prepare the candidates.
Once this is done, they can access the SAE site to find support, in-
cluding information about the many subjects in the IESO syllabus that
are not included in the official French programs. Partnership with “Meteo
France”, the astronomical observatory of Paris, and the Museum d’histoire
naturelle de Paris (Natural history museum of Paris) allows the content to
be very high quality. The students and teachers have their work cut out
for them, as the quantity is quite huge. About 3000 students registered in
2015. In May, an IESO test facilitates ranking those students according to
their knowledge of what is on the site.
Independently, the national olympiads of geology are organized. The
best students in the competition are first ranked by “academy” (by region).
Next, the 30 best students receive a national medal. From those, SAE
chooses the 4 candidates who achieve the best result on the specific IESO
test. They meet for a week at the end of August to receive their final train-
ing, including visits and fieldwork.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Teaching geology in France is a tradition. The time allotted is very

short, so the content is limited. However, the contribution to scientific
understanding and education is important. Earth sciences are a very pro-
pitious subject to associate these two school goals.

References
Programme (French curricula in biology and geology for middle and high
school) available at: for Middle school: http://media.education.gouv.fr/file/spe-
cial_6/52/9/Programme_SVT_33529.pdf

for High school 2nde : http://media.education.gouv.fr/file/special_4/73/1/sci-

ences_vie_Terre_143731.pdf

1ère S : http://media.education.gouv.fr/file/special_8_men/01/2/SVT_S_197012.pdf

Ter S : http://media.education.gouv.fr/file/special_8_men/01/2/SVT_S_197012.pdf

BONHOURE, G, Une discipline dans l’éducation au développement durable :

les sciences de la vie et de la Terre, rapport n°2008-004, 42 p., available at http://
media.education.gouv.fr/file/2008/79/2/developpement_durable_S.V.T_et_syn-
these_24792.pdf

Gerard Bonhoure

After teaching geology and biology for

about twenty years in “classes prépara-
toires” (university level), Gerard Bon-
houre became Inspecteur Général de
l’Education Nationale (General inspec-
tor). Among his different missions, which
included participation in Earth science
education supervision in France, he is in
charge of organizing ESD (Education for
Sustainable Development) in the Minis-
try of education. As such, he strongly
pushed for integrating ESD in different subjects, especially in the geology
and biology syllabi, at college and high school level.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Mathieu Rajchenbach

Teacher of biology and geology since

2008. Mathieu Rajchenbach has taught
in various schools in the Paris region
(middle schools and high schools). Be-
tween 2013 and 2016, Mathieu Rajchen-
bach worked for the Ministry of National
Education (project “Science à l’École”).
During these years, he coordinated the
French preparation and the selection of
the French delegation for the Internation-
al Earth Science Olympiads (IESO).

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 Chapter 9

Earth Science in German Schools

Dirk Felzmann and Sylke Hlawatsch

Abstract

To give an overview of Earth science contents taught at a particular

grade in Germany is almost impossible. This is due to the high diversity
of curricula, which resulted from German federalism and the early separa-
tion of students into different types of schools.
Earth science content is mostly taught within geography. Therefore the
educational standards in geography, which act as a framework for making
curriculum, are outlined. Some remarks about the actual situation and
developments of the school subject geography are sketched. Some schools
offer Earth sciences as electives or optional working groups, known in
German as Wahlpflichtkurse and Arbeitsgemeinschaften.
Since 2012, Germany selects national teams for the International
Earth Science Olympiad (IESO). The selection process is coordinated by
a section of the German Geoscience Union, the Fachsektion Geodidaktik
und Öffentlichkeitsarbeit der Geounion (HGD/DGGV). Students from all
over Germany and their teachers are invited and encouraged to participate.

Keywords: geography, Earth science, education, curriculum, IESO,

geosciences, Earth Systems Education

9.1 Germany’s education system

The main point for describing the German school system is the sover-
eignty of each federal state to determine its own school education system.
This sovereignty includes the structure and content, plus how education is
managed. However, there are a lot of commonalities between the 16 differ-
ent federal states (Fig. 9.1). Primary education extends from grade 1 to grade
4 (within some federal states to grade 6). This type of school is called “Gr-
undschule”. After grade 4 there is a separation based on students’ cognitive

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capabilities. Students with higher performance can attend “Gymnasium”,

which continues from grade 5 to grade 12 (in some federal states to grade
13) and enables the “Abitur”. This final examination permits entrance into
university. Around 30 percent of all students reach the Abitur, and other 14
percent sitting an examination that grants only access to universities of ap-
plied science. Students with medium performance can take a final examina-
tion, called “Mittlerer Schulabschluss”, after grade 10; students with lower
performance can take an examination, called Hauptschulabschluss, after
grade 9. Secondary education is conducted by schools other than Gymnasi-
um, which only offer “Mittlerer Schulabschluss” (“Realschule”), which only
offer “Hauptschulabschluss” (Hauptschule), which offer Mittlerer Schulab-
schluss and Hauptschulabschluss and which offer Abitur, Mittlerer Schulab-
schluss and Hauptschulabschluss (“Gesamtschule”). After completing Mit-
tlerer Schulabschluss or Hauptschulabschluss, students attend a vocational
school, which provides specific job training. It is also possible to switch to
Gymnasium to achieve Abitur, if a student performs well.

Fig. 9.1 The German school system structure for most of the 16 states. School for
mentally handicapped children and vocational school are not displayed

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9.2 Earth Science Content in the Natural Science and Geography

Curricula

Within primary education there is a general science subject (“Sachun-

terricht”). This consists of social and natural sciences. After grade four
there is a typically differentiation into six subjects: physics, chemistry, bi-
ology, geography, history, and politics. Sometimes, especially within the
non-Gymnasium schools, these subjects are clustered to one subject for
natural sciences and one for social sciences until grade ten. Within such
clusters, geography is included in social science.
Each federal state defines its own curriculum for each subject at each
type of school. Therefore, there is a huge variety of curricula for each
subject across Germany, although standardization occurred over the last
15 years. The federal states developed together educational standards for
“Mittlerer Schulabschluss” for biology, chemistry and physics. These stan-
dards represent a framework for the specific lower secondary education-
curricula within the individual federal states. Because the federal states
did not develop standards for geography, the German Geographical So-
ciety (DGFG) developed such standards (DGFG, 2012). These standards
are not legally binding for the single federal states when they develop their
geography curriculum. Much geography curricula introduced in recent
years is, however, guided by these standards.
As outlined above, no subject like Earth science or geoscience exists
in Germany. Very rarely the subject “geology” is offered in the two last
years of gymnasium (grade 11/12) in some federal states. Within some
states compulsory optional subjects with an emphasis on Earth science are
offered to lower secondary classes (“Wahlpflichtkurse” or “Arbeitsgemein-
schaften”). The question of whether such courses exist depends mainly on
the initiative of individual teachers.
Earth science topics are mainly taught as geography. The educational
standards in geography view geography as “a centralizing subject for all
aspects of geosciences relevant to schools” (DGFG, 2012, p. 6). Therein
it refers to the “Leipzig Declaration of the German Geographical Society
and the Alfred-Wegener-Foundation” from 1996. Scientists from geogra-
phy and geoscience define the main role of geography for teaching geosci-
entific content within this document.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 9.1 Subject-specific knowledge (K) in the Educational Standards in Geography

relating to Earth Science topics (DGFG, 2012)

K1 Ability to describe the Earth as a planet

Students can
S11 describe the Earth’s fundamental planetary characteristics (e. g., size, shape, structure,
inclination of the Earth‘s axis, gravitational pull),
S2 explain the position and movement of the Earth in the solar system and the consequences thereof
(day and night, seasons).
K2 Ability to comprehend different types and scales of spaces as physical geographical systems
Students can
S3 outline the natural spheres of the Earth system (e. g., atmosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere,
biosphere, hydrosphere) and describe specific interactions,
S4 describe and explain current spatial aspects of physical geographical phenomena and structures (e.
g., volcanoes, earthquakes, drainage systems, karstic landforms),
S5 illustrate past and projected physical geographical spatial structures (e. g., movement of
geotectonic plates, glaciation),
S6 describe and explain the functioning of spatial physical geographical factors (e. g., significance of
climate for vegetation, of bedrock for soils),
S7 outline the operation of spatial physical geographical processes (e. g., weathering, weather events,
mountain formation),
S8 outline the interaction of geographic factors and simple cycles (e. g., altitudinal zones of
vegetation, ocean currents and climate, the ecosystem of tropical rainforests, the water cycle) as
systems,
S9 apply the knowledge acquired on the basis of examples to other spaces and places.
K4 Ability to analyze human-environment relations in different types and sizes of spatial divisions
Students can
S17 describe and analyze the functional and systemic interactions among physical and anthropogenic
factors in the use and shaping of spaces (e. g., choice of company location, agriculture, mining,
energy production, tourism, transport networks, urban ecology),
S18 illustrate the consequences of the use and shaping of spaces (e. g., forest clearance, water
pollution, soil erosion, natural catastrophes, climatic change, water shortages, soil salinization),
S19 explain and systematize the consequences of the use and shaping of spaces using selected
examples (e. g., desertification, migration, resource conflicts, ocean pollution),
S20 explain possible ecologically, socially and/or economically appropriate measures for the
development and protection of spaces (e. g., development of tourism, reforestation, linking-up of
biotopes, protection of geotopes),
S21 transfer knowledge to other spaces at the same or different scale and outline similarities and
differences (e. g., global environmental problems, regionalization, and globalization, capacity of the
Earth and sustainable development).
1 The abbreviation “S“ denotes the individual standards. In order not to break the flow when
reading, the term “geographical“ is used in the standards instead of the frequently used
“geographical/geoscientific“.

The educational standards in geography consist of the area of com-

petence “subject-specific knowledge (K)” and of more process-oriented
areas of competence: spatial orientation, gathering information/methods,
communication, evaluation, and action. Within “gathering information/
methods”, using maps and aerial photographs and other relevant sources is
mentioned, as well as gathering information in the field (e.g., observation,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

mapping, measuring, counting, taking samples).

By analyzing the subject-specific knowledge (Tab. 9.1) it is clear that
the main topics of Earth science education are covered by these standards.
However, more specific content such as volcanoes or the water cycle are
only mentioned as examples. Biology’s educational standards refer to the
topics of evolution and ecology (KMK, 2005).
Because the curricula vary both within and between federal states and
across the different types of schools, it is not possible to document specifi-
cally which topics are taught in German schools and at which grade. Tab.
9.2 highlights this diversity across the curricula for plate tectonics.

Table 9.2 The topic plate tectonics in the curricula of three different types of school from
two different German federal states (ISB, 2009; NKM 2014a; NKM 2014b; NKM 2015)

grade 5/6 grade 7/8 grade 10

Lower-Saxony
- Gesamtschule not mentioned in the curricula
- Realschule X
- Gymnasium X
Bavaria
- Gymnasium X

9.3 General Issues Regarding Earth Science at School

• Within many federal states the amount of geography has dimin-

ished over the last decades.
• A predominance of human geography over physical geography in
school curricula (ERNST, SALZMANN, 2004) and within the dis-
cipline of geography education (LETHMATE, 2013) is criticized.
• Many physical geographical topics in school deal with far distant
places. It is recommended to teach more local topics to allow for
more fieldwork (HARD, 1982; LETHMATE, 2011).
• In Germany a prospective teacher studies two subjects at universi-
ty. Few teachers study geography and a natural science. From a geo-
scientific perspective it is criticized that many geography teachers
lack fundamental knowledge of natural sciences (MARKL, 2002:
MOSBRUGGER; OTTO, 2006).
• The creation of a social science cluster in many types of second-
ary-I-schools leads to an “isolation” of geoscientific topics within

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

a “sea of social science topics”. These clusters are often taught by

teachers who have a degree in politics or history rather than geogra-
phy or any natural science.
• Conversely, an analysis of the German public revealed that the
discipline geography is associated more with physical geographical
topics than human geographical topics (GANS, HEMMER, 2015).
• Educational research revealed high student interest in the topic
“planet Earth” (HEMMER, HEMMER, 2010).
• A broad interdisciplinary research group conducted the project
“System Earth” to develop teaching material for upper secondary
classes and for elementary school (HLAWATSCH, ET AL., 2003).

9.4 Bringing students to IESO

German national teams participated in IESO since 2012. Students

and teachers do not feel comfortable joining the selection process, howev-
er, mainly due to absence of a school subject such as “Earth sciences”. The
schools that participated established optional courses for interested stu-
dents. A homepage informs those interested about the German selection
process, via the German Earth Science Olympiad (www.die-deutsche-
olympiade-der-geowissenschaften.de). There, teacher and students find
qualifying examinations and a contact address where they can register for
selection by December, 20th each year. The Olympiad is supported by the
German Geological Association (DGGV) and private sponsors.

9.5 Conclusion

The teaching of Earth Science topics in German Schools is charac-

terized by the lack of a dedicated school subject and by a hugely diverse
curricula resulting from different types of schools and different state regu-
lations. The school subject geography sees itself as the main subject for
teaching Earth Science topics. The Educational Standards in Geography
indicate the high relevance of these topics and may be a starting point
to develop a more coherent and binding framework, select which Earth
Science topics should be taught and at which stage. More comprehensive
Earth Science education within special courses at schools and student par-
ticipation at the national and international Earth Science Olympiads is
mainly the result of individual engaged teachers.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

References
DGFG (GERMAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY) Educational Standards
in Geography for the Intermediate School Certificate - with sample assign-
ments. Bonn: Selbstverlag Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geographie, 2012.

&3/45
.
4"-;."//
8
-FISQMÊOF
VOE
-FISQMBOFOUXJDLMVOH
*O

SCHALLHORN, E. (Ed.) Erdkunde Didaktik. Praxishandbuch für die Se-
kundarstufe I und II. Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. 2004. p. 119–137.

HARD, G. Physisch-geographische Probleme im Unterricht. In: JANDER, L.;

SCHRAMKE, W; WENZEL, H-J. (Eds.) Metzler Handbuch für den Geogra-
phieunterricht. Stuttgart: Metzlersche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1982. p. 273–289.

HECKMANN, T.; HORN, M. Zum Image der Geographie - Wissenschaft. In:

GANS, P; HEMMER, I. (Eds.) Zum Image der Geographie in Deutschland:
Ergebnisse einer empirischen Studie
-FJQ[JH
-FJCOJ[*OTUJUVU
GàS
-ÊOEFSLVO-
de. 2015. p. 64–76.

HEMMER, I.; HEMMER, M. Interesse von Schülerinnen und Schülern an ein-

zelnen Themen, Regionen und Arbeitsweisen des Geographieunterrichts – ein Ver-
gleich zweier empirischer Studien aus den Jahren 1995 und 2005. In: HEMMER,
I; HEMMER, M. (Eds.), Schülerinteresse an Themen, Regionen und Arbeits-
weisen des Geographieunterrichts. Ergebnisse der empirischen Forschung
und deren Konsequenzen für die Unterrichtspraxis. Weingarten: Selbstverlag
des Hochschulverbandes für Geographie und ihre Didaktik. 2010. p. 65–148.

HLAWATSCH, S.; BAYRHUBER, H.; EULER, M.; HANSEN, K.-H.; HIL-

DEBRANDT, K.; HOFFMANN, L;. LUCIUS, E.R.; SIEMER, F.; HASSEN-
PFLUG, W. Earth Systems Education in Germany. In: MAYER, V. (Ed.) Glob-
al Science Literacy. Ohio State: University. 2003. p. 155 – 166.

ISB (STAATSINSTITUT FÜR SCHULQUALITÄT UND BILDUNGS-

FORSCHUNG MÜNCHEN) Lehrplan Geographie – Jahrgang 10. 2009.
Available at: http://www.isb-gym8-lehrplan.de/contentserv/3.1.neu/g8.de/index.
php?StoryID=26481. Accessed: 01 June 2016.

KMK (SEKRETARIAT DER STÄNDIGEN KONFERENZ DER KULTUS-

MINISTER DER LÄNDER IN DER BUNDESREPUBLIK DEUTSCH-
LAND) Bildungsstandards im Fach Biologie für den Mittleren Schulab-
schluss - Beschluss vom 16.12.2004. München, Neuwied: Luchterhand. 2005.
LETHMATE, J. Ökosysteme und die “Neue Physiogeographie”: Didactical
Turn oder Return? Geographische Rundschau, n. 3, p. 54–56. 2011.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

LETHMATE, J. Rezension zu D. Kanwischer (Hrsg.) (2013): Geographiedi-

daktik. Ein Arbeitsbuch zur Gestaltung des Geographieunterrichts. Geographie
und ihre Didaktik v. 41, n. 4, p. 201-202. 2013.

NKM (NIEDERSÄCHSISCHES KULTUSMINISTERIUM) Erdkunde -

Kerncurriculum für die Realschule. Schuljahrgänge 5-10. Hannover: Uni-
druck. 2014a.

NKM (NIEDERSÄCHSISCHES KULTUSMINISTERIUM) Gesellschafts-

lehre. Kerncurriculum für die Integrierte Gesamtschule. Schuljahrgänge
5-10. Hannover: Unidruck. 2014b.

NKM (NIEDERSÄCHSISCHES KULTUSMINISTERIUM) Erdkunde -

Kerncurriculum für das Gymnasium. Schuljahrgänge 5-10. Hannover: Un-
idruck. 2015.

."3,-
(
(FPXJTTFOTDIBGUFO
JN
(FPHSBQIJFVOUFSSJDIU
FJO
1MÊEPZFS
geo-

graphie heute, n. 200, p. 20–22. 2002.

MOSBRUGGER, V.; OTTO, K.-H. Das System Erde-Mensch. Zukunftsauf-

gaben der Geowissenschaften in Schule und Gesellschaft. geographie heute, n.
240, p. 2–5. 2006.

Dirk Felzmann

Studied biology, geography and history.

His experiences as a school teacher in-
creased his interest in geography educa-
tion. He worked as a geography education
assistant at the University of Hannover,
where he finished his PhD on students’
conceptions of glaciers and ice ages in
2013. Since 2016, he is a junior professor
for geography education at the university
of Goettingen, Germany. University of Ko-
blenz-Landau, Campus Landau, Institute
for Science Education, Geography-Education Fortstrasse 7, 76829 Landau,
Germany, Phone: 0049 6341 28031182. E-mail: felzmann@uni-landau.de

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Sylke Hlawatsch

Dr. Sylke Hlawatsch studied Geology and

Paleontology at the Christian-Albrechts
University of Kiel, Germany. In 1998 she
received her PhD in Marine Geology
from the GEOMAR Research Center in
Kiel for her work on marine environmen-
tal geochemistry. After a postdoc position
in the same research area, she became a
researcher and project manager at the
Leibniz-Institute for Science Education
(IPN) in 2000, where she developed and
evaluated a federal geoscience education program with adjacent teaching
material for primary and secondary schools (Project “System Earth”) and
conducted research in geoscience education until 2009. At the same time
she also graduated as a geography and physics teacher from the Christian-
Albrechts University of Kiel, teaching secondary school for Geography,
Physics and Science ever since at the Richard Hallmann School (RHS),
Trappenkamp. She established a geoscience program at the RHS, which is
the first school in the state Schleswig-Holstein offering a four-year course
of four hours per week in geosciences from grade 7 to 10. From 2006
onwards, Dr. Hlawatsch was a senior officer for the International Geosci-
ence Education Organisation (Chair: 2010-2014) and coordinated the
German national team participation at the International Earth Science
Olympiad (IESO) since 2012. Richard-Hallmann Schule Gablonzerstrasse
42 24610 Trappenkamp. E-mail: kontakt@sylke-hlawatsch.de

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 Chapter 10

Earth Science Education and the

National Earth Science Olympiad for
Secondary School in Indonesia
Hendra Amijaya

Abstract

Indonesia is located in a complex geographical-geological setting.

Considering that fact, Earth science should act as the backbone of teach-
ing and learning natural sciences in the schools to understand the natural
conditions of Indonesia. In secondary school, Earth science is included
in geography, mixed with human and social geography. This means that
Earth science education receives limited attention. Efforts to increase stu-
dent competency in Earth sciences are needed.
One way to improve students’ interest in natural sciences, Earth sci-
ence in particular, is to invite them into a competition. Basic competen-
cies in Earth science are expected to increase through this method. Since
2008, Earth science is included in the National Science Olympiad (NSO)
scheme, which is conducted annually by the Ministry of Education and
Culture as part of a government program. Selected high school students
compete in the NSO after passing through local selection processes in
their schools, regencies and provinces. The impact of the National Earth
Science Olympiad is quite enormous. Students’ willingness to study Earth
science increases after introducing this program.

Keywords: Earth science, secondary school, student competency, Na-

tional Science Olympiad, Indonesia

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

10.1 Introduction

Indonesia is a unique region in terms of its geographical-geological set-

ting. Geologically, Indonesia is situated at the south-east edge of Eurasian
plate where it meets other tectonic plates (Pacific, Indo-Australian and the
small Philippine plate). The result is that Indonesia is located in a seismi-
cally active zone directly along the “Ring of Fire”. Indonesia also lies in a
tropical area between two oceans (Pacific and Indian) and two continents
(Asia and Australia), which yields a typical humid tropical climate year-
round with high precipitation during the rainy season.
The Ministry of Education and Culture of The Republic of Indone-
sia (2013a) states that a student’s basic competency in secondary school
should be fulfilled according to the 2013 curriculum: to understand, apply
and explain factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge
in science, technology, art and culture. This demand is quite high, requir-
ing extra effort to actualize.
In terms of natural science education, Earth science should act as the
backbone of teaching and learning to understand the natural conditions
of Indonesia. In secondary school however, Earth science is included in
geography, mixed with human and social geography. This means Earth
science education receives limited attention. An effort to increase the stu-
dent’s competency in Earth science is needed.
To entice students to learn more about Earth science and to improve
the competency of Earth science education, a structured activity is needed.
Therefore, since 2008, Earth science is included as one of the competition
subjects in the National Science Olympiad (NSO) for high school stu-
dents. This Olympiad is conducted annually by the Ministry of Education
and Culture as part of a governmental program. Students from all prov-
inces in Indonesia are selected. Selection is conducted at the local level in
the schools, regencies and provinces before the national competition. This
paper presents an overview of the Earth science teaching system and the
science Olympiad program in Indonesia.

10.2 The Earth Science Teaching System in Indonesian Secondary Schools

In secondary education, Earth science is not taught as a special sub-

ject but included within geography. Basically, the subject is presented as a
combination of physical geography (introduction to Earth and planetary

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

science) and human/social geography. Due to this fusion, geography is

thus included in the social science portion of the curriculum structure.
In the Junior High Schools (7th-9th grade), students are introduced to
maps, the Earth’s surface and interior, endogenous and exogenous process-
es, rocks and soil, and the atmosphere and hydrosphere. A small discussion
about geo-resources and geo-hazards is also included. In the Senior High
School level (10th-12th grade), students are expected to understand the dy-
namics of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, as well as the dy-
namics of solar system. Students also learn the effects of those dynamics
on the availability of geo-resources and occurrences of geo-hazards.
As mentioned above, Earth science is included within geography, mixed
with human and social geography. Therefore, Earth science is only consid-
ered in physical geography chapters, resulting in limited learning time, which
means basic expected competencies sometimes can not be fully achieved.
Moreover, Earth science education focuses only on spatial aspects and typi-
cally lacks discussion of the temporal-dynamical aspects of the Earth.
Teachers responsible for teaching this subject have mainly matriculat-
ed from geography programs, although some provinces in Indonesia even
lack geography teachers, requiring these positions be filled by teachers
from other natural science subjects such as biology or physics. Geography
textbooks are available for each education level, but the challenge is that
geography education is generally not accompanied by exercises or practical
activities, which are critically important for learning Earth science.

Some deficiencies identified in teaching Earth science as “physical ge-

ography” are:

1. Some basic Earth science knowledge, such as rock or soil formation

and classification, processes on Earth, plate tectonics, etc. is not cor-
rectly introduced to students. This is mostly because geography teach-
ers have only limited understanding of Earth science. It also stems
from the broad range of subjects, from physical to human and social
geography, they are required to teach.
2. Each chapter of physical geography (and therefore Earth science) is
discussed as a separate topic. It creates the impression that there is no
relationship between each topic. Earth is discussed only as “a space”,
but not as “an evolving space”. This results in a lack of understand-
ing of the interrelationships between all processes on Earth and of the
Earth as a dynamic system.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

3. The lack of real and attractive examples, such as mineral/rock sam-

ples and field visits, creates the perception that this subject is uninter-
esting and rather difficult to understand.

10.3 Earth Science Education Competency Improvement in Indonesia

To provide a baseline standard of education, the government estab-

lished a standard curriculum for all school levels. The curriculum was
changed or modified several times, with the 2013 version the most cur-
rently applied model. According to Suyanto (2003), attention to improv-
ing teaching methods and student creativity seems to be overlooked in
each of the past curriculum updates. Students act only as recipients of the
teaching. The teachers present all materials without any student involve-
ment in the learning processes. The implication of this (didactic) teaching
system is that students know a lot of information with no understanding
or connection to their daily life
According to the Ministry of Education and Culture, an indicator of
high quality education is that which can deliver graduates who: (1) master
the basic skills, (2) think rationally and independently, and (3) master gen-
eral knowledge of various subjects (Dikdasmen, 2003). In accordance with
that, the Ministry of Education and Culture released the CBC (Compe-
tency Based Curriculum) in 2004 to improve the quality of education in
schools. The main idea of this curriculum is positioning students as the
focus of the teaching and learning process. Teachers basically act as facili-
tators and motivators, while students are conditioned to take a more active
role in their learning (known as a “student centered learning process”).
In the past, poor Earth science understanding resulted in a system
that neglected the importance of science in daily life. For example, when
geo-hazards such as landslides, floods, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions
occur, it is hard to warn and protect the public because they do not obey
warnings due to their lack of understanding. The CBC is the practical so-
lution proposed for implementation in Earth science education (Ministry
of Education and Culture, 2013b). Therein, the concept of the Earth as a
dynamic system is enriched. Students are motivated to learn not only in
the classroom, but also in the field predominantly by observing and learn-
ing directly from their environment. However, the lack of teachers able
to manage all subjects and educational funding, especially for laboratory
equipment, continues to exacerbate the educational problems.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

10.4 From the National Science Olympiad Towards the International

Science Olympiad

Teachers and students need a structured activity to support the imple-

mentation of competency based curriculum and boost their interest in study-
ing natural sciences, especially Earth science. One effective way is to offer
a competition for students to showcase and be rewarded for their abilities.

The NSO is an annual science competition for students in Indonesia

held by The Directorate General of Primary and Secondary Education of
The Ministry of Education and Culture. The NSO for Primary and Sec-
ondary Schools commenced in 2000, with Earth science added for high
schools in 2008, following on from participation in other subjects (physics,
biology, mathematics, chemistry, informatics, astronomy and economics).
Student selection for the NSO starts at the school level in March each
year. School representatives are then selected at the city/regency level,
which is usually conducted in April. Winners of this selection round then
progress on to the province level in June. Between 1500-1600 students
from all of Indonesia participate in the National Earth Science Olympiad
at this level every year.
The NSO usually occurs in August. About 90-100 students are invited
to join the national selection process. Those students participate in a week-
long program in which they sit written and practical tests in addition to
extracurricular activities such as excursions and cultural visits (Fig. 10.1).
The top 30 students are deemed winners to be trained and selected from
as the four Indonesian delegates to the International Earth Science Olym-
piads (IESO) in the following year.
This activity definitely attracts students to learn more about Earth sci-
ence. Additionally, it is an effective way to improve Earth science educa-
tion competencies as teachers and students are encouraged to study well
beyond the school curriculum.

10.5 Conclusions

Currently, Earth science education still receives limited attention

at the secondary school level in Indonesia. Efforts to increase students’
competency in Earth science is, however, needed. Inviting students into a
competition can tempt students to learn more about Earth science and im-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

prove the overall capacity for Earth science education. Since 2008, Earth
science is included into the National Science Olympiad scheme. Students
follow a prescribed selection process, with winners trained and further
selected to compete at the IESO the next year.

References
DIKDASMEN (GENERAL DIRECTORATE FOR PRIMARY DAN SEC-
ONDARY EDUCATION), 2003. Kebijakan dan Program Pelaksanaan 2003
dan Perencanaan 2004 Dikdasmen, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Republik
Indonesia.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE, 2013a. Kurikulum 2013

Kompetensi Dasar Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA)/Madrasah Aliyah (MA), 195 p.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE, 2013b. Kurikulum 2013 Kom-

petensi Dasar Geografi Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA)/Madrasah Aliyah (MA), 11 p.

SUYANTO, 2003. Persoalan Implementasi Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi,

Available at: www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0310/06/Didaktika/604355.htm

Fig. 10.1 Students taking the written test (a) and practical test (b) during the National
Earth Science Olympiad

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Hendra Amijaya

Dr. Hendra Amijaya graduated from the

Department of Geological Engineering
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, In-
donesia with an M.Eng degree. He re-
ceived his PhD from the RWTH, Aachen,
Germany. He is now an Associate Profes-
sor at Gadjah Mada University. He be-
came involved in Earth Science education
in 2007 as a jury member for The Nation-
al Science Olympiad, held by Ministry of
Education and Culture of Indonesia an-
nually. He is actively involved as a mentor for the Earth Science training
programs for teachers and students. He is the Indonesian IESO Team
coordinator since 2008. Department of Geological Engineering, Gadjah
Mada University, Jalan Grafika 2, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia. E-mail:
hamijaya@ugm.ac.id

129
 Chapter 11

Geoscience Education in Iran

Masoud Kimiagari and Maryam Abedini

Abstract

Earth and space science is a significant part of the science curriculum

in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In primary and middle school, Geoscience
is included in the general science curriculum. But Earth and Space Sci-
ence is an independent and separate subject in high school. Physical and
historical geology, astronomy and applied geology are the main topics of
interest in the mentioned curriculum. Inquiry-based learning is the main
approach of Earth science instruction in Iran, but textbooks function as
the main resources for teachers.

Key words: Earth and space science, progressive education, science

curriculum, learning approaches, instructional method

11.1 Introduction

Formal education in the Islamic Republic of Iran includes both pri-

mary and secondary sections (Tab. 11.1). Elementary includes first and
second rounds. There are also two rounds for secondary, the first is equiva-
lent to middle school and the secondary or high school in other countries.
In the first and second periods of primary and middle school Earth
and space science is part of the general science curriculum. Usually, it com-
prises about 15 to 25 percent of the content in science books. Typically,
2-3 of the 12-14 science learning units include geoscience and astronomy.
The main topics of these units are: understanding and classification of our
planet’s materials, including air, water in its various forms, rocks, and soil.
These topics continue on in high school as progressive education. For ex-
ample, in the first round of primary school, children get acquainted with de-
scriptive classification of rocks based on their visible features, but progress in
the second round on to classify rocks based on their genesis. Environmental

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

issues such as air and water pollution also constitute part of the curriculum.
The position and movements of the Earth and solar system are the primary
space science topics. Endogenous and exogenous changes, a brief history
of the Earth, the main surface features of the planet, and Earth’s internal
structure are important parts of the content of second round elementary
section. Some issues related to the Earth sciences, such as geomorphology or
orientation and maps are presented in Geography lessons
In the first period of high school (middle school), Earth science is still
a part of the general science curriculum. At this learning stage, students
continue the former topic progression, moving on to the economic im-
portance of rocks and minerals, and conservation of natural and water
resources. The theory of plate tectonics as the unifying paradigm for geo-
sciences is introduced at this stage.
In the second section of high school, geology or Earth sciences is in-
cluded within the natural sciences stream provided during the eleventh
and twelfth years. In addition to promoting issues discussed in prior peri-
ods, the high school geology curriculum proposes teaching more detailed
rock and mineral classification, using evidence to reconstruct Earth’s his-
tory, becoming acquainted with geological maps and using them to obtain
geological data and understand structural geology. A proposed new ver-
sion of the secondary curriculum contains environmental science, however
the content of this course is still uncertain.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 11.1 Educational system in I. R. Iran and earth science content in courses
(curriculum and textbooks)

Stage Round Year Earth and Space Science Courses Main Topics
Air, water, rocks
4 units Integrated in science cur-
1 and soil observable
riculum as separate sections
properties
Earth rotation (day-
one 3 units Integrated in science cur- night cycle), seasons,
2
riculum as separate sections air and water pol-
lution
2 units Integrated in science cur- Water cycle and
3
riculum as separate sections resources

Elementary Genesis of three main

2 units Integrated in science cur-
4 kinds of rocks- plan-
riculum as separate sections
ets, moon and stars
Formation and prop-
2 units Integrated in science cur-
5 erties of soil- a short
riculum as separate sections
two history of earth
Internal structure
of earth- endogenic
2 units Integrated in science cur-
6 phenomena such
riculum as separate sections
as earthquakes and
volcanoes
Minerals and ores-
3 units Integrated in science cur- water resources such
7 as rivers and ground-
riculum as separate sections
water
Properties and uses
Middle-school 3 units Integrated in of some minerals-
8 science curriculum as simple classification
9 separate sections of rocks- weather-
ing-
Fossils and earth
3 units Integrated in
history- simple
science curriculum as
astronomy- plate
separate sections
tectonics
10 -
A Geology Applied geology,
course for specially geotech-
only math- 3 units of nics, medical geol-
High-school physics and environ- ogy, economic geol-
11 experimental mental ogy, geotourism and
12 sciences science a simple geological
branches of course history of Iran
academic
stream.
- -

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

11.2 Learning Approach and Instructional Methods

A constructivist approach guides the main strategies proposed for

teaching Earth and space sciences. This method begins by asking ques-
tions or presenting challenges. From this starting point, students partici-
pate in activities to test their ideas and finally form conclusions based on
their evidence. This sets the stage for conceptualizing abstract or com-
plex ideas. The complementary phase provides students an opportunity
to elaborate with additional activities or assignments that allow them to
consolidate and deepen their understanding of new concepts.
Many teachers try to teach geological concepts with hands-on experi-
ences in natural environment. These hands-on activities create fertile ground
for discovering patterns and relationships. Sometimes, in certain situations,
teachers may use simulations and experiences in virtual environments. Vari-
ous representations of scientific models, such as drawing, physical and vir-
tual models and role play are used to explain patterns and relationships.
In first grade (primary section), about 25 percent of total book pages
focus on Earth science. These topics are about Earth’s materials including
air, water, soil, and rocks. The rock unit teaches the use of variations in
color, texture, shape, and heft to classify rocks, where they are found, and
transportation in streams. The soil unit focuses on soil type variations,
including color, touch, and main constituents therein, the main properties
of soils (e.g. permeability), and the importance of soil for agriculture and
providing food for humans. The water unit looks at the different forms of
water in nature and their transformations. The air unit includes hands-on
activities to experience air characteristics and the effects of air and wind on
life and changes to other materials.
In second grade, three Earth and space science units comprise about
20 percent of the book pages. In the healthy air and water unit, students
learn about the main sources of environmental pollution and methods
to decrease it, such as recycling and improving traffic. Earth’s rotation
and its effects, such as the diurnal cycles, and its revolution around sun
and seasonal cycles are additional topics in the second unit science book.
Winds and their geological significance in arid areas are also among the
core ideas in this grade.
Third grade contains two units of Earth science. In these chapters, stu-
dents learn by hands-on and minds-on activities about water changes in
nature. The main topic of these learning units is the water cycle, including
the subtopics running water, ground water, water in seas and oceans, and
the importance of water resources.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Earth and space topics in fourth grade are the main rock types and
the solar system. In the rocks unit, students learn how to classify familiar
rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic based on characteristics
that provide clues to their genesis. In the night sky chapter, the solar system
is the central topic, with the Sun, planets, Earth’s moon and its phases as
subtopics. Modeling is an essential teaching method in these lessons.
In fifth grade, Earth history and soil are main Earth science subjects.
The Earth history chapter focuses on fossils and their application in re-
constructing Earth’s history, and relatively dating and interpreting envi-
ronmental changes. The emphasis of the chapter on precious soil is soil
formation and identifying its essential components, such as humus. Soil
erosion and preventative methods are also included in this chapter.
Sixth grade geoscience is focused on the Earth’s internal structure
and evidence of the planet’s restlessness. In one of these chapters, students
learn about the physical and chemical properties of Earth’s interior, espe-
cially those that effect seismic waves traveling through rocks. Students are
presented with a classification scheme of Earth’s internal layers, based on
these changes in material properties. These layers include the crust, mantle
and core (based on chemical properties), and lithosphere, asthenosphere in
upper mantle, lower mantle and inner and outer core (based on physical
properties). Earthquakes and volcanoes as clues to Earth’s internal heat
engine, is also presented in this grade.

11.3 Middle School (Juniors High) Earth and Space Science

Earth and space science is also one of fields in the middle school gen-
eral science curriculum. In seventh grade, Earth science includes minerals
and ores, water cycle components, and essentials of hydrogeology, pro-
gressing from the elementary curriculum.
Some of the important topics in this grade are: properties and eco-
nomic applications of ores and industrial minerals, environmental issues
in mining and industrial uses of natural resources, cloud formation and
precipitation (including rain, snow and hail), watersheds and river basins,
lakes, seas and seashores, movements of seawater, glaciers and their forma-
tion, groundwater and subsurface water distribution, porosity and perme-
ability, aquifers (confined and open) and water table changes in aquifers,
water quality and pollution.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

In eighth grade, students are supposed to study three chapters about

minerals, rocks and weathering. In the minerals unit, in addition to their
applications and genesis, their environmental issues, such as asbestosis, are
discussed. In the second Earth science topic of this grade, the main fea-
tures of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are presented with
the rock cycle context. Gabbro, basalt, granite, rhyolite, diorite, and an-
desite are the main igneous rocks compared based on their mineralogical
content and textures. The main sedimentary rocks in this grade are terrig-
enous, evaporates and biochemical. Chemical and mechanical weathering,
along with some modes of erosion, constitute the final chapter.
Plate tectonics, historical geology and Earth in space are main parts of
the ninth grade content. In plate tectonics, after a description of the evi-
dence in its historical context, three boundary types are compared based
on the phenomena that occur along each boundary and their mechanisms.
The main topic of historical geology is fossils and their uses, specifically
determining ages of rock layers and reconstructing environmental con-
ditions when the rocks formed. The section on space includes the main
topics: stars and constellations, navigation using them, galaxies and the
Milky Way, our solar system including the Sun, planets, satellites, aster-
oids, and finally space journeys.

11.4 High School Earth and Space Sciences

In the second round of secondary section, Earth and space science

is part of the 11th grade curriculum, but it is confined to the experimen-
tal science and math-physics branches. Some of the most important sub-
jects in this textbook include chemical and physical properties of miner-
als and their classification, endogenous and exogenous phenomena that
sculpt the Earth, structural geology, dating and historical geology, and
stratigraphy. But a large part of the content of the textbook is devoted to
applied geology. In this year’s curriculum topics covered include geotech-
nics, hydrology and hydrogeology, mining and economic geology, medi-
cal geology, engineering geology, geology of fossil fuels, geo-tourism, and
the geological aspects of natural hazards. Although some activities in the
curriculum of this time exist, the prevailing approach is transitional and
content-oriented. In addition of this course, another one titled Human
and Environment (environmental science) consists of three chapters on
soil, atmosphere and hydrosphere. In this textbook some geologic concepts
integrated with some other scientific content are also presented.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Maryam Abedini

Represents the Education and Research

Planning Organization to the Ministry of
Education in the National Earth Science
and Water committee of UNESCO Iran.
She is the author of all Iranian course books
of geology, the Earth and experimental sci-
ence. The chairman and observer of the
Earth science students national Olympiad.
The chief editor of geology teachers’ associ-
ation. The editor of Roshd National Net-
work (fields of geology, geography and as-
tronomy). A member of the planning council in the fields of geology and
geography and also course books of elementary schools and high schools. The
manager and journalist to Roshd magazine in geology, providing more than
60 articles on different education topics and geology in journals at home and
abroad. Her focus is on optimizing Earth science education in formal train-
ing as a geology teacher with more than 20 years of experience. Curriculum
and Textbooks Development Office, Iran. E-mail: ma2006geo@yahoo.com

Masoud Kimiagari

Holds a PhD in Earth Science (Stratigraphy and Paleontology) from

the University of Isfahan. A full-time faculty member at Farhangyan Uni-
versity (a university for pre-service teachers), teaching Science Education
and Geoscience. He has also taught Earth Science at colleges, universities
and high schools in Isfahan, Iran. Dr Kimiagari is a researcher who has
written books (Elements of Stratigraphy and Micropaleontology), papers
on Earth Science (Depositional environment and Sequence Stratigraphy
of the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation in SW Iran, Study of Micro-
facies and Sedimentary Environment of the Asmari Formation in LALI
area (SW IRAN)), and Earth science Education (Models and Modeling,
Graphic Organizers in Geoscience Teaching, and Inquiry-based Methods
in the Instruction of Earth Science). Farhangyan teacher’s education Univer-
sity, Iran. E-mail: kimiagari@cfu.ac.ir

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 Chapter 12

Israeli Earth science education in

schools
Nir Orion

Abstract

The Israeli Earth science curriculum is based on a holistic Earth sys-

tems approach. The main goal of this curriculum is to develop environ-
mentally literate citizens. The curriculum materials emphasize the devel-
opment of thinking skills such as scientific thinking, spatial and temporal
thinking and systems thinking. Learning is inquiry based in variety of
learning environments: laboratory, outdoor and computer.
Israeli Earth science education made meaningful progress over
the last two decades, however its status in schools is still lower than
the other sciences. The low status of Israeli Earth science education, as in
many other countries, results from being trapped between the Devil
and the deep blue sea: the conservative science education establishment,
with its combination of ignorance and feelings of superiority preventing
Earth sciences from taking an equal share in the school science curricu-
la, and the geography education establishment, which refuses to free the
Earth sciences and drowns it in social sciences lacking the knowledge to
deal properly with this natural science field, from a combination of self-
ishness and feelings of inferiority. Only major involvement and vigorous
action of leading Earth scientists among the top decision makers in the
Ministry of Education might improve the status and profile of Earth
science education in schools.

Key words: Earth science education, Earth systems education, inquiry

based learning

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

12.1 Introduction

As other western countries, Israeli science education was influenced by

waves of reforms, which moves like a pendulum between the constructiv-
ist paradigm and the essentialist conservative anti-educational paradigm.
In the 90s, science education reform was due to the following three inter-
related paradigms:

• The “Science for all” paradigm: wherein the main goal of science
education is to educate our future citizens rather than preparing them
to be future scientists.
• The constructivist paradigm: the educational model, which places
the student at the center of the educational process.
• The “green” paradigm: the awareness of the environment in our daily
lives. The “green” paradigm

This reform enabled Earth sciences education in Israel to move from

being part of geography education to become an independent course of
learning within the science curricula. The transition of Earth sciences
from a neglected ancillary part of the geography curricula to an integral
compulsory part of the science curricula was a long incremental process.
As a result, a K-12 Earth science program was developed and implemented
in the kindergarten, elementary and junior high school as part of the sci-
ence curricula and as an independent scientific discipline in high school.
Each of the 40 K-12 learning units that were developed have the
following characteristics:

1. Design based research.

2. Inquiry based learning.
3. Learning sequences gradually shift from the concrete to the abstract.
4. Context based learning (authentic and relevant context).
5. The outdoor learning environment is a central component.
6. Cover story.
7. Cross-curricular approach.
8. Adjusting the learning process for variant abilities learners.
9. Development of high order thinking skills.
10. Using the emotional aspect as a key for the cognitive aspect
(Integration of the metacognitive aspect of learning).
These highly professional Earth systems inquiry-based learning

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

units presented significant challenges for science teachers with no experi-

ence with such holistic teaching approaches, neither as teachers nor as
learners. Therefore, implementing the Earth systems approach involved
a massive in-service training program for elementary and junior high
school teachers. However, for many teachers who had not previously ex-
perienced a learner-centered approach, such a change required a paradigm
shift, which many of them resisted. Since the Earth systems pedagogical
philosophy was (and still is) that quality is the essence of any educational
process, implementing the Earth systems unit was offered to elementary
and junior high school science teachers as privilege rather than an obli-
gation. After a 5-year implementation program, hundreds of elementary
and junior high school science teachers adopted the Earth systems based
approach for teaching all aspects of the science curricula.
The enthusiasm of the students and their parents of the Earth systems
science learning attracted more schools to join the program.
Unfortunately, in the early 2000s, the Israeli education system was
washed over by the dark wave of standardized and over testing (national
and international tests). As a result, teachers were forced to stop the
inquiry based learning indoors and outdoors and were forced to prepare
students for tests. This process has completely washed the Earth science
program out of the junior high school science curricula over the past
two decades. Fortunately, there are several schools that survived this
destructive wave at the elementary level .
The shadow that the right-wing conservative government imposes
over the Israeli educational system also has an adverse effect on the high
school Earth science program. However, despite that murky wave, the
determination of the Earth science program’s leaders enables it to survive
and to exist as an independent discipline in the Israeli high schools.

12.2 Goal and objectives of the Israeli Earth sciences curricula

The main educational goal of the Earth science curricula is the devel-
opment of environmental insight. This can be achieved by internalizing
the following principles:

• We live in a cycling world that is built upon a series of sub-systems

(geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere) that interact
through an exchange of energy and materials;

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

• Understanding that people are a part of nature, and thus must act in
harmony with its “laws” of cycling.

This goal can be achieved through fulfilling the following objectives:

1. Acquiring basic scientific knowledge concerning the content and

structure of the Earth’s physical systems and the processes that occur
within them.
2. Acknowledging and understanding the interrelationships among
Earth’s systems that are based on transfer of matter and energy be-
tween and among them.
3. Understanding the human system among the other Earth systems.
4. Developing basic scientific skills of observation and the ability to
distinguish between observations, conclusions and assumptions.
5. Developing thinking skills unique to Earth sciences: spatial and
temporal (deep time) thinking.
6. Developing cyclic and systems thinking skills, which are needed
for developing environmental insight.
7. Using the Earth sciences as a concrete and authentic platform for
understanding abstract chemical and physical principles.
8. Developing appreciation for the beauty and uniqueness of our planet.

12.2.1 Fulfilling the objectives

Fulfilling the goals and objectives of Earth systems science required

a holistic approach based on simultaneous efforts in all facets of the edu-
cational system.

• A holistic framework for Earth science curricula - Earth systems.

• A holistic learning environments approach: outdoors, lab, computer
and classroom.
• The holistic Research-Development-Implementation spiral approach.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

12.3 The Earth science high school program

The high school Earth science curriculum is an inquiry-based, learner-

centered Earth systems program that integrates lab, outdoor, computer,
and classroom learning environments. This program has three main com-
ponents:
The introductory unit: This 270 learning hours unit involves acquain-
tance with Earth’s systems and the interrelationships between and
among them. It emphasizes the rock cycle and other biogeochemical cycles
in the context of plate tectonics and Earth’s structure. Another program
emphasis is the role of society within Earth’s systems. Most of the learning
in this unit takes place in the lab and outdoor learning environments. An
integral part of this unit is four one-day field trips and one two-day field
trip. Each field trip includes 5-8 learning stops where students explore
a few Earth system phenomena and identify the interrelations between
the systems that are expressed by a concrete phenomenon. Following the
field trip, students have to submit a report wherein they must engage their
high order (cyclic, dynamic, etc.) thinking skills. Students identify cycles
of matter and energy and interrelationships between the Earth systems
that they were able to identify at the various field sites.
The Earth systems unit: This 90 learning hours unit was developed
to strengthen the students’ Earth systems knowledge and system thinking
abilities initiated in the introductory unit. The unit starts with a two-day
field camp to a small part of the Rift valley in northern Israel, which
clearly expresses the natural Earth systems and the inter-relationships
among them. The field camp also includes interactions with serious envi-
ronmental problems, which were caused by non-sustainable development
policies of the local inhabitants.
Following the introductory field camp, each student can choose to
study one of the following Earth systems units:

(a) The carbon cycle and global warming (atmosphere and Earth systems);
(b) Oceanography (oceans and Earth systems);
(c) The Blue Planet (hydrosphere and Earth systems);
(d) Earthquakes in an environmental perspective (geosphere and
Earth systems);
(e) From Dinosaurs to Darwin (biosphere and Earth systems).

Each of these five units is structured around inquiry-based learning

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

and includes a final individual project. The students were instructed to in-
clude a systemic Earth systems analysis of the phenomenon they explored.
The Geotop unit: This unit is an investigative project that involves
field and laboratory work. It engages scientific investigation processes by
identifying research questions, making observations, collecting data, data
analysis, and writing a scientific report.

12.4 The Earth Science Cross-Country class – an outreach program

The Earth Science Cross-Country (ESCC) class is a Web based pro-

gram allowing high school students to major in Earth science. The reason
for the development of this class is to bypass the Ministry of education’s
policy that places Earth sciences at a disadvantage relative to other sci-
ences. This policy causes many high schools’ principals to avoid offering
their students the option to study Earth science. Thus, the ESCC allows
us to pass over the principals’ heads and reach interested students from
schools all over the country directly.
The ESCC class program is identical to the regular Earth Science
high school major curriculum. Thus, although it is mostly a distant learn-
ing class, the learning is still inquiry-based in various learning environ-
ments: class, lab, computer and field.
The two-year program is structured to provide students with basic
scientific skills. Year 1: The focus is on rock, carbon and energy cycles in
nature, as well as plate tectonics. Five field trips followed by field reports give
the student a chance to practice and gain confidence in (1) makin observa-
tions and creating a new thesis; (2) analyzing feedbacks in complex systems;
(3) self-managing time and resources in a scientific process.
By Year 2 the students work in tight collaboration with academic
researchers from Earth science departments from various universities. Stu-
dents are paired with a research lab according to their interests to
perform field and theoretical experiments such as: (1) Modeling future im-
plications of climate change on the Mediterranean basin via paleoclimate
analysis of a Foraminiferal collection; (2) Reconstructing the Geological
history of the Red-Canyons region by mapping the crystalline bedrock.
Since its inception, the ESCC attracted learners from a vast range of
locations, ages and scientific backgrounds. Facilitating this wide variety of
learners along with the program’s complex array of pedagogy is chal-
lenging, but very successful.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

“One of the things I love the most about learning Earth science is
how it all suddenly connects. I see how things, small things excite me and
make me happy. Just recently, I said to myself: Wow! Maybe when I grow
up I will be a Geologist, or maybe I’ll be one of the people who teach this
program.” (A 12th grade student of ESCC).

12.5 Participation of Israeli Earth science students in the IESO

The decision for the Israel team to participate in the IESO came af-
ter much deliberation and lengthy discussions. This was controversial,
since the connection between education and competition contradicts the
educational perception of the Israeli program. The decision to participate
was based on the following three reasons: (a) to provide students the op-
portunity to become acquainted with new places in the world and connect
with new cultures; (b) to try to influence the educational perspective of the
IESO; and (c) public relations through the Israeli media. It is important to
note that since the Ministry of Education does not fund the delegation to
the IESO, public relations focus only on increasing public awareness of
Earth science within schools and not for the personal public relations of
the Minister of Education.
IESO participants are selected only from high school students who
study Earth science as a major discipline. The team selection process has
three stages. The first (national) stage includes all Earth science students
indicated by their teachers as as having high potential prospects. Stu-
dents are evaluated in six categories: knowledge; ability to deal with
several hours multiple choice written tests; oral presentation skills; Eng-
lish communication; social skills; and leadership skills.
The best eight students are invited to a two-day camp, which enables
the mentors to get a better impression of the students’ abilities. The camp
also includes some subject learning that receives relatively less attention
in the program. But on the whole, the students who participate in the
ISEO arrive with the knowledge and skills that they acquired through
the regular school program.
Following their participation in the Olympiad, the four members
of the team share their experiences of the IESO in their schools and
with students of others school and became ambassadors of the Earth sci-
ence program. The follow-up activities include the Earth science teachers
as well in a whole day meeting, where they review the different assign-
ments of the ISEO and discuss what they can learn and adopt from that.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

12.6 Summary

Israeli Earth science education made meaningful progress during the

last two decades, however its status in schools is still lower than the other
sciences. The main obstacle is the science education establishment that
includes bureaucrats and scientist, who hold an old fashioned (17th Cen-
tury) perception of the essence science and therefore do not understand
the importance of this scientific field. The result is that Earth science
education in Israel, as in many other countries worldwide, is trapped
between a rock and a hard place. Only significant involvement and vig-
orous action from leading Earth scientists among the top decision makers
in the Ministry of Education might improve the situation for Earth
science education in schools.

Prof. Nir Orion

Prof. Nir Orion received his BSc from the

Hebrew University of Jerusalem in geology
and biology in 1980. He earned his MSc in
1984 and his PhD in 1990 from the Weiz-
mann Institute’s Department of Science
Teaching. He established the Earth and En-
vironmental Sciences education Group in
1996 and a Full Professor since 2013.
Prof. Orion is a pioneer in earth science
education and his innovations range
from the kindergarten to high school
re- search projects. Altogether he and his team have developed about
40 sci- ence programs. He has helped elevate earth science education and
the outdoors learning environment as an integral and legitimate part of the
Israeli education system.
In 2004, UNESCO adopted Prof. Orion’s Blue Planet curriculum for
junior high school students, translating it into five languages and distrib-
uting it worldwide. Blue Planet like all his curriculum matrials promotes
the development of environmental insight through understanding of the
interrelationships of the earth systems including human. His materials
and methods are spreading worldwide through workshops for teachers in
many countries such as Argentina, Chile, Brazil, India, Peru, USA, Uru-
guay, Portugal, Spain, Germany.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Since 1998, Prof. Orion has been Coordinator of Earth Science Edu-
cation for the Israeli Ministry of Education. In 2001 he was awarded the
Israeli Geological Society Medal for his contribution to society through
earth science education and in 2012 he recieved the prestigious IUGS Sci-
ence Excellence Award on Geological Education.
He is married with two children and enjoys Israeli folk dancing and
trekking. Department of Science Teaching, Weizmann Institute of Science,
Israel. E-mail: nir.orion@weizmann.ac.il

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 Chapter 13

The teaching-learning of earth science

in Italy
Susanna Occhipinti, Emanuele Piccioni, Lorenzo Lancellotti

Abstract

The general opinion of schools and society regarding Earth sciences

is biased towards natural catastrophes or simple collectibles, resulting in
minimal attention in Italian educational systems. School teachers’ back-
ground and in-service development often neglects this field of the scientific
panorama, regardless of its calculated economical and social importance.
Recent reforms of the Italian school systems attempt to direct interest to-
wards geosciences, but the long-required turn towards a more investigative
approach or problem-based learning, with adequate laboratory supports,
still seems remote. Teachers’ associations, such as the National Association
of Natural Sciences Teachers (ANISN), and academic institutions, such
as the University of Camerino, are trying to boost interest in schools and
in the higher levels of the Italian educational system. Through organizing
and supporting the Natural Sciences Olympiads that contain a full sec-
tion on Earth Sciences, these associations help Italian students participate
in the International Earth Science Olympiads programs. The need for an
Earth science epistemology, the persistent lack thereof, and resultant con-
sequences are also discussed.

Keywords: geosciences, school education system, student olympiads,

epistemology

13.1 Introduction

In Italy, as in many other countries, the feeling of pupils, students,

and even common people towards Earth sciences is strongly conditioned
by the idea that Geology is only concerned with “stones and catastro-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

phes”. Earth sciences are badly perceived by the lay community because
they only appear on the agenda when something dramatic occurs, such
as natural disasters, earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, or
whatever events can attributed to “Earth’s anger”.
In effect, an investigation by the Italian National order of Geologists
on the first 50 years of the Order of the Geologist, (http://www.geologive-
neto.it/wp-content/uploads/MANIFESTO-GEOLOGI-ITALIANI1.pdf)
clearly detected that geology only reaches the public eye when dramatic
events occur. Even recent discoveries, such as plate tectonics in the late 70s,
are not apparently well known by the general public or deemed important
for citizens. The general basic ignorance of natural phenomena provokes
widespread difficulty understanding the connected reasons for dramatic
geological events and how to prevent or mitigate their effects with good
public practices or civil protection. Moreover, geological subjects are too
often attributed and delegated to professions other than geologists, and the
role of the geologist is often confused and not well recognized.
This fact is harmful if we consider that the geosciences are “useful sci-
ences” (Predonzan and Bellieni, 2002) in order to know and understand our
planet and they can “help to create a planetary perspective” (Dal Re Car-
neiro, 2004). In 1992, a study published by the Italian Geological National
Service (Catenacci, 1992) summarized the history of Italian environmental
disasters starting from the end of the Second World War (1945) up to 1990.
Their results showed that over this 45 year period one person died every two
days due to an environmental disaster. Moreover, from 1990 to present, the
situation has not improved, as shown by Valensise and Guidoni (2014) in
their analysis of the impact of natural disasters in Italy from 1861 to 2013.
Thus, we feel quite confident affirming that, at least in Italy, a more perme-
ating culture of geological education in schools, and more broadly within
the general public, could be as beneficial as biological or medical education,
especially in terms of saving economic resources and human lives. Finally,
particularly serious is the weak research on Earth science pedagogy and phi-
losophy. We need a strong disciplinary epistemology because daily encoun-
ters with natural hazards and risks require local communities to be increas-
ingly more aware of natural phenomena, whether beneficial or catastrophic,
as they always make a direct impact on everyday life.
Moreover, the small number of Italian students enrolled in Geological
Sciences degree programs clearly shows the unimportant role played by
Earth sciences in Italian scholar education. During the 2012/’13 academic
year, only 1540 out of 228,208 Italian freshmen students entered Geology

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

programs; conversely, 5361 students enrolled in Medicine courses, almost

four times the number of geology students (www.anagrafe.miur.it).
Educators, more so than others, need to master the content, be pas-
sionate about it, and be able to pass that passion on to their students,
using interesting, interactive, motivating educational approaches. Doubt-
less, one of the reasons why this does not happen is that most teachers in
secondary schools, colleges and high schools come from a background in
Life Sciences (e.g. Biology) which is, at least not generally, a useful path to
engender deep explanations of plate tectonics or natural risks and hazards.

13.2 The education system and the earth sciences

Natural Sciences education in Italian schools was born during the

Gentile Reform in 1923 (R.D. 06/05/1923, n°1054) that aimed to foster
a humanistic culture in the younger generations of the Italian bourgeoisie.
Sciences, currently, are poorly taught, and often considered of secondary
importance and not particularly effective in nurturing the skills required
by the National Minister of Education for the European Skills Passport,
and in the view of the Europe “Horizon2020” program. Among natural sci-
ences, Earth sciences are often considered even less important – an unwant-
ed step-child or “Cinderella” of the sciences – although the new secondary
upper schools’ curricula seem more considerate of this subject, which is
developed (at least in the Lyceums) along the five-year school course.
In most Italian secondary schools, programs include a subject called Nat-
ural Science, comprised of Biology, Earth Sciences and sometimes Chemistry.
From previous studies (Costa and Zauli, 1982), we know that tradition-
ally most Italian high school Natural Science teachers have a degree in Biol-
ogy and just a small percentage have a degree in Natural Sciences or Geology.
Therefore, most of the Italian Natural Science teachers have no geological
background and are unconfident teaching Earth sciences. The main conse-
quence to date is that Earth sciences receive less attention than Chemistry
and Biology in Italian schools. Another study (Massa e Pedemonte, 1983)
reported that 68 percent of teachers consider Biology the first most impor-
tant subject, while only 15 percent ranked Earth sciences in the first position.
Today, there is no updated data concerning Natural Science teachers’ degrees,
but the situation seems largely unchanged in the last 30 years.
As Earth Sciences learning is not a priority among the disciplinary
choices of science teachers, the related teaching materials and instruments

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

are often the last (and least used) on the school’s “shopping list”. This hap-
pens even if, as shown later, Earth sciences require instruments and tools
that are often cheaper than, for example, chemistry or biotechnology ones.
In Italian schools, the most common teaching approach is the transmis-
sive lesson, whereby a teacher gives a speech in front of their pupils, who
generally are required to take notes and report what the teacher said. Even
though laboratories are explicitly required by the new national guidelines,
and whose usefulness is confirmed in Earth sciences learning (Frodeman,
1995), are relatively rarely included in lessons (Berlinguer, 2008).

Fig. 13.1 Educational approaches used in the daily teaching sciences in secondary
schools - Results of monitoring of the Indications (National curricula from Ministry
of education) - (lectures 76.2%; group work 17.4%; peer-to-peer education 6,3%, per-
sonalized learning, 25.8%, laboratory exercises 18.3%, other 4.9%)

This traditional approach, suitably called “sage on the stage” in the

English vernacular, represents a common teaching method in which one-
directional teaching from the teacher to the student prevails (Figs. 13.1
and 13.2), is far from the Ministry of Education’s demands and the needs
of students for personalized and inclusive teaching. It is also far from an
effective teaching-learning environment that, in the case of these disci-
plines, is especially reliant on active learning.
It is true, however, that in Italy the limited availability of educational tools,
laboratories, high quality instrumentation, general equipment, or even rough
materials, makes teachers’ work particularly complex and discouraging.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 13.2 Country profiles of beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning (from-
OCSE 2008 TALIS- creating effective teaching and learning environments)

The practical-investigative approach or inquiry, problem-based learn-

ing, requires, “learning objects” to touch and manipulate in order to gar-
ner interest, involvement and scientific skills. Hands-on learning also en-
genders greater mental flexibility for both students and teachers.
Following the recent upper secondary school reform (2010) in almost
every Italian Lyceum, there is a Natural Sciences curriculum (that includes
Earth Sciences, Biology and Chemistry) distributed over a five-year course.
Teaching methods are affected by the limited weekly teaching time, and
practical activities such as laboratories and fieldwork rarely occur.
Since the Gentile Reform of 1923 and minor changes introduced in
1952 (D.M. 01/12/1952, n.34), the teaching organization of high schools
in Italy has remained substantially unchanged until recently. In 2010, a
more modern school reform (D.P.R. 15/03/2010 n. 89) partly modified
the curricula. For Natural Sciences (including Earth Sciences, Biology and
Chemistry) this new law now prescribes uninterrupted teaching in high
schools (as stated previously, it is a five-year course in the Lyceums, but
only a two-year course in most technical and professional high schools)
and abolishes the timing boundaries between the different science sub-
jects, providing general guidelines for the five years in which the course
of Italian high school studies is developed: 1st biennium, 2nd biennium
and 5th year. As of 2015, the new curricula reached the end of the first
five-year cycle. It would be beneficial to know how this has actually been
implemented for managing high school teaching in Italy into the future

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The following secondary schools that include a 5-year Natural Sci-

ences curriculum are available for Italian students from 14 to 19: the Sci-
entific Lyceum, the Applied Sciences Lyceum, the Humanities Lyceum,
the Language Lyceum, the Social Sciences Lyceum, and some high schools
of the Arts. They present the following Science curriculum:
First biennium (1st and 2nd year): Planet Earth (Solar system and move-
ments of the Earth); Geomorphologic study of Earth’s surface; hydrosphere,
atmosphere, geomorphological structures (rivers, lakes, glaciers, seas).
Second biennium (3rd and 4th year): Introduction to mineralogy and
petrology (Minerals and Rocks); volcanism, seismicity and orogeny (En-
dogenous phenomena).
Fifth year: Meteorological phenomena; Global Plate tectonics; Rela-
tionships and interactions between systems (lithosphere, atmosphere, hy-
drosphere) and their phenomena; Earth as a complex system.
In the first biennium, that also concludes compulsory education in Italy,
nearly all teachers base their school programs on what is expected in the Na-
tional guidelines, while in the second biennium the compliance decreases,
due to specific choices made by every individual school. In fact, each Ital-
ian school constructs its own “Plan of Training” (POF: Piano dell’Offerta
Formativa) that offers certain freedoms of choice for teachers and schools.
Continuity through the different education levels are not evident, par-
ticularly when searching for fundamental themes and essential key issues;
significant educational tools, to use and share, are not often proposed;
methodological approaches, particularly useful when working with a con-
structivist and recursive approaches, as requested by the Ministry of Edu-
cation, are not frequently suggested.
This survey suggests that, due to the lack of clear indications from the Min-
istry, the new curricula are implemented autonomously by teachers, substan-
tially grounded in the old curricula. The heterogeneous choices for the final
year could be affected by uncertainty about the first post-reform state exam.
On the other hand, data about the organization of teaching times are
not surprising: the limited weekly time allowance makes teachers’ strate-
gies somewhat obligated and predictable.
The small number of science teachers with a degree in Earth sciences
causes a partiality towards Life Sciences. A recent investigation among
Earth sciences students and young geologists clearly shows that their ideas
about their future job, or even their life dreams, are linked to climbing
volcanoes, making discoveries in Antarctica, deep ocean immersions, pos-
sibly research and scientific awards; not exactly teaching at school, where

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

we generally find many women and in much smaller numbers.

Conversely, teachers with a high degree of professionalism and a per-
sonal interest in Earth science, seem to be, not surprisingly, instrumental
to improving teaching and learning. This happens especially with teachers
involved in active teaching and learning approaches. More thorough sup-
port for teachers seems, therefore, to be the priority issue to obtain good
short-term, and more durable results.

13.3 The Earth Sciences Olympiads and ANISN

One of the most effective tools to promote the study of Earth sciences
is doubtless ANISN’s (National Association of Natural sciences Teachers)
sponsorship and organization of the Natural Sciences Olympiads and the
subsequent participation in the IESO. More than 14,000 students in a
thousand secondary level schools, mainly Lyceums, participated in the
initial selection within their own school, and then at a regional level. The
effort will hopefully involve more of the technical schools in the coming
years. In the last three years, 80 to 100 high school students, half from the
first biennium and half from the second biennium, participated in the na-
tional phase of the Italian Olympiads, which took place at Castellammare
di Stabia, near Naples.
The initiative is sponsored by the Italian Ministry of Education, which
recognizes the best students with a scholarship and inclusion in the Na-
tional List of Excellences.
The trials of the Italian Earth Sciences Olympiads are comprehensive
with theoretical questions, problem solving, and case studies. They also
evaluate knowledge of basic facts, names and processes as a jumping off
point for more extensive teaching in subjects concerning geology, astron-
omy, Earth history, hydrology and other Earth sciences. Questions and
trials are organized by a national committee of teachers, researchers and
former student winners from the previous editions.
The 10 best students out of the national competition are invited to a
7-day research-and-study stage at the University of Camerino, where they
improve their competence with field-based research, Earth science lab in-
vestigations and further studies. During this stage, they are mentored by
high school teachers and university researches and staff, but are mainly
invited to work in a cooperative-learning, peer-review setting. This is the
rationale for allowing 10 students to participate at this stage even though
only 4 students compose the Italian IESO team, in order to have a wider

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

discussion group and a more cooperative contest. The partnership with

Camerino University has lasted five years, providing students with a Cer-
tificate of Competence and College credit in the Faculty of Earth Sciences.
This stage is always a learning and cultural experience, but also a moment
of socialization and personal growth for students and teachers.

13.4 Unicam, a network for Earth sciences

The main objective of these initiatives, with the numerous events orga-
nized by geological associations, such as Geoitalia, the Italian Geological
Society, the Society of Mineralogy and Paleontology and many universi-
ties, with Camerino University as the lead, is to promote interest in Geo-
sciences in the scientific community, the schools and in society as a whole.
The first step is creating a network organized by UNICAM through
different events: July 2013 (Camerino Workshop), September 2013
(Geoitalia, Pisa), September 2014 (SGI e SIMP Congress, Milano). The
network has the support of several scientific groups from universities, re-
search agencies, schools, museums. This is a testament to the interest in
this initiative and the need that many feel about the importance of more
effective Earth sciences teaching and learning in Italy.

13.5 The need for an Earth science epistemology

Earth science is a complex discipline: the world complex should be clearly

used in its real meaning, from the Latin cum plicato, bent together. It means
a context rich in relationships, interacting in all their different components
that, together, constitute a system. Complexity of a system, though, does
not depend only upon unknown details of its structure and relationships be-
tween its parts, but is an intrinsic property, independent from detail knowl-
edge, something that “does not disappear even when the functionality of
the system can be completely rebuilt from its simple elements” (Cini, 1995).
A complex system is defined by “characteristics of self-reference and self-
organization aimed at ensuring the stability of its structure and the repro-
duction of its components through the maintenance of the processes neces-
sary for its survival” (Maturana and Varela, 1984). A complex system can
not be static, nor linear, but is a combination of random processes and non-
linear interactions: the result of an evolutionary process in which it is not
possible even to recognize cause-effect relationships between components,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

because all are the result of their common history. Because of this complex-
ity, it is difficult to recognize a formal unique structure of Earth sciences,
which could allow the elaboration of a proper epistemology. Generally,
every scientific discipline is based on its epistemology, which is necessary
to deal with the fundamentals of the discipline itself, with the conditions
that facilitate building scientific knowledge and, finally, with the methods
to achieve this knowledge. In opposition to the philosophy that inspired
the work of the founders of modern geology, from Steno to Lyell, between
the eighteenth, nineteenth centuries and the first half of the twentieth cen-
tury, Earth Science is now characterized by research from a large number
of specialists, each mindful of its own highly specific field, and surely not
interested in epistemological theories of the discipline. For this reason, geol-
ogy is often thrown into the “mould of physics”, regardless of the distinc-
tions (Iannace, 2011). Geology also contains non-historical aspects that deal
with organization and processes. A balanced understanding of our science
requires considering all these facets. Even uniformitarianism, a fundamen-
tal principle of geology, remains fragile from the theoretical point of view,
because of interruptions found in deep time data, or incompleteness of the
stratigraphic and fossil records, which precludes direct observation (Frode-
man, 1995). Earth sciences, by its nature, seems to be particularly interesting
for the development of an epistemology of complexity, particularly within
a non-linear framework, which is useful when linear models are too simple
or inadequate. In a non-linear model, every component, every phenomenon,
must be related to other systems, as in chaos theory, and it is not necessary,
nor possible, to find a separate law for every fact.

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Cultura Scientifica e Tecnologica.

Berlinguer, L. (2008). Conferenza Stampa Laboratori Scientifici. Presentazione

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Boccardi V.(1996). L’importanza della dimensione storico - epistemologica

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Level Group on Increasing Human Resources for Science and Technology. Brussels

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to degli eventi naturali 1861-2013. Bononia University Press, Bologna.

Harlen, W. (1996). The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. David Fulton

Publisher, London.

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ence Education Standards Documents in The Nature of Science in Science Edu-

cation: Rationales and Strategies

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dell’istruzione obbligatoria , Allegato n.2 del Documento tecnico decreto mi-
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della Terra, Geoitalia n.36

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Susanna Occhipinti

School director of a secondary technical

school in Aosta, Italy. Having taught in
secondary schools for 25 years, then acting
as a coordinator for science activities, com-
missioned by the Regional Government,
for about 15 years, supporting science
teachers’ work, producing educational
paths, and developing learning objects. Fi-
nally, organizing a regional Science centre
and a schools’ network to share the materi-
als. All the activities are presented in:
http://www.scienze.scuole.vda.it/images/Viaggio.pdf Recently, initiating a
PhD on models and guidelines for more effective tools and paths for active
Earth sciences teaching and learning “Looking for a unifying principle” at
Camerino University. Geologist, School director, PhD in Earth Science Edu-
cation – UNICAM Italy. E-mail: susocchip@gmail.com

Emanuele Piccioni

Emanuele Piccioni was born and lives in

Assisi, in the centre of Italy. He graduated
from the Plant Production Dept. of the
Faculty of Agriculture at the University of
Perugia summa cum laude, then obtained
his PhD in Plant Biotechnology at the
University of Torino. After nine years in
Plant Biotechnology research, he became a
high school science teacher, and now
teaches at the “Liceo Scientifico annesso al
Convitto Nazionale Principe di Napoli”
di Assisi. He is member of the National Council of ANISN (Associazione
Nazionale Insegnanti di Scienze Naturali), responsible since 2007 for the
Natural Science Olympiads National Secretariat, and mentor of the Italian
IESO team since 2013. He’s involved in many local, national and interna-
tional projects as an Earth Science teaching expert. Biologist , Science teach-
er, PhD in Plant Biotechnology – Convitto Nazionale “Principe di Napoli”
Assisi, Italy. E-mail: emanuele.piccioni@tiscali.it

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Lorenzo Lancellotti

Since 2001 is a secondary school teacher,

teaching Natural Sciences (Biology and
Earth Sciences). He has a degree in Bioar-
cheology from the University of Bologna
and a PhD in Earth Science Education
from the University of Camerino.
He is member of the scientific commit-
tee in charge of selecting and training the
Italian national IESO team and has partici-
pated as an IESO mentor. Biologist, Science
teacher, PhD in Earth Science Education –
UNICAM Italy, National Treasurer of the National Association of Natural sci-
ences Teachers – ANISN, Italy. E-mail: lorenzo.lancellotti@unicam.it

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 Chapter 14

Involving Japanese students into

geoscience and growing up them to
send IESO
Norihito Kawamura, Ken-ichiro Hisada, and Yutaka Takigami

Abstract

Earth Science Education is compulsory in elementary and lower sec-

ondary schools in Japan. In lower secondary school, natural science classes
deal with quite basic geology, meteorology and astronomy following on
from the basis of science class in primary school.
“Basic Earth Science” classes are primarily for general high school stu-
dents. While junior high school science classes deal with regional phe-
nomena, high school students build on this knowledge of plate tectonics,
volcanism and seismic activity, Earth’s evolution, global atmospheric cir-
culation, and the origin of the universe, etc.
The Japanese national selection process for the IESO consists of three
steps. First, the preliminary selection is held in various provinces. About
2000 students from almost all across Japan now participate in this writ-
ten test. Approximately 60 students who win the preliminary contest sit
a second test. Finally, 10 winners advance to the finals. The final test is
in English, although the preliminary and second selections are conducted
in Japanese. We select four delegates for the IESO through the final test.
The training program to prepare for the IESO extends from April and
September until just before IESO. The JESO committee runs two delegate
training camps with research organizations, such as museums and universi-
ties. The training camps are designed to improve the students’ knowledge and
Earth science abilities, while building mutual understanding among them.

Keywords: Course of Study, curriculum, school system, JESO, Japan

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

14.1 Introduction

The Japan Earth Science Olympiad Committee (JESOC) has run the
Japan Earth Science Olympiad (JESO) for nine years, promoting Earth sci-
ence among students and serving as motivation to study Earth science. This
report shows how JESOC has conducted JESO. Firstly, educational systems
in Japanese schools are described. Then, the authors introduce the JESO
outline. Thirdly, the selection process and training programs for delegates
of IESO admitted by JESOC are shown in sequential order. Finally, the
authors provide a simple overview of JESOC’s human and financial affairs.

14.2 Earth Science Education in the Japanese School System

14.2.1 Outline of Japanese school curriculum

The curriculum of elementary to upper secondary schools (high

schools) in Japan is shown in “The Course of Study”. The ministry of
education administrated the curricula of all subjects since the start of the
modern school system in Japan. Elementary and lower junior secondary
(junior high school) education is compulsory. After graduating junior high
school, almost all students enter high school to complete upper secondary
education. Sixty percent of high school students apply to enter university
or college for higher education.
The curricula are revised about every 10 years by the national educa-
tional division. The latest version was updated in 2008 by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). These cur-
ricula show the study content in all subjects. Table 14.1 shows the Japanese
science curriculum framework, Earth science in particular.

14.2.2 Earth science in “Science” for elementary school students

Under compulsory education, students must study the subject “Sci-

ence”, a general science or natural science course dealing with physics,
chemistry, biology, Earth science and astronomy. Third to sixth grade stu-
dents in elementary school study some Earth science topics around typical
weather in Japan and motions of our Moon and Sun in the sky. Phenom-
ena related to running water processes, strata formation, earthquakes and
volcanoes are taught in upper elementary school grades.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 14.1 Earth science curriculum framework in Japanese school system

Fields of earth science and contents

Gr. School Subject Solid-
Meteorology Astronomy
Earth science
1
2
Ground tempera- Movement of
3
ture sun
Elemen- Air temperature, Movement of
4
tary school Water vapor sun and moon
Science
Running water Change of
5
processes weather
Volcano, Earth- Phase of
6
quake, Strata moon
Volcano,
Earthquake, Rock,
7
Strata,
Fossil
Generating cloud
process,
Air mass,
8
Junior high Weather in
Science
school and around
Japan
Physical proper-
ties of
sun and moon,
9
Movement of
stars, Phase of
Venus
Basic geology, Rain phenomena, Creation of the
seismology, and Atmospheric gen- universe,
Basic
volcanology, His- eral circulation, Solar system
Earth
tory of the Oceanic general
Science
Earth circulation
10- High school
12 Geodesy, Geophys- Synoptic meteo- Stellar astronomy,
Advan- ics, Mineralogy, rology, aerology, Galactic astrono-
ced Earth Petrology, Paleon- Basic my, Cosmology
Science tology, Geological oceanology
mapping

14.2.3 Earth Science in “Science” for Junior High School Students

Within the lower secondary school subject “Science”, a natural science

class dealing with quite basic geology, meteorology, and astronomy, builds
on the primary school science classes. In the first year (7th grade), earth-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

quakes and volcanoes are taught in the context of plate tectonics. Me-
teorological observations, cloud generating processes, and weather in and
around Japan, from the perspective of air masses, are the natural science
study topics in 8th grade. Finally, students must learn basic astronomy,
mainly dealing with our solar system. Study topics in the third year are:
physical properties of our Moon and Sun, moon phases in terms of revolu-
tion, and diurnal and seasonal changes of constellations related to Earth’s
rotation and revolution. The phases of Venus are also included, with physi-
cal relationships to its revolution around the Sun.

14.2.4 “Basic Earth Science” for High School Students

For some students, one of the goals of upper secondary school is to

prepare for university entrance examinations. High schools establish the
curriculum, including advanced science subjects, for this purpose. The
“Course of Study” has many subjects on all fields of natural science. A
high school principal can choose any subjects from those of the national
curriculum and specialized science teachers teach their subjects. Basic
natural science classes, such as “Basic Physics”, “Basic Chemistry”, “Basic
Biology”, and “Basic Earth Science”, are widely taught in high school.
“Basic Earth Science” classes are mainly provided for general high
school students. In contrast to the junior high school science class basic
content on regional phenomena, high school students deepen their knowl-
edge of plate tectonics, volcanism and seismic activity, Earth’s evolution,
global atmospheric circulation, and origins of the universe.
While practical activities in the science class are common, open-air
lessons are rarely conducted due to limited lesson time.

14.2.5 “Advanced Earth Science” for High School Students

After studying basic sciences, students can take advanced science sub-
jects. Advanced science subjects “Advanced Physics”, “Advanced Chemis-
try” and “Advanced Biology” are widely taught in many schools because
universities that have science and technology, and/or medicine courses re-
quire academic proficiency in those subjects. Hence the subject “Advanced
Earth Science”, including astronomy, is rarely taught, so that few students
learn advance geosciences before entering university.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

14.3. Japan Earth Science Olympiad as the Selection Process for IESO
Delegations

14.3.1 Three Steps to the Final

The Japanese national selection process for the IESO consists of three
steps. First, the preliminary selection is held in various regions. In the case
of school year (SY) 2014, 77 test sites were prepared in 42 provinces. A uni-
form written examination, held in mid-December, is the first step for selec-
tion. The students must complete the multiple-choice test in two hours.
JESOC has commissioned professors from local universities to conduct the
examination on site with local coordinators to help implement the test.
About 2000 students from almost all provinces in Japan applied to
take this written test. From this cohort, approximately 60 winners of the
initial contest can sit the second exam. The 10 winners from the second
stage advance to the finals. JESOC offers some merit awards for overall 1st
and 2nd places, 1st place in rock and fossil identification, 1st place among
women, and 1st place among junior high school students.
In the final stage, JESOC conducts interviews and group discussions
concerning geoscience, in addition to the written exam. JESOC weights
English-language skills for the IESO delegates (Hisada et al., 2014), con-
ducting the final exam in English, while the preliminary and secondary
selections are in Japanese. Finally, we select four delegates for the IESO
based on all components described above.

14.3.2 Examination Content in the First and Second Selection Rounds

Test writers for the preliminary round come from both Earth science
and astronomy. JESOC requests the academic community introduce poten-
tial writers so that researchers might generate questions about their specific
field. For the first written test, students answer questions based on the basic
Earth science textbooks and written by the researchers. Except for stellar
and galaxy astronomy, any topic of “Basic Earth Science” can be on the test.
The second selection round includes a practical test in addition to the
written test. The second stage selection exam is a written test at first-year
university level, including long-answer format questions. Geological map
reading ability is emphasized on this test as it is very important skill for
geoscience research. As geological maps are not taught in high school “Ba-
sic Earth Science”, most students must learn this by themselves.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

14.3.3 Motivating Students

Students who participate in the second selection get a JESO transcript.

When they apply for university admission, some schools may admit the
student based on their JESO certification.

14.4 Delegate Training for IESO

14.4.1 Summer Camps

JESOC runs training camps twice for the delegates in cooperation

with research organizations, such as universities, science institutes and
museums. In SY 2014, the two summer camps were conducted for two
and three days. The purpose of the training camps are to improve the
students’ Earth science knowledge and abilities, and develop a mutual un-
derstanding among them.
In mid-June, 2014, students went on a two-day field excursion to ob-
serve sedimentary rocks. During the tour, the students learned to read
geological maps, measure strike and dip of strata, and reconstruct a sedi-
mentary environment. In the evening, astronomical training served to fa-
miliarize students with telescopes.
The second summer camp at the University of Tsukuba in late-August,
included laboratory investigations of geological samples, such as minerals,
rocks, and fossils. Delegate students also received a series of lectures on
geology, meteorology, and oceanography.

14.4.2 Remote Training Utilizing Email

The remote training program in preparation for the IESO runs between
April and September until just before the IESO. For SYs 2014 and 2015, an
assignment was sent by email for students to return completed to instructors
in a month. The training team, consisting of two high school teachers and
one researcher, instructs students on methods for showing solutions. The
purpose of this training process is for students to become familiar with the
level expected at the IESO and find their personal weak points, therefore the
teaching materials are comprised of past IESO written tests.

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14.5 Organization Operation

After observing the first IESO, Japanese researchers determined the

IESO provides opportunities to discuss international views and nurture
friendships, and incentive to young students (Hisada et al., 2014). The
Japan Geoscience Union (JpGU) decided to set up JESOC in 2008. The
next year, the committee JESOC incorporated as NPO.
JESOC is in good financial condition because most of the committee’s
income comes from the national government through the Japan Science
and Technology Agency, the same as for other science Olympiads.

14.6 Promoting Earth Science in Japan

Under the updated science curriculum, Earth science student numbers

have increased. As a result of JESO activities, the emphasis is now that
Earth science education is useful for implementing disaster mitigation
measures and thinking about global environmental issues.
To further promote Earth science, JESOC provides research lectures
and runs study tours to Earth-science relevant laboratories during the
second selection round. This event provides students exposure to up-to-
date research results and good opportunities for face-to-face conversations
about Earth science.
The 10th anniversary IESO Japan was a good opportunity to make an
appeal for Earth science education to the broader Japanese society. On this
occasion, JESOC gained recognition and promoted Earth science educa-
tion among schools in Japan.

14.7 Conclusion

In 2016, the 10th IESO was held in Japan. Young researchers from all
over the world talked about our future from an Earth Science perspective,
which is always subject to natural disasters. The 10th IESO revitalized the
broad importance of Earth science research activities.

References
HISADA, K. et al. Earth Science Olympiad: The past five years and next five
years. Education of Earth Science, Tokyo, v. 67, n.3, p.73-84, 2014. (in Japanese)
TAKIGAMI, Y. For a decade of IESO and its significances. Japan Geoscience
Letters, Tokyo, v.11, n.3, p.1-3(2015). (in Japanese)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Norihito Kawamura
He received his BS in economic geology at
Hiroshima University (1984) and his PhD
in Quaternary geology from Osaka City
University (2003). Dr. Kawamura works
for the teacher-training courses in Akita
University. His research work focuses on
cultivating human resources that will be-
come next generation science teaching
leaders. Dr. Kawamura participated in
IESO since 2009. Professor of Science Edu-
cation in the Faculty of Education and Hu-
man Studies, Akita University, Japan. PhD. E-mail: norihito@ed.akita-u.ac.jp

Ken-ichiro Hisada
Dr. Hisada was elected and served as Chair-
person of the Editorial board of the Journal
of Geological Society of Japan (GSJ) from
2008-2010. He served as Vice President of
GSJ from 2010-2012. Dr. Hisada is an elect-
ed member of the UNESCO IGCP Scien-
tific board since 2013 and also serves as
Chairperson of the board of directors of JE-
SOC (Japan Earth Science Olympiad Com-
mittee) since 2014. In 2016, he was elected
President of the Japan Society of Earth Sci-
ence Education. Professor at School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Univer-
sity of Tsukuba, Japan. PhD (Science)

Yutaka Takigami
Dr. Takigami received his PhD in Geophys-
ics from the University of Tokyo in 1984.
His interests are focused on Ar-Ar dating of
igneous rocks. Dr. Takigami currently
serves on the Editorial Committee of Japan
Geoscience Union. He participated in IESO
from 2006 to 2016. Professor at Faculty of
Economics, Kanto Gakuen University, Japan.
PhD Univ. of Tokyo. BS Univ. of Tokyo

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 Chapter 15

Earth Science Education in the State of

Kuwait
Ibrahim A. Mohammed Ali

Abstract

The State of Kuwait attaches great importance to education. The State

Constitution contains an item on education and its gratuitous, from kin-
dergarten to high education.
The Ministry of Education in Kuwait is keen to develop the educa-
tional curricula in its schools from time to time to ensure that it keeps
abreast of the rapid developments in education in the world. It is also keen
on the continuous development of its teachers through continuous work-
shops and joining courses inside and outside Kuwait, so that the teacher
can develop and enhance the different skills of students.
The Government of the country is cares to offer scholarships for out-
standing students to study abroad at universities or for higher education
institutions.
Teaching of the earth sciences enjoys the attention of the Ministry of
Education. Although, the State of Kuwait has poor in geological features,
but it has a source of income is essential which is production and exporta-
tion of oil, and teaching earth sciences of the fundamentals of exploration
and extraction and refining of the oil and it took great interest.

Keywords: Al Rawdatain, Umm Al Aish, Jal-Alzour hills, Ahmadi dome

15.1 Introduction

The educational system in the State Of Kuwait spans 12 years, divided

into three stages:

1. Kindergarten (optional): two years, 4-6 years old

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2. Elementary: divided into five years

3. Intermediate: divided into four years
4. Secondary (High): divided into three years

In our elementary system, students in grades (1-4) receive continuous

evaluation to pass to the next year. In grade five, students take four exami-
nations to pass through to the intermediate stage.
In the intermediate stage, student take four examinations to pass to
the secondary stage.
In the secondary stage, students take four examinations to pass
through to university studies. A student selects a discipline to study (sci-
ences or literature) in grade 11 and continues on this course in grade 12.
After the secondary stage, the student must pass pre-admittance ex-
aminations in mathematics, chemistry and English language to gain ad-
mittance to the science faculties.
Earth sciences in State of Kuwait schools are taught in General Science
Curriculum chapters from grade 1 to grade 9 and as a separate subject in
grade 11. Student do not receive Earth Science education in grades 10 or 12.
Kuwait is poor in geologic features, with the exception of some in
Northern Kuwait (Jal-ALzour) and some hills with fold structures and
sand dunes in Southern Kuwait (Ahmadi).
Kuwait University sends groups of geology students abroad for field
studies to Morocco, Jordan, Oman, and Egypt.

15.2 Earth Sciences content in Kuwait’s schools

Grade 1: Very simple and general concepts in “Earth & Sky”, climate,
and conservation.
Grade 2: Simple concepts about the Earth’s crust (rocks, soil and re-
usable resources); making very simple climate descriptions; seasons; and
day and night.
Grade 3: Very simple concepts about Earth’s Topography; how rocks
form; interactions within rocks and soil; earthquakes and volcanoes; sim-
ple advancement of concepts in climate and seasons; and the Solar System.
Grade 4: Changes in Earth’s surface: effects of earthquakes and volca-
noes on Earth’s surface; features of Earth’s surface; how water and winds
change Earth’s surface and resources.
Grade 5: Solar System Movements: rotation of the Earth and its ef-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

fects; and rotation of the Moon and its effects.

Grade 6: The Changing Earth: Earth’s resources (exploring models
of Earth’s layers, exploring Earth’s resources, and protecting clean air);
climate; the water cycle; how the Sun affects the climate and what causes
climate change.
Grade 7: Earth’s Structure: layers of the Earth; Earth’s interior; and
earthquakes and volcanoes.
Grade 8: Weathering and soils, fresh water, water and its properties,
surface and ground waters.
Grade 9: The atmosphere (a blanket of air, its structure, the changing
atmosphere, humidity, weather forecasting, climate factors, climate clas-
sification) and mineral and energy resources (mineral resources, fossil-fuel
resources and alternative energy resources).
Grade 11: Introduction to geology, minerals (formation, and physical,
chemical and crystal properties), rocks (igneous rock generation and struc-
tures; sedimentary environments, formation of sedimentary rocks, prima-
ry sedimentary structures; metamorphism, metamorphic rock textures),
mass wasting, secondary structures (faults, folds, and joints), cosmology
(formation of the universe, galaxies and star life cycles, and formation of
our Solar System), continental motion (continental drift, Plate Tectonic
Theory, and implications of plate tectonics), a journey through geologi-
cal time (life in the past (fossils), the geological timescale, and reading
Earth’s history), maps (topographic contour maps and geologic maps), oil
resources (formation, traps, and oil in Kuwait), and groundwater.
The Earth Sciences Curriculum from grades 1 to 11 is published by
PEARSON (Scott Foresman), translated to Arabic and formatted by the
Educational Research Center (Lebanon) and coordinated by the Ministry
of Education (State of Kuwait).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

15.3 The strengths and weaknesses in Earth Sciences in the State of

Kuwait

The strength of Kuwait’s education stems from continuous Earth Sci-

ences studies from grade 1 to 9. The discontinuity in grades 10 and 12 is
the primary weakness. Moreover, teaching Earth Sciences is limited by the
shortfall of geological features within Kuwait.

15.4 Selecting Kuwaiti participants for the IESO competition

Preparations start in December with the National Earth Science Olym-

piad. In this competition, all grade 11 science discipline students begin
studying and training in Earth sciences with science activities during school
hours. In April, the first test is conducted to select 15 participants from
all Kuwaiti schools (Figs 15.1-15.5). A second test in June, following the
IESO syllabus, selects the four IESO participants. These four team mem-
bers spend July, August, and the days of September before the competition
training in cooperation with various educational institutions in Kuwait.

Fig. 15.1 and 15.2 Written test for IESO selection

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 15.3 – 15.5 Practical test for IESO selection

Ibrahim A. Mohammed Ali

Graduated from the Faculty of Science at

Kuwait University in Earth sciences in
1994. From1994 to 1998, was a researcher
in groundwater projects for the Ministry
of Electricity & Water in Kuwait. A geol-
ogy teacher in the ministry of education
from 1998 to 2005, ascending to head of
department of Earth sciences and biology
in the Ministry of education from 2005-
2010. Currently the Earth sciences super-
visor (lecturer for Earth science teachers).

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 Chapter 16

Earth Science Education and National

Selection and Preparation Process
for the International Earth Science
Olympiad in Malawi
Yvonne Chasukwa Mwalwenje and Elyvin Nkhonjera Chawinga

Abstract

Earth Science concepts in Malawi are taught under a broad disci-

pline of Geography. Geography covers Astronomy, Oceanography, Geo-
morphology, Geology and Environmental Science. Malawi first entered a
team at the International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) in 2011. The
country’s national selection process is an integral part of the team’s perfor-
mance at the Olympiad.
The country’s education comprises of public and private schools. Private
schools are categorized into international and national (Malunga 2001). An
objective test is conducted at a cluster to identify participants for a national
team. A cluster consists of a maximum of twenty secondary schools (Min-
istry of Education, 2001). Mentors facilitate all the test processes.
The procedure starts in December of the preceding year with a work-
shop. Mentors familiarize candidates with the IESO syllabus, including
Olympiad regulations and ethics. To cut logistical costs, mentors move
across the three regions of Malawi to conduct the selection tests.
Gronlund (1990) asserts that for results to be reliable, professional eth-
ics of validity, fairness and consistence must always be upheld in assess-
ment leading to selection. Similarly, Malawi’s IESO assessment has always
been effective and has never been affected by opinions, feelings, impres-
sions and any social value. Consequently, such selection process control
has assisted the country to identify high caliber students.
However, it is a challenge to select a team that is nationally representa-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

tive from both private and public schools. Mentors observe that students
from International Private Schools dominate the selection process, as they
have best teaching and learning resources. Although public students put
effort into the assessment, their background handicaps their success.
Therefore, this paper argues that there is no fairness in the selection of
the Malawi IESO team. Unless the playing field is leveled, students from In-
ternational Private Schools will continually dominate Malawi’s IESO team.

Keywords: Malawi Examination Board, International Earth Science

Olympiad, Assessment, Mentor, Selection

16.1 Background

Malawi’s key interest in Earth Science related concepts dates back to

its colonial education system; compulsory Earth Science Education was
included in primary and secondary school curricula before independence
from British rule in 1964. At the tertiary level, Earth Science is manly
offered to Earth Science teachers and those studying geology, astronomy
and environmental sciences. In teaching and learning sessions, qualified
primary and secondary school teachers are responsible for teaching Earth
Science concepts. The assumption is that well trained teachers are more
likely to produce successful students.
Hence, Earth Science should be a successful subject in Malawi. Earth
Science concepts are taught in the Geography curriculum from primary
school for eight years and in secondary school for four, quite often includ-
ing advanced core concepts. Earth Science concepts in Malawi are found
in subjects such as Geography, Agriculture, History and Biology.
In an effort to raise student interest and public awareness of Earth
Sciences and to enhance Earth Science learning for Malawian students,
the 5th International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) Local Organizing
Committee initiated Malawi participation at the Olympiad. Hence Ma-
lawi organized a team that participated at the 5th IESO in Modena, Italy
as the first African country to enter a team in 2011.
This paper, therefore, explores Earth Science Education in Malawi.
The analysis focuses on the interconnected dimensions of this system, the
National Selection and Preparation Process for IESO and, finally, chal-
lenges that Malawi faces in the students selection process. In this paper,
Geography is used synonymously with Earth Science, as is the case in the
Malawi primary and secondary schools.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

16.2 National Earth Science Education System in Malawi

Malawi has an 8-4-4 education system, which consists of public and

private primary, secondary and tertiary education (Malawi Government,
2001). Geography concepts are introduced from standard (grade) one at
primary school. Students enter primary school at six years and continue
for eight years, from standard 1 to 8. Common concepts at this age are
physical geography of the students’ environment and surroundings.
Additionally, Geography is integrated into Social Studies in Malawi
primary schools, along with History and Civics. At the end of eight years,
pupils write their national examinations for the Primary School Leaving
Certificate, which are jointly set, conducted and marked by the Ministry
of Education and the Malawi National Examinations Boards (MANEB
2015). Lusungu Msowoya, a teacher at Mwenilondo primary school in
Karonga, in the north of Malawi, noted that primary school students per-
form quite well in Geography during the national examinations compared
to languages and pure science subjects. One of the reasons Lusungu pro-
posed for this was that the students are immersed the environment in
which they learn and the lessons become tangible when taught. In order
for a student to be selected to attend public secondary schools, they must
excel at the Malawi National Examinations Board exams. To attend pri-
vate schools, enrollment is simply a matter of cost.
Malawi Earth Science secondary education has undergone many
changes, including adding new topics and dropping others. For a long time
since independence, there was a restriction in Malawi secondary schools
against teaching Earth Science as one of the core subjects. Nevertheless,
this restriction was changed in 1994, due in great part to multiparty politi-
cal dispensation advancing the right for each student to have freedom of
choice to learn the subjects they wish. The perception resulted in making
Earth Science one of the elective subjects in the curriculum.
In 2000, the government of Malawi conducted a curriculum review
in which Earth Science was revised; some topics were dropped while other
new topics were introduced to make the subject more relevant. Some de-
tailed key topics in the areas of geology, astronomy, environmental sci-
ences, and hydrology were among those added. At the same time, the pure
geological topic of mining was scrapped.
The curriculum fix was indeed well timed considering the government
had recently employed fresh Earth Science teachers, graduating from various
universities with geography majors, to augment the new content and assist

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

the old timers in delivering it. It should be noted that qualified primary and
secondary school teachers in Malawi are responsible for teaching Earth Sci-
ence concepts. The assumption is that trained teachers are more likely to pro-
duce successful students hence, making Earth Science a successful subject.
Despite this huge curriculum overhaul and coupled with enriched hu-
man resource capital, Earth Science did not enjoy the new status assigned to
the subject. Many students did not like the subject; they did not opt for Earth
Science because it was alleged to present many challenges as a more scientific
subject that was branded as a humanities subject. Additionally, the subject
faced opposition from related subjects within the humanities department.
Following on from this, students maintain it is more challenging to
earn good grades in Earth Sciences, as taught in recent years, than in oth-
er newly introduced subjects like Social Studies and Life Skills. As such,
learners prefer the new subjects to Earth Science as they believe they are
simpler, more relevant, and better address the needs of society (Kadzamira
2001). According to Banda (2000), students further contend that if some-
one is good at Life Skills they work as a counselor in various organizations
dealing with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and AIDS issues,
while Earth Sciences offers few career paths in Malawi other than teaching.
It should be noted that teaching is perceived very low grade work in
Malawi (personal communication, Fidelis Mgowa). Therefore, learners are
not inspired to pursue Earth Science amid lean career path options in the
near future; they do not see the value of learning Earth Science in the
current wake of unemployment for Earth Science specialists. For example,
of the 400 practicing teachers who graduated from public Universities in
Malawi in 2014, no one is employed by the Malawi government, yet gov-
ernment is a major employer in many sectors. The market cites economic
meltdown as the cause, yet graduates from other courses are offered em-
ployment by the same marketplace.
In a twist of events, in 2007 many students sat the national Earth Sci-
ence examination when it became apparent many universities were required
to enroll students with good grades in Earth Science. This resulted in many
students taking the subject again in hopes of being admitted to university,
not because they liked it. Unfortunately, instruction in the subject was at
the mercy of the head teacher and if he or she had no interest in Earth Sci-
ence, it was unquestioned. This created a setting in which some students
finished secondary education without learning a single Earth Science con-
cept. Therefore, Earth Science received very little attention during this era.
However, the Earth Science policy has since changed since 2014 when

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Earth Science assumed its prior status as a core subject. Now, it is taught
four times during the forty periods per week. In Malawi, students in sec-
ondary schools sit for two National Examinations: a Junior Certificate
Examinations (JCE) at form 2 and a Malawi School Leaving Certificate
(MSCE) at form 4. The performance of Earth Science at MSCE descend-
ed over the years, reaching a low of 58.64 percent in 2010, from 73.34
percent in 2006 (Malawi National Examination Board, 2015). There is
a clear-cut boundary between public and private schools, with private
schools excelling over public schools.
Very few practicing teachers have an Earth Science degree from uni-
versity. In addition to those coming through education departments,
graduates come from Earth science, geology, hydrology and soil sciences,
meteorology, and astronomy departments rounding out the numbers of
Earth Science alumni in Malawi.

16.3 International Earth Science Olympiad in Malawi

Malawi was privileged and humbled to be the first African country to

enter a team at the 5th International Earth science Olympiad (IESO), 5-14
September 2011 in Modena, Italy. The Government of Malawi extended
gratitude to the Local Organizing Committee in Italy chaired by Roberto
Greco for meeting all logistical and financial support for the team to par-
ticipate in Italy. The support ranged from airfare, accommodation, airport
pick up at the venue as well as upkeep. The Malawi team met the require-
ments stipulating teams consist of four competing students, an alternate,
and mentors. The team that started off at Kamuzu International airport on
4th September 2011 comprised of 6 participants. The team had two men-
tors, Elyvin Nkhonjera Chawinga and Yvonne Chasukwa Mwalwenje. Ely-
vin is an Earth Science specialist currently working with Oxfam Malawi as
a Coordinator for extractive Minerals. Yvonne is an Earth Science educator
at Bwaila secondary school, a public school in central Malawi in Lilongwe.
The team had good gender representation: two girls and two boys namely
Thembi Sibale, Faith Chibonga, Goodson Kumwenda, and Joseph Mhango.
All four participants were high school students. Joseph, Thembi and Faith
came from Kamuzu Academy international school, which is a prestigious
international private school, while Goodson came from Bwaila Secondary
school, one of the lowest resourced large public schools in the capital Lilon-
gwe. All the students travelling to Italy had robust knowledge and under-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

standing of Earth Science. At its first IESO, Malawi won a Bronze medal and
two other participation prizes. After Italy, Malawi continued to participate in
two other IESOs, India (2013) and Brazil (2015) in an observational role, as
financial challenges precluded bringing teams on both occasions.

16.3.1 National Selection

It is not an understatement that most Malawians only first heard about

the IESO in 2011 when the 5th Local Organizing Committee in Italy
extended an invitation to Malawi to participate at the Olympiad. This
assertion was evident when the mentors began organizing and selecting a
national team, which required civic education for better understanding of
the concept. The public generally did not understand the idea of Earth Sci-
ence teachers as a stand-alone classification. It was most daunting to help
the parents understand, as they had never heard of the IESO. The worst
scenario came when a parent of a selected student went overboard and as-
sumed the mentors were playing tricks and wanted to abduct the students.

16.3.2 The selection process

Malawi, the first African country to enter a team at the 5th IESO in
Modena, Italy in 2011, has a national selection process that is vital to the
success or failure of the country’s team at the IESO. If the process is faulty,
the Olympiad results will be out of order as well. To avoid such a scenario,
the Malawi IESO chapter, headed by Elyvin Nkhonjera Chawinga and
Yvonne Chasukwa Mwalwenje, takes charge of developing and administer-
ing the national selection and preparation processes for IESO in Malawi.
It should be noted that the education system in Malawi comprises
both public and private schools. Private schools are further categorized
into international and national schools (Malunga 2001). It is Elyvin and
Yvonne’s duty to ensure both systems catered for. Thus, an objective test
is conducted at clusters across the country to identify potential national
team participants. A cluster consists of a maximum of twenty secondary
schools (Ministry of Education, 2001).
The national preparation and selection process for the Malawi team starts
in December of the preceding year. Mentors and other Earth Science related
teachers are involved in formulating and moderating the exam papers. The
paper covers a combination of astronomy, oceanography, geomorphology,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

geology and environmental science. There are no stand-alone disciplines for

each area, rather all are taught under the broad discipline of geography.
The process starts with a three-day course wherein mentors familiarize
candidates with the IESO syllabus. Mentors employ engaging techniques to
teach challenging concepts from the IESO syllabus to help students attain
deep understanding, while training candidates in efficient study techniques.
The mentors also remind the candidates of Olympiad regulations and ethics.
Mentors move across the three regions of Malawi (South, Central and
North) to conduct the selection test. This is less expensive than moving
students to one central location for the assessments due to logistical chal-
lenges, for example finding accommodation and providing upkeep.
For the written examinations, twenty students are examined in one room
with four invigilators supervising them. Normally, three hours is the maxi-
mum time students are given to write the exam depending on the number of
questions and content complexity. Questions are set from simple to complex
using Blooms taxonomy model available on http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/
resources/tutorials/assessment/bloomtaxonomy.asp . To ensure the validity
and reliability of the examinations, the papers are written on the same day
and time across the country. Team marking is conducted at one center, two
days after the examinations. Conveyor belt marking is used for the selection
examinations in Malawi. Conveyer belt system of marking ensures exam-
iner marks only a few questions, promoting fairness and expedience.
To make the process more responsive to the needs and aspirations of
the Malawi students, the national selection process attempts to conduct
tests that reflect both the course content (geography, biology and agricul-
ture) and that of the orientation prior to the process. When conducting
the selection test, mentors and the cooperating Earth Science teachers en-
sure that instructions on the papers are well written and closely followed.
This is crucial for student success in the examinations. Gronlund (1990)
asserts that assessment instruments must be consistent and satisfactorily
measure what they intend to measure. Thus, for results to be reliable, the
professional ethics of validity, fairness and consistency must always be up-
held in the pre-selection assessments.
The team prepares model answers in advance. The tests given out by
the IESO Malawi Chapter are objective and effective, uncompromised by
opinions, feelings, impressions, or any social values. Consequently, such a
national selection process control has assisted the mentors to identify high
caliber students for the Olympiad since 2011.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

16.3.3 IESO Advantages and its Influence on Education in Malawi

The merits of Malawi participating in IESO cannot be underestimated.

One of the most frequently raised advantages, which is regarded by many as
the key foundation on which IESO is built in Malawi, is the number of stu-
dents enrolling in the course over the past five years. There is a tremendous
increase in the number of students now studying Earth Science compared
to 2005-2010. The high number is attributed to the introduction of IESO
in Malawi. Chiku Osman, a student at Bwaila secondary school, reported
that initially there was no motivation for one to work hard in Earth Science
class. Now that he has hopes of flying to an international Olympiad one
day, he says he has a reason to work hard and commit to that hope.
Secondly, these international meetings are an eye opener to contempo-
rary Earth Science teaching and helped both students and mentors acquire
relevant Earth Science technical knowledge and skills. Despite enrollment
in various universities both nationally and internationally, all the students
who travelled to Italy appreciated the time they travelled across continents.
For the mentors, participating in the Earth Sciences teachers program in
India gave Yvonne a greater perception on interactive Earth Science teaching
methods. She has since gone on to train 17 teachers at her school and neigh-
boring schools the methods she learned at the IESO. Because of the IESO
experience, she also presented a paper at the Earth Science Information for
Teachers workshop in Austria, “Role of Grassroots Environmental Literacy:
The case of water security at Bwaila Secondary School, Malawi”. The orga-
nizers of the conference were honest enough to explain they invited Yvonne
because of her experience with IESO. Against such a backdrop, IESO de-
serves attention and honor if Malawi is to make strides in Earth Science.
In conclusion, the IESO has also helped expand students’ understand-
ing in Earth Science and ever since, it has provided the mentors and col-
laborating teachers with the necessary skills to creatively address Earth
Science challenges and develop sound Earth Science teaching skills.

16.3.4 Challenges Malawi Faces for National Team Selection

It is a challenge to select a national team that is representative of the

range of students in Malawi. The disparate capacity public and private
schools have for teaching and learning Earth Sciences creates an imbal-
ance. Public schools are disadvantaged by inadequate teaching and learn-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ing resources and materials, libraries, and technology. Not surprisingly,

mentors observe that the most successful students in the selection process
are those from International Schools. Empirical data from the past five
years shows private schools have a 75 percent lead over public schools. In
2011 and 2012, private school had a 75 percent pass rate. In 2013, private
schools swept 100 percent. The trend has continued over the past two
years with private schools running the board.
Consequently, mentors intimate that this is most likely because In-
ternational Private Schools have the best teaching and learning resources.
Although public students appear to put much effort into the assessment,
their formative experiences challenge their success. Therefore, this paper
reveals that there is no fairness in the selection of Malawi IESO team. The
unfairness comes in because the candidates that sit for IESO examina-
tions are drawn from both private international schools and public local
schools. The candidates from the international schools have an edge over
their counterparts from the local public schools because their schools have
better teaching and learning facilities making them readier for the exami-
nations. Unless the playing field is leveled, students from International
Private Schools will continue to dominate the Malawi IESO team.
Furthermore, the Malawi IESO Chapter is handicapped by poor fund-
ing. This is primarily due to the unappealing status quo of Earth Science
established during colonial rule in Malawi, placing the subject in humani-
ties rather than science. In Malawi, humanities subjects do not capture
worthy attention. The history of Earth Science curriculum and within
Malawian society also haunts the subject, dissuading potential donors and
even educational stakeholders from supporting IESO. Rather, they direct
their backing to the Mathematics Olympiad because it is a science subject,
which draws more attention in Malawi.
In conclusion, the system of administering an examination to identify
students to participate at IESO facilitates that brighter students are iden-
tified. Since both international private schools and local public schools
sit for the same examinations, it favors the former since they have better
learning and teaching facilities compared to the later. Therefore, IESO
examinations should be categorized targeting international private schools
and public schools to provide equity for access to IESO competitions.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

References
Gronlund, N.E (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching (6th Edition)
New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Malawi Government (2001). Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.

Education Sector, Policy and Investment Framework.

Malunga, L.B. (2001). The quality of Education. Some policy Suggestion Based
on Survey of Schools. Ministry of Education Science and Technology, Lilongwe.

Journal BRITISH COUNCIL, Quality and Value in private school association

in Malawi 2001

Yvonne Mwalwenje

Holds a Bachelor of Education (Geogra-

phy) from Domasi College of Education
in conjunction with Chancellor College, a
constituent college of the University of
Malawi. Yvonne is a mentor and member
of the Jury for Malawi’s International
Earth Sciences Olympiad, Member, Inter-
national Geoscience Education Organiza-
tion, and Councilor, African Network for
Geo Education. Yvonne mentored Mala-
wi, the first African team to enter the In-
ternational Earth Sciences in 2011 in Italy, which won a Bronze medal.
With 23 years of experience with progressive teaching and leadership
responsibility in Malawi, she seeks to direct her skills and knowledge to
the developing a generation of Earth Sciences students capable of creating
a more sustainable Science world, and strengthening initiatives, programs,
and organizations that empower people and communities. Yvonne is mar-
ried to Fidelis Chasukwa. The family is blessed with three children Steria,
Fidel and Tumpale. Department of Humanities, Bwaila Secondary School,
P.O. Box 410, Lilongwe. Malawi. E-mail: yvonnechasukwa@gmail.com

186
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Elyvin Nkhonjera

A young environmental geoscientist in

Malawi currently working with Oxfam in
Civil Society as an Extractive Industry
Program Coordinator. She has 10 years’
experience managing Extractive Industries
Governance projects in Malawi. She stud-
ied her MSc in Environmental Sciences at
the University of Malawi Chancellor Col-
lege, where she focused of Environmental
Geology and Geohazards. She also holds a
BSc in Natural Resources Management
from the University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture. Elyvin is a
member of the Young Earth Scientists Network, she is one of the founders
of the network and served as a general secretary from its establishment in
2008 to 2009 and then as a chairperson for the outreach committee until
2012. Elyvin is also a Member of the International Earth Science Olympiad
as a mentor for the Malawi team. Oxfam in Malawi; Private Bag B331,
30735, Lilongwe 3, Malawi. E-mail: elyvinnkhonjera@gmail.com

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 Chapter 17

Earth Sciences Education from Primary School

to University: Case of Morocco
Ezzoura Errami, Nasser Ennih, Yamina Bourgeoini, Abdellah Lakhloufi

Abstract

A review of the official Earth sciences education programs in Morocco

shows these sciences are taught from primary to secondary schools with
general content including environment, water resources and their manage-
ment, soils and agriculture, external and internal Earth geodynamics, and
related activity. However, the hours dedicated to these sciences are generally
lower than for Life Sciences, to which it is linked in all curricula. Review-
ing the curricula for Life and Earth sciences teacher training’s programs
and regional Earth Sciences Education meetings reports in Morocco, shows
that these sciences are taught by teachers who are primarily trained in Life
Sciences. To help to improve this situation and make teachers and students
better appreciate Earth Science disciplines, we propose: separate training
for teachers in Earth and Life Sciences, increasing instruction hours for
Earth sciences in the curricula for both teachers and students, introducing
more practical work in teacher training and student teaching, and provid-
ing more teaching materials and necessary logistics to facilitate field trips.
On the other hand, the Moroccan Higher Education Institutions
(HEI), including universities, engineering and technical schools, of-
fer curricula that covers all Earth science disciplines with more practical
work and field trips. However, students face a major linguistic obstacle,
not specific to Earth Sciences, which the new educational system reform
seeks to solve by returning to French as the teaching language for sciences
in secondary schools. To help improve instruction in some Earth science
disciplines, HEI are creating technological platforms in each university to
provide students with high performing scientific and technical equipment.

Keywords: Earth Sciences, education, primary and secondary

schools, universities, Morocco

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

17.1 Introduction

The reconstruction of Earth’s long and complicated history since its

formation approximately 4.56 billion years ago and comprehension of how
its systems work are continuous challenges for scientists. Earth Sciences
or “Geosciences” are all sciences applied to studying our planet Earth and
meet these challenges. Earth Sciences cover a very broad field of sciences,
since they include studying all geological phenomena related to our planet
from its surface to its deepest parts. They bring together several comple-
mentary and sometimes interpenetrating disciplines, such as mineralogy,
petrography, geochemistry, paleontology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, tec-
tonics, hydrogeology, geophysics, metallurgy, remote sensing, geo-heritage,
geo-environment, etc. These sciences play an important role in all socio-
economic approaches for a sustainable world. Environmental issues, en-
ergy needs, and natural disaster management cannot be handled properly
without multidisciplinary geoscientific studies. Earth Sciences knowledge
is necessary to i) minimize the risk of natural disasters such as earthquakes,
floods and landslides; ii) preserve and improve our local, regional or global
environment; iii) adapt to climate change, iv) preserve and improve the
quality of our soils, and v) provide access to safe drinking water.
To achieve the objectives mentioned above, Moroccan geoscientists
should have appropriate skills to implement these sciences to help solve
problems, meet challenges and take advantage of the country’s natural re-
sources for sustainable human and socio-economic development. In Mo-
rocco, Earth Sciences education has evolved over time through different
curricula introduced during numerous educational system reforms. The
aim of this paper is to give an overview of Earth Sciences education in the
Moroccan educational system, from primary school to higher education.
To meet this objective, we analyze official documents from the Ministry of
National Education, Professional Training, Higher Education and Scien-
tific Research, which is the responsible for public education organization
and development. In this capacity, the ministry develops curricula and
teaching methods, supervises school textbook conception, and ensures
teacher and administrator training. It also supervises private education,
ensuring that its structure, curricula and teaching methods conform to
those of the public sector (Aperçu sur le système éducatif marocain, 2004).
As teaching quality is related to a teacher’s training, we analyzed the
training curricula for secondary school Earth Sciences teachers. This analysis
is coupled with unpublished reports from two national Earth Sciences educa-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

tion meetings, wherein teachers from secondary schools and universities met.
To provide an overview of Earth Sciences in Moroccan higher educa-
tion institutions, we analyze universities offerings based on the official
websites of the Sciences, and Sciences and Technology Faculties, engi-
neering and technical schools. To complete our data, we interview those
responsible for training and administration.

17.2 Earth Sciences Education in Morocco

Since Morocco’s independence in 1956, its educational system has un-

dergone numerous reforms influenced by demographic, political, social,
and economic factors. The first reforms were implemented to meet the
social expectations of a population that attaches great importance to the
school as an instrument of social rise. These reforms occurred at all levels
of the Moroccan educational system, with the objective to improve educa-
tion and training quality at the program level.
The Moroccan educational system is structured, from kindergarten to
higher education, as show in Table 17.1.

Tab. 17.1 Terminology and age ranges in the Moroccan educational system
Type of schools/ Ages in Duration External examinations taken at end of each
institutions years phase
Kinder- Early 4-5 2 years -------
garten years
Infant 6-7 2 years Certificate (Regional curriculum tests) in French,
Primary Arabic and Math
school Junior 8-11 4 years Certificate (Regional curriculum tests) in French,
Arabic and Math
Lower 12-14 3 years Certificate (Regional curriculum tests) in French,
Secondary second- Arabic, Math and Sciences
school ary (Col-
lege)
Upper 15-17 3 years Baccalaureate (National curriculum tests, General
second- certificates of secondary education)
ary
(Lycée)
University (License, 18-20 3 years License
Master, Doctorate
-LMD system)
(From La Charte nationale d’ éducation et de formation, 1999)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

17.2.1 Earth Sciences Education in Primary Schools

Natural Sciences are introduced from the first year of primary school
as part of the scientific activities instruction during two 45-minutes ses-
sions per week for the whole school year. The concepts discussed in these
levels are directly related to students’ daily life and aim to stimulate their
scientific curiosity. This teaching includes a set of science subjects mainly
related to physics and life sciences. However, Earth sciences chapters are
very limited and aim to introduce students to water and nature, soils and
astronomy (Guide Pédagogique de l’Enseignement Primaire; Livre blanc,
2002). This is minimal compared to the other scientific concepts, includ-
ing Life sciences, covered (Table 17.2).

Tab. 17.2 Earth Sciences in primary school

Primary school Earth Sciences chapters/Total scientific activity chapters Content
First year 1/8 Water and Nature
Second year 0/8 ----
Third year 0/8 ----
Fourth year 1/10 Water and Nature
Fifth year 1/8 Nature
Sixth year 2/5 Soils and Astronomy
(Guide pédagogique de l’enseignement primaire)

17.2.2 Earth Sciences Education in lower Secondary School (College)

College in Morocco is the first three years of secondary school (Table

3). Earth science (geology) is only taught in the first two years of Life and
Earth Sciences at this level, with four of the six modules dedicated to biol-
ogy (Les orientations éducatives et les programmes relatifs à l’enseignement de
la matière “Sciences de la Vie et de La Terre” au collège, 2009).
Earth Sciences Education in First Year College. The official pro-
gram of Life and Earth Sciences in First Year consists of two units taught
for two hours per week (Table 3). Only one semester is dedicated to Earth
Sciences, with a focus on Earth’s external geodynamics. It introduces the
historical dimension of geology and the concept of geological time. It cov-
ers basic knowledge about water resources and their importance in daily
life. The class dips into sedimentary processes, sedimentary rock forma-
tion and basic classification, paleontology, and lithostratigraphic scales.
Students are taught field methods, such as how to use a topographic map,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

making observations, note taking, how to measure the thickness of sedi-

mentary strata, how to recognize and classify different sedimentary rocks
and fossils, sample collection, and ultimately writing up all of this infor-
mation into a field trip report.
Earth Sciences Education in Second Year College. The second-year
Life and Earth Sciences program continues on from the first-year program,
shifting the focus mainly to Earth’s internal phenomenon. One of the two
semesters is devoted to internal geodynamics (Table 17.3). The content
introduces Earth’s internal structure and the Theory of Plate Tectonics
with its related activity (mountain formation, earthquakes, magmatism,
and tectonic deformation). The program also includes a field trip focused
on the module content at a location where students will practice the same
techniques learned on the field trip the previous year.
Earth Sciences Education in Third Year College. Life and Earth
Sciences consist of two units totally dedicated to Life Sciences (Table 17.3),
which constitutes a gap in the Earth Sciences curricula.

17.2.3 Earth Sciences Education in Upper Secondary School

The secondary school in Morocco is a three-year phase of specialization

(Table 17.3). After succeeding in their college curriculum, students choose be-
tween Humanities, Sciences, or “Taalim Al Assil”, with one year in a common
core (Table 17.3). The second and third year of upper secondary school are
called first-year and second-year baccalaureate, respectively (Table 17.3). Those
who choose Sciences spend the first year of secondary school in a common
core where they study all scientific disciplines. After that, their specialization
begins in the first-year baccalaureate where they select either the Experimental
or Mathematical Sciences series. In the second-year baccalaureate, Experimen-
tal Sciences students choose either Life and Earth Sciences, Physical Sciences,
or Agricultural sciences. However, Mathematical Sciences students may con-
tinue their curricula in the same field or change to the Physical Sciences series.
Those who choose Humanities or “Taalim Al Assil”, continue their curriculum
in the same discipline. It is important to note that “Taalim Al Assil” is Arabic
for “original education”; it is specifically Islamic instruction.
Earth Sciences Education in the First Year of Secondary School
(Common Core). In the common core of Sciences, students study all sci-
entific disciplines with Life and Earth Sciences constituting three hours per
week for the whole school year (Table 17.3), two units (51 hours each) are

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

dedicated to each Life Sciences and Earth Sciences (Les orientations éduca-
tives et les programmes relatifs à l’éducation de la matière “Sciences de la Vie
et de la Terre” au lycée, 2007). The latter begins with a field trip wherein the
students must learn field work techniques and are introduced to an ecosys-
tem. The curriculum incorporates environmental sciences, focused on eco-
systems, soils, and climate and their relationship to living beings, the flow of
matter and energy into the environment, and environmental equilibria. In
the Humanities and “Taalim Al Assil” cores, the Life and Earth Sciences pro-
gram consists of two units delivered for one hour per week all year dedicated
totally to Earth Sciences (Table 17.3). The first unit consists of seventeen
hours focused on water use and pollution, water reserves and drinking water,
and the water cycle. The second unit dedicates the same time to humans and
their environment. It focuses on aspects of environmental disequilibrium,
environmental protection, and environment and health.

Earth Sciences Education in the First Year Baccalaureate

Experimental Sciences Series. In this series, Life and Earth Sciences

consist of four units taught four hours per week (Table 17.3). Only
one unit is dedicated to Earth Sciences and is focused on external geo-
logical phenomena. The content guides students toward understanding
paleogeographical maps and reconstructing the geological histories of
sedimentary phosphate and coal basins using stratigraphic principles,
the lithostratigraphic scale, and stratigraphical hiatuses.
Mathematical Sciences Series. In this series, Life and Earth sciences
are taught two hours per week with two units (Table 17.3). The unit
dedicated to Earth Sciences is focused on external geological phenom-
ena with its content and time allotment exactly the same as the experi-
mental science series described above. The ratio of Earth Sciences to
Life Sciences is different, however (Table 17.3).
Humanities and “Taalim Al Assil” series. For both series, Life and
Earth sciences are taught one hour per week with two units entirely
dedicated to Life Sciences (Table 17.3).

Earth Sciences Education in the Second Year Baccalaureate

Life and Earth Sciences Series. The program consists of six units taught
six hours per week (Table 17.3). Only one unit from a total of six is
dedicated to Earth Sciences, and is focused on geological phenomenon
related to mountain belt formation in the context of plate tectonics.
Physical Sciences Series. In these series, Life and Earth Sciences con-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

sist of four units taught four hours per week, with only one unit dedi-
cated to Earth Sciences (Table 17.3), composed of the same content as
the Life and Earth Sciences series.
Agricultural Sciences Series. Life and Earth Sciences consist of three
hours per week with two units, only one of which is dedicated to Earth
Sciences (Table 17.3) focusing on water resources management and
improving agricultural production.
Mathematical Sciences Series (Option A). Life and Earth Sciences consist
of two units dedicated to Life sciences for two hours per week (Table 17.3).

Tab. 17.3 Credit hours of Earth Sciences in Morocco’s secondary schools

Years Series Credit hours Hourly Remarks
volume
Life and Earth Sciences
per week
Earth Sci-
ences
Lower 1st year 68 h 34 50% 2h
second- h
ary 2nd year 68h 34h 50% 2h
school 3rd year 68 h 0 h 0% 2h
(col-
lege)
Com- Sciences 102 h 51h 50% 3h
mon
cores Human Sciences 34 h 34 100% 1h
h Same
content
Taalim Al Assil 34 h 34h 100% 1h
Upper
First Experimental Sciences 136 h 34 25% 4h
second-
year bac- h Same
ary
calaure- content
school Mathematical Sciences 68 h 34 50% 2h
ate
h
Human Sciences 34 h 0h 0% 1h Same
Taalim Al Assil 34 h 0h 0% 1h content

Second Experi- Life and 204 h 34 16,66% 6 h

year bac- mental Earth Sci- h
calaure- Sciences ences
ate Physical Sci- 136 h 34 25% 4h
ences h
Agricultural 102 h 28 h 27.45% 3 h
Sciences
Math- Mathemati- 68 h 0 h 0% 2h
ematical cal Sciences
Sciences (A)
(Les orientations éducatives et les programmes relatifs à l’enseignement de la matière “Sciences de la Vie et
de La Terre” au collège, 2009 ; Les orientations éducatives et les programmes relatifs à l’ éducation de la
matière “Sciences de la Vie et de la Terre” au lycée, 2007)

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

17.3 Training Life and Earth Sciences Teachers

The “Ecole Normale Supérieure, ENS” institutions train Life and

Earth Sciences teachers for upper secondary teaching. Initially attached
to the Ministry of National Education and designed to train gradu-
ate teachers, Morocco’s six ENS joined the universities in 2010 and
now enjoy the status of higher education institutions with regulated
access. The pedagogical architecture of the training offered by these
institutes, was completely redesigned to fit with the License/Master/
Doctorate (LMD) system adopted within Moroccan universities. The
training offered by these institutes is diverse nationally and culminates
with a professional license in Education, equivalent to the Bachelor’s
Degree in the Anglo-Saxon education system. These institutes aim to
train candidates aspiring to teach Natural Sciences and prepare them
for the examination to access the Regional Centers for Education and
Training (Centres régionaux des métiers de l’ éducation et de la formation
[C.R.M.E.F]) and Master’s degrees.
The majority of courses taught at these institutes are education focused
and therefore reflect their specific vocation. These courses cover a broad
range of disciplines from humanities to sciences and technology. At each
FUE (Filières Universitaires d’Enseignement), pedagogical course work oc-
cupies an average of 15 to 30 percent of the total study hours, with the
remainder dedicated to the specialization discipline. Student recruitment
into the FUE specialization in Life and Earth Sciences is done either from
semester 3 (S3) or 5 (S5). In the case of the courses with access to S3,
Earth Sciences consists of four modules of the total twenty one modules.
Professional licenses do not follow a national curriculum; the ENS are
free to design their curricula according to their regional needs. Table 17.4
compares the content of general Earth Sciences modules as taught in Mar-
rakech and Rabat.

Tab. 17.4 Examples of Earth Sciences courses found in training programs for upper
secondary school Life and Earth Sciences teachers.
ENS Semester 3 Semester 4 Semester 5 Semester 6
Petrography and Struc-Analysis and inter- Internal and external
Rabat tural geology pretation of geologi- geodynamics Paleoge- Applied
cal elements ography geology
Sedimentary processes Rock deformation Mining geology
Marrakech and stratigraphy Endog- and structural geol- and geo-heritage of ----
enous geology ogy Morocco

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

These courses aim to deepen students’ understanding of internal and ex-

ternal Earth geodynamics developed during the first year (Semester 1 and 2)
of university, and also to give them an overview of Morocco’s geology. These
courses are completed in semester 6 by micro-teaching sessions and report-
ing on subjects closely related to the didactic aspects of geology teaching.

17.4 Earth Sciences in Higher Education

Morocco has thirteen public universities with open access, twelve of

which host Earth Sciences departments within their Faculties of Sciences
or Science and Technology. In addition to universities, Earth Sciences are
also taught in engineering and public technical schools, with limited ac-
cess based either on marks or on marks and examination. These higher ed-
ucation institutions (HEI) are under the umbrella of the Ministry of Na-
tional Education, Professional Training, Higher Education and Scientific
Research or the Ministry of Energy, Mines and Sustainable Development.
Higher Education in Morocco has undergone several structural
and institutional educational reforms since 1970 (La charte nationale de
l’ éducation et de la formation, 1999; La loi 01-00 portant sur l’organisation
de l’enseignement supérieur, 2000; Programme d’urgence “2009-2012”,
2009). The new reform, initiated in 2000 and started in September 2003,
aims to harmonize the university curriculum with European standards
in order to facilitate the mobility of Moroccan students abroad as well as
mobility between disciplines and training offered in Morocco. Since then,
higher education is organized into semesters composed of teaching units
adopting the LMD system (Bologna system). This system consists of three
years or six semesters (Bac+3) allowing students to continue to Master’s
(Bac+5) and/or PhD (Bac+8) degrees. Earth Sciences teaching in the Fac-
ulty of Science follows the same reforms adopted nationally.
In the previous system, the Bachelor’s (Licence) in Earth Sciences was
achieved in four years, where the specialization in Earth Sciences began
from the first year of the second university cycle (G3, G means geology), with
50 percent geology and 50 percent biology courses. The second and last year
of the Bachelor’s (G4) is more specialized in Geology with only one biologi-
cal course. It is important to note that the content does not reflect a purely
geological specialization. However, under the new reform, a Bachelor’s in
Earth Sciences is attained in three years instead of four, with a common first
year for Life and Earth Sciences. Specialization begins in the second year,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

when students take only Earth Sciences courses. The 1st and 2nd semesters
of the first year introduce students to internal and external Earth dynamics
with one module per semester, while in 2nd and 3rd year, students acquire
most of the necessary fundamentals in the various Earth Science disciplines.
This is the case for all Moroccan universities, with elective modules filling
out in the last semester depending on their regional needs.
Earth Sciences are also included in curricula for engineering and
technical schools that train engineers in hydro-geotechnical applica-
tions, environmental and industrial safety, agronomy and agricultural
economics, environmental and natural resource management, Geo-
graphic Information Science, meteorology, hydraulic and civil engi-
neering, mineral exploration, natural resources exploitation and in-
dustrial waste processing, and construction. The Mines Institute trains
technicians and specialized technicians for two or four years after the
baccalaureate in applied geology in mines and quarries.
In summary, the analysis of curricula offered by the Moroccan HEI, in-
cluding universities, engineering and technical schools, shows the richness and
diversity on offer, covering all Earth Sciences disciplines. However, some HEI
lack scientific and technical equipment (Chakib, 2014; Chakib et al., 2015).

17.5 Professional Development Available to Life and Earth Sciences

Teachers

During the last years, two regional meetings were organized between
secondary school teachers and university lecturers in Morocco. The out-
come of these discussions showed that most Life and Earth Sciences teach-
ers in primary and secondary schools received little Earth Sciences educa-
tion of their own, with almost no practical work or fieldwork, which means
they lack critical geological knowledge, and have not mastered numerous
geological concepts. This means they are not confident teaching these sci-
ences. To teach Earth Sciences, they typically only use textbooks, prepared
under the guidance of the Ministry of National Education, Professional
Training, Higher Education and Scientific Research and produced by dif-
ferent private companies, with almost no additional Earth Science-specific
teaching materials. The books are usually bought by students, however, to
encourage education in rural areas, the state provides all books for free.
The ministry rarely provides professional development courses in
Earth Sciences. Most participants of these meetings reported that their

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

background, confidence and motivation to teach Earth Sciences is very

poor. An unmotivated teacher automatically transmits his or her lack of
motivation to the students, which negatively affects their interest and
achievements in this field. This is confirmed by Chmanti-Houari et al.
(2016). Adding to that, a review of Earth science content within Life and
Earth sciences textbooks adopted in Morocco showed a wide range of
Earth Sciences concepts are inadequately designed in primary and sec-
ondary school curriculum. These indicators suggest that Earth Sciences
education in Morocco can be improved by better training for teachers and
a complete textbook review by Earth Sciences specialists working closely
with science education specialists and school teachers.

17.6 Support for Earth Sciences Teachers

Local and timely support for Earth Sciences teachers, specifically ge-
ology, is provided by voluntary Earth Science lecturers. Since 2013, pro-
motion and support for Earth sciences education is also provided by the
African Association of Women in Geosciences (AAWG) and the African
Geoparks Network (AGN) in collaboration with numerous national stake-
holders, especially the Faculty of Sciences of Chouaib Doukkali Univer-
sity of El Jadida, through their activities. Their “Day of Earth Sciences in
Africa and Middle-East” (DESAME) aims to increase awareness about the
role Earth scientists could play to help build a more peaceful, healthier and
wealthier continent. Numerous activities, such as conferences, workshops,
cultural activities, and geological exhibitions are conducted to celebrate
DESAME each year. More than 3,000 students from different primary
and secondary schools and universities in Casablanca-Settat and Marrake-
ch-Safi administrative regions participated in these activities.

17.7 Discussion and Conclusion

Analysis of the Ministry of National Education, Professional Train-

ing, Higher Education and Scientific Research’s official documents re-
lated to Earth sciences education in primary and secondary schools
shows that all students from the age of 6 to 18 have Earth Sciences
in their educational curricula. The programs’ content covers numerous
areas including environment, water resources and their management,
soils and agriculture, Earth’s external and internal geodynamics, and

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

related the magmatic, metamorphic and tectonic activity. The program

also includes relevant field trips. However, the hourly percentage of
Earth sciences is generally lower than Life sciences, to which it is closely
linked in all curricula, and it is different from one educational level to
another and from one specialty to another. But the major problem, at
almost all educational levels, is that field trips are often not taken due
to logistical problems and other challenges (Lamarti et al., 2009). Field
trips are a critical tool in Earth sciences teaching, with numerous stud-
ies showing their benefits to students and teachers by encouraging criti-
cal thinking, improving long-term knowledge retention, encouraging
positive attitudes towards science, and increasing scientific curiosity,
motivation and self-confidence (Marras Manner, 1995; Davis, 2002).
Nevertheless, it is important to note that Earth sciences are also a part
of the geography curriculum primary and secondary school students.
However, approximately 15 percent of all students in Morocco are enrolled
in private schools (L’éducation nationale en chiffre, 2015-2016). These fol-
low the same system as public schools, but incorporate additional courses
borrowed from Life and Earth sciences books adopted in France.
Regional meetings focused on Earth Sciences Education in Morocco
showed that teacher Earth sciences training is inadequate for what it is
required of them. Earth sciences are taught by teachers who are mainly
trained in Life sciences.
To help to improve this situation and help teachers and students better
appreciate Earth sciences disciplines, it is necessary to: i) train teachers in
Earth Sciences separately from Life Sciences, which provides specialized
teachers in both disciplines; ii) increase the hours dedicated to Earth sci-
ences in the curricula for both teachers and students, making it at least
equivalent to the time allocated to Life sciences; iii) introduce more practi-
cal work for primary and secondary students and teacher’s training to help
them easily understanding geological concepts, including deep time and
space; iv) provide more teaching material such as rock samples, minerals,
fossils, and others educational tools; v) integrate more New Information
and Communication Technologies in Earth sciences teaching; vi) and pro-
vide the necessary logistical support to facilitate programmed field trips.
On the other hand, the Moroccan HEI offer curricula incorporating
all Earth science disciplines and the instruction includes more practical
work and field trips to local geological areas in Morocco. However, trans-
ferring scientific knowledge to students faces a major linguistic obstacle as
primary and secondary school science education is in Arabic, whereas it is

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

taught in French at the HEI. That problem will be solved by returning to

French instruction for primary and secondary school sciences. Teaching
Information and Communication Technologies requires ever more space
in Moroccan higher education in general and in Earth sciences in par-
ticular, however, some HEI lack high performance scientific and technical
equipment, which negatively affects practical teaching for some Earth sci-
ence disciplines (e.g. geochemistry, isotope geochemistry and geochronol-
ogy). This situation will be solved by creating technological platforms in
each university, which is work in progress.

Acknowledgments

The authors are very thankful, to B. Lage for the fruitful discussions
concerning the official scholar programs, and to A. Souhel for providing
data on the programs ENS of Marrakech.

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Chakib, A., Zahour, G., Talbi, M., Sayad, A. 2015. Évaluation de la filière des
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Learning.

Chmanti-Houari, I., Oudrhiri Hassani, M., Lachkhem, H., Sayad, A. 2016.

Causes de la réticence des étudiants marocains vis-à-vis de la géologie; cas de la
Faculté des Sciences Dhar Mahraz de Fès. European Scientific Journal 12 (1),
220-226.

Davis, L.E. 2002 The importance of field trips. Rocky Mountain - 54th GSA
annual meeting. https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/ab-
stract_33868.htm

Guide pédagogique de l’enseignement primaire (‫ميلعتلل يجوغاديبلا ليلدلا‬

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

‫)يئادتبالا‬. Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la formation profession-

nelle, de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique. 172p.

La charte nationale de l’éducation et de formation, 1999. Commission Spéciale

Education Formation. Royaume du Maroc. 73p.

La loi 01-00 portant l’organisation de l’Enseignement supérieur, 2000. Edition

du Ministère de l’Education Nationale et la Formation des Cadres et de la Re-
cherche Scientifique. Royaume du Maroc. 21p.

Lamarti, L., Ben-Bouziane, A., Akrim, H., Talbi, M. 2009. La sortie de terrain :
quelle place et quel rôle dans une démarche scientifique?. RADISMA 4, 2009, 11 p.

L’education nationale en chiffre, 2015-2016. Direction de la Stratégie, des Statis-

tiques et de la Planification. Division des études et statistiques. Ministère de
l’Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle. 10p. Published on the
official website www.men.gov.ma.

Les orientations éducatives et les programmes relatifs à l’enseignement de la

matière “Sciences de la Vie et de La Terre” -‫جماربلاو ةيوبرتلا تاهيجوتلا‬
‫ يدادعألا يوناثلا ميلعتلا كلسب ضرألاو ةايحلا مولع ةدام سيردتب ةصاخلا‬- au
collège 2009. Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de l’Enseignement Supérieur,
de la Formation des Cadres et de la Recherche Scientifique. 55p.

Les orientations éducatives et les programmes relatifs à l’enseignement de la

matière “Sciences de la Vie et de la Terre” -‫ةصاخلا جماربلاو ةيوبرتلا تاهيجوتلا‬
‫ يليهأتلا يوناثلا ميلعتلا كلسب ضرألاو ةايحلا مولع ةدام سيردتب‬- au sec-
ondaire qualifiant 2007. Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de l’Enseignement
Supérieur, de la Formation des Cadres et de la Recherche Scientifique. 86p

Livre blanc, 2002. Programme educatif des deux cycles de l’enseignement pri-
maire. Ministère de l’Education Nationale Royaume du Maroc, 137p.

Marras Manner B. 1995. Field studies benefit students and teachers. Journal of
Geological Education 43, 128-131.

Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la For-

mation des Cadres et de la Recherche Scientifique [MENESFCRS] 2011. Note
ministérielle N° 132, au sujet des programmes des sciences de la vie et de la terre
au secondaire collégial, 3p.

PNEA (Programme National d’Evaluation des Acquis). 2009. Conseil Supérieur

de l’Enseignement, programme nationale d’évaluation des acquis, Royaume du
Maroc fascicule des Sciences, 45-61.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Programme d’urgence “Programme d’urgence 2009-2012”, 2009. Pour un nou-

veau souffle de la réforme de l’Éducation- Formation”, Ministère de l’Éducation
Nationale, de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la Formation des Cadres et de la
Recherche Scientifique, Direction de l’Évaluation et de la Prospective.

Sayad, A., Boutkhil, L., Bouali, A., El Meskin, F. 2016. Enseignement/appren-

tissage de la Géologie au secondaire marocain entre la réalité et la théorie. Re-
cueil des résumés, les journées géologiques du Maroc, Ministère de l’Energie, des
Mines, de l’Eau et de l’Environnement, Rabat 10-12 mai 2016.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/curricula/morocco/mr_us_bsc_2006_ara.pdf

http://www.men.gov.ma/Fr/Pages/Programmes-qualifiant.aspx

http://www.ens-marrakech.ac.ma

http://ens.um5.ac.ma

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Ezzoura Errami

A lecturer and researcher at Chouaïb

Doukkali University (El Jadida, Moroc-
co) with a strong academic grounding in
Earth Sciences and over 12 years of expe-
rience in international geoscientific pro-
fessional organizations (AAWG, IUGS,
IAPG, ArabGU, IGEO, GSAf, AGN,
etc.). Her current major research interest
is petrology and structural geology, geo-
heritage, geotourism, geoeducation, sus-
tainable development and gender related
studies in geosciences. She is author/coauthor of numerous refereed scien-
tific papers, reports, guidebooks and other articles and co-editor of numer-
ous books. Equipe de Géodynamique, Géoeducation and Geoheritage, Earth
Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaïb Doukkali University, B.P.
20, 24000, El Jadida, Morocco. E-mail: errami.e@ucd.ac.ma

Nasser Ennih

A lecturer and researcher at Chouaïb

Doukkali University (El Jadida, Morocco)
where he served as coordinator of the
Earth sciences sector. His main research
interests cover local and regional magma-
tism and geodynamic processes mainly in
the northern part of the West African Cra-
ton. He is a life member of the GSAf where
he served as councilor and as general secre-
tary. He served also as counselor of the
“Association Morocaine des Sciences de la
Terre”. He is author/coauthor of numerous refereed scientific papers, guide-
books and co-editor of numerous special volumes. Equipe de Géodynamique,
Géoeducation and Geoheritage, Earth Sciences Department, Faculty of Sci-
ences, Chouaïb Doukkali University, B.P. 20, 24000, El Jadida, Morocco

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Yamina Bourgeoini

A lecturer researcher at Cadi Ayyad

University (Marrakech, Morocco). Her
main field of research is micropaleontol-
ogy, biostratigraphy and geoeducation.
She is member of AAWG and COGE.
Geology Department, Faculty of Sciences
and Techniques, Cadi Ayyad University,
Marrakech, Morocco

Abdellah Lakhloufi

A Lecturer researcher at ENS, Mohamed

V University (Rabat, Morocco). His main
field of research is structural geology.
President of the “Centre d’Etudes de Re-
cherches et d’Evaluation pour l’Education
et la Formation” (CEREEF). He is author
of numerous books on the education sys-
tem in Morocco. Geology department,
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Mohammed V
University, Rabat, Morocco

205
 Chapter 18

Earth Science Education in New

Zealand
Glenn Vallender

Abstract

This chapter describes the general educational structure in New Zea-

land with a brief history of New Zealand qualifications and the develop-
ment of the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA).
NCEA is a standards based assessment system which replaced a wholly
norm referenced external examination system in 2003. NCEA is currently
(2018) under a major review by the Ministry of Education and the Quali-
fications Authority. Changes will be phased in from 2020. This has had
a major impact on geoscience in the national science curriculum, firstly
by requiring an equal status to other sciences and then a general decline.
Statistics are given documenting this decline in student numbers. Main
achievement standards which relate to the geosciences are described. It is
important to note that the NCEA assessment system is derived from the
national curriculum. Assessment may drive pedagogy but is not the cur-
riculum. School enrrolment is compulsory from age 6 to 16.

Key Words: NCEA, Geoscience, Achievement standards, School sec-

tors, School types

18.1 The New Zealand School System: A Summary

New Zealand today has an education system divided into primary,

secondary and tertiary sectors controlled by the Ministry of Education
(http://www.education.govt.nz/ministry-of-education/). The roots of
this system are British and French colonialism. National qualifications
are administered by the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA)
(http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/), who receive general policy and curriculum

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

advice from the Ministry of Education. Table 18.1 summarizes relation-

ships for schooling in New Zealand.

Tab. 18.1 The New Zealand Education system

Year School Mainstream Typical National National
Level Sector School Student Curriculum Qualifications
Type Age level
(The NZ Curricu-
lum, 2007)
1 5/6 1 Nil
2 6/7 1 Nil
3 Full Primary 7/8 2 Nil
4 Primary 8/9 2 Nil
5 9/10 3 Nil
6 10/11 3 Nil
7 Intermediate 11/12 4 Nil
8 Intermediate 12/13 4 Nil
9 13/14 5 Nil
10 14/15 5 Nil
11 Secondary High School 15/16 6 NCEA level 1
12 16/17 7 NCEA Level 2
13 17/18 8 NCEA Level 3
1 18/19 1 Year University or
st
NCEA Level 4
University and Polytech
2 Tertiary Polytechnics 20/21 NCEA Level 5
3 22/23 Bachelors degree NCEA Level 6
4 23+ Post graduate NCEA Level 7
NB: In NZ, Universities are not called Colleges but some secondary schools use this term mainly for
‘status’ and ‘marketing’ reasons.

There are a variety of other school types ranging from religious based
schools (catering for years 1- 15), area schools (catering for year levels 7-15),
middle schools (catering for years 7-9), and composite or area schools, which
are essentially rural schools catering for years 7 to 13. A complete directory
of all New Zealand schools is available on the Ministry of Education website:
(https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/data-services/directories)

Other specific types of schools include:

1. Kura kaupapa Māori are state schools where the teaching is in the

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Māori language (te reo Māori) and is based on Māori culture and values.
2. Special schools are state schools that provide education for students
with special education needs. Integrated schools are schools that used
to be private and have now become part of the state system.
3. Designated character schools are state schools that teach the New
Zealand curriculum but have been allowed to develop their own set
of aims, purposes and objectives to reflect their own particular values.
4. Independent (or private) schools are governed by their own inde-
pendent boards but must meet certain standards in order to be regis-
tered. Independent schools may be either co-educational or single-sex.
They charge fees, but also receive some subsidy funding from the gov-
ernment. Typical annual fees range from NZ$15,000 – NZ$22,000 for
NZ citizens and up to NZ$30,000 for overseas full fee-paying students.
Of the 89 private schools in NZ, two have over 1,000 students. Most
private schools have students from a high socio-economic standing.
5. Boarding schools.
6. The Correspondence School (TCS) provides distance learning for
more than 20,000 students across New Zealand.
7. Home based schooling requires Ministry of Education approval.
8. Partnership/Charter/Kura Hourua schools, where (controversial-
ly), business and community links are encouraged.

The school leaving age is 16 years with compulsory curriculum delivery

to the end of year 10. Secondary education (high school) is dominated by
the introduction of a national qualification system beginning at year 11 or
age 15. Middle schools have not really been developed but, “Intermediate
schools” (Years 7 and 8) have survived, albeit precariously. In 2016 there
were 115 Intermediate schools and 345 secondary schools. In NZ, a child
starting primary school for the first time between July (when the school
roll is counted) and 31 December of a school year, and age five to six, is
classified as Year 0. The majority of children begin school between 1 Janu-
ary and before the national July roll count and are classed as Year 1. Most
children begin school at age five, but the compulsory beginning age is six.
Those starting at six are placed in the same class as five-year-old children.

18.2 A Brief History of NZ Qualifications

(after Scott, 1994 and Post Primary Teachers Association (PPTA))

1869 -1870 - University of Otago and University of New Zealand established.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

1870s - Passing of Education Act (1877) establishes primary education.

Compulsory for ages 7 to14.
- Annual exams for standard 4 upwards.
- Rationing of access to secondary school.

1880s - Standard 4 exams a prerequisite for police, army, prison officers

and factory workers under 16.
- Entry to public service employment by exam at standard 6.

1890s - ‘Inspectors’ exams abolished from standards 1, 2, 3 and 4.

1900s - National scholarships for access to secondary school.

- ‘Free place’ system established for entry to secondary school with [Brit-
ish] social hierarchies, values and systems maintained. Mr George Hogben
dominates curriculum thinking.
- Different qualifications for different social and employment purposes.

1910s - Education Act of 1914 required all secondary schools to offer free
education to all those who passed a ‘Proficiency’ examination.
- Leaving certificates awarded by examination or accreditation; Intermedi-
ate (Y10).
- Lower Leaving (Y11) and Higher Leaving (Y12). Also a matriculation
exam at Y11.
- Technical High Schools introduced to produce trades people and re-
sulted in dichotomy of ‘vocational trades’ versus ‘professions’.

1920s - Eight school awards available from standard 6 to Year 12.

- Training College entrance exam introduced in 1929.

1930s - Abolition of senior and junior scholarships to high school.

- Suspension of public service exams.
- Lower leaving certificate abolished and replaced with school certificate
as a replacement for the matriculation at year 11 (1934).
- Proficiency exam abolished so that primary students could claim a free
secondary school place.
- Secondary education ‘free’ until age 19 but leaving age is 14 years.

1940s - University Entrance (UE) by accreditation and moved to Year 12 (Y12).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

- School certificate (SC) status increased by moving to Y12 as an alterna-

tive to UE.
- SC accepted as the entry standard into public service.
- The Thomas Report of 1944 replaced matriculation with University
Entrance.
- School resistance produced class streaming based on ‘IQ’.
- A ‘pass’ in ‘School Certificate’ set at 200 marks over five subjects.

1950s - Very little happened? The ‘baby boomers’ are born.

1960s - Bursary and sixth form certificate introduced.

- Single subject passes for SC.
- Educator Jack Shallcrass calls for abolition of School Certificate.

1970s - Internally assessed subjects introduced (still Norm Referenced).

- Elley and Livingstone call for University Entrance and School Certifi-
cate exams to be abolished with initial discussions of ‘learning outcomes’.
1980s - Mix of internal and external assessments still norm referenced.
- Inter subject scaling introduced.
- University Entrance abolished in 1985.
- Link between SC marks and year 12 grades removed.
- Picot report and ‘Tomorrow’s Schools’ set future directions with Board of
Trustees replacing Boards of Governors in schools to be inclusive of com-
munity skills.
- New Zealand Employers Federation calls for full internal assessment
against standards with removal of distinction between ‘trades’ and ‘aca-
demic’ courses.
- First use of criterion referenced assessment in 1982.
- University Entrance exams becomes sixth Form Certificate until 2003
- Achievement based assessment begins at year 12 with trialing of grade
related criteria in 1986.
- The Hawke Report of 1988 leads to the establishment of the Nation-
al Qualifications Authority (NZQA) and the National Qualifications
Framework in (NQF) under Dr Lockwood Smith (National Party Min-
ister of Education).

1990s - NZ Qualifications Authority established in 1990.

- National Qualifications Framework established in 1993.
- Competency based Unit Standards developed by NZQA failed at

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

schools through lack of funding, training, time, narrow assessment cri-

teria, and inadequate understanding and “buy in’ by teachers, but not in
industry, showing strong links between ‘New Right’ political ideologies
and economic climate of the time.
- PPTA moratorium on Unit standards implementation.
- Standards Based Assessment philosophy continue development.
- NCEA level 1 replaces SC after moratorium lifted.
- Achievement Standards developed by Ministry of Education.
- Disparities and management issues between Unit Standards and
Achievement Standards a continuing problem.
- PPTA imposes a freeze on development on workload issues.
- Student strikes occur when PPTA place ban on extracurricular work.

2000s - NCEA levels 2, 3 and 4 implemented (not without difficulty!)

with year 11 students first sitting external and internal exams in 2002.
- Philosophical clash between norm referencing for ranking students
against each other and that of assessing individuals against standards.

- Concerns over moderation of internally assessed standards addressed.

Ongoing.
- Structural changes to record ‘failure’ if examinations sat and endorse-
ment with success.
- Certificates are endorsed with Excellence where a student has 50 ex-
cellence credits at the level of the NCEA certificate or above. Where a
student has a combination of 50 credits of Merit or Excellence at the
level of the certificate or above they will be entitled to a Merit endorse-
ment. Ongoing adjustments and alignments of standards to the cur-
riculum to meet changing policies and industry demands.

Prior to the initial introduction of NCEA in 2001, annual national

‘subject’ examinations at years 11 to 13 were norm referenced (therefore
scaled and ranked). Scaling ensured an approximate 50 percent pass/fail-
ure rate for each yearly cohort. Success was infamously considered to be
achieving an average of 50 percent in five subjects or gaining a total of 200
marks out of 500. Gaining 200 was a significant social and educational
landmark in an individual’s schooling at age 15 and largely determined
future employment and educational directions. University entrance was
possible from success at year 12 (called sixth form), but by the late 1960s,
the standard entrance qualification to university was success in bursary

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

examinations at year 13 (then called seventh form). Grade distributions at

form six (year 12) were for sixth form certificate and university entrance,
determined by school certificate results from the previous year 11 to then,
form 5. Bursary exams were passed as ‘A’ or ‘B’ (gaining different mon-
etary reward) with scholarship at year 13 considered higher status aca-
demically than bursary. Scholarship success provided more money than
bursary examination success and also the ability to ‘skip’ the first year of
university studies. Prior to sixth and seventh form (up to 1969), the last
two years of high school were called 6a (year 12) and 6b (year 13), firmly
based on British grammar school models.
Before the 1960s, there was clear demarcation between ‘trades’ students
who went to ‘technical’ high schools and ‘academic’ students who were pre-
pared for university and the ‘professions’. Indeed, ‘professional’ high school
courses characteristically demanded learning languages such as Latin and
French. The break down of this demarcation of ‘colonially inherited’ values
and attitudes towards learning and employment is still in progress but its
legacy in today’s national assessments is ‘ghosted’ in the current compe-
tency based assessment (CBA) (‘trades’ oriented) unit standards and In-
dependent Trades Organization (ITO’s) unit standards, and the criterion
referenced (CRA) achievement standards (‘academic’). The political power
of competitive ‘New Right’ social and economic ideologies, through fo-
rums such as the Business Round Table in the 1980s, drove change in
school governance and eventually established the National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) and the nationwide use of CRA and CBA. Impetus
for qualifications change was essentially driven by the PPTA and ‘shaped’
by party politics (Alison, 2007). It should also be noted that NCEA is
an assessment system derived from the national curriculum and assesses
only selected aspects of the curriculum. Revisions of national assessment
standards are aligned to the 2007 national curriculum revisions. Interna-
tional baccalaureate (IB) and Cambridge International examination (CIE)
systems have a presence in New Zealand, but remain relatively minor and
a choice for largely private and single-sex schools. Charter schools (Part-
nership schools) controversially (educationally and politically) attempt to
provide other options for mostly disadvantaged families and their children.

18.3 NCEA and current university entrance standard

Students are qualified for entrance to a university in New Zealand

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

when they have obtained:

• NCEA level 3.
• Three subjects at Level 3 and made up of 14 credits each in three
approved subjects.
• 10 credits at Level 2 or above in literacy and made up of 5 in reading
and 5 in writing.
• 10 credits in numeracy at Level 1 or above made up of achievement
standards and unit standards (three specific standards required).
(http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/qualifications-standards/awards/university-
entrance/)

18.4 Briefly About NCEA

NCEA stands for National Certificate in Educational Achievement

and is a product of global educational reforms and experiments from the
1980s onwards. It is an internationally recognized qualification. In es-
sence, NCEA is a standards based assessment system (SBA) that evolved
from a criterion referenced assessment system (CRA) based on the na-
tional curriculum. Assessments are internally set by teachers and exter-
nally set. Both are moderated (quality checked) by the NZ Qualifications
Authority (NZQA). Philosophically, standards based assessment, is about
assessing an individual student’s personal academic best. Today, this has
somewhat morphed into competitive pass rate targets and credit accruals
for schools and students with an emphasis on summative assessment and
an increasing use of internally assessed tasks (http://teu.ac.nz/2015/08/
farming-tertiary-education/, http://www.ppta.org.nz/resources/publica-
tions/cat_view/14-publications/89-research). NCEA attempts to encour-
age and reward student explanation of phenomena rather than merely
recall. Achievement is recorded as: not achieved, achieve, achieve with
merit, and achieve with excellence. There are no percentages associated
with results and there is an emphasis on explanation and understanding
rather than on knowledge.

18.5 Earth Science in the New Zealand Curriculum

Earth Science and Geoscience are synonymous. Geological science is a

branch of geoscience. In New Zealand these areas of study are addressed

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

in the Planet Earth and Beyond strand of the national Science curriculum
as well as aspects of geography, physics, chemistry and biology. Both geo-
science and astronomy have struggled for survival. Prior to 1993, the New
Zealand curriculum was dominated by the 1968 syllabus and although as-
pects of geoscience were included, it was not generally taught, mainly due
to lack of trained and qualified teachers and resources. The 1993 science
curriculum was a landmark in geoscience education as the subject became
an ‘equal’ partner to physics, chemistry and biology. Figure 18.1 shows
how the candidate numbers have varied through time to the abolition of
geoscience as an externally assessed standard.
It is a requirement that if assessment tasks set by schools are modeled
on online exemplars, that they are significantly modified to address au-
thenticity issues. It is important to note that the assessment standards are
derived from the curriculum, but in effect the criterion for each standard is
what teachers actually teach in the schools. Level 1 geoscience has 4 stan-
dards covering aspects of the Planet Earth and Beyond strand of the nation-
al science curriculum. A description of these standards is provided in Table
18.2. Fuller descriptions of the criteria are available online at: (http://www.
nzqa.govt.nz/framework/explore/domain.do?frameworkId=76197). As-
sessment is delivered by standards based tasks that are both internally
(school based) and externally set and assessed. Internal assessment tasks
are moderated by NZQA. And undergo regular review to accommodate
changing fashions and needs.

18.6 Tracking the Numbers

Although beyond the scope of this article for a full analysis, Figures
18.2 and 18.3 show the 2014 candidate numbers (Data source: NZQA)
for the Level 1 geoscience assessment standards and Table 18.2 shows the
level 1 geoscience standards, all of which are currently internally set and
assessed. Figure 18.1 is a very sad graph as it documents the rise of geosci-
ence at the introduction of NCEA external examination assessments in
2002 to its death as an externally examined subject in 2011. The number
of students studying Earth science in NZ remains low, with approximately
3000 at year 11, 1700 at Level 2 and 800 at Level 3. In a country where
geological processes are obvious, it is a challenge to increase the numbers
of students studying geological processes and composition.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 18.1 Candidate numbers for Level 1 NCEA (Curriculum level 6. See Table 18.1)
since the introduction of high stakes NCEA assessment in 2002. This is the first year
of assessment in the geosciences. One can speculate on the reasons for the decline in
numbers for Level 1 geoscience. Data for 2013 is not readily available.
(Source: NZQA statistics)

Tab. 18.2 Level 1 Science assessment standards. Note: Investigate means to find
information to answer a question using any scientific technique. This usually means
Internet searching and primary data gathering. Demonstrate understanding means to
show the scientific knowledge and understanding students have learned

Standard Description
AS 90952 4 Credits Demonstrate understanding of the formation of surface features in New
Zealand
AS 90953 4 Credits Demonstrate understanding of carbon cycling
AS 90954 4 Credits Demonstrate understanding of astronomical cycles on planet Earth
AS 90955 4 Credits Investigate an astronomical or Earth science event

Figure 18.2 shows the number of students attempting the Level 1

NCEA internally assessed geoscience (Planet Earth and Beyond) standards
for 2014. These standards are described in Table 18.1. It is likely that school
science departments will select standards for teaching that they perceive
most of their students will achieve. These standards clearly show the lack
of geological ‘beneath your feet’ science options at Level 1. The decline in
numbers begs further investigation.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 18.2 2013, 2014 and 2015 candidate numbers for Level 1 internally assessed
geoscience standards.
2011 data is not publicly available. See Table 18.2 for descriptions

Fig. 18.3 Comparison of candidate numbers for Level 1 externally set science-core
standards for physics, chemistry and biology and internally assessed geoscience

It is interesting to compare Figure 18.3 with Figure 18.1. Figure 18.3

indicates that there are around eight times more students who are candi-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

dates for physics, chemistry and biology standards than for the geosciences
at NCEA Level 1. Earth science candidate numbers remain low with an
average of 4,238 after removing externally assessed Earth science and as-
tronomy in 2011. Sustaining the geosciences within a curriculum is clearly
a challenge not only globally, but also for NZ educators. Why is this?

18.7 Enter, Earth and Space Science Standards (Geoscience in red)

In 2012, Earth and Space Science superseded Science at NCEA Levels

2 and 3 (last two years of secondary schooling). The examiners’ report for
2012 (http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/nqfdocs/ncea-resource/reports/2012/
level2/science.pdf) indicated that “Candidates’ answers frequently
showed insufficient depth for Level 7 of the New Zealand Curriculum in
this new subject”. Table 18.3 shows a description of standards available at
NCEA Levels 2 and 3 (the last two years of secondary schooling).

Tab. 18.3 NCEA Level 2 standards title descriptions

Standard Description Style

AS 91187 Carry out a practical Earth and Space Science investigation. Internal
AS 91188 Examine an Earth and space Science issue and the validity of the Internal
information communicated to the public.
AS 91189 Investigate geological processes in a New Zealand locality Internal
AS 91190 Investigate how organisms survive in an extreme environment Internal
AS 91191 Demonstrate understanding of the causes of extreme Earth events in External
New Zealand
AS 91192 Demonstrate understanding of stars and planetary systems External
AS 91193 Demonstrate understanding of physical principles related to the Earth External
system

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 18.4 Level 2 NCEA Earth and Space Science standard candidate numbers

Increasing numbers for all geoscience standards is great, but decline for
AS91189 is a concern as this is all about understanding geological processes
operating locally in a dynamic part of the world (Figure 18.4). Perhaps the
word ‘organism’ in AS91190 triggers a hint of biology and a perception of
improved success due to a larger number of teachers who are confident in
the biological sciences rather than the geosciences? This graph also illustrates
the growth of internal assessment rather than external, except for AS91191
which shows a growth of 17 percent since 2013. This standard is essentially
about natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides and tsunamis.

NCEA Level 3 Assessment Standards

Tab. 18.4 NCEA Level 3 Standard title descriptions

Standard Description Style

AS 91410 Carry out an independent practical Earth and Space Science investi- Internal
gation.
AS 91411 Investigate a socio-scientific issue in an Earth and Space Science Internal
context.
AS 91412 Investigate the evidence related to dating geological events. Internal
AS 91413 Demonstrate understanding of processes in the ocean system. External
AS 91414 Demonstrate understanding of processes in the atmosphere system. External
AS 91415 Investigate an aspect of astronomy. Internal

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 18.5 Candidate numbers for NCEA Level 3 assessment standards

For NCEA Level 3, it is interesting that the two standards that attract
the most students (91411 and 91415) are not specifically about geoscience,
they are about socio-geoscientific issues and astronomy, respectively (Table
18.4). A socio-scientific issue in an Earth and Space context is defined as
involving “evaluating the issue and the impact on individuals and soci-
ety, justifying a personal response to the issue and evaluating a societal
response to the issue”. Although to achieve this standard it is necessary
to significantly connect with the science involved, this standard clearly
focuses on the social aspects and is, in effect, environmentalism. (See for
example ES3.2B AS91411, http://ncea.tki.org.nz/Resources-for-Internally-
Assessed-Achievement-Standards/Science/Earth-and-space-science/Level-
3-Earth-and-Space-Science). Both these standards show the most growth
with a 44 percent increase from 2013 for AS91411 and a 33 percent in-
crease for AS91415. The introduction of Earth and Space Science (ESS)
at Years 12 and 13, as a replacement for Science appears to be successful
at attracting more students into geoscience at these levels, despite the fact
that the highest number of students are in Astronomy and not geoscience.
Astronomy, like geoscience has struggled for its existence in curricula for
probably the same reasons as the geosciences. An issue worth further in-
vestigation is determining the quality of these students and the reasons
for selecting ESS compared with those enrolled in physics, chemistry and
biology. Is ESS perceived to be for the lower ability student?

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Overall increases in numbers for all standards is great, but this may
also reflect the larger numbers that carried on from the 2014 cohort. There
are still very low numbers of NZ students who have studied anything
about the science of dating geological events (AS 91412). Studying as-
tronomy is arguably Earth/geoscience yet this and socio-geoscience issues
attract teacher attention as the most profitable for student credit accrual.

Fig. 18.6 Comparison of averaged candidate numbers for geoscience, biology,

chemistry and physics for Level 2, 2015 NCEA results.

Fig. 18.7 Comparison of averaged candidate numbers for geoscience, biology, chemis-
try and physics for Level 3, 2015 NCEA results

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 18.8 NCEA Level 1, 2 and 3 candidate numbers for geoscience 2015

18.8 Summary

Geoscience (and Astronomy) in the New Zealand curriculum, as rep-

resented by the Planet Earth and Beyond strand of the national science
curriculum, continue to struggle for survival, but with the introduction of
Earth and Space Science standards as a replacement for Science at Years 12
and 13, the geosciences may become more attractive and continue to grow
in student quality as well as enrollments. Figure 18.5 is encouraging, but
time will tell. A key aspect to this growth is the need to boost the very low
numbers engaged in learning the Earth sciences at NCEA Level 1.
This can be achieved by:

1. Developing valid and dynamic formative learning resources.

2. Developing valid and dynamic summative internal assessment tasks.
3. Increasing quality and quantity of professional development courses
in geoscience, especially at primary and secondary school level.
4. Encouraging geoscience graduates to enter the teaching profession.
5. Educating politicians in the important values associated with learn-
ing geoscience.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

NZQA have well-established ‘best practice workshop’ programs in all

aspects of assessment of science standards. Geosciences teaching is well
established and of international standard at all NZ universities. It is also
clear that there is a need to address the large drop in candidate numbers
engaged in physics, chemistry and biology at years 12 and 13 or Scienc-
es overall, where, according to these data (Figures 18.3, 18.6 and 18.7),
there are around 4 times fewer students from NCEA Level 1 Sciences
(≈30,000) moving on to Level 3 (≈6500). Figure 18.8 shows the candidate
numbers for geoscience standards assessment in 2015. Around 4 percent
(1271/30,000) of the NCEA Level 1 cohort end up engaged in learning
Earth science at NCEA Level 3 in their final year of secondary school.
There are 345 secondary schools recorded on the New Zealand Ministry
of Education schools directory.

Further Reading
Alison, J. (2007). Mind the gap: Policy change in practice, school qualifications
reform in New Zealand, 1980 – 2002. PhD thesis. Massey University, Palmer-
ston North, New Zealand. (www. ppta.org.nz/cms/imagelibrary/10239.pdf)

Black, P. (2001). Report to the Qualifications Development Group, Ministry of Ed-

ucation, New Zealand on the proposals for development of the National Certificate
of Educational Achievement. Wellington: Ministry of Education, New Zealand.
http://www.minedu.govt.nz/web/downloadable/dl5591_v1/paul-black-report.pdf

Education Counts: https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/data-services/directo-

ries/list-of-nz-schools

Hipkins, R. (2010). The evolving NCEA: Findings from the NZCER national
survey of secondary schools, 2009.

Lee, H. & Lee, G. (2001). The National Certificate of Educational Achievement

(NCEA): “Fragile – handle with care”. New Zealand Annual Review of Education
10:2000. Wellington: School of Education, Victoria University of Wellington.
New Zealand Ministry of Education. (1999). The National Qualifications
Framework of the future: white paper. Wellington: Ministry of Education.

Philips, D. J. (2003). Lessons from New Zealand’s National Qualifications

Framework. Journal of Education and Work, 16 (3), 289-304.

Scott, C. (1998). NZ Science Teacher. Issue 94.

The New Zealand Secondary Principals Council Submission (October 2018)

for the NCEA Review. https://www.ppta.org.nz/advice-and-issues/assess-
ment/ncea-review-2018/

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Vallender G. D. (2010). Geological science education and conceptual change.

Unpublished PhD thesis, Curtin University, Perth, Australia. Retrieved from
https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/1806?show=full

Glenn Vallender

After 38 years of teaching secondary

school biology and science, Glenn retains
his passion for geoscience education into
semi-retirement. He now manages a small
independent educational research com-
pany writing customised resources for
schools, mentoring students and conduct-
ing independent educational projects.
Glenn is the editor for the Geoscience So-
ciety of NZ Newsletter and is active in all
things geoscience. When not doing this,
he volunteers a day a week in the archives section of the Ashburton Mu-
seum, is a health shuttle bus driver for St John, helps the program team for
U3A, tries to play golf and does stage crew for musical theatre. Qualifica-
tions: BSc (Cant.). Dip. Sci. (Massey). Dip. Tchg. (NZ Govt.) MSc. PhD (Curtin).

224
 Chapter 19

Earth Science Education in Schools:

Present Scenario and Future Prospects
in Pakistan
Saima Siddiqui, Safdar Ali Shirazi and Wajahat Majeed Khan

Abstract

Twenty-first century challenges lead Earth science to play vital role and
enjoy a distinct status among the modern disciplines of the physical and
life sciences in developed countries. Unfortunately, Earth science educa-
tion in Pakistan has not yet grown and developed, causing many problems
in progressing this subject. This paper is an effort to outline the current
status of this discipline in Pakistan. Various issues related to present state
of Earth science education in the country, e.g. curriculum development,
textbooks, tools of science and technology, trained and qualified teachers,
are discussed. Earth science education in Pakistan needs to systematically
advance its curriculum at all levels in schools and require modern teach-
ing strategies and institutional infrastructure to develop interest and con-
ceptual understanding of this discipline among students. This will enable
Earth science students to address the challenges of the present and meet
the needs of the future.

Keywords: Earth science, education, curriculum, future perspective,

Pakistan

19.1 Introduction

Discovering natural resources to sustain an increasing population,

mitigating natural hazards that affect infrastructure and populations, and
achieving the goals for sustainable development are the present tasks that
provide Earth science education a decisive role in confronting these daunt-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ing challenges. Various sciences are used to study the Earth, however, the
four fundamental areas of Earth science study are: astronomy (Science of
the Universe), meteorology (Science of the Atmosphere), geology (Science
of the Earth), and oceanography (Science of the Oceans). Earth science
study involves various sub-disciplines: geology, Earth’s materials, struc-
tures, processes and changes over time; geomorphology, landforms and
features; hydrology, water on the surface and in the ground; meteorol-
ogy, the atmosphere and its phenomena; geophysics, physical properties
of rocks, Earth’s interior and surface; geochemistry, rocks chemistry; as-
tronomy, planets and their satellites and related studies.
It is worthwhile emphasizing two important features of Earth science.
First, it focuses on the materials and features of rocks on the surface, as
well as water and mineral reservoirs at great depths within the Earth, and
air masses circulating at great heights above the planet. Thus, the Earth
scientist has to have a good three-dimensional perspective (Earth’s surface,
underground features, and the atmosphere). Second, there is the fourth di-
mension: time. The Earth scientist is responsible for working out how the
Earth evolved over millions of years. For example, what were the physical
and chemical conditions operating on the Earth And the Moon 3.5 billion
years ago? How has the atmosphere developed? and how did their compo-
sition change with time? How did the oceans form, and finally? how did
life begin and evolve on the Earth? (Windley, 2016).
U.S. Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) established a clear
status for the subject that Earth science should have equal status with the
Life science, Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology. While The
Center for Geoscience Education and public understanding at the Ameri-
can Geosciences Institute has issued an incredible report on Earth science
education in middle and high schools, which fail to assign Earth science
this status, unfolding in detail substantial gaps between recognized priori-
ties and lagging practice. It details and analyzes key indicators, including
the presence of Earth science topics in national standards, consideration of
Earth science as a graduation requirement, and recognition of Earth sci-
ence courses for college admission (American Geoscience Institute, 2013).
The International geoscience Education Organization (IGEO) de-
signed a vibrant program, initiated through launching the International
Earth Science Olympiad (IESO); educating future citizens who will per-
form better as they understand Earth’s dynamic processes, and prepare
them for tackling the issues involved. Aimed at sustainable development
and efficient natural hazard management, IGEO set globally accepted

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

goals, objectives and a syllabus for Earth Science education. Practical ex-
ercises, teaching units, geoscience textbooks, Earth learning ideas (ELI) in
various languages, and many other activities like Geoscience Conferences
are organized to promote Earth science education worldwide.
Fatima et al. (2015) stated the problems with and reasons for treating a
bridging subject between the physical and social sciences, like Geography,
as a separate entity in Pakistan. For nearly a century prior to the 1947
Indo-Pakistani partition, Geography was taught as a compulsory aca-
demic discipline in schools, colleges and universities of the subcontinent.
But its status and role were never appraised. The primary and secondary
level curriculum placed and taught it within other subjects at each level
up to Grade 10. Hence, the subject as a whole remained undeveloped.
Recently, the subject was introduced at primary and tertiary levels within
a Geography and History textbook. The lack of an integrated curriculum
and textbooks, insufficient knowledge and untrained teachers, ignorance
of modern techniques and research all brought Geography to a standstill
nationally and sapped interest from the subject.
Hogarth (1921), however, contends that dynamic environments create
new trends for young pupils, as they want to learn according to modern
society’s demands to secure their future in rapidly changing employment
markets. Unlike other physical and life sciences, the future existence of
Earth Science depends on accessing new advanced techniques and ways
of engaging learners, demanding a rational response from the educa-
tion sector. Unwin (1992) and Walford (2001) maintain that Geoscience
is an academic discipline with a marked conceptual difference between
schools and universities and that changes in the Earth science curricu-
lum in school textbooks must necessarily reflect societal and technological
changes. Korthagen (2004) and Gudmundsdottir (1990) stated that sub-
ject knowledge and transfer techniques greatly impact future promotion of
the subject as “teachers have values, influenced by their subject knowledge
that affects how they teach”.
As no subject in Pakistan is taught under the title of “Earth science” at
school, we evaluate the current status of Earth science education in schools
by analyzing relevant content found across the curriculum (e.g. social stud-
ies, Pakistani studies, and geography curriculum) and textbooks used in
Pakistani schools (primary, secondary, tertiary). Furthermore, we analyze
teaching and learning activities in geography education at both public and
private schools. This paper finally recommends how Earth science educa-
tion can be promoted in Pakistan.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

19.2 Pakistan’s Education System

Pakistan’s education system (Table 19.1) is comprised of public and

private institutions. The public institutions are managed and controlled
by a public education authority or a government agency, while the private
education system is managed and controlled by non-governmental orga-
nizations (NGOs), such as business enterprises, religious bodies, or trade
unions. The public and private sectors run different education systems.
Private institution numbers are increasing drastically due to well managed
infrastructure and standard curriculum. Private schools generally con-
duct both the metric (Pakistan’s national school system) and O levels (the
Cambridge internationally recognized qualification). This dual education
system and choice of language (English or Urdu) confuse students when
selecting appropriate subjects at secondary and higher secondary school.
Furthermore, regional disparities in education facilitation and form, and
modernized curriculum at each level/grade cause issues.

Tab. 19.1 Framework of Pakistan’s formal and higher education system.

Class/School
Level Award type Award Example
Year
21st
Doctoral 20th PhD
19th
18th
Masters M.Phil/MS/MBA, M.Sc (Eng), M.E., M.Arch etc.
17th
BS, B.E., B.Arch., BSc(Eng.), BSc (Agri), MA/
Higher Education

16th
Bachelor M.Sc (16 year), LLB, B.Com (Hons), MBBA, DVM,
15th PharmD, etc.
Associate
Tertiary

14th
Ordinary BA/B.Sc (Pass), ADE, Associate Degrees etc.
Bachelor 13th
Intermediate

Higher Second-
Higher Sec-

12th
ary School Cer- F.A, F.Sc, ICS, I.Com, DBA, D,Com etc
ondary

tificate (HSSC)
11th
Matriculation

Secondary
10th
Secondary

School Certifi- Metric

cate (SSC)
9th

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

8th
Middle 7th Middle certificate
6th
5th
4th
Primary 3rd, Primary Certificate
Elementary

2nd
1st
Source: Adapted from Higher Education Commission, Pakistan (HEC)

Table 2: Earth science syllabus throughout Pakistan’s school system.

Lev- In- Class/ Earth Science related content Earth Science related content
el sti- School (Government Institutions) (Private Institutions)
tu- Year
tion
GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS PART-II PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. Hydrology and fluvial geomorphology
World Regional Geography: The drainage basin system, Rainfall – dis-
1. A brief Geographical introduction to the World charge relationships within drainage basins,
2. A geography of the continents: Physical features, River channel processes and landforms
Climate, Population. 2. Atmosphere and weather
3. Economic Geography of Pakistan, China, Local energy budgets, The global energy
Saudi Arabia, Japan, UK, USA, Sudan, Brazil with budget, Weather processes and phenomena
reference to: Population, Agriculture, Mineral and 3. Rocks and weathering
Energy resources, Industries, Trade Elementary plate tectonics, Weathering and
PRACTICAL PART II rocks, Slope processes and development
Map Projections: Major types and their uses.
Representation of statistical data by: Line graph: Bar ADVANCED PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
graph, Pie graph 1. Tropical environments
Distribution maps by Dot Method and Shade Tropical climates, Tropical ecosystems,
Method. Tropical landforms, Sustainable management
Topographical Sheets: Marginal Information identi- of tropical environments
fication of Natural and Cultural features. Coastal environments
Wave, marine and sub-aerial processes,
GEOLOGY SYLLABUS Coastal landforms of destructive and con-
structive coastlines, Coral reefs, Sustainable
1. Paleontology management of coasts
General Introduction to animal kingdom. Brief re- 3. Hazardous environments
sume of Invertebrate Paleontology. Classification of Hazardous environments resulting from
Vertebrates up to class level. Brief outline of Jawless crustal (tectonic) movement, Hazardous
Vertebrates, Fishes Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and environments resulting from mass move-
Mammals. Sequence of vertebrates through time. ments, Hazard resulting from atmospheric
Cenozoic fossil vertebrates. disturbances, Sustainable management in
2. Stratigraphy Introduction to stratigraphy. hazardous environments
Principles of Stratigraphy. Standard Time Scale. Sig- 4. Arid and semi-arid environments
nificance of terms used in Time Scale. Distribution The distribution and climatic characteristics
of Vertebrate fossils in Siwalik Group of of hot arid and semi-arid environments,
Pakistan and its important Vertebrate fossils. Brief Processes producing desert landforms, Soils
description of the Indus and vegetation, Sustainable management of
Basin. arid and semi-arid environments
3. Physiography
Physical features of Pakistan: Geological Structures GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS
produced by diastrophism. Nature of Earth Move- Graphs bar graphs, divided bar graphs, line
ments: Orogenesis, Epeirogenesis, Folded Mountain, graphs, scatter graphs (including line of best
Geosynclines, Mountain building, Faulting: fit), pie charts, proportional circles, triangu-
Elements of faults, Simple classification of faults lar graphs, climate graphs, etc. Photographs
A level (in Private Schools)

(displacement and slip classifications), Joints and color, black/white, aerial, terrestrial, satellite.
Cleavage: Elementary concepts. Maps survey maps (1:25 000 and 1:50 000
4. Practical scales), flow line, isoline, choropleth, sketch,
Interpretation of morphology from topographic etc. Diagrams two and three dimensional,
Higher Secondary

maps, including profile drawing. Definition of with/without annotation, flow diagrams,

outcrop, dip and strike. Simple completion of out- etc. Written text from a variety of sources
crop and determination of dip. Drawing of simple (including newspapers, articles, books,
Secondary

geological sections. interviews)

Determination of the hardness of minerals, determina- Numeric tables, charts, raw data, etc.
tion of specific gravity of minerals and rocks by Walker’s Cartoons
12th

and Jolly’s balance.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS PART-I

1. Geography: Definition, Branches, Scope and importance.
2. Physical Geography: Its components: The Earth as a planet, The Earth’s shape and size, The
Earth’s composition & structure, The distribution of Land and Water, Rocks Formation. Classifica-
tion and Characteristics, Major Landform: Mountains, Plateaus, Plains.
3. Weathering and its types. Physical Features produced by running water, glaciers, wind.
4. Oceans and their movements: Currents. Tides & Waves. Their causes and effects.
5. The Atmosphere: Composition, Weather & climate, Elements of weather & climate: Tempera-
ture, Pressure & Winds, Moisture: Humidity & Precipitation.
6. Physical Environment and Man: Physiography and Man, Climate and Man.
PRACTICAL
Location in Geography: Latitudes & Longitudes, Determination of Time. Methods of finding
directions.
Maps: Types & Uses. Scales:
(a) Methods of showing scales: Statement of Scale, Representative Fraction (R.F.), Plane or linear
scale is also known as graphic scale,
(b) Conversion of scales.
(c) Construction of simple scale.
Methods of showing relief. Identification and uses of the following:
(a) Rocks.
(b) Thermometers.
(c) Barometer.
(d) Rain gauge.
GEOLOGY SYLLABUS
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
Rivers and Landscapes Geological Processes. Weathering and Erosion. Processes of Stream Ero-
sion; Transportation by streams. Competence and Capacity of Streams. Drainage Basin. Valley
Growth. Base level; Graded Stream. Cross Profile, Drainage Pattern, Meandering. Cycle of Ero-
sion. Landforms (e.g. cuesta, escarpment, dip-slope, mesa).
Groundwater
Porosity and Permeability: Groundwater zones; Movement and Discharge of Groundwater; Erosion
and Transportation due to Groundwater; Deposition by Groundwater; Water-logging and Salinity
in Pakistan.
2. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Elements of symmetry, plane, axis and center of symmetry. Symmetry of normal classes only. An
outline study of the six systems of symmetry.
3. MINERALOGY
The common rock-forming minerals; their physical characters, chemical composition and modes of
origin and occurrence; quartz, feldspar mica. (Muscovite and biotite), olivine, augite, hornblende,
garnet, tourmaline, epidote, chlorite, apatite, zircon, kyanite.
Economic minerals, and rocks, their chemical composition, occurrence and uses; diamond,
graphite, sulphur, gold, silver, copper, magnetite, haematite, limonite, galena, zincblende, cinnabar,
stibnite, chalcopyritc, pyrite, orpiment, argentite, corundum, cassiterite, chrmoite, spinel, rutile,
bauxite, pyrolusite psilomelane, magnesite, siderite, aragonite, malachite, apatite, halite, magngani-
te, rhodocrosite, calcite, dolemite, flourite, barytes, celestite, gypsum.
4. PETROLOGY
What is magma? What are igneous rocks and how they are formed?
What are sedimentary rocks? How they are formed? Classification of Sedimentary rocks.
What is metamorphism? What are the main types of metamorphism and how the metamorphic
rocks are formed?
Outline classification of igneous rocks. An outline of their modes of origin and diagnostic charac-
teristics. granite, aplite, pegmatite, granite porphyry, felsite, felsite porphyry, obsidian, pitchstone,
perthite, pumice, volcanic ash, tuff, breccia, agglomerate, diorite, quartz diorite, diorite porphyry,
basalt porphyry, melaphyre, basalt trap, trap, andesite, gabbro diabase, quartz.
gabbro, porphyry, pyroxenite, dunite, hornblendite/peridotite, serpentine. Common sandstone,
graywacke, limestone, dolomite, marl, conglomerate, shale, mudstone, siltstone. quartzite, chlorite
actinolite schist, biotite schist, garnet mica schist, gneiss, granite gneiss, kyanite, amphibolite, talc
schist, serpentinite, hornfels.
PRACTICAL
Interpretation of morphology from topo maps including profile drawing. Definition of outcrop, dip
and strike. Simple completion of outcrop and determination of dip. Drawing of simple geological
sections. Determination of the hardness of minerals, determination of specific gravity of minerals
11th

and rocks by Walker’s and Jolly’s balance.

Understanding Geography Plate Tectonics and Associated Hazards.
Earth and Its Basic Concerns Landforms and landscape processes, Weath-
The Earth ering, River processes, Marine processes.
O level (in Private Schools)

Oceans and Seas Weather and Climates and Associated

The Atmosphere Hazards.
Human Geography Ecosystem; change and Challenge.
Population and settlements Economic development and the use of
Environment resources, Agricultural systems, Indus-
trial systems, Energy and water resources,
Environmental risks and benefits: resource
Secondary

conservation and Management.

Geographical Investigation and Skills, Map
work, Maps, Diagrams, Graphs, Tables of
9th 10th

Data, Written Material, Photographic and

Pictorial Material (including Field Sketches).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Maps and Diagrams Maps and Diagrams

Agents of Landform change Agents of Landform change
Oceans and Seas Oceans and Seas
Natural Disasters Natural Disasters
Natural Regions Natural Regions
8th Climate of Pakistan Climate of Pakistan
Neighboring regions of Pakistan Neighboring regions of Pakistan
Physical state of Earth (interior, plate tectonics, Physical state of Earth (interior, plate tecton-
volcanoes). ics, volcanoes).
Denudation (weathering, erosion, mass wasting). Denudation (weathering, erosion, mass
Atmosphere (composition, structure, temperature, wasting).
air pressure, wind circulation and precipitation). Atmosphere (composition, structure, tem-
Mining and power resources. perature, air pressure, wind circulation and
Geographical aspect for Agriculture, Industry, precipitation).
transportation. Mining and power resources.
Geographical aspect for Agriculture, Indus-
try, transportation.
7th

Earth as planet. Earth as planet.

Globe, maps and their uses. Globe, maps and their uses.
Earth as a home for Human being. Earth as a home for Human being.
Rocks, Major land features. Rocks, Major land features.
Middle

Land features of Pakistan. Land features of Pakistan.

World population. World population.
6th

Human settlements. Human settlements.

Physical regions. Maps.
Climate. World climate.
Soils. Life in the desert.
Solar System. Life in the forest.
Environmental Pollution. Life in the polar region.
Longitudes and Latitudes. Our country.
Water and irrigation.
Minerals and Power resources.
5th

Pakistan and her neighbors.

Movement of the Earth. The Earth in space.
Globe and Maps. Climate.
Components of Maps. Our country.
Conventional Signs of Maps. The western highlands.
Directions. River Indus and its Plains.
The soil and Agriculture.
Forest.
Water and its Uses.
Power Minerals and industries.
4th

Transport.
Earth as The Living Planet Our Country Pakistan
Sun-Heat and Light Mountains , Rivers and Dams of Pakistan
Natural Resources Climate of Pakistan
Save the Earth Our Mineral Wealth
Continents and Oceans
Features of the Earth
3rd

The Map Skills

Earth Resources The Sun and Stars
Heat and light The Moon
Water The Earth
Protection of Earth Resources Weather and seasons
2nd

Natural Environment
Elementary

Weather Conditions Our Earth

Primary

Seasons Sources of Heat on Planet

My Native Land
Map of Pakistan
1st

Sources: Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Lahore, Punjab textbook board, Cambridge
A level and O Level Geography Syllabus and Private schools Geography textbooks.

19.3 Earth Science education in Pakistan

The complex and interwoven relationship between Earth science con-

tent within other disciplines makes it difficult to isolate as a distinct subject
from level 1 to 12, but its primary topics are integrated in the curriculum
(Table 19.2) and textbooks of elementary, secondary and higher second-
ary schools, with some components from biology, chemistry and physics.
Its major topics and some core concepts are included in Pakistan studies,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

social studies, geography and history. Without a solid foundation for de-
veloping Earth science understanding and a systematic approach to study-
ing the subject, it is ambiguous at all levels. The present approach, which
incorporates Earth science content into other subjects, adversely effects the
teaching standards at higher secondary, graduate and post graduate levels.
Unlike government schools, private schools teach most of the Earth sci-
ence topics in geography. In private institutions teachers use maps, atlases,
models and computer-based exercises for geography instruction. Qualified
teachers, with discipline specific backgrounds, are responsible for these
units, ultimately improving the teaching and learning process.
In government administered public schools, Urdu is the instruction
language from level 1 to 10, with no fixed rules adopted for teaching Earth
studies. Teachers with relevant qualifications are not considered neces-
sary, mainly because Earth science or Geography is not taught separately
before 10th level. Punjab, the most populated province of Pakistan, has
instituted Geography as a compulsory subject from 6th to 10th level, but
teachers with subject specific degrees are yet not recruited. Usually, teach-
ers of Pakistan studies perform this duty or depute another teacher in
their school for that purpose. However, the government has appointed
subject specialists for teaching Geography at higher secondary level (11th,
12th). The private sector is further divided into two categories, with some
adopting the British Cambridge System (O level) and others the coun-
try’s school system. Schools with the matriculation system cannot afford
specific qualified teachers for Earth Science/Geography studies in their
institutions so they do not follow the specialized curriculum. The Cam-
bridge system provides standard education, with instruction in English
for Earth science or Geography, and appoints teachers with appropriate
specific qualifications at each level.

19.4 Challenges and future suggestions

As discussed above, topics of Earth science are currently taught within

various disciplines (Geography, Geology, Geophysics Metrology, Ocean-
ography and Environmental sciences) but none have the capability to per-
form as a distinct applied subject, which alone can prepare a generation
to safeguard natural resources, promote eco-efficiency and enhance public
participation while empowering communities to become custodians of the
Earth and its environment. There is a need to emphasize the individual
status of Earth science education in schools. For this purpose, there is a

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

need to revise courses or introduce Earth science education as a separate,

independent discipline at all levels.
Earth science, geography or geology cannot command a place among
the front-line subjects as an elective subject at secondary and higher sec-
ondary levels in Pakistan. Young people are least interested in selecting
these subjects perceived as having limited scope and relevance. Organiz-
ing awareness campaigns, seminars and workshops could serve to high-
light the importance of Earth science education. Students’ interest can be
enhanced by organizing science model competitions, quiz competitions,
essay contests and Earth Science Olympiads. Society as a whole needs
heightened awareness of the growing demand for Earth scientists to sus-
tainably meet future needs.
Furthermore, job provisions for Earth scientists are ensured nationally.
Pakistan is one of the top ten countries facing the drastic effects of cli-
mate change. Earth Science as a distinct and applied compulsory subject
at all levels will prove its worth not only at present but for the future as
well. A school subject cannot flourish and advance unless its curriculum
is systematically upgraded according to modern research in that field. The
potential of a subject to enhance knowledge or awareness of issues is not
enough; scientific inquiry based curricula is necessary to prepare students
to analyze data and design solutions including comprehensive planning
and strategies for the sake of planet Earth.
There is a great need to properly train Earth science teachers through
regular refresher courses. Teachers must be encouraged to attract stu-
dents to learn Earth science by using recently developed Earth science
instruction methods. Necessary resources such as computers, maps, GIS/
RS software, topographical sheets, etc., must be provided to teachers and
students. Study tours and field trips are a critical part of Earth science
education, which are unfortunately not incorporated in elementary and
secondary schools. Hence, it is suggested to organize necessary field visits
to study landforms and landscapes. Special funding should be allocated to
geography, geology and Earth science departments to establish or update
existing laboratories for GIS/RS, geomorphology, geology, environment
and soils and computer based mapping applications.
Two associations, All Pakistan Geographical Association (PGA-1948)
and Karachi Geographers Association (1957), are active in the country,
but in spite of their long histories, have failed to promote Earth science
education nationally and internationally. These organizations could help
promote advanced training and research in Earth science, geography and

233
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

geology in Pakistan. They can highlight current issues like global warm-
ing, climatic change, hazard analysis, disaster risk management, environ-
mental impact assessment (EIA), and GIS and remote sensing applications
for solving these and other problems. These associations can develop in-
ternational linkages through projects and interaction with Earth scientists
globally. Although Pakistanis are becoming more aware of science and
technology advancements and the need for highly competitive and sys-
tematic approaches to Earth science education, the country’s education
standards require much more support in the 21st century.

References
GUDMUNDSDOTTIR, S. Values in pedagogical content knowledge. Journal
of Teacher Education, v. 41(3), p. 44, 1990.

HARRISON, A. G., TREAGUST, D. F. A typology of school science models.

International Journal of Science Education, v. 22(9), p. 1011-1026, 2000.

HEC: Higher Education Commission, Pakistan. Web link: http://www.

hec.gov.pk/ InsideHEC/Divisions/QALI/QADivision/Documents/Qualifica-
tions%20Level-new.pdf

HOGARTH, D. Applied Geography. Nature, v.108, p.120-124. 1921.

KORTHAGEN, F. A. J. In search of the essence of a good teacher: Towards a

more holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher education,
v. 20(1), p. 77-97, 2004.

MUNAZZA, F., SAJID N., ADILA S. An Overview of Geography Education

in Pakistan Turkish Journal of Geography Education, v. 1(2), p. 43-53, 2015.

PYLE, E.J. A Model of Inquiry for Teaching Earth Science. Electronic Journal
of Science Education, v. 12(2), p. 2-19, 2008.

UNWIN, P. The place of geography: Harlow: Longman Scientific & Techni-

cal. 1992. P. 274, ISBN: 0 582 05107

WALFORD, R. Geography’s odyssey: the journey so far. Geography, v. 86(4),

p. 305-317, 2001.

234
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Saima Siddiqui

Dr. Saima Siddiqui is an Assistant

Professor in the Department of Geography,
University of the Punjab, Pakistan. She
obtained her PhD in Earth System
Sciences: Environment, Resources and
Cultural Heritage, from the Department
of Chemical and Geological Sciences,
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia,
Italy in 2013. She has won two international
awards, IAG/AIG Young Geomorphologist
award in 2009, from the International
Association of Geomorphologists (IAG) in Australia and the Giannino
Bassetti Foundation award in 2012, in Italy. In addition to her teaching
activities in the Geography and Earth Sciences degree courses, she is
involved in various research activities and is a member of several National
and International Scientific Associations. She is also member of the
International GeoScience Education Organization (IGEO) Council. She is
expert in physical geography, tectonic geomorphology, geomorphological
and seismic hazards assessment, GIS and Remote Sensing. She has published
many research articles in the field of Earth and Environmental Sciences in
well reputed national and international journals. Assistant Professor (Physical
Geography & Geomorphology). Department of Geography, University of the
Punjab. Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. Cell: +92 333 4892278.
Office Phone: +92 42 99230419. Fax: +92 42 99231239. E-mail:
saimagct@gmail.com. Website: www.pu.edu.pk

Safdar Ali Shirazi

Dr. Safdar Ali Shirazi graduated in 1987

from the Department of Geography, Uni-
versity of the Punjab, Lahore Pakistan. He
was awarded a PhD degree by the Univer-
sity of Karachi-Karachi in 2011 while he
completed his Post-Doctorate fellowship
(funded by the Higher Education Com-
mission, Pakistan) in 2014 from the Insti-
tute of Geography, Department of Urban

235
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Ecology, the Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany. He has a total of

more than 29 years teaching experience to Degree and Post-graduate class-
es. He was a member and Secretary of the National Curriculum Revision
Committee of Geography for two consecutive terms. He has authored and
co-authored more than three dozen research papers published in Pakistan
and abroad. His research interests included climatology, climate change,
land use land cover changes, landscape ecology, ecosystem services, urban
green spaces, population geography, urbanization and urban sustainability.
(Post Doctorate Germany) Associate Professor. Department of Geography, Uni-
versity of the Punjab. Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. Cell: +92-
0300-4210213. Office Phone: +92-042-99230419. Fax: +92-042-99231239.
E-mail: geoshirazi@hotmail.com. Website: www.pu.edu.pk

Wajahat Majeed Khan

Wajahat Majeed Khan holds M.Phil degree

in Geography from the Department of
Geography, University of the Punjab, Lahore
Pakistan. He is Assistant Professor in
Geography in Govt. Post Graduate College
Chishtian, Bahawal Nagar, Pakistan. His
research interests included global warming,
climatic change and urban and regional
geography. Assistant professor in Geography.
Govt. Post Graduate College Chishtian,
Bahawal Nagar Pakistan. Cell: +92 300
8690755. E-mail: wm.geographer@gmail.com. Website: www.pu.edu.pk

236
 Chapter 20

Teaching Earth Sciences in Basic and

Secondary Education in Portugal
Jorge Bonito, Margarida Morgado and Dorinda Rebelo

Abstract

This work begins by framing the Portuguese Educational System. In

a second moment, characterize the Earth Sciences Teaching throughout
the non-higher education. Teaching Earth Sciences in basic and second-
ary education in Portugal has a long tradition. Currently, Earth Sciences
are taught from the earliest years of elementary school through the end of
upper secondary education. In the 1st cycle of basic education, the study
of Earth Sciences is done in the discipline of Environmental Studies, al-
though it is scarce enough during the four years that comprise this cycle of
education. In the 2nd Cycle of Basic Education are taught contents of Earth
Sciences in the discipline of Natural Sciences, namely in the 5th grade. The
discipline of Natural Sciences, in the 7th grade, is entirely dedicated to
Earth Sciences (since 2014-2015 there are curricular goals for this level).
In secondary education, in the course of Science and Technology, students
can choose, in the specific training, the subject of Biology and Geology
(in the 10th and 11th grade) and, in the 12th grade, the Geology. Portugal
participated for the first time in the 8th edition of the International Earth
Science Olympiad, having since achieved bronze, silver and gold medals.

Keywords: Portuguese Educational System, Earth Sciences Teaching,

International Earth Science Olympiad.

237
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

20.1 Introduction

Teaching Earth Sciences in basic and secondary education in Portugal

has a long tradition, dating back to the early nineteenth century.1 Until
the early 1970s, Earth Sciences teaching were placed in a historical-natural
context, with special attention to the descriptive aspects of Crystallogra-
phy and Mineralogy. In an analysis of student manuals from the Estado
Novo period (1947-1974), a study concluded that Earth Sciences teach-
ing were in accordance with the values and educational practices of an
authoritarian regime, in which the content was used explicitly as a vehicle
for the regime’s ideological message.2
The military revolution of April 25, 1974 led to the establishment of a
democratic political regime with the advent of new ideas and the appro-
priation of a new vision of education. Currently, Earth Sciences are taught
from the earliest years of elementary school through the end of upper
secondary education.
This article is structured in three parts: the first concerns the organi-
zation of the Portuguese educational system and the disciplines therein;
a second, subdivided into sections, dedicated to Earth Sciences teaching
throughout primary and secondary education; and the third part, regard-
ing the organization and participation of Portugal in the International
Earth Science Olympiad.

20.2 The Portuguese Educational System

20.2.1 Structure of the Educational System

The general framework of the Portuguese Educational System (PES)

was created by the Basic Law of the Educational System (BLES).3 The PES
is geographically the entire territory of Portugal, including the Continent
and Autonomous Regions, with the Ministry of Education responsible for
coordinating education policy.
Public education is non-confessional. The mission of education is to pro-

1. Amador, F. (2008). O ensino da Geologia nas escolas portuguesas, durante o século XIX e primeira
metado do século XX: reformas curriculares e manuais escolares. Terrae Didatica, 3(1), 4-17. Available
in: https://www.ige.unicamp.br/terraedidatica/v3/pdf-v3/TD3-4_17.pdf.
2. Mota, T. S. (2001). História do Ensino da Geologia em Portugal. Análise dos Manuais do Ensino Liceal
no Estado Novo (1947-1974). Master’s Dissertation (not published). Braga, Portugal: Universidade do
Minho.
3. Law no. 46/86 of October 14, altered by Laws no. 115/97 of September 19, no. 49/2005 of August
30 and no. 85/2009 of August 27.

238
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

mote the development of a democratic and pluralistic spirit, respectful of oth-

ers and their ideas, open to dialogue and free exchange of opinions, forming
citizens capable of critically and creatively judging the social environment in
which they are integrated and to engage in its progressive transformation.4
The PES is therefore a response “to the needs resulting from social reality,
contributing to the full and harmonious development of the personality of
individuals, encouraging the formation of free, responsible, autonomous and
solidarity citizens and valuing the human dimension of work”.5
The PES includes pre-school education, school education and out-of-
school education. School education includes basic, secondary and higher
education, integrates special modalities, and includes leisure activities.6
Compulsory schooling applies to children and young people between the
ages of 6 and 18 years.7
Basic education is universal and free, continuing for nine years. Free
education in basic education covers school fees related to school enroll-
ment, attendance and certification, and students may also use the student
manuals and school supplies, as well as transportation, food, and accom-
modation as needed.8
Basic education includes three sequential cycles, the first of four years,
the second of two years, and the third of three years, organized in the
following terms: a) in the first cycle, education is global, under the re-
sponsibility of a single teacher, who can be assisted in specialized areas;
b) in the second cycle, teaching is organized by interdisciplinary areas of
basic training and is developed predominantly by an area teacher; c) in the
third cycle, teaching is organized according to a unified curricular plan,
integrating diversified vocational areas, and developed under a teacher by
discipline or group of disciplines. The articulation between the cycles fol-
lows a progressive sequence, giving each cycle the function of completing,
deepening and extending the previous cycle, with the perspective of glob-
ally unified basic education.9
“The course of secondary education spans three years. Secondary edu-
cation is organized according to different forms, taking into account the
existence of courses predominantly oriented to the active life or to the
continuation of studies, all of which contain technical, technological, and

4. No. 4, art. 2.º of BLES.

5. No. 5, art. 2.º of BLES.
6. Art. 4.º of BLSE.
7. Law no. 85/2009 of August 27.
8. Art. 6.º of BLES.
9. Art. 8.º of BLES.

239
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

vocational training components, with Portuguese language and culture

appropriate to the nature of each course. In secondary education, each
teacher is responsible, in principle, for a single discipline”.10

20.2.2 Basic Curricular Matrix

The current curricular matrix for the first cycle of basic education ap-
plies from 2014. In the first and second years, the following curriculum
components are included, with the weekly workload indicated in brackets:
a) Portuguese (≥ 7 h); b) Mathematics (≥ 7 h); c) Environment Study (≥
3 h); and d) Artistic and Physical-Motor Expressions (≥ 3 h). The time of
weekly training is between 22.5 h and 25.0 h. In the 3rd and 4th years, Eng-
lish is introduced (≥ 2 h). In addition to the aforementioned components,
there is Study Support (≥ 1.5 h), developing study and work habits, aiming
primarily to reinforce Portuguese and Mathematics; Curricular Enrich-
ment Activities (between 5 and 7.5 h in the 1st and 2nd years and between
3 and 5.5 h in the 3rd and 4th years) and Moral and Religious Education (1
h), are both optional components. The time for weekly training is between
24.5 and 27.0 h.
Schools have the autonomy11 to organize the school days for the sec-
ond basic education cycle as they consider most convenient, as long as
they respect the weekly hours in the curriculum matrix. Since 2012, the
following disciplines coexist in the second cycle, with their total cycle
time (divided evenly for each of the two years in the cycle): a) Languages
and Social Studies (1000 h), including Portuguese, English, History and
Geography of Portugal; b) Mathematics and Sciences (700 h), including
Mathematics and Natural Sciences; c) Artistic and Technological Educa-
tion (540 h), including Visual Education, Technological Education, and
Music Education; d) Physical Education (270 h); e) Moral and Religious
Education (90 hours), of optional attendance; f) Study Support (400 h);
g) Complementary Offerings, of compulsory attendance, created by the
school according to its available school credit. The total time to complete
this cycle is 2,700 hours of training.
The last cycle of basic education, is also organized by discipline, with a
total timetable for the third cycle as follows: a) Portuguese (600 hours); b)
Foreign Languages (720 h), including English and Foreign Language II;
10. Art. 10.º of BLES.
11. Law-decree no. 75/2008 of April 22, altered by Law-decree no. 224/2009 of September 11 and by
Law-decree no. 137/2012 of July 2.

240
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

c) Human and Social Sciences (650 h), including History and Geography;
d) Mathematics (600 h); e) Physical and Natural Sciences (810 h), includ-
ing Natural Sciences and Physical Chemistry; f) Expressions and Tech-
nologies (850 h), including Visual Education, Information and Commu-
nication Technologies, and Physical Education; g) Moral and Religious
Education (135 h), optional attendance; h) Supplementary Offerings, of
compulsory attendance, created by the school according to its available
school credit. The total time to complete this cycle is 4,500 h (7th grade -
1530 h, 8th grade - 1435 h, 9th grade – 1,485 h).

20.2.3 Secondary Education Curricular Matrix

The offerings in secondary education12 include Science-Humanities

Courses, Science-Humanities Continuing Education Courses and Sci-
ence-Technology Individual Courses.
The Science-Humanities Courses13 constitute an educational offer-
ing aimed at those pursuing higher education (university or polytech-
nic); intended for students who have completed their basic education
(9th grade), and been granted a diploma of completion of secondary
education, with National Qualifications Framework qualification level
3. These courses include: Science and Technology Courses, Socioeco-
nomic Sciences Course, Languages and Humanities Course, and Vi-
sual Arts Course.
The matrix of these courses includes general and specific training
components. The first component includes the following disciplines / total
hours: Portuguese (560 h); Foreign Language (300 h); Philosophy (300 h);
and Physical Education (450 h). In the specific training component there
are triennials disciplines (770 h), biennials (a choice of two disciplines, 270
or 315 h), and annuals (a choice of two disciplines, 150 h); with the possi-
bility of another annual discipline, depending on the school’s educational
project, with a set of subjects common to all courses (150 h). Moral and
Religious Education is optional (270 hours).
The Science and Technology Course is framed in the matrix presented
in the Science-Humanities Courses. The following offering is found in the
general training component: Portuguese (10th, 11th and 12th grade); Foreign
12. Law-decree no. 139/2012 of July 5, altered by Law-decree no. 91/2013 of July 10 and by Law-decree
no. 176/2014 of December 12.
13. Law-decree no. 139/2012 of July 5, altered by Law-decree no. 91/2013 of July 10 and by Law-decree
no. 176/2014 of December 12 and by Ordinance no. 243/2012 of August 10, rectified by Declaration
of Rectification no. 51/2012 of September 21.

241
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Language I, II or III - German, Spanish, French or English (10th and 11th

grade); Philosophy (10th and 11th grade); and Physical Education (10th, 11th
and 12th grade). The specific training component includes: Mathematics A
(mandatory triennial - 10th, 11th and 12th grade); Biennials (10th and 11th
grade), in which the student chooses two of the following disciplines: Biolo-
gy and Geology (10th and 11th grade); Physics and Chemistry A (10th and 11th
grade); or Descriptive Geometry A (10th and 11th grade). In 12th grade, the
student chooses two annual disciplines, at least one of which is compulsory,
from Biology, Physics, Geology and Chemistry, with another dependent on
the school’s educational project (Anthropology, Computer Applications B,
Political Science, Classics of Literature, Law, Economics C, Philosophy A,
Geography C, Greek, Foreign Language I, II or III, Psychology B).
The Science-Humanities Continuing Education Courses constitutes
a “second educational opportunity for those who did not enjoy it in their
own age or who did not complete it and for those who seek it for reasons
of cultural and professional promotion”, for which students obtain a grade
and diploma award or certificate equivalent to those conferred by daytime
teaching.14 The Science-Humanities Continuing Education Courses are
composed of the same four courses previously mentioned. Earth Sciences
are taught in Biology and Geology (10th and 11th grade) and Geology (12th
grade). Since these courses are part of adult education, they are omitted
from the section devoted to secondary education.
The individual courses have a long tradition in the Portuguese educa-
tional system, as a pedagogical experience of private and cooperative teach-
ing establishments framed in 1967.15 With the 2012 curricular revision,16
the individual course plans stay abreast of the remaining training compo-
nents of secondary education. These courses are, for the most part, dual
certificates with a solid scientific and technological component. The courses
of the scientific track also have a technological training component. They
seek to respond to public expectations on schools, by providing transpar-
ency to the business community, the scientific community, local authori-
ties, various institutions, and families, effectively involving the community
and its various educational agents at local and regional levels in students’
success. Three training components (general, scientific, and technological)
coexist in the Science-Technology Individual Course. The programs of the
subjects of the general training component and of the scientific training

14. URL: http://www.dge.mec.pt/modalidade-de-ensino-recorrente-sec.

15. Law-decree no. 47.587 of 1967, March 10, 1967.
16. Law-decree no. 139/2012 of July 5.

242
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

component of the Scientific-Technological Courses are the Programs of the

Scientific-Humanistic Courses, according to the area of knowledge,17 with
the same instruction hours, including for Earth Science.

20.3 Earth Sciences in the 1st Cycle of Basic Education

In the first cycle of basic education, Environment Studies is an area

in which concepts and methods from various disciplines, such as His-
tory, Geography, Natural Sciences, Ethnography, and others, compete to
contribute to students’ progressive understanding of the interrelationships
between Nature and Society. Environmental Studies is also an area that
can promote interaction between all areas of the curricular matrix, consti-
tuting as motive and motor for learning in other areas. Earth Sciences is
included within Environmental Studies, however, it is rather scarce dur-
ing the four years comprising this education cycle. Table 20.1 summarizes
the Environmental Studies content that integrates Earth Sciences themes,
extracted from the Curricular Organization and Programs document on
the first cycle of basic education.18

17. URL: http://www.dge.mec.pt/cursos-cientifico-tecnologicos-planos-proprios-cct-pp.

18. Ministério da Educação (s.d.). Organização Curricular e Programas. 1.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico. Estudo
do Meio (4.ª ed.) Lisbon, Portugal: Ministério da Educação. Available in: http://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/
default/files/Basico/Metas/Estudo_Meio/eb_em_programa_1c.pdf.

243
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Table 20.1 Subjects of Earth Sciences in Environmental Studies discipline in the 1.st
Cycle of Basic Education
Specific content/objectives which integrate Earth Science themes in each year of schooling
1st grade 3rd grade 4th grade
Topic 3 - Discovering Topic 3 - Discovering the natural envi- Topic 1 - Discovering yourself
the natural environment ronment 2. The safety of your body
2. The physical aspects 2. The physical aspects of the local Knowing anti-seismic safety rules (prevention and behav-
of the local environ- environment iors to have during and after an earthquake).
ment t
$PMMFDU
TBNQMFT
PG
EJĊFSFOU
UZQFT
PG
TPJM
t
3FDPHOJ[F
EJĊFSFOU
- identify some of its characteristics (color, Topic 3 - Discovering the natural environment
ways in which water is texture, smell, permeability); 1. Physical aspects of the environment
found in nature (rivers, - search for what is found on the ground t
3FDPHOJ[F
BOE
PCTFSWF
QIFOPNFOB
PG
DPOEFOTBUJPO

streams, wells, etc.) (animals, stones, remains of living beings). (clouds, fog, dew); solidification (snow, hail, frost);
t
$PMMFDU
TBNQMFT
PG
FYJTUJOH
SPDLT
JO
UIF
precipitation (rain, snow, hail).
3. Identify Nature’s immediate environment: t
$POEVDU
FYQFSJNFOUT
UIBU
SFQSFTFOU
QIFOPNFOB
PG

colors, sounds and - identify some of its characteristics (color, evaporation; condensation; solidification; precipitation.
smells texture, hardness ...); t
6OEFSTUBOE
UIBU
SBJOXBUFS
JOmMUSBUFT
UIF
TPJM
HJWJOH
SJTF

(..., soil, sea, water- - recognize the usefulness of some rocks. to water sheets.
courses, ...) t
%JTUJOHVJTI
GPSNT
PG
SFMJFG
FYJTUJOH
JO
UIF
t
3FDPHOJ[F
TQSJOHT
BOE
XBUFS
DPVSTFT
region (elevations, valleys, plains ...): 3. The stars
- observe directly and indirectly (photo- t
4FF
UIF
TIBQF
PG
UIF
&BSUI
UISPVHI
QIPUPHSBQIT
JM-
graphs, illustrations ...); lustrations ...
- locate on maps. t
0CTFSWF
BOE
SFQSFTFOU
BTQFDUT
PG
UIF
.PPO
JO
UIF

various phases.
3. The stars t
0CTFSWF
UIF
TPMBS
TZTUFN
PO
B
NPEFM
t
%JTUJOHVJTI
TUBST
GSPN
QMBOFUT
TVO

TUBS

moon - planet). Topic 4 - The discovery of interrelations between
spaces
Topic 6 - Discovering the interrelation- 1. The contact between land and sea
ships between Nature and Society t
%JSFDUMZ
PS
JOEJSFDUMZ
PCTFSWF
TPNF
BTQFDUT
PG
UIF
DPBTU

* 5. Mineral exploration of the local (beaches, cliffs, dunes, cables,...) and the Portuguese
environment coast (“Ria” of Aveiro, Cabo Carvoeiro, Cabo da Roca,
t
4VSWFZ
PG
NJOFSBM
FYQMPSBUJPO
TJUFT
NJOF
Estuary of Tagus and Sado, Ponta de Sagres).
quarries, sands ...). t
'JOE
PO
UIF
NBQ
PG
1PSUVHBM
t
4VSWFZ
UIF
NBJO
NJOFSBM
QSPEVDUT
JO
UIF
t
'JOE
PO
NBQT
JTMBOET
BOE
BSDIJQFMBHPT
"[PSFT
BOE

region. Madeira).
t
3FDPHOJ[F
NJOFSBM
FYQMPSBUJPO
BT
B
TPVSDF
t
'JOE
UIF
DPOUJOFOUT
BOE
UIF
PDFBOT
PO
UIF
QMBOJTQIFSF

of raw materials (construction, industry ...). and globe.
t
*EFOUJGZ
DFSUBJO
IB[BSET
UP
NBO
BOE
t
3FDPHOJ[F
UIF
"UMBOUJD
0DFBO
BT
UIF
NBSJUJNF
CPSEFS

the environment arising from mineral of Portugal.
exploitation (quarry pollution, silicosis of 
t
0CTFSWF
UIF
BDUJPO
PG
UIF
TFB
PO
UIF
DPBTU
miners,...). 
t
8BUDI
UIF
UJEFT

Topic 6 - Discovering the interrelationships between

Nature and Society
2. The quality of the environment
t
ɨF
RVBMJUZ
PG
UIF
TVSSPVOEJOH
FOWJSPONFOU
- identify and observe some factors that contribute to the
degradation of the nearby environment (dumps, pollut-
ing industries, destruction of historical heritage,...);
- list possible solutions;
- identify and participate in ways of promoting the
environment.
t
Air quality:
- recognize the effects of air pollution (greenhouse effect,
ozone depletion, acid rain,...);
t
Water quality:
- recognize some forms of pollution of watercourses and
oceans (sewers, industrial fluids, black tides,...).
t
Identify some environmental imbalances caused by
human activity:
- extinction of resources.

244
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

General objectives
2 - Identify basic elements of the surrounding physical environment (relief, rivers, fauna, flora, weather, etc.).
6 - Use some simple processes to understand the surroundings (observe, describe, formulate questions and problems, advance
possible answers, rehearse, verify), assuming an attitude of permanent research and experimentation.
7 - Select different sources of information (oral, written, observation, etc.) and use various forms of simple data collection and
processing (interviews, surveys, posters, graphs, tables).
8 - Use different modalities to communicate the information collected.
Note: There is no Earth Science content in the 2nd grade of the first cycle of basic education. Program
points that are marked with an asterisk (*) are only incorporated when locally relevant.

20.4 Earth Sciences in the Second Cycle of Basic Education

Earth Sciences content is taught within Natural Sciences, specifically

in 5th grade. In the academic year 2014-’15 curricular goals become in-
forced, including learning objectives and descriptors for each component.
Each descriptor is written in direct, objective and concise language, for
the teacher who must select the most appropriate teaching strategies to
achieve the educational goals, including adaptating the language to differ-
ent schooling levels. Table 20.2 presents the approved curricular goals and
proposed Earth Sciences content, with associated academic hours.

Table 20.2 Subjects of Earth Sciences in Natural Sciences discipline in the 2.nd Cycle of
Basic Education
Domain: Water, air, rocks and soil - terrestrial materials

Subdomain: Importance of rocks and soil in the maintenance of life

Content Goals
1. Soil 1. Understand that soil is a life support material (360
1.1. Factors that condition the formation and min)
evolution of a soil
1.2. Soil composition - profile 1.1. Define soil.
1.2. Indicate three functions of the soil.
1.3. Soil types - porosity and permeability
1.4. Soil and agriculture 1.3. Identify soil components and properties, based
1.5. Soil conservation on practical laboratory activities.

2. Rocks 1.5. To describe the role of biological agents and

2.1. Mineral and rock concepts - basic atmospheric agents in soil genesis.
properties 1.7. Relate soil conservation to agricultural
2.2. Main groups of rocks sustainability.
2.3. Minerals of major rock groups 1.8. Associate some methods and instruments used
2.4. Geographical distribution of rocks in in agriculture with scientific and technological
Portugal advances.
2.5. Current use of rocks and minerals
2. Understanding the importance of rocks and
minerals (315 min)

2.1. Define rocks and minerals.

2.2. Distinguish different groups of rocks, based
on some properties, using simple dichotomous
keys.
2.3. Recognize the existence of minerals within
rocks, based on observations of hand samples.
2.4. Refer applications of rocks and minerals to
various human activities, based on a practical
field activity local to the school.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Subdomain: The importance of water to living things

Content Goals
3. Water 4. Understanding the importance of water for living
3.1. Water and life beings (225 min)
3.1.1. Water circulation in nature -
hydrological cycle 4.1. Represent the distribution of water on the
3.1.2. Distribution of water on the planet - planet (reservoirs and flows), using the
reservoirs, streams and groundwater hydrological cycle.
3.1.3. Functions of water in living beings 4.2. Refer to the availability of fresh water
3.1.4. Water and Health (surface and underground) on the Earth, from
information on the total volume of water
3.2. Water and human activity available.
3.2.1. Water quality - drinkable and non- 4.3. Identify water properties, based on practical
potable laboratory activities.
3.2.2. Water consumption 4.4. Present examples that show the existence
- The situation in Portugal of water in all living beings, through the
- Savings measures consultation of diversified documents.
3.2.3. Water pollution - biological, chemical 4.5. Describe two functions of water in living
and physical contamination beings.
3.2.4. Water treatment 4.6. Explain the importance of water composition
- Water Treatment Station: decantation, to the health of human beings, from reading
filtration, boiling, chemical disinfection and labels
distillation 4.7. Refer the role of fluoride in oral health.
- Wastewater Treatment Station:
Wastewater treatment 5. Understanding the importance of water quality for
human activity (270 min)

5.1. Classify the types of water for consumption

(drinking water and mineral water) and types
of water unfit for consumption (brackish water
and polluted water).
5.2. Describe the evolution of water consumption
in Portugal, based on information expressed in
graphs or tables.
5.3. Propose measures that aim to guarantee the
sustainability of the water for consumption.
5.4. Indicate three sources of pollution and water
contamination.
5.5. Explain the consequences of pollution and
water contamination.
5.6. Distinguish the function of the Water
Treatment Station from the function of the
Wastewater Treatment Station.

20.5 Earth Sciences in the Third Cycle of Basic Education

The 7th grade Natural Sciences discipline is entirely dedicated to

Earth Sciences. The curricular goals, which came into play in the 2014-’15
academic year, apply to 12 concepts as outlined in Table 20.319.

19. The curricular goals and the Natural Sciences Program of the 3rd cycle of basic education are avail-
able in: http://dge.mec.pt/metascurriculares/index.php?s=directorio&pid=22.

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 Table 20.3 Subjects of Earth Sciences in Natural Sciences discipline in the 2.nd Cycle of Basic Education

Domain: Earth in transformation Subdomain: External dynamics of the Earth

Content Goals
1. Geological landscapes 1. Understanding the diversity of geological landscapes (657 min)
1.1. Magmatic Landscapes 1.1. To identify landscapes of volcanic rocks and landscapes of plutonic rocks through their main
- Main features of volcanic landscapes characteristics.
- Main features of plutonic landscapes 1.2. Give two examples of landscapes of magmatic rocks in Portuguese territory.
1.2. Metamorphic Landscapes 1.3. Relate the main characteristics of landscapes of metamorphic rocks.
- Main features of metamorphic landscapes 1.4. Indicate two examples of landscapes of metamorphic rocks in national territory.
1.3. Sedimentary Landscapes 1.5. Describe the main features of sedimentary rock landscapes.
- Main characteristics of sedimentary landscapes 1.6. To present two examples of sedimentary landscapes in Portugal.
- Genesis, classification and identification of sedimentary rocks 1.7. Identify the type of landscape in the region where the school is located

2. Understand minerals as basic components of rocks

2.1. State the concept of mineral.

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2.2. Identify minerals in rocks (biotite, calcite, staurolite, feldspar, moscovite, olivine, quartz),
correlating some properties with the use of tables.
3. To analyze the concepts and processes related to the formation of sedimentary rocks
3.1. Summarize the action of water, wind and living beings as external geological agents.
3.2. Predict the type of movement and deposition of materials along a watercourse, based on a
practical laboratory activity.
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

3.3. Explain the stages of formation of most sedimentary rocks.

3.4. To propose a classification of sedimentary rocks, based on a practical activity.
3.5. Identify the main types of detrital rocks (sandstone, argillite, conglomerate, marl), chemo-
genic (limestone, gypsum, rock salt) and biogenic (coals, limestone) based on practical activities.
3.6. To associate some characteristics of the sand to different types of environments, based on a
practical laboratory activity.
 Subdomain: Internal Dynamics of the Earth
Content Goals
2. Drift of continents and 4. Understand the fundamentals of the structure and dynamics of the Earth (270 min)
plate tectonics 4.1. Present arguments that supported and weakened the Continental Drift Theory.
2.1. Theory of continental 4.2. Recognize the contribution of science, technology and society to the knowledge of ocean floor expansion.
drift 4.3. Lay out the morphology of the ocean floor.
2.2. Theory of the expansion 4.4. Explain the classic (oceanic and continental) evidence that supports the Plate Tectonics Theory.
of the ocean floor 4.5. Relate the continuous expansion and destruction of the ocean floor with the constancy of the volume of the Earth.
2.3. Plate Tectonics Theory 4.6. Solve an exercise that relates the distance to the axis of the Atlantic ridge with the age and paleomagnetism of the rocks of the
respective ocean floor.

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3. Deformation of rocks 4.7. Identify the contributions of some scientists associated to the Continental Drift Theory and Plate Tectonics Theory.
3.1. The behavior of rocks 4.8. Characterize tectonic plate and the different types of existing limits.
when subjected to stress 4.9. Infer the importance of convection currents as the “motor” of the mobility of tectonic plates.
3.2. Faults and fractures 5. Apply concepts related to rock deformation (270 min)
3.3. Folds and Rides 5.1. Distinguish fragile behavior from ductile behavior, in diverse materials, based on a practical laboratory activity.
5.2. Explain the formation of folds and faults, based on a practical laboratory activity.
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

5.3. Relate the observed motion to a fault with the type of applied forces that gave rise to it.
5.4. Identify, in diagrams and images, deformations observed in the existing rocks in the landscape.
5.5. Relate rock deformation to the formation of mountain ranges.
 Subdomain: Consequences of the Earth’s internal dynamics
Content Goals
4. Magmatism and Magmatic Rocks 6. Understand volcanic activity as a manifestation of the Earth’s internal dynamics (405 min)
4.1. Volcanism and volcanic activity 6.1. Lay out the structure of a volcanic apparatus.
- Volcanoes and types of volcanic activity - main types of magmas 6.2. Distinguish different materials expelled by volcanoes, based on hand samples.
- Manifestations of secondary volcanism 6.3. Establish a relationship between the different types of magmas and the various types of
- Distribution of volcanoes on Earth and plate tectonics volcanic activity, through a practical activity.
- Volcanic risks: prediction and protection of property and people 6.4. Exemplify manifestations of secondary volcanism.
4.2. Genesis, classification and identification of magmatic rocks 6.5. Explain the benefits of volcanism (primary and secondary) to populations.
(volcanic and plutonic) - granite, rhyolite, gabbro, basalt 6.6. Refer measures for prevention and protection of property and people of volcanic risk.
6.7. Infer the importance of science and technology in predicting volcanic eruptions.
6.8. Recognize the volcanic manifestations as a consequence of the internal dynamics of the
5. Genesis of metamorphic rocks
Earth.
5.1. Factors, intensity and types of metamorphism
7. Interpret the formation of magmatic rocks
5.2. Metamorphism and internal dynamics of the Earth 7.1. Explain the genesis of plutonic and volcanic magmatic rocks.
5.3. Classification and identification of metamorphic rocks 7.2. Identify different types of plutonic rocks (gabbro and granite) and volcanic rocks (basalt and
rhyolite), based on hand samples.

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7.3. Relate the genesis of magmatic rocks to their texture, based on the size and macroscopic
6. Rock Cycle identification of their constituent minerals.
8. Understand metamorphism as a consequence of the Earth’s internal dynamics (135 min)
7. Main lithological formations in Portugal 8.1. Explain the concept of metamorphism, associated with the internal dynamics of the Earth.
8.2. List the main factors that cause the formation of metamorphic rocks.
8.3. Distinguish contact metamorphism from regional metamorphism, based on the interpreta-
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

8. Seismic activity tion of images or graphics.

8.1. Origin and registration of seismic waves 8.4. Identify different types of metamorphic rocks (schist and other rocks with well defined
8.2. Distribution of earthquakes on Earth and plate tectonics foliated or banded texture, marbles, quartzites, with a granoblastic texture), using a practical
8.3. Seismic risks - prediction and protection of property and people activity.
8.5. Relate the type of structure that the rock presents with the type of metamorphism that gave
9. Contribution of science and technology to the study of Earth’s rise to it, in hand samples.
internal structure 9. Know the rock cycle (45 min)
9.1. Describe the rock cycle.
9.1 Direct methods: mines and survey
9.2. State the geological processes involved in the rock cycle.
9.2 Indirect methods: earthquakes and meteorites
10. Understand that lithological formations in Portugal should be explored in a sustainable way
9.3 Models of the Earth’s internal structure
(90 min)
- Geophysical model 10.1. Identify the different groups of rocks in Portugal, using geological charts.
- Geochemical model 10.2. Refer applications of rocks in society.
 10.3. Recognize the rocks used in some buildings, in the region where the school is located.
10.4. Understand that the exploitation of lithological resources must be done in a sustainable
way.
11. Understand seismic activity as a consequence of Earth’s internal dynamics (405 min)
11.1. Explain the formation of an earthquake, associated with the internal dynamics of the Earth.
11.2. Associate the vibration of the rocks with the recording of the seismic waves.
11.3. Distinguish the Richter Scale from the European Macrossismic Scale.
11.4. Explain seismic intensity, based on documents of recorded earthquakes.
11.5. Interpret isoseismal lines, in a national context.
11.6. Identify the seismic risk of Portugal and the region where the school is located.
11.7. Characterize some historical seismic episodes of the national territory, based on guided
research.
11.8. Indicate the risks associated with earthquake occurrence.
11.9. Describe measures to protect property and people, before, during and after an earthquake
occurs.
11.10. Recognize the importance of science and technology in seismic forecasting.

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11.11. Relate the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes on Earth with the different tectonic
plate boundaries.
12. Understand the internal structure of the Earth (405 min)
12.1. Relate the inaccessibility of Earth’s interior with the limitations of direct observation
methods.
12.2. List various technological tools that facilitate understanding Earth’s internal structure.
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

12.3. Explain the contributions of planetology, seismology and volcanology to the knowledge of
Earth’s interior.
12.4. Characterize, from schematics, Earth’s internal structure, based on physical and chemical
properties (geochemical and geophysical models).
 Subdomain: The Earth tells its story
Content Goals
10. Big steps in Earth’s history 13. Understand the importance of fossils for the reconstruction of Earth’s history (405 min)
10.1. Historical time and geological time
10.2. Times in geology - relative and absolute 13.1. Define paleontology.
10.3. Geological time scale - stratigraphic table 13.2. Define fossils.
10.3. Geological time and sustainability of life 13.3. Explain the various processes of fossilization, using practical activities.
13.4. Relate fossil formation with the physical, chemical and biological conditions of their
11. Fossils and Their Importance for Reconstructing Earth’s History environments.
11.1. Fossils and paleontology 13.5. Order events related to fossilization processes, according to the sequence in which they
11.2. Processes occurred in Nature.
11.3. Interpretation 13.6. Characterize large groups of fossils, based on images and hand samples.
11.4. Flora and fauna as memory 13.7. Explain the contributions of fossil studies to reconstructing the history of life on Earth.

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14. Understanding the major stages of Earth’s history (405 min)

14.1. Systemize information, in different formats, on the concept of time.

14.2. Distinguish historical time from geological time, based on diversified documents.
14.3. Explain the concept of relative dating, based on geological principles and reasoning, using a
practical laboratory activity.
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

14.4. Distinguish relative dating from radiometric dating.

14.5. Locate Geological Eras in a Chronostratigraphic Table.
14.6. Locate the appearance and extinction of major groups of animals and plants in the Chro-
nostratigraphic Table.
14.7. Infer the consequences of the cyclical changes of terrestrial subsystems (atmosphere, bio-
sphere, geosphere, hydrosphere) throughout Earth’s history, based on diversified documents.
14.8. Characterize past geological environments through a practical field activity.
 Subdomain: Geological science and sustainability of life on Earth
Content Goals
12. Geological knowledge and sustainability of life on Earth 15. Understanding the contribution of geological knowledge to the sustainability of life on Earth (270 min)
12.1. Human interventions in geological and biological processes
12.2. Impact of external geological systems and their consequences 15.1. Associate human interventions with impacts of geological processes (atmosphere, hydro-
for the sustainability of life sphere and lithosphere).
12.3. Impact of scientific and technological developments on society 15.2. Relate the geological environment with human health and occurrence of diseases in people,
12.4. Answers to environmental geology problems animals and plants living in the same environment.

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15.3. Extrapolate the effect of population growth on resource consumption, the environment and
the sustainability of life on Earth.
15.4. Refer three types of responses (technological, socioeconomic and educational) to environ-
mental geology problems.
15.5. Explain how the relationships between geology, technology and society can contribute to
forming a sustainable culture of life on Earth.
Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The curricular goals clearly identify: the fundamental content that

must be taught; the sequential or hierarchical ordering of content through-
out various stages of schooling; the knowledge and skills to be acquired
and developed by students; and the expected student performance stan-
dards / levels that measure achievement of the objectives.
So that teachers do not neglect incorporating practical activities (field
and laboratory) in teaching Earth Sciences, some descriptors were defined
to impose active learning conditions. Thus, for example:
5th grade
3. Identify the soil components and properties, based on practical lab-
oratory activities.

7th grade
3.5. Identify the main types of detrital rocks (sandstone, argillite, con-
glomerate, marl rock), chemogenic (limestone, gypsum, rock salt) and bio-
genic (coals, limestone) based on practical activities.
3.6. To associate some characteristics of the sand to different types of
environments, based on a practical laboratory activity.
11.7. Characterize some seismic episodes of the history of the national
territory, based on research findings.

20.6 Earth Sciences in Secondary Education

Students in the Science and Technology Course can choose Biology

and Geology for their specific training in the 10th and 11th grades, and the
frequency of Geology in 12th grade.
In Biology and Geology, the Earth Sciences component assumes the
same importance as Biology, with an equal and compulsory workload as-
signed to each component in the two years of schooling. Figure 20.1 pres-
ents the topics covered in secondary education and their respective teach-
ing hours (ST = 45 minutes) (Figure 20.1).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Figure 20.1 – Disciplines and themes of Earth Sciences in secondary education.

The contents of explored Earth Sciences are quite diverse. Content that
has already been addressed in basic education (eg: rocks, volcanology, seis-
mology) has been taken up and deepened and more complex content has
been introduced and requires a greater degree of abstraction (eg, equiva-
lence between chronostratigraphic and geochronological units) as shown
in the following Table 20.4.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Table 20.4 Disciplines and themes of Earth Sciences in secondary education

Discipline of biology and geology Discipline of Geology

10th grade 11th grade 12th grade
(Presentation of a problem / (Presentation of a problem / (Presentation of a problem /
situation) situation) situation)
Theme I - Geology, geologists Theme IV – Geology, problems Theme I - From the Theory
and their methods and everyday materials of Continental Drift to Plate
The Earth and interaction Human occupation and land Tectonic Theory. Lithospheric
between its sub-systems. use issues. dynamics.
Rocks, files that tell Earth’s Important processes and geo- Genesis and evolution of the
history logical materials in terrestrial theory of drifting continents.
Measuring time and the age of environments. Lithospheric dynamics and
the Earth. Sustained exploitation of geo- major geological structures.
Earth, a planet in change. logical resources.
(Presentation of a problem /
(Presentation of a problem / situation)
situation) Theme II - The history of Earth
Theme II - The Earth, a very and life
special planet Measuring time and the history
Formation of the Solar of the Earth. Examples of dat-
System. ing methods.
The Earth and terrestrial Chronostratigraphic table.
planets. Correlation of chronostrati-
The Earth, a planet only to graphical and geochronological
protect. units.
Geo-history. Life in the Pre-
(Presentation of a problem / cambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
situation) and Cenozoic. Paleogeographi-
Theme III – Understand the cal evolution.
structure and dynamics of the The geological history of a
geosphere region.
Methods of studying the
geosphere. (Presentation of a problem /
Volcanology. situation)
Seismology. Theme III - The Earth yester-
Internal structure of the day, today and tomorrow
geosphere. The Earth before the appear-
ance of man. Paleoclimate and
impact of lithospheric dynamics
on climate change.
Environmental changes in
Earth’s history and evolution of
the human species.
Man as an agent of environ-
mental changes.
What scenarios for the 21st
century? Regional and global
environmental changes.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Methodologically, the Biology-Geology and stand-alone Geology dis-

ciplines value:

a) The constructivist learning perspective, centered on student learn-

ing, not ignoring the important role of the teacher as a facilitator;
b) The History of Science, namely contextualizing teaching and learn-
ing strategies with historical examples;
c) Practical work, following a logical line of questioning, valuing com-
pletion of diverse activities, from paper and pencil exercises to those
requiring a laboratory (e.g. laboratory and experimental work) or other
learning environments, such as the field. These should be integrated
into the curriculum as open-ended problem-solving scenerios, em-
phasizing building on previous concepts, formulating and contesting
hypotheses, planning and executing activities, and completing repre-
sentative records;
d) The Science-Technology-Society perspective, exploring real and
meaningful contexts for students;
e) Collaborative work, promoting student dialogue and participation,
encouraging articulation of ideas and challenging these using scientific
models;
f) Using analogical physical models, exploring problems of scale, speed
of processes, and representativeness of materials used, as well as discuss-
ing the underlying model’s hypotheses and limitations, and making a
critical evaluation of the results obtained in comparison with the real
data;
g) The use of Information and Communication Technologies to sup-
port research, data processing, modeling, and communication.

Teachers and students have seven weekly study periods in Biology and
Geology to implement this curriculum, three for the practical component,
and four dedicated to Geology, two of which are also disrected towards
developing pratical activities. Practical classes are split in half whenever
students’ numbers exceed twenty. The practical component in experimen-
tal subjects is worth 30 percent of students overall assessment.
Integrating the recommended curricula guidelines for these disci-
plines has been a great challenge for teachers and encountered different
obstacles.20 For example, teachers’ notions and attitudes about teaching
20. Rebelo, D., Marques, E., & Marques, L. (2005). Formação de professores: contributo de mate-
riais didácticos para a inovação das práticas. Enseñanza de las Ciencias, número extra. Available in:
http://ddd.uab.cat/pub/edlc/edlc_a2005nEXTRA/edlc_a2005nEXTRAp377forpro.pdf; Rebelo,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

the subject and the nature of science (determined in part by their personal
experiences); student manuals determine the organization of most classes;
the lack of curricular materials that integrate current perspectives into sci-
ence education; and the difficulty teachers have in articulating dispersed
and compartmentalized knowledge as contextualized knowledge.
The conceptions and attitudes of teachers towards the teaching and
nature of science are an obstacle to integrating the recommended guide-
lines into the curricula, insofar as they condition their how they interpret
official documents (e.g., programs). These are often interpreted from em-
piricist epistemological perspectives at the expense of rationalist episte-
mologies directed at purposes beyond the curriculum.
Thus, to interpret and implement the program directives, teachers
need to develop a concetual, epistemological and psychological frame-
work that allows them to appropriate the underlying curricula principles,
so that they are able to adopt, adapt and actuate innovative pedagogical
practices. Evidence has revealed that the better a teacher understands the
curriculum’s demands, the greater their professional development. Teacher
training is, therefore, an indispensable component of curricular innova-
tion in order to act upon, elaborate, produce and appropriate the discipline
knowledge presupposed by the syllabuses.21

20.7 Portuguese Geology Olympiads

The 7th edition of the International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO),

held in Spain in 2014, had as its theme the sea and mountains. A Portuguese
observer participated at this event for the first time. The following year, Por-
tugal debuted with the first team of students, earning a gold and a bronze
medal. In 2016, the Portuguese team won two silver and one bronze medals.
The Portuguese Geological Olympiads are organized annually by a
National Geological Olympiad Commission of the Geological Society of
Portugal (NGOC),22 with the support of the Ministry of Education,23 most
of the Portuguese Universities, the Agency and Live Science Network,24

D. (2014). Desenvolvimento profissional de professores de ciências: um estudo no contexto da geologia.

PhD thesis (not published). Aveiro, Portugal: University of Aveiro. Available in: https://ria.ua.pt/
handle/10773/12920.
21. Sá-Chaves, I. (2007). Formação, Conhecimento e Supervisão. Contributos nas Áreas da Formação de
Professores e de Outros Profissionais (2.nd ed.). Aveiro, Portugal: University of Aveiro.
22. URL: http://www.socgeol.org/olimpiadas_1.
23. URL: http://dge.mec.pt/.
24. URL: http://www.cienciaviva.pt/centroscv/rede/.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

the Azores Geopark 25 and the IESO.26 The competition is open to 11th
grade students in Biology and Geology. It is structured by phases and
regions:27 School Phase, the first student selection phase, conducted in
all schools with secondary education; Regional Phase, the second testing
phase, including the academic schools of the Centers of Living Science,
the Geoparks, and, exceptionally, the Universities clustered by region,
North, Center, Lisbon and Tagus Valley Regions and South (including
the Autonomous Regions of Madeira and the Autonomous Regions of
Azores); Final Phase, the third and last phase of tests, organized by a Por-
tuguese university department,28 in which students qualify to participate
in the IESO on the Portuguese team.
In order for a secondary school, or grouping of schools, to have its stu-
dents participate in the Portuguese Geological Olympiads, it is necessary for
a professor in the disciplinary group of Biology and Geology to show interest
in functioning as the link between the NGOC and the school by the end of
October each year. This teacher is a responsible professor, with the following
functions: a) Ensure student enrollments; b) Ensure test scripts and answer
keys are received for the School Phase; c) Manage logistics, namely room
appointment and invigilator coordination, for the day and time marked by
the Organizing Committee nationally; d) Print and distribute statements; e)
Correct the tests and communicate results to the Jury of Experts.29
All students participating in the Regional and Final Phases receive
participation certificates. In the regional phase, gold, silver and bronze
medals are awarded to the students in the top three places. In the final
phase, special “Olympics” prizes are awarded to the students winning the
1st, 2nd and 3rd places, with honorable mention for 4th place. Since the
IESO test content is more comprehensive than that of the Biology and
Geology programs, the NGOC defines how additional preparation is done
for the hydrosphere, atmosphere and astronomy subjects. Participation in
IESO requires that students on the team must cover their travel and ac-
commodation expenses.

25. URL: http://www.azoresgeopark.com/.

26. URL: http://www.ieso-info.org/.
27. URL: http://www.socgeol.org/ckeditor_assets/attachments/170/regulamento_olimpiadas.pdf.
28. In 2017, the schedule is as follows: School Phase (January 27); Regional Phase (April 1); Final Phase
(May 20-21). The final phase is organized this year by the University of Évora and the Estremoz Liv-
ing Science Center.
29. URL: http://www.socgeol.org/ckeditor_assets/attachments/170/regulamento_olimpiadas.pdf.

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20.10 Final Considerations

Compulsory schooling in Portugal is 12 years, or for children and

young people between the ages of six and 18 years. Basic education is
universal and free and lasts for nine years, divided into three cycles. Three
years of secondary education follows. Earth science topics are present
throughout primary and secondary education. In the first cycle of basic
education, Earth Sciences are studied within Environmental Studies, par-
ticularly in the 1st, 3rd and 4th grade, with the following themes: “Discov-
ering the natural environment”; “The discovery of the interrelationships
between Nature and Society”; “The discovery of the interrelations between
spaces” and “The discovery of oneself”.
Earth Sciences are again studied in 5th grade (second cycle of basic
education), in the Natural Sciences discipline, with the following subjects:
“Soil”, “Rocks” and “Water”.
Natural Sciences, in the third cycle of basic education (7th grade), is en-
tirely dedicated to Earth Sciences. It begins with ”Geological landscapes”,
to study next “Drift of the continents and plate tectonics”, “Rock De-
formation”, “Magmatism and magmatic rock”, “Genesis of metamorphic
rocks”, “Rock Cycles”, “Main Lithological formations in Portugal”, “Seis-
mic activity”, “Contribution of science and technology to study Earth’s
internal structure”, “Major stages of Earth’s history” and “Fossils and their
importance for the reconstruction of Earth”. It concludes with “Geologi-
cal knowledge and sustainability of life on Earth”.
Finally, in secondary education, Biology and Geology distributes the
Life Sciences and Earth Sciences content equitably. In 10th grade, the
following themes are studied: “Geology, geologists and their methods”,
“Earth, a very special planet” and “Understanding the structure and dy-
namics of the geosphere”. The Earth Sciences component in 11th grade
is dedicated to “Geology, problems and materials of everyday life”. In
12th grade, the final year of secondary education, three themes are stud-
ied: “From the Theory of the Continent to Plate Tectonics Theory: The
dynamics of the lithosphere”, “The history of Earth and Life” and “The
Earth yesterday, today and tomorrow”.
The Directorate-General for Education prepares the National Curric-
ulum for compulsory schooling (from 1st grade to 12th grade), where the es-
sential curriculum is elaborated for each subject (by discipline / year). The
Portuguese Association of Teachers of Biology and Geology was invited to
contribute to a proposal that includes the essential / non-essential learning

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

(lessons developed according to the school’s context, applied pedagogical

differentiation strategies and interdisciplinary communication) of all dis-
ciplines that integrate Natural Sciences and Biology and Geology content
(1st-4th grade – Environmental Studies; 5th-9th grade – Natural Science;
10th and 11th grade – Biology and Geology; 12th grade – Geology). The
work completed refers to the current normative and curricular documents
and comes into force soon. Clarifying what is essential or non-essential
learning, allows teachers a time window to conduct practical activities and
promote more meaningful learning.
In conclusion, Earth Sciences have an appropriate and necessary place
in Portuguese non-higher education, with a solid grounding from the ear-
liest ages, passing through a discipline dedicated to this science (Natural
Sciences - 7th grade), another that divides the time equally with Life Sci-
ences (Biology and Geology - 10th and 11th grades), concluding with the
optional Geology course in the final year of secondary education. It is
therefore estimated that at the conclusion of secondary education, a young
person is prepared for continued studies in higher education with compo-
nents of Earth Sciences. At the same time, they are enabled to think and
consciously intervene in decision making, to the extent of their possibili-
ties and responsibilities, in every day societal problems, and ethically man-
age natural resources to preserve the environment as an integral element of
the noosphere and Earth’s ecosystem.30

30. Bonito, J. (1999). Da importância do ensino das Geociências: algumas razões para o “ser” professor
de Geociências. In Trindade, V., Fialho, I., Bonito, J., & Cid, M. (orgs.), Metodologia do ensino das ciên-
cias – Investigação e prática dos professores (pp. 41-55). Évora, Portugal: University of Evora. Available in:
http://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/bitstream/10174/16541/1/Bonito.pdf.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Jorge Bonito

Jorge Bonito has a degree in Teaching of

Biology and Geology (1993, University of
Évora, Portugal), a Master’s degree in
Geosciences, Geological Processes (1997,
University of Coimbra, Portugal), a PhD
in Educational Sciences, in Teacher Train-
ing (2006, University of Coimbra, Portu-
gal), a Title of University Specialist in Risk
Prevention and Health Promotion (2013,
UNED, Spain) and a Title of Aggregate in
Educational Sciences (2014, University of
Aveiro, Portugal). He teaches in Health Education and Educational Sci-
ences in, educational sciences and basic education degree courses of Univer-
sity of Évora (Portugal). He is a researcher in Geoscience Education and
Health Education in the Research Centre “Didactics and Technology in
Teacher Education” of University of Aveiro. University of Evora / Center for
Research “Didactics and Techonology in Training of Trainers”, University of
Aveiro, Portugal and in Research Centre Education and Psychology of Univer-
sity of Évora, Portugal. E-mail: jbonito@uevora.pt.

Margarida Maria Monteiro Morgado

Margarida Maria Monteiro Morgado,

holds a degree in Biology from the Univer-
sity of Coimbra (Portugal), has a Master’s
Degree in Biology and Geology Teaching
and PhD in Didactics awarded by the
University of Aveiro (Portugal). She has
participated in several research projects in
the area of Didactics at the University of
Aveiro (Portugal), is a coauthor of pro-
grams and textbooks of secondary educa-
tion in Geography for Timor-Leste. She
has promoted various training courses for teachers as a professor of Biology
and Geology for 25 years. Viriato Secondary School, Viseu / Center for Re-
search “Didactics and Techonology in Training of Trainers”, University of
Aveiro, Portugal. E-mail: morgadommargarida@gmail.com.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Dorinda Henriques Valente Rebelo

Dorinda Henriques Valente Rebelo, holds a

degree in Teaching Biology and Geology, a
Master’s Degree in Supervision, and a PhD
in Didactic and Training awarded by the
University of Aveiro (Portugal). She partici-
pated in several research projects in the area
of Didactics of the Sciences at the Univer-
sity of Aveiro (Portugal), is coauthor of Bi-
ology and Geology secondary education
programs in Portugal and coauthor of
books and programs of secondary educa-
tion in Geology for Timor-Leste. She has promoted various training courses
for teachers as a professor of Biology and Geology for 30 years. Estarreja
Grouping Schools / Center for Research “Didactics and Techonology in Training
of Trainers”, University of Aveiro, Portugal. E-mail: dorinda.rebelo@gmail.com

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 Chapter 21

Introduction of Korean Earth

Science Education and Preliminary
Process for Student Participants in
IESO (International Earth Science
Olympiad)
Myeong-Kyeong Shin, Hyeong-Bin Cheong, Kiyoung Lee, and Gong-Soo Chung

Abstract

The current Korean public science education system started in 1945,

and had ten major revisions of the national curriculum in the past 70
years. Since the third revision of the national curriculum (1973-1981),
Earth science is taught in equal proportion to each of the other science ar-
eas, physics, biology, and chemistry, in the primary and secondary schools.
Concepts and topics covered in the Earth science curriculum include the
geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, solar system and universe. As an or-
ganization of the Korean Earth Science Society (KESS), the Korea Earth
Science Olympiad (KESO) takes charge of selecting and preparing stu-
dent participants for the IESO. The selection and preparation proceeds
along two team tracks, national and international. There were five rounds
of selection and education for the national team track. The first selection
round is based mainly on applicants’ school records. After the first round,
the number of students is reduced progressively to 60, then 40, 20 and fi-
nally 4, through each round of preparation and selection. The preparation
processes includes online classes at the second round, four-days of summer
camp at the third round, a two-day field excursion at the fourth round,
and six days of winter camp at the fifth round. The selection processes
includes written and oral tests based on the content included in classes
and camp, as well as general Earth science knowledge. The IESO track in-

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cludes three-month online classes, a six-day summer camp, a two-day field

excursion, and four days of classes. The materials for the classes, excursions
and camp are directly related to the IESO syllabus.

Keywords: Korean Earth Science Olympiad, Korean Earth Science

Society, selection and preparation for IESO, IESO syllabus

21.1 Earth Science Education in Korea

Earth science education in Korea is based on the national curriculum

for the primary and secondary school system. Here, the underlying objec-
tives of general science and Earth science are described, as well as a brief
history of Earth science curriculum development in Korea. The prelimi-
nary procedure for selecting and preparing IESO participants is explained
in the following section.

21.1.2 Science Curriculum in Korea

The science component of the National Common Basic Curriculum is

designed for all students from grade three to ten. The Science Curriculum
aims to help students understand the basic concepts of science through
inquiry, with interest and curiosity in natural phenomena and objects, and
to develop scientific thinking skills and creative problem solving abilities.
Consequently, students are able to develop the scientific literacy necessary
for creatively and scientifically solving the problems of daily life.
‘Science’ is organized in partnership with ‘Intelligent Life’ for grades
one and two at elementary school, and Physics I, Chemistry I, Life Science
I, Earth Science I, Physics II, Chemistry II, Life Science II, Earth Science
II for grades 11 and 12 at high school. The contents of ‘Science’ include
the domains of motion and energy, materials, life, and Earth and space,
linking basic concepts and inquiry processes across grades and domains.
In ‘Science’ learning is centered around various inquiry-based activities
including observing, experimenting, investigating, discussing, etc., depending
upon students’ abilities. The emphasis is on independent and group activities
for nurturing scientific attitudes and communication skills including criti-
cism, openness, integrity, objectivity, cooperation, etc. Teaching also stresses
comprehensive understanding of basic concepts rather than fragmental acqui-
sition of knowledge and the ability to solve problems scientifically in daily life
using that knowledge.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The core ‘Science’ concepts are taught with relevance to learners’ own
experiences and students are provided with opportunities to apply science
related knowledge and inquiry skills for problem solving in society and daily
life. By learning about science, students are able to recognize the relation-
ships between science, technology and society as well as the value of science.
Students gain the scientific literacy necessary to develop creative and
scientifically sound solutions to everyday problems. The objectives of the
Science Curriculum are to educate students who can:
1) understand the basic concepts of science and apply them for solving
problems in daily life;
2) develop the ability to determine the scientific nature and use it for
solving problems in daily life;
3) enhance curiosity and interest in natural phenomena and science
learning, and develop an attitude to scientifically solve problems in daily life;
4) recognize the relationship between science, technology and society.
In elementary school, students are usually grouped by age. Teachers
are encouraged to place children in small groups and then give them prob-
lems they may solve together, rather than relying on whole class teaching.
Individual schools also began using open classroom teaching several years
ago, in which teachers reduce direct instruction and integrate multiple
subject areas into group or individual projects. This method garnered at-
tention after success in independent schools, and is now used by many
public schools in Korea, with government support.
At the secondary level, instruction remains fairly traditional, as teach-
ers are concerned with preparing students for university entrance exams.
Students are grouped by age, rather than ability, although some junior
and senior high schools have introduced ability based grouping in in the
past decade. The ministry encourages instructors to use active learning
methods in their teaching, including engaging students in science experi-
ments, group discussions, and surveys. There is also a strong emphasis
on integrating technology into the classroom. The Ministry of Education
has tried to reform upper secondary school instruction to some degree,
encouraging teachers to incorporate inquiry based learning and problem
solving. Technology continues to be very important.

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21.1.3 Current Earth Science Education System

First and second grade students study the subject ‘Intelligent Life’,
which includes the science content about 20 25 percent of which is Earth
science knowledge. From third to 10th grade, Earth science is included as
one quarter of the ‘Science’ subject. Earth science is included for 11th and
12th grade students who select the natural science track.
Science is formally introduced to students in 3rd grade. Therefore,
Earth science contents is included in formal education from 3rd grade. The
major concept or theme of each grade level is as follows:

Grade level Major concepts or themes

Earth and Moon, Volcanoes and Earthquakes, Changes in Earth’s crust, Geologic
3rd and 4th
layers and Fossils
Solar system and Stars, Weather and Our life, Movement of Earth and Moon,
5th and 6th
Changes of Seasons
Earth System and Changes in the lithosphere, Atmosphere and Our life, Composi-
7th to 9th tion and Cycles of the Hydrosphere, Solar system, Cosmosphere and Exploration
of Outer Space
Origin of the Universe, Stars and Galaxies, Solar System Formation, Solar System
10th
Dynamics, Planetary Atmospheres, Earth, Carbon Cycles and Climate Changes
Earth Science I: Earth as a Planet (interactions between Earth systems, Earth’s en-
vironment for living things), Precious Resources of Earth (underground resources,
soil resources, atmosphere, hydro resources, future non fossil energy), Beautiful
Korean Peninsula (geology and topology of the Korean peninsula), Changes of
solid Earth (earthquakes, volcanoes, plate tectonics, weathering), Changes in fluid
Earth (weather and ocean data in daily life, cycles of the atmosphere and hydro-
sphere, inclement weather), Environment pollution (climate changes in Earth’s
history, causes of climate changes, El Niño, greenhouse effects, the Ozone hole,
solutions for environmental changes), Astronomical Observation (star constella-
tion observing and changes thereof, Sun observation, Phase changes of the Moon),
Exploration of the universe (space probes, characteristics of celestial bodies in the
11 and 12
th th
solar system, space telescopes, exploring the outer solar system)
(Earth Science
Earth Science II: Earth’s Structure (Earth’s interior, gravity field, and magnetic
I and Earth
field), Materials of Earth (rock formation and characteristics), Changes of Earth
Science II)
(Earth’s interior energy, plate tectonics, structural geology), History of Earth
(fossils, geologic periods, major principles and application of historical geol-
ogy), Geology of Korea (geologic investigation, Korean rocks, fossils in Korea,
formation of Korean the peninsula), Movement and Cycles of the Atmosphere (jet
stream and cyclones, atmospheric stability, energy equilibrium and cycles of the
atmosphere), Movement and Cycles of Oceans (temperature, density and salinity
of oceans, wave and tides, Ekman transfer), Interactions between the Atmosphere
and Oceans, Characteristics of Stars (distances from stars, star movements, H R
diagram, energy source of stars), Our Galaxy (our galaxy’s structure and physical
features, interstellar materials), Galaxies and Universes (Hubble’s Law, Big bang
Theory, dark matter)

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21.1.4 A Brief History of Korean Earth Science Curriculum

Earth science education in Korea received increasing interest over the

last 70 years (Song and Joung, 2014).

Lecture Syllabus Period (1945 1955)

Earth science did not initially exist as a separate subject. Earth science
concepts were taught in other science subjects:, e.g. concepts in geology
and atmospheric sciences were included in chemistry.

The 1st National Science Curriculum (1955 1963)

The impact of pragmatic education in the US was inclusion of exten-
sive Earth science content related to learners’ everyday experiences (e.g.
underground resources, methods and myths in using almanac, mineral
deposits, hot springs, etc.). The separate subject ‘Earth Science’ was first
established at the high school level.

A. The 2nd National Science Curriculum (1963 1973)

Earth science in high school was not on par with other science sub-
jects such as physics, chemistry, and biology. Space, satellites, spaceships,
the external world, and space platforms are included as a result of the US’
space project.

B. The 3rd National Science Curriculum (1973 1981)

The scholarly focus of US science education became the basis for a sub-
stantial change in Earth science education. Earth science was placed on
par with physics, chemistry, and biology in the science curriculum for the
first time. Such scholarly focus on Earth science content remains today.

C. The 4th National Science Curriculum (1981 1987)

The scholarly focus science education development continued. In high
school, students in the liberal arts and science paths had subjects “Earth
Science I” and “Earth Science II”, respectively. There was little significant
change from the previous curriculum.

D. The 5th National Science Curriculum (1987 1992)

The ‘public understanding of science’ began to influence the curricu-
lum. Science literacy was first reflected in the Earth science curriculum.
The ‘nature of science’ was first included in the content. A lot of environ-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

mental topics were added into the Earth science curriculum.

E. The 6th National Science Curriculum (1992 1997)

A full-fledged approach to teaching scientific literacy was adopted. The
concepts of ‘the nature of Earth science’ and ‘Earth’s environment’ were
reinforced in the Earth science curriculum. An ‘integrated science’ subject
was first established in the 10th grade.

F. The 7th National Science Curriculum (1997 2007)

The concept of scientific literacy takes root as a key topic. The ‘system’
concept is adopted into the high school ‘Earth Science I’ unit. All students
from grade 3 to 10 are required to learn the same science material.

G. 2007 Revised National Science Curriculum (2007 2009)

Open-ended and student-centered inquiry activities were established
in the curriculum. Students were allowed to plan and execute their own
full range of scientific inquiry.

H. 2009 Revised National Science Curriculum (2009 Present)

The Big Bang Theory and origins of the universe became the starting
point for high school science for all students. Now cosmology and astron-
omy are considered essential to scientific literacy for all citizens.

21.2 National Team Selection and Preparation for IESO Participant Stu-
dents

21.2.1 Overview

The selection process for the national team and the training (prepara-
tion) program for the IESO are illustrated schematically in Fig. 1 (Cho
and Kyung, 2014; Cho and Cheong, 2015). The programs contained
in these processes are operated by the Korean Earth Science Olympiad
(KESO), which is a sub organization of the Korean Earth Science Society.
The whole processes can be classified into two tracks: One is the training/
evaluation track to select the national team’s four representatives (for con-
venience, referred to as national team track), and the other for the national
team to prepare for the IESO (IESO track). It takes one and half years for
a trainee to complete both tracks. Since the trainees are recruited every

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

year, KESO runs both tracks simultaneously. The national team track in-
cludes five training/evaluation programs, while the IESO track includes
five training programs. In the national team track, students are evaluated
at the end of each training program to those who enter the next, higher
level training program. The training programs of each track are designed
to cover the whole range of high school level Earth Science, as well as the
IESO syllabus. As the IESO track is designed to train the Korean repre-
sentatives, it provides higher level material than the national team track.
Detailed explanations of the two tracks and the sub programs included in
the tracks in 2014 are explained below.

21.2.2 National team track

The national team track begins with screening applicants from high
school and middle school students based on their scholastic record and po-
tential for Earth science performance. As for middle school students, only
senior level students are eligible to apply. National team track hopefuls are
invited to apply for screening, which is usually carried out between late
April and early May each year. Table 20.1 shows the number of students
who applied to the programs in 2014. We had total of 425 applicants, 370
(about 95%) of which passed through the screening process. Although the
screening is based on the scholastic achievements, about 5% of sub quota
for minorities are chosen without evaluating any scholastic record. Such
a guideline for the sub quota is recommended by the Korean Founda-
tion for the Advancement of Science and Creativity (KOFAC), the finan-
cial supporter and supervising organization of KESO. The students who
passed the screening go through a series of training and the evaluation/
selection process. For each program, we invite university professors and
professional researchers from Earth Science related research institutes to
serve as lecturers and evaluation committee members. The five training
programs included in the national team track are: introductory level cyber
class, summer school, advanced level cyber class, field work, and winter
school (Table 20.2). Each program ends with an evaluation/selection test.

a. Introductory level cyber class

This is the first online training program provided, which continues
from the spring semester until the beginning of summer vacation.
Fourteen video lectures, for five disciplines comprising the Earth sci-
ences, i.e. geology, geophysics, meteorology, oceanography, and astron-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

omy, are produced and uploaded on the KESO homepage. The videos
are made available online in order, successively one after the other. At
the end of the program, students take a test to select who will advance
to summer school. The evaluations are written tests composed of ques-
tionnaires prepared by university professors and researchers from Earth
Science related institutes. Through this test, 63 students were selected,
among which 3 were selected by the sub quota for minorities, as in the
first screening process.

b. Summer school
This is an intensive study course presented over three nights and four
days. During this period, the students are accommodated at the dor-
mitory of the university that administrates the summer school. A half
of the program consists of class room lectures, while another half pro-
vides the students with the chance of visiting the Earth Science related
institutes. The institute visiting program is run to provide the students
with a deeper understanding of the Earth Sciences as well as an op-
portunity of career development. Four institutes which joined this pro-
gram are the National Meteorological Satellite Center (NMSC), the
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM), the
Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), and the
Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI). At the final day
of the program in 2014, 40 students were selected through written test
who will enter the advance level of cyber class.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 21.1 Flow chart showing the national team selection and training process for the IESO

Tab. 20.1 Number of applicants for the national team track

School level Male Female Total

33 10 43
Middle school
(only senior students)

High school (general) 137 91 228

High school (science) 118 36 154

Total 288 137 425

c. Advanced level course of cyber class

This is basically the same as the introductory level cyber program
except that students are provided with more advanced materials. At

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

the end of the program, students are evaluated for academic compet-
itiveness by both written tests and in-depth interviews. This selected
the final top 20 students to advance to the final training course of the
national team track.

d. Field work
This program is intended to enhance the top 20 students’ ability to
perform in geology, geophysics, and astronomy themed field work.
Students gain experience in various field methods for those subjects
under the guidance of the professors and assistants.

e. Winter school
The finalists are invited to an intensive, one week winter school. It pro-
vides 12 hours of classroom lectures per day. Unlike other programs,
the winter school includes two class hours of science ethics delivered by
a professional in that field. This is to benefit the winter school students,
who are considered to have high potentials to become scientists in the
future, to understand ethics for scientific researchers. Another class,
unique to this program, is four hours of English by a native speaker,
intended to help students become more confident communicating in
English. On the last day, an evaluation selects the final four members
of the national team who will represent Korea in the IESO. As at the
summer school, a written test is used in the evaluation process.

Table 20.2 Programs for the national team track

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

21.2.3 IESO track

The IESO track has five training programs: basic level cyber class,
advanced level course, summer school, practical course, and field work
(Table 20.3). Although the IESO track appears to share the some program
names with the national team track, it provides the national team of four
representatives with distinct curriculum.

a. Basic level cyber class

This program conveys basic level Earth sciences in a more integrated
way than the introductory level cyber program for the national team
track. Nevertheless, the classes are divided formally into the five Earth
science disciplines, as for the national team track. The program consists
of a twelve week cyber class, in which materials for two-hour lectures,
which may be lecture notes, assignments, or questionnaires to solve,
are distributed to the students a week in advance. One week later, the
solutions are provided via the web conference software, which enables
real time, face to face communication between the lecturer and stu-
dents. The lecturers are encouraged to follow the IESO syllabus.

b. Basic level classroom lectures

The lecturers who served in the preceding program are responsible for
this course, which is an intense, four day training course. It’s aimed
at students’ comprehensive understanding of the material delivered in
the aforementioned course, from a system rather than individual view-
point. Prior to entering this course, the students are asked to evaluate
themselves by checking their confidence on the subjects of the IESO
syllabus. The KESO encourages the lectures to fully consider this sur-
vey in their lectures, allowing every representative an opportunity to
correct any minor misunderstanding.

c. Advanced level course (summer school)

This is an intensive one-week study camp, much the same as the winter
school for the national team track. The program consists of only class-
room lectures, which cover the five Earth science disciplines.

d. Practical course
This course was established to help the national team students pre-
pare for the practical tests of the IESO. It is designed to provide the
students with improved practical skills in the five disciplines through

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

laboratory activities.

e. Field work
This is a course much similar to the national team track field work.
Its purpose is to improve the national team students’ performance in
the field. During this program, students visit a few geological sites for
guided field work.

Tab. 20.3 Programs for the IESO track

21.3 Summary

The current Korean public science education system started in 1945

and its curriculum has gone through 10 major revisions in past 70 years.
The Earth science curriculum in Korea is designed to help students: 1) un-
derstand the basic Earth science concepts and their application; 2) develop
the ability to determine the scientific nature and use it for solving Earth
science-related problems; 3) enhance curiosity and interest in natural phe-
nomena and develop an scientific attitude; 4) and recognize the relation-
ship between science, technology, and society. Since the third revision
of the national curriculum (1973-1981), all science disciplines are taught
with equal weight in the primary and secondary schools. Concepts and
themes covered in the Earth science curriculum include the geosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and solar system and space.
The KESO runs a series of training and selection programs for the

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

IESO. These programs are divided into two categories of the national team
track and IESO track. The national team track is to select the four Korean
representatives among the applicants through education and evaluation,
while the IESO track is to train the Korean representatives. Each track con-
sists of five programs that provide the students with classroom lectures, cy-
ber classes, laboratory activities, and the field work experience. In 2014, we
had 425 applicants from across the nation. In every program of the national
team track, the students are first trained and then examined to advance
to the next program. Thus, only a limited number of students attending a
program are allowed to go into for the next training course; the number
of selected trainees by the end of each training program was 370, 63, 40,
20, and 4. The IESO track basically repeats similar programs, but with
higher levels of teaching. Through the practical course, which is unique
to the IESO track, representatives develop their practical problem solving
skills. To prepare for the IESO, the representatives have the opportunity to
develop their weakest part of the IESO syllabus, through self evaluation.

References

Cho, K. S. and Kyung, J. B., FY 2014 Report of Korea Earth Science Olym-
piad. Korea Earth Science Society, Korea, p. 91, 2015.

Cho, K. S. and Cheong, H., FY 2015 Plan of Korea Earth Science Olympiad.
Korea Earth Science Society, Korea, 2015.

Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, The school cur-

riculum of the republic of Korea. Proclamation of the ministry of educa-
tion and human resources development, Korea, 2008.

Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, Science Curricu-

lum. Proclamation of the ministry of education and human resources devel-
opment, Korea, 2007.

Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, The school cur-

riculum of the republic of Korea. Proclamation of the ministry of educa-
tion and human resources development, Korea, 2009.

Song,J.W. & Joung, Y.U.,Trends in HPS/NOS research in Korean Science

Education. In International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy
and Science Teaching (Mattews, M.R.(ed.)), Springer Science+Business Me-
dia Dordrecht, 2014

275
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Korean Educational Development Institute, OECD review on evaluation

and assessment frameworks for improving school outcomes-country back-
ground report for Korea. 2010.

Myeong-Kyeong Shin

She is a professor in science education in the

Department of Education at Gyeongin Na-
tional University teaching Earth science ed-
ucation for pre-service teachers. She gradu-
ated from the Earth science education
department of Seoul National University
and conferred her PhD at the University of
Iowa, USA. She works as a member of the
Korean Earth Science Society. Department
of Science Education, Gyeongin National Uni-
versity of Education, Incheon 407-753, Korea.

Hyeong-Bin Cheong

Holds a Bachelor’s degree in Earth science

Education from Seoul National Universi-
ty, and MS and PhD degrees in Meteorol-
ogy from Tokyo University. He is a Pro-
fessor and Chair of the Department of
Environmental and Atmospheric Scienc-
es, Pukyong National University, Korea.
Served as the committee chair of the Ko-
rea Earth Science Olympiad (2015-2016),
and is involved in the education program
of the Korean national IESO team. Par-
ticipated in the 6th, 9th, and 10th IESO as a mentor or observer. Depart-
ment of Environmental Atmospheric Sciences, Pukyong National University,
Busan 608-739, Korea.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Ki-Young Lee

Holds three degrees (BS, MS, and PhD)

in Earth Science Education from Seoul
National University. Is now a Professor in
the Division of Science Education at
Kangwon National University, Korea and
was Vice-chairman of the Korean Earth
Science Society from 2014-2015. Serves as
the Korean national IESO team educa-
tion program coordinator. Division of Sci-
ence Education, Kangwon National Uni-
versity, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea.
E-mail: leeky@kangwon.ac.kr

Gong-Soo Chung

Earned a BS in Earth Science Education

from Seoul National University before
completing degrees in Oceanography
(MS) and Marine Geology and Geophys-
ics (PhD) from the Universities of Hawaii
and Miami (USA), respectively. Now Pro-
fessor Emeritus from the Department of
Geology and Earth Environmental Sci-
ences, Chungnam National University,
Korea. Served as President of the Korean
Earth Science Society, 2010, and coordi-
nator of the Korean Earth Science Olympiad, 2011-2012. Department of
Geology and Earth Environmental Sciences, Chungnam National University,
Daejeon 305-764, Korea.

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 Chapter 22

Russian Experience of Team

Preparation for IESO
Marina Sinai, Marianna Kulkova and Eugeny Nesterov

Abstract

Participation of Russian teams in International Earth Science Olympi-

ads (IESO) opens great possibilities for science competitions, communica-
tion and experience exchange for school students and teachers. IESO serves
important purposes for Russian school education: improved interest in nat-
ural sciences, forming a scientific outlook, and identifying talented students.
International competitions provide opportunities to compare knowledge
and skills of students from different countries and use other country’s ex-
periences to upgrade Russian national Earth Science education programs.
Preparation of the Russian IESO team is based on an extracurricular
system. Traditionally, in many Russian cities there are a lot of geological,
ecological, astronomical, archeological and others clubs and associations
for school students who are keen on science. Now many Earth science
clubs bring their educational programs in line with the IESO syllabus.
The selection of participants and formation of the Russian IESO team oc-
curs at the oldest Geological club in Russia, belonging to the City Palace
of Youth Creativity, and at the Geology and Geoecology Department of
Herzen State University in Saint Petersburg.
Russian teams have participated in the IESO from 2010 to 2015.
Twenty-four school students from different Russian cities were team
members, eighteen of whom won medals. All participants who completed
school are now Earth science university students.

Keywords: Russian IESO team, Russian extracurricular education,

geological Olympiad, Herzen University. geological school clubs, school
science association

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

22.1 Earth science at Russian school

Russian school education lasts for 11 years: four years at a primary

and seven years at a secondary school. The first exposure to Earth sci-
ences begins in primary school from the subject of “Nature study” or “The
world around you”. They briefly examine different parts of natural science:
the planets and moons of the solar system, the Earth’s geographical char-
acteristics, the basic properties of water, air, soil, minerals and rocks. It
also contains information about plants and animals. In the fifth form, the
natural science program includes material necessary to understand natu-
ral organic and inorganic processes. Education at this level expands on
the knowledge obtained in primary school, exploring questions of matter
composition and properties of water, air and soil. Attention is given to
questions of living organisms and humans as part of organic nature.
From sixth and seventh grade, school students begin to study geog-
raphy, biology, physics and chemistry as separate disciplines, but there is
no astronomy in school curricula. The school geography lessons focus on
physical geography, divided into orography, oceanography, meteorology,
and climatology, and biogeography, which includes the geography of plants
and animals. Moreover, geography lessons contain some topics of geol-
ogy, geodesy and cartography, and environmental science, while physics
lessons contain basic astronomy. Elements of geology are studied in sixth
grade only, while the basics of meteorology and oceanography are studied
in sixth and seventh grade. This course covers a fairly wide range of topics.
For example, sixth grade students consider the structure of Earth’s crust
and lithosphere, tectonics of lithospheric plates, volcanic activity, rocks and
minerals, and the major landforms of Earth’s surface and ocean floor. The
main topics for seventh grade are: the origin of continents and oceans,
atmosphere and climate zones, distribution of precipitation, oceanic water
and ocean currents, interactions between the oceans, atmosphere and litho-
sphere, as well as the relief and minerals of each continent. Unfortunately,
there are only a few lessons a year on these subjects, and the school program
does not revisit this part of Earth science in high school at a higher level.
Eighth and ninth grade students study the physical and economic ge-
ography of Russia. Only school graduates continuing onto University geog-
raphy faculties, however, must take a final exam in geography. As a result,
a typical Russian school student has relatively low level knowledge of Earth
science that does not satisfy the IESO requirements. At the same time, it is
clear that fundamental geography and geology understanding is the neces-

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sary basis for the modern human worldview. The Earth sciences exchange
framework must now be considered an integral mechanism for our planet;
only in this way we will find the complex solutions to Earth’s problems.

22.2 Russian Extracurricular Education System

Preparing the Russian IESO team is done through an extracurricular

education system. Many Russian cities traditionally have many geologi-
cal, ecological, astronomical, archeological and other science clubs and
associations for school students. Their activities connect with regional
features: Ural clubs focus on mineralogy, central Russia on paleontology,
the Northwest region on mineral resources, etc. Local governments pro-
vide financial support to these organizations, and they look for grants and
sponsors themselves. Scientists, university teachers and senior students
are lecturers for the clubs. Usually, club members have theoretical lec-
tures and practical lessons during the school year and field trips during
vacations. Many Earth science clubs now bring their syllabuses into line
with the IESO program. There are several local and nationwide scien-
tific competitions and Olympiads in Russia: the Ministry of Education
organizes Olympiads on school subjects, while scientific clubs, with the
support of universities, organize Olympiads on geology, environment and
astronomy. For example, once every two years, the Russian Geological So-
ciety organizes federal geological competitions, or “Geological Meetings”.
The main objective of these competitions is examining practical work in
mineralogy, petrography, geological mapping, radiometry, hydrogeology,
working with geological compasses, and research. The Russian State Geo-
logical Prospecting University organizes the “Earth and Human” themed
Geological Olympiad. Moscow State University and the Saint Petersburg
Club of Young Geologists organize two concurrent annual Open Geologi-
cal Olympiads, to examine theoretical geology knowledge. Information
is available in Russian at: http://rosgeo.org/olimpiada.html, http://www.
geoland.ru/olympic/, http://www.anichkov.ru/page/geology/

22.3 Saint Petersburg Club of Young Geologists

The oldest Russian geological club for school-age children is the Club
of Young Geologists (CYG), named after V.A. Obruchev. It has operat-
ed an extracurricular educational organization in Saint Petersburg since

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1948, the Palace of Youth Creativity. The Club educational environment

is unique in Saint Petersburg, with direct access to the interactive “discov-
ery” techniques of world famous natural science museums, but differs in
providing live communication with teachers. The Club has close connec-
tions with the Geological Faculty of Saint Petersburg University and other
geological organizations. The teachers are specialists in different areas of
geology. They are often Club graduates, providing excellent teaching, pre-
serving and developing traditions, and facilitating the handover from one
generation of teachers and pupils to the next. The Club has a high quality
education base and rich geological education museum.
The current Club complex education program concept is as follows:

1.Geological literacy is the essential hallmark of educated 21st cen-

tury humans;
2.Student-led research is an effective instruction method;
3.Pursuit of a hobby is the way to choose a profession;
4.Educational activity and travels are the way to personal socializa-
tion.

Club members’ research projects won many prizes at different geologi-

cal Olympiads: Russian Geological Olympiad “Earth and Human”, Saint
Petersburg Open Geological Olympiad.
Pupils can begin their education in the Club from the age of eight. The
full educational program consists of several consecutive courses designed
for seven years. It includes grounding in some age-appropriate geological
disciplines. Third to fifth grade novices study programs on “Dinosaurs”,
“Interesting Geology” and “General Geology” that introduce children to
the world of geology and awaken their interest in the world around them.
After that, pupils choose more specialized courses such as, “Field geology”,
“Mineralogy”, “Paleontology” or “Natural recourses”. They can also choose
from basic, advanced or professional level oriented educational program.
Each course corresponds with the age and educational level of pupils. The
programs consist of theoretical and practical lessons, excursions to the
Saint Petersburg geological museums and geological sites in the Leningrad
region, and individual research projects. Moreover, children have oppor-
tunity to take part in such specialized areas as, “Stone arts”, “The basis of
research work”, “Colored stones”, and “Architectural rocks in city”.
Summer field trips are each student’s favorite part of their education.
The Club organizes training expeditions in the area surrounding Saint Pe-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

tersburg for younger students and to different Russian regions (e.g. Karelia,
Ural Mountains, Volga river, etc.) for older students. They study geology
and the local environment and collect mineral and fossil samples. These
materials form the basis for student-led research (Figure 22.1).

a b

c d
Fig. 22.1 Summer field trips of the Saint Petersburg Club of Young Geologists: a)
searching for Ordovician fossils, Saint Petersburg area, 2010; b) study of Proterozoic
migmatites, Karelia, 2007; c) study of karst processes, Msta river, Novgorod area,
2013; d) location of the first diamond discovery in Russia, Ural mountains, 2008.
(copyrighted photos)

The Open Geological Olympiad occupies a special place in the Club’s

work. The Club and Geological Faculty of Saint Petersburg State Uni-
versity organized this event for 33 years. About 200 students from many
Russian cities, who study in local geological clubs and associations, par-
ticipate in the Olympiad each year. Since 2001, the best student research
project theses are published after the Olympiad. Participants conduct sev-
eral theoretical tests and practical tasks during the intramural stage of the
competition. The practical tasks include: recognizing minerals and rocks,

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

identifying fossils and determining their age, reconstructing geological

processes, working with geological maps, measuring the strike and dip of
rock layers, etc. (Figure 22.2)

Fig. 22.2 The annual geological Olympiad, Saint Petersburg: a, b) working with geo-
logical maps and compasses, 2013 and 2015; jury members A. Savelev and M. Kurapov
were participants of first Russian team for the 2010 IESO; c, d) identifying minerals
and fossils, 2013.
(copyrighted photos)

The outcome of the Saint Petersburg Open Geological Olympiad

forms the basis of the selection process for Russian IESO teams.

22.4 Selecting Russian Team Members for the IESO

The process to select the national team is as follows:

Step 1. Students compete in local clubs; winners proceed to step 2.
Step 2. The Saint Petersburg Geological Club organizes the annual
Open Geological Olympiad, in the City Palace of Youth Creativity. Par-
ticipants take part in live theoretical conversations, tests, and practical
tasks. Moreover, they present their own scientific projects or investiga-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

tions. High school participants have additional tests in geography, me-

teorology and astronomy questions as a selection stage. Ten winners from
tenth grade (usually 16 years old) go to step 3.
Step 3. Final team selection occurs during the Summer school “Geol-
ogy and Civilization” at Herzen State University. Over four days, the can-
didates listen to lectures and have practical lessons from Herzen University
teachers on geology, geophysics, meteorology, oceanography, ecology and
astronomy. Students participate in fields trips, master classes, brain-rings,
conferences, and excursions in the Summer School framework. After that,
the candidates have three final written tests in geology, meteorology and
hydrosphere, and astronomy, and a practical geological field test near Saint
Petersburg. Four winners are selected to form the team (Figure 22.3).

Fig. 22.3. Final stage of team selection: a) theoretical written test at Herzen University,
2011; b) field trip to the Vyborg granite massif, 2012; c) practical geology test, E.
Tikhova won the competition and joined the 2012 IESO team; d) winners of the Saint
Petersburg Open Geological Olympiad were candidates for IESO team, 2015.
(copyrighted photos)

We successfully followed this process from 2011 to 2014. Unfortu-

nately, in 2015 the final selection at Summer school was replaced by re-
mote training and Internet-based tests due to financial difficulties.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Russian teams have participated in IESO from 2010 to 2015. Teams

were composed of twenty-four school students from different Russian cit-
ies, winning one silver medal and seventeen bronze medals. All partici-
pants who completed school are now university students, and have chosen
Earth science faculties (Table 22.1).

Tab. 22.1 History of Russian participants

Name Home town Award Present status

2010 M. Kurapov Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
A. Shurunov Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
A. Saveliev Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
N. Pravdina Saint Petersburg - Saint Petersburg State University,
geography faculty
2011 A. Turin Perm - Perm State University,
geological faculty
R. Anisimov Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
A. Chechenova Rybinsk Bronze Saint Petersburg National Mineral
Resources University
I. Chayka Novosibirsk Bronze Novosibirsk State University,
geological faculty
2012 D. Morozov Novosibirsk Bronze Novosibirsk State University,
geological faculty
A. Karamyshev Rybinsk Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
E. Agafonova Arkhangelsk Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
E. Tikhova Saint Petersburg - Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
2013 O. Kotova Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,
geological faculty
A. Vasilev Perm Bronze Perm State University,
geological faculty
M. Serebriakova Orsk Bronze Moscow State University,
geological faculty
E. Brodnikova Gubakha - Novosibirsk State University,
geological faculty

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

2014 E. Generalova Saint Petersburg Bronze Saint Petersburg State University,

astronomy department
A. Sorokina Gubakha Bronze Tomsk Polytechnic University, geo-
logical faculty
I. Bazhin Perm Bronze Perm State University,
geological faculty
K. Dubinin Orsk Bronze Moscow State University,
geological faculty
2015 A. Borisenko Moscow Silver Moscow State University,
geological faculty
D. Diageleva Perm Bronze Moscow State University,
geological faculty
V. Kovalev Novosibirsk Bronze Moscow State University,
geological faculty
M. Valinkin Rybinsk - Moscow State University,
geological faculty
2016 P. Kurpas Saint Petersburg Bronze MGIMO University
D. Sotnikova Gubakha - Moscow State University,
geological faculty
E. Tashkinov Rybinsk - Perm State University,
geological faculty
I. Kuzmin Novosibirsk - is preparing to enter university

These results show preparation for and participation in scientific com-

petitions are a very important determining factor when students choose
a profession. IESO attracts attention of young people, their parents, and
teachers to Earth sciences, expanding their knowledge and realization of
new social activities. The IESO purposes such as improving natural sci-
ences interest, forming scientific world views, and identifying talented
students are important for Russian school education. International com-
petitions provide an opportunity to compare the knowledge and skills of
students from different countries and use other country’s experiences to
upgrade the national Earth Science educational programs.

Acknowledgements

Financial support of Russian team was provided by Herzen State

University, the head of the firm “Gemstones by Sokolov”, Pavel Sokolov,
and geologist M. Leycum. The Russian Geological Society, and the firms
“World of Gems” and “Trialog” provided logistical support. These activi-
ties were supported in part via crowd funding in 2015. In 2016, the Rus-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

sian Mineralogical Society provided informational support (www.minsoc.

ru). We are very grateful to all of them.

Marina Sinai

Educated at Saint Petersburg State Uni-

versity in the Geological faculty, special-
izing in mineralogy and crystallography
(PhD). Currently associate professor in the
Department of Geology and Geoecology
at Herzen University, Saint Petersburg.
Lecturing in dynamic geology, mineralo-
gy, and environmental mineralogy. Also
teaching within the Saint Petersburg Club
of Young Geologists on crystallography,
training high school students to partici-
pate in IESO, and selecting the Russian IESO team members. Associate
professor, geology and geoecology department, Herzen University, Saint Peters-
burg, Russia. E-mail: m-sinay@yandex.ru

Marianna Kulkova

Educated at Saint Petersburg State Univer-

sity in the Geological faculty, specializing
in geochemistry (PhD).
Currently associate professor in the De-
partment of Geology and Geoecology at
Herzen University, Saint Petersburg. Lec-
turing in mineralogy, and geochemical in-
vestigation methods.
Member of the Saint Petersburg Open
geological Olympiad jury, and mentor for
the Russian IESO team. Associate professor,
geology and geoecology department, Herzen University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Eugeny Nesterov

Educated at Saint Petersburg State Uni-

versity in the Geological faculty, special-
izing in petrography (PhD). Currently
Professor, Head of Geology and Geoecol-
ogy Department at Herzen University,
Saint Petersburg. Lecturing in environ-
mental investigations, and ecological
functions of the lithosphere. Head of
Summer school for high school students
“Geology and Civilization” at Herzen
State University. Russian representative to
IGEO. Professor, department chair, geology and geoecology department, Her-
zen University, Saint Petersburg, Russia.

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 Chapter 23

Current state of Geology Teaching in

Spain
Amelia Calonge, David Brusi and Xavier Juan

Abstract

This paper deals with the current state of Geology in compulsory sec-
ondary education and high school and is divided into the following sec-
tions: a) discussion of the current status of geology teaching in compul-
sory Secondary Education; b) disseminating the actions undertaken by the
Commission on “what geology should be taught”, whose main objective is
defining the “framework for Geoscientific literacy principles” to be taught
in Spanish Secondary Schools; c) the Spanish Earth Science Olympiad.
Finally, some recommendations are suggested based on these sections.
But these reflections are worthless if we fail to understand that changing
the way Geology is taught must include modifying the methods applied
for its teaching (Fermeli et al., 2011). It is obvious that we must change to
more active and efficient teaching, involving Geology students and teach-
ers in a new learning approach. Geology must be perceived as an inter-
esting (something with a personal impact that remains a part their own
personal heritage) and fun (not boring) subject.

Key words: Spanish education, teaching geology, Spanish Earth Sci-

ence Olympiad, hypotheses and recommendations.

23.1 Introduction

Over the past few years, several reforms were implemented in the
Spanish compulsory education system. The most recent reform was the
General Education Act (LGE, in Spanish) which raised the age of com-
pulsory education from 14 to 16 years.
The latest changes in education legislation were unfavorable for geol-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ogy. At the same time, the limited geological content (compared to other
sciences) in Secondary Education textbooks decreased the number of stu-
dents taking these subjects. Additionally, as Geology is included within
the broader “Natural Science” subject, it is not taught well or at all. Fur-
thermore, as subjects with geological content in High School are optional
and play little importance in the University Access Tests for most degrees
at most universities, many secondary schools do not even offer them.
It is necessary, therefore, to analyze geology teaching in pre-university
education. The following scenarios will be explored in depth:
a) The current situation of Geology teaching in compulsory education;
b) Dissemination of the proposal “What Geology topics to teach in
secondary education”;
c) The Spanish Earth Science Olympiad.
It is also important to consider the geological content of the Organic Law
on Improvement of Education Quality (LOMCE, in Spanish) approved in
2013. One of its aims is to improve pupils’ outcomes, including those in sci-
ence subjects. In Spain, scientific competence is separate from mathematical
competence and is called “competence on knowledge and interaction with
the physical world”. This competence is related to autonomy and personal
initiative, in either life or knowledge (health, science, technology, etc.).
The LOMCE defines curriculum as the elements regulated to determine
the teaching and learning processes for each subject. The curriculum crom-
prises the main learning aims of each subject and education level as well as
all knowledge, abilities, and attitudes that contribute to gaining competence.
According to this law, Spain’s government takes responsibility for de-
signing the basic curriculum, including learning aims, competences, con-
tent, learning standards, and outcomes. It also establishes the assesment
criteria to provide appropriate academic titles.
Teaching Geology at these compulsory education levels is now a real
challenge for teachers as well as a social responsibility to develop “geologi-
cal literacy”.
We also assess the recent relevance of such Geoscience matters as crys-
tallography, mineralogy and petrology, and offer some final considerations.

23.2 Analysis of the current geology teaching situation in compulsory

education

Education in Spain is compulsory for students under the age of 16

(LOE, 2006). These studies are organized in three phases, as indicated in
Figure 23.1.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

23.2.1 Primary Education (6 to 12 years)

Some basic geological content is scattered in the subjects “Natural sci-

ences” and “Social sciences”. This content refers mainly to Earth’s materi-
als. Despite the the fact that successive PISA reports emphasize in the need
of Science, Maths and Language being considered fundamental subjects,
in Spain, Science is not considered like this as Maths and Language are
(https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf).

23.3.2 Secondary Compulsory Education or ESO (12 to 16 years) and

Bachillerato (Higher Secondary Education 16 to 18 years old)

Science is compulsory for the first three years and represents about 18
percent of the total teaching hours. The first year includes only one scien-
tific subject called “Biology and Geology”, while “Physics and Chemis-
try” complete the second year (Figure 23.1). Geological content represents
about 30 percent of the first-year Biology and Geology curricula.
The LOMCE was implemented in 2013 by a right-wing government
in the middle of a serious economic crisis. This law is only a reform of the
previous Organic Law of Education (LOE, in Spanish). It retained the
spirit of the previous LOE, but some changes were made to content, com-
petences, assesment criteria, and learning standards.
According to this law, the subject “Biology and Geology” is compulsory
for all students in the first and third courses of ESO and optional in the
fourth course. This subject is also compulsory in the first course of Bachillera-
to, but only for students who choose to pursue a science career. In the second
course of Bachillerato, this subject splits into two separate subjects, Biology
and Geology. In this course, science students must choose two of the follow-
ing subjects: Biology, Technical design II, Physics, Geology, and Chemistry.
It is evident that a Science student can earn the title of Bachillerato
without studying any Geology at all.
According to the LOMCE, the subject “Biology and Geology” should
contribute to one’s basic knowledge and ability to become a scientifically
literate citizen. Students should also become active agents influencing and
preserving the environment.
The subject “Biology and Geology” in the 4th course of ESO is di-
vided into four sections: two are dedicated to Biology, one to Geology, and
the fourth to either a biological or geological research project, depending

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

on the teacher. By the end of the 4th ESO, students should have learnt
the scientific method strategies. They should also have good reading, oral
expression, public discussion, and audiovisual communication abilities.
They are also expected to know basic lab safety measures.

Fig. 23.1 Comparative analysis of curricula in Spain

The topics related to Geology in “Biology and Geology” in the third

year of ESO comprise external geological processes and sedimentary rocks.
Geological topics of the fourth year include traditional content: origin and
structure of the Earth, Earth’s dynamics (internal processes), Earth’s ma-
terials, Earth’s history, etc.
In “Bachillerato” (16 to 18 years) the core subjects (Figure 23.1), which
include geological content are: “Biology and Geology” in the first year
and “Earth and Environmental Sciences” in the second year. We must
remember that this phase is divided into two years: First and Second year
of Bachillerato, or different models in the various Autonomous Regions
(Ministry of Education and Science, 2007b). Furthermore, since 2008, all
first-year students must take another compulsory subject, “Science for the
Contemporary World”. This subject includes 15 percent geological content
(Pedrinaci, 2008).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

23.3 Dissemination of the current proposal on “which geology to teach in

secondary education”

Despite the reduced hours devoted to science subjects, the committee

did not review the volume of content included.
In May 2011, a Committee to determine “What Geology should be
taught in compulsory education and Bachillerato” started. The aim is for
consistent, updated and educational curricular proposal for teaching geol-
ogy in ESO and Bachillerato, which takes into consideration social and
educational requirements and has maximum support from the relevant
organisations and institutions related to Geology and its teaching. The
purpose is to become a necessary reference for education authorities and
non-university science teachers.
The first step of this Committee, composed of 18 geological institu-
tions, was to define the “framework of principles for Geoscientific litera-
cy”, which should be taught in Spanish schools for compulsory education.
The Committee agreed, submitted and disseminated a “Manifesto for sci-
entific literacy”, which aims at acknowledging the relevance of scientific
content and the role of Geology in general.

23.4 Master’s of Teacher Training

During the 2009-’10 course, the Master’s of Teacher Training for Sec-
ondary Education was introduced in Spain. It is necessary to have this
Master’s degree to be a teacher in Secondary Schools, Vocational Schools,
and Art Schools, as well as for teaching Offical Languages.
Most Universities in Spain, both private and public, offer this degree
comprised of 52 to 69 ECTS, orabout 1500 hours (ECTS stands for Eu-
ropean Credit Transfer System, the system that garantees the homogeneity
and quality of the studies offered by the different European Universities).
To apply for this advanced degree, it is necessary to have a degree issued by
a Spanish or European university. Usually, the degree and Master’s are in
the same subject. For example, the Master’s of Biology and Geology is open
to graduates of Biology, Geology, Environmental Science, Oceanography,
Biochemistry, Pharmacy, Medicine, and Veterinary, as well as for the Engi-
neers in Agriculture, Forests, Mines and Geodesy, and Cartography.
The content of this Master’s includes psycho-pedagogical aspects,
specific training in the chosen subject, and a short period of Secondary

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

School placement. For the speciality of Biology and Geology, the geologi-
cal component is quite small, however, it is an excellent opportunity to
enrich the disposition of the future teachers.
The aim of the Master’s is not only to train teachers that can cope with
educational situations, but also to train experts in reflection, problem solv-
ing, investigation, and innovation, so they will be able to better prepare
the next generation’s students for future challenges. The course is divided
in three sections:

• General teacher training (psycho-pedagogical content);

• Subject specific teacher training; and
• Secondary School teacher placement.
The second section (subject specific training) offers a limited geological
foundation. The syllabus includes the following compulsory subjects:
• Learning and teaching Biology and Geology;
• Complementary knowledge on the subject (Biology and Geology);
• Teaching innovation and introduction to educational investiga-
tions in Biology and Geology.
We consider it a priority to help teachers to introduce Geology in their
lessons as a very attractive subject full of potential.

23.5 The spanish earth science olympiad

The first International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) took place in

Seoul, Korea in 2007. The first attempt to conduct a Spanish Olympiad
took place in the Basque Country in 2009, organized by the University
of the Basque Country. The next year (2010) the first Spanish Earth Sci-
ene Olympiad took place in Madrid. Since then, every year the Spanish
Olympiad transpired in a different Spanish city: Madrid (2010 and 2011),
Santander (2012), Girona (2013), Toledo (2014), Alicante (2015), Jaca
(2016) and Béjar (2017).
There is a National Committee, coordinated by the Spanish Earth
Science Teachers Association (AEPECT). Other institutions and compa-
nies that support and fund the Spanish Earth Science Olympiad are the
Geological Society (SGE), which is the main partner, the Geological and
Mining Institute of Spain (IGME), the College of Geologists (ICOG),
and the Conference of Deans of Geology.
The progress of this activity has been better than expected: from 600
students in the first edition (2010) up to about 3,000 in 2017, from 270

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

schools. In the last years, hundreds of secondary teachers and Earth scien-
tists have helped organize these events.
Among the many benefits of the Spanish Earth Science Olympiad, we
would like to highlight the following:

• It puts secondary teachers in contact with university teachers and

scientists, thus updating the teacher’s scientific awareness.
• It encourages secondary teachers to teach more and better Geology.
• It puts students in contact with Geology, thus increasing the num-
ber of Science students, especially in Geology.

The main goal of these Olympiads is to raise pupils’ interest in Geol-

ogy, awareness of its importance in the real world, and to promote its
progress and dissemination by increasing the number of Geology students
at universities. This activity is breaking down the barrier between the sci-
entific and university worlds and that of secondary education. Therefore,
the enthusiasm of so many volunteers has inspired a growing number of
scientists and institution with the Olympiads.
The Spanish Geology Olympiad has three succesive phases: local, na-
tional and international. The local Olympiads are organized by a local
committee and they are coordinated by a national committee. The test is
divided into two parts:

t
1BSU

JOEJWJEVBM

TPMWJOH
UIFPSFUJDBM
UFTU
RVFTUJPOT
VTVBMMZ


questions; worth 2/3 of the total);
t
1BSU

JO
HFPHSBQIJDBM
UFBNT

TPMWJOH
BO
BQQMJFE
QSPCMFN
XJUI
UIF

format of a gymkhana (worth 1/3).
More information at: http://www.aepect.org/olimpiadasgeologia/index.htm

The Geology Olympiads are not only a test, but also a good opportuni-
ty to get secondary students and teachers closer to Earth science. So, along
all the phases, several additional activities are conducted: workshops, field
trips, guided museums visits, lectures, geo-gymkhanas, visits to advanced
research centres, etc.
THE SPANISH GEOLOGY OLYMPIAD
In its first edition (2010), only 11 local districts were represented by
600 students in the local phase. Thirty-six students went on to compete in
the Spanish Olympiad in the facilities of the Universidad Complutense of
Madrid (Figure 23.2).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 23.2 Group of participants in the 1st Spanish Geology Olympiad together with
their teachers

The second edition started with 1000 students involved in 20 local

Olympiads. The 72 students that reached the final phase of the Span-
ish Olympiad did their tests at the Science Museum (CosmoCaixa) of
Madrid. The four winners of this phase travelled to Modena, Italy to par-
ticipate in the 5th International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) in Sep-
tember 2011, representing Spain for the first time. This team won a silver
medal, a bronze medal and a special mention.
During the local phase of the third Geology Olympiad, 89 students
were selected from more than 1,700 pupils from 24 districts. The final
phase took place in the Palace of La Magdalena, in Santander. The four
winners participated in the 6th IESO in Olavarría, Argentina, where they
won two bronze medals.
The fourth edition of the Spanish Olympiad took place in March
2013, in Girona. The 88 finalists were from 27 different local Olympiads.
The total number of participants was about 2,300. The four winners par-
ticipated in the 7th IESO in Mysore, India and won two bronze medals
and three recognition diplomas.
In March 2014, the fifth Spanish Geology Olympiad, gathered 90 fi-

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nalists in Toledo. They were selected from among more than 2,500 students
from 25 local Olympiads. The 8th IESO took place in Santander, Spain
from the 22nd to the 29th of September 2014. More than 100 students from
about 30 countries competed in the facilities of the International University
Menendez Pelayo (UIMP), in the Palace of La Magdalena. More informa-
tion about this event is at: https://www.ucm.es/ieso2014/information.
After the local phases of the Sixth Geology Olympiad, with 2,474
students participating from 35 districts, the final phase took place in the
facilities of the University of Alicante, Spain, with the 105 students select-
ed in March 2015. The Spanish Team that travelled to Poços de Caldas,
Minas Gerais, and Brazil won two bronze medals and two recognition
diplomas for the International Team Field Investigation and Earth System
Project (ITFI and ESP, respectively).
In 2016 the final phase of the Spanish Olympiad took place in Jaca
(Huesca). The 84 participants were the winners from the 37 ditricts in the
previous phase. The total number of students involved was almost 3,000.
The mentor teachers in Jaca had the oppoortunity to enjoy a field trip
on which they followed part of the Geological Trans-Pyrenean Route,
the first international route across France and Spain (http://www.routet-
ranspyreneenne.com/home.php?seccion=home_sp).
The 10th IESO was celebrated in Mie, Japan in August 2016. Twenty-
six teams from all populated continents participated and the Spanish Team
had its best performance: two mentions for ITFI and ESP, as well as one
bronze medal, one silver medal, and one gold medal. Our golden medalist,
Víctor Haro from Instituto de Enseñanza Secundaria Juan de Aréjula in Lu-
cena, Córdoba, was the only European student to win such a medal. More
information is at: http://aepect.org/Resena_Informacion_IESO_2016.pdf.
In 2017 the district phase was January to February, with about 3,000
students. The Spanish Olympiad was organized in Béjar, Salamanca, with 84
participating students selected from the 37 district Olympiads (Figure 23.3).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 23.3 Group of participants in the 8th Spanish Geology Olympiad together with
their teachers.

Table 23.1 summarizes the results and awards obtained in the previous
International Earth Science Olympiads by the Spanish Team.

Tab. 23.1. Spanish Team IESO results

Gold Silver Med-

Year Bronze Medals Diplomas
Medals als
2011 1 1 Ability to work cooperatively.
2012 2 Best conclusions in the field work.
2013 2
Best scientific research.
2014 1 2
Best presentation of the work.
ITFI*
2015 2
ESP * research
ITFI*
2016 1 1 1
ESP * research

* ITFI: International Team Field Investigation

* ESP: Earth System Project

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Statistical Data and Analysis of Careers Followed by Student

Winners after Their Participation in the Olympiads

Tab. 23.2 Participation data for the District phases and Spanish Olympiads over time

Year Venue District Olym- Spanish Olympiad Number of districts

piads
2010 Madrid 600 36 11
2011 Madrid 1000 72 20
2012 Santander 1700 89 24
2013 Girona 2300 88 27
2014 Toledo 2500 90 30
2015 Alicante 2474 105 35
2016 Jaca (Hu- 2966 84 37
esca)
2017 Salamanca 2843 84 37

When analyzing the academic and profesional perspectives of the final-

ists in the Olympiads (Table 23.2), we appreciate that the prefered profession
is Medicine (43 percent of students want to pursue this career). Neverthe-
less, the second most frequently selected option is Geology (29%). Another
remarkable aspect is the fact that since initiating the Spanish Geology Olym-
piad, the number of Geology students has increased regularly. The remain-
ing Geology Olympiads finalists chose to study either Physics, Biology, Civil
Engineering, or Environmental Science, each with less than 10% of students.
When considering that Geology careers are among the least popular
for students in Spain, and that is not usually selected by the most “briliant”
pupils, it is good news that nearly a third of the Geology Olympiads win-
ners choose to study Geology. Therefore, we conclude that the impact of
the Geology Olympiads among Spanish students is certainly positive. Due
to the increasing level of students starting Geology studies, we the overall
level of Geology in Spain to rise with a very positive societal impact.

23.6 Investigating and Divulging Earth Science Teaching

There is a consensus in the fact that the pre-university education must

provide all students with a basic foundation that allows them to know, ap-
preciate and participate in answering all questions affecting their daily life,
and that Geology should have a preeminent position, not only to increase

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

public understanding, but also to promote vocations and provide the nec-
essary professional replacements. It is, therefore, essential that the educa-
tional syllabus in Spain grant Geology the place it deserves in our society.
Several Spanish associations, such as the Spanish Earth Science Teach-
ers Association (AEPECT) and the Spanish Geological Society (SGE),
claim that the social perception of Geology in our country is far from
appropriate. It is in this spirit that these associations are promoting their
own publications or supporting activities organized by other associations,
for the past eight years.
The Geo-days are a Geology promotional initiative across the whole of
Spain. They are coordinated by the Spanish Geological Society, with the
support of the Spanish Earth Science Teachers Association and the Geo-
logical and Mining Institute of Spain (Crespo-Blanc, et al., 2011). They
started on a very small basis in the province of Teruel in 2005. They consist
of a field trip guided by teams of geologists. Now, there are simultaneous
Geo-days in every Spanish Province to increase their visibility in the media.
These field trips are open to everybody, no matter their previous geology
knowledge (Fig. 23.4). The main aims of these activities are: a) observing
the local surroundings through “geological eyes” and understanding the ef-
fects of some geological processes acting in and upon the Earth’s surface; b)
discovering and knowing our geological heritage and raising awareness of
its importance and the need to protect it; c) sharing what geologists do and
appreciating how they, as scientists and professionals, contribute to a better
society and public welfare. The success of the last events, with more than
6,000 people enjoying Geology across Spain, and their intentions to partic-
ipate in future events, encourages us to continue in this direction to make
the Geo-days the annual festival of Geology. More information is available
at: (http://www.sociedadgeologica.es/divulgacion_geolodia.html).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 23.4 Group of participants in the 6th Geo-day in Guadalajara (2014)

Another successful promotional initiative is Sciencee in Action, a sci-

ence competition throughout the whole country. The next edition, in 2017,
will the the 18th. It has several categories, including: a) science teaching
materials; b) articles about science communication; c) science performanc-
es; d) science videoclips; and e) science lab experiments. Awards went to
several geologists previously in several categories.
Finally, we mention other initiatives gaining momentum, for example:

o Be the godfather of a rock: a strategy for protecting the geological

heritage to involve society in geo-conservation: http://www.geologia-
desegovia.info/apadrinaunaroca/
o Geo-gymkhanas in Alicante for ESO students (Figure 23.5)
o Publishing geological promotional materials
o Collaboration with museums and associations
o Training courses, lectures: Secondary students/teachers visiting uni-
versities (“Science Alive”, “Science Immersion Week”, “Earth Science
Days”, “Geobizirik – Geology Alive”, etc.)
o Program of University visits
o Program of external visits; Lectures by Geology teachers about en-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

gaging topics performed in Secondary Schools (“Geology in the News-

papers”, etc.)
o Promoting talks about geological truth
o 100 Geo-sites: an initiative of the Institute of Geoscience, together
with Universidad Complutense of Madrid (UCM) and Centro Supe-
rior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). They have gathered 100
interesting geological sites through Twitter to later promote a contest
to choose the top 10.

Fig. 23.5 Geo-gymkhanas in Alicante for ESO students (2014)

Acknowledgements

This paper is a part of project GL2015-60805-P (Spanish Ministery

of research).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

References
Calonge, A. y Greco, R. 2011. Olimpiada Internacional de Ciencias de la Tierra
(IESO): Una oportunidad a la Geología. Enseñanza de las Ciencias de la Tierra,
19(2): 130-140.

Crespo-Blanc, A., Alcalá, L., Carcavilla, L. y Simón, J.L. 2011. Geolodía: origen,
presente y futuro. Enseñanza de las Ciencias de la Tierra, 19(1): 95-103.

Fermeli G, Meléndez G, Calonge A, Dermitzakis M, Steininger F, Koutsouveli

A, Neto de Carvalho C, Rodrigues J, D’Arpa C, Di Patti C. 2011. GEOschools:
La enseñanza innovadora de las ciencias de la Tierra en la escuela secundaria y
la concienciación sobre el patrimonio geológico de la sociedad. In Fernández-
Martínez, E, Castaño de Luis R (eds.) Avances y retos en la conservación del Pat-
rimonio Geológico en España. Actas de la IX Reunión Nacional de la Comisión
de Patrimonio Geológico (Sociedad Geológica de España). Universidad de León,
Leon, pp 120-124

Pedrinaci, E. 2008. ¿Tiene sentido una materia como las Ciencias para el Mundo
Contemporáneo? Enseñanza de las Ciencias de la Tierra (16.1): 9 -16.

Pedrinaci, E.; Alcalde, S.; Alfaro, P.; Ruiz de Almodóvar, G.; Barrera, J.L.; Bel-
monte, A.; Brusi, D.; Calonge, A.; Cardona, V.; Crespo-Blanc, A.; Feixas, J.C.;
Fernández-Martínez E.M.; González-Díez, A.; Jiménez-Millán, J.; López-Ruiz,
J.; Mata, J.M.; Pascual, J.A.; Quintanilla, L.; Rábano, I.; Rebollo, L.; Rodrigo,
A. & Roquero, E. (2013) “Alfabetización en Ciencias de la Tierra. Enseñanza de
las Ciencias de la Tierra. Vol. 21, 117-129.

Web AEPECT Olimpiadas: http://www.aepect.org/olimpiadasgeologia/index.htlm

Web SGE Geolodía: http://www.sociedadgeologica.es/divulgacion_geolodia.html

Web PISA: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf

Amelia Calonge

Started teaching in the University of Alcalá

in 1985 studying macro foraminifera of the
Middle Cretaceous. Committed to dissemi-
nation and didactics of Earth science since
2002. Also involved in university manage-
ment as the Vice director of several Depart-
ments until appointment as the Dean of the
Faculty of Education in January
2013. Served as President of AEPECT (the

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Spanish Earth Science Teachers’ Association) between 2006 and 2014,

organizing symposia, training courses, cycles of conferences, field activi-
ties, Geo-days, Earth science Olympiads, etc. Professor E.U. in the Alcalá
University, Madrid, Spain. E-mail: a.calonge@uah.es

David Brusi

Studied geology at the Universidad Au-

tonoma de Barcelona. He is currently Pro-
fessor of Geology at the Department of
Environmental Sciences at the University
of Girona (Catalonia, Spain). He was Dean
of the faculty of Sciences, and Vice-Direc-
tor of students and external relations in his
university. He investigates in applied geol-
ogy, hydrogeology and didactics of Geolo-
gy. He was editor of the journal “Enseñan-
za de las Ciencias de la Tierra” for 20 years
(1994 to 2014), published by the AEPECT (Asociacion Española Para la
Enseñanza de las Ciencias de la Tierra), of which he is president since 2014.
Assistant Professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Sci-
ences of the University of Girona. E-mail: david.brusi@udg.edu

Xavier Juan

Has taught Geology and Biology in Second-

ary Schools for 37 years. Vice-President of
AEPECT (Spanish Earth Science Teachers
Association), mentor of the Spanish IESO
(International Earth Science Olympiad)
team, Spanish Co-ordinator for Science
across the World, member of the Interna-
tional Group of the ASE (Association for
Science Education), and Science Advisor in
the Collegi de Doctors I Llicenciats de Cata-
lunya. Spain, E-mail: xjuan@wanadoo.es

306
 Chapter 24

Earth Science Olympiad Competition

and its Influence on Geoscience
Promotion in Sri Lanka
Ashvin Wickramasooriya

Abstract

The Sri Lankan National Earth Science Olympiad competition was

initiated in 2009. As Geoscience / Earth Science is not included as a main
subject in school level curriculum, students did not respond well and only
38 students representing 21 schools applied for the competition when it was
organized in 2009. There were only simple multiple choice questions re-
lated to Geography, basic Geology, Environmental Science, and Astronomy
included in the exam paper. The Earth Science Olympiad competition was
the first such experience for students and the lacked general awareness of
Geology. Therefore, they did not perform well. However, based on the re-
sults, the four best students were selected to represent the Sri Lankan team
to participate at the 3rd International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) in
Taipei, Taiwan September, 2009. It was a very useful experience for both
students and Sri Lankan Earth Science Olympiad competition organizers.
The 3rd IESO is considered the turning point for promoting Earth Science
Olympiads in Sri Lanka. With the experience gained Taipei, the Sri Lank-
an National Earth Science Olympiad organizing committee was able to
introduce a new syllabus and structure to the national examination paper.
The Geological Society of Sri Lanka publicizes the Earth Science Olym-
piad among school teachers and students, and has organized the Sri Lank-
an National Earth Science Olympiad annually since 2009. The number of
candidates participating in this competition has increased each year. Pres-
ently, the national competition is organized in nine examination centers
covering 24 districts in every province of Sri Lanka. Students who perform
well at the provincial level are interviewed to select the top four students to

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

represent Sri Lanka at the IESO. The Sri Lankan team has participated in
the IESO annually since 2009. Since introducing the Sri Lankan National
Earth Science Olympiad, students’ interest in participating in this competi-
tion has increased. By preparing for the competition, students must utilize
Geoscience related materials to study the basics of relevant topics. This pro-
cess has increased students’ interest in learning Geoscience.

Keywords: curriculum, IESO, Geoscience, Earth Science

24.1 Introduction

There are nine Olympiad competitions organized in Sri Lanka at the

national level by various universities, institutes and societies: Biology,
Physics, Astronomy, Information Technology, Mathematics (junior and
senior), Statistics, Junior Olympiad, and Earth Science. The Earth Sci-
ence Olympiad competition, which was initiated in 2009, is the youngest
Olympiad in Sri Lanka. Some Olympiads, such as Biology, Physics, Math-
ematics, and Statistics, are very popular among school students. These
subjects are included in the secondary school curriculum, hence their pop-
ularity. The syllabi of these competitions are very similar to their school
curricula. However, for the Earth Science Olympiad, students must study
new concepts not included in their school curriculum. The initial syllabus
of the Earth Science Olympiad competition included basic concepts of
Geography, basic Geology, Environmental Science, and Astronomy.

24.2 The Education System in Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan Education system is divided into four main stages, i.e.
preschool, primary, secondary, and tertiary level (Figure 24.1).

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fig. 24.1 Educational levels in Sri Lanka

The curriculum for preschool mainly focuses on developing students’

basic writing, reading, listening, and speaking skills. At primary school,
students have the opportunity to master the skills they developed at pre-
school and be introduced to a few other subjects like Mathematics, Lan-
guages, Social Studies, Religion, and Arts. After completing six years of
primary education, at about twelve years of age, students are promoted to
secondary level education.
In secondary school, students are exposed to subjects like Biology,
Physics, Chemistry, Geography, Commerce and Accounting, Agricul-
ture, etc. A few Geology concepts are also introduced at this stage, in-
tegrated with some of these subjects. The post-secondary curriculum is
very important for students as their tertiary or university level education
depends upon the discipline they select from among five disciplines: Bi-
ology, Mathematics, Commerce and Accounting, Agriculture, Arts and
Languages. After two years of study, students sit competitive examinations
and qualified students enter university (Figure 24.2).
According to the education system in Sri Lanka as explained above,
students do not have a chance to study Geoscience as a primary subject.
This is a key reason students do not continue into Geology as an under-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

graduate course. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce many geological

concepts in secondary school to increase student interest in pursuing Ge-
ology at university. This will help produce more future geologists in Sri
Lanka. However, compared to other professions like medicine and engi-
neering, there is little demand for geologists in Sri Lanka. This is another
reason for students poor motivation to become geologists, favoring higher
demand professions instead.

Fig. 24.2 Learning objectives of different levels in the Sri Lankan education system

24.3 Geoscience Education at Secondary School in Sri Lanka

As explained above, Geoscience or Geology is not introduced in pri-

mary, secondary or post-secondary school curriculum in Sri Lanka. There-
fore, students do not have an opportunity to learn several important con-
cepts, which are very useful and inter-connected with other disciplines.
For example, knowing chemical compositions of minerals and rocks is
useful when studying similar topics in Chemistry. Similarly, understand-
ing the physical properties of minerals is relevant when studying similar
topics in Physics.
School students also have no chance to learn important basic Geosci-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

ence concepts useful in their daily life. For example, landslides awareness
is critical for those who live in high-risk landslide areas. However, most
students do not understand about how landslides occur, what evidence is
used to determine landslide occurrence, etc. After the 2004 tsunami, the
Sri Lankan government has paid more attention to natural disasters and
promoting geoscience education at schools.
The Sri Lankan school curriculum was recently revised. In this re-
vision, a few geoscience topics were included in the 7th to 10th grade
syllabus. These topics include minerals, rocks, Earth’s interior structure,
rock weathering, natural disasters, etc. As students who perform well in
secondary education will enter universities to obtain higher degrees, this is
an essential stage to promote geoscience and encourage students to pursue
Geosciences at university. However, there are still few Geoscience concepts
included in pre-secondary school in Sri Lanka. As a result, many students
deviate from Geoscience education by university.

24.4 Methods for Promote Geoscience at School Level in Sri Lanka

The Geological Society of Sri Lanka has organized “Earth Science

for schools” workshops for school teaches every year. This is the main
event utilized to promote Geoscience at school level in Sri Lanka. At these
workshops, university lecturers conduct lectures and practical exercises for
school teachers. The topics covered in these workshop include: physical
geology, minerals, rocks, natural disasters, groundwater, environmental
geology, geomorphological processes, etc. Also all teachers are provided
geology related teaching materials including minerals and rocks sample
boxes to utilize in their schools.
Teachers will share the knowledge gained from these workshops with
their students. Therefore, this method is considered useful for promot-
ing Geoscience education among school students. However, if a teacher is
unable to transfer the knowledge that he or she gains, students may not
have another opportunity to get that knowledge. Other than these work-
shops, there are no means to directly promote Geoscience at schools. The
Ministry of Education and a few other organizations arrange inter-school
quizzes, debates, and exhibitions, but these events include little Geosci-
ence content. Compared to these methods, the Earth Science Olympiad
is considered an excellent means of promoting Geoscience in schools. Stu-
dents learn many Geoscience topics by participating in this competition.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

24.5 The Sri Lankan National Earth Science Olympiad

The Earth Science Olympiad was introduced in Sri Lanka in 2009.

Only 38 students from 21 schools, representing five of twent four districts,
participated at the first Sri Lankan National Earth Science Olympiad in
2009. After 2009, the competition syllabus was prepared according to the
International Earth Science Olympiad (IESO) syllabus. However, the syl-
labus comprised only the basics of broad topics like the Geosphere, Envi-
ronmental Science, the Hydrosphere, Climatology, the Atmosphere, and As-
tronomy. Each main topic is divided into sub topics as listed in Table 24.1.
Compared to the other national Olympiads (e.g. biology, physics,
chemistry) in Sri Lanka, this was very poor participation. The main rea-
son for this poor participation is the lack of geoscience awareness among
school students. The Geological Society of Sri Lanka very clearly identified
this barrier to promote geoscience at the school level and found a solution
to overcome the situation. Promoting the Sri Lankan National Earth Sci-
ence Olympiad by organizing workshops and seminars for school teachers
is one of the very useful steps they took. At these workshops, the Society
introduced the International Earth Science Olympiad syllabus and ex-
plained how Sri Lankan students could participate this competition.
Student participation in the National Earth Science Olympiad gradu-
ally increased from 2009 to the present (Figure 24.3). There were 68, 112,
and 197 students participating in the national competitions in 2010, 2011,
and 2012 respectively. In 2013, 282 students participated in the national
competition, then increased to 329 in 2014. In 2015, 365 students par-
ticipated (Corrige Table 24.2). After 2013, students represented all 24
districts in the competition.

Table 24.1 Syllabus of the Sri Lankan Earth Science Olympiad competition

Main Topics Sub Topics

Geosphere Minerals
Rock Cycle
Rocks
Plate tectonics
Physical Geography
Geological structures
Hydrosphere Surface Water
Groundwater
Sea waves
Processes in the water cycle
Water quality
Tides and currents

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Atmosphere and Climatology Basics and energy of the atmosphere

Moisture, clouds, and precipitation
Air pressure and motion
Weather systems and patterns
Climate and climate change
Weather forecasts
Astronomy Sun – interior, sunspots
Solar system
Terrestrial planets
Outer planets, comets and asteroids
Geography Map interpretation
Drainage patterns
Geomorphological features

Table 24.2 Students participation in Sri Lankan Earth Science Olympiad competition

Year Students’ participation

2009 38
2010 68
2011 112
2012 197
2013 282
2014 329
2015 365
(from 2009 to 2015)

Fig. 24.3 Trend of students’ participation at the Sri Lankan National Earth Sci-
ence Olympiad competition

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Students representing three, six, nine, and thirteen districts out of 24 par-
ticipated in the Sri Lankan National Earth Science Olympiad competitions
in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012 respectively (Figure 24.4). However, a few dis-
tricts, like Northern, Southern and Uva provinces, were poorly represented.

Fig. 24.4 Expansion of Earth Science Olympiad participation in Sri Lanka (by dis-
trict) from 2009 to 2012

24.6 Sri Lankan Team Participation at the International Earth Science

Olympiads

The four best students were selected at the first Sri Lankan Earth Sci-
ence Olympiad to participate at the 3rd IESO in Taipei, Taiwan 14-22,
September, 2009. This was the first time that a Sri Lankan team competed
at an IESO. It was a great experience for both students and mentors. After
the 3rd IESO, the national competition syllabus was modified to match
with that of the IESO. The procedure for selecting national team members
was also formalized (see Figure 24.5). Since 2009, the Sri Lankan team

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

has participated at four IESOs in Indonesia, Italy, India, and Brazil in

2010, 2011, 2013, and 2015 respectively.

Fig. 24.5 Selection procedure for the Sri Lankan National IESO team

24.7 Conclusion

The diverse methods implemented to promote Geoscience at school in Sri

Lanka have been variably successful. Methods requiring little student involve-
ment do not greatly improve awareness of the subject. For example, teacher
training workshops and seminars do not directly benefit students if teachers
do not transfer the knowledge gained by attending those events to students.
Conversely, preparing students for the Sri Lankan National Earth Sci-
ence Olympiad allows them to utilize Geoscience related materials (books,
websites, etc.) to learn about the topics covered in the competition sylla-
bus. Students must learn this content themselves to prepare for the com-
petition. Therefore, the Earth Science Olympiad competition is better at
improving student awareness of Geosciences than other methods in Sri
Lankan schools.

References
WICKRAMASOORIYA, A. K., Teacher training is the most effective method
of promoting geosciences at school level in Sri Lanka, 9, 2006, Bayreuth, Ger-
many, GeoSciEd V 2006 conference, 2006

WICKRAMASOORIYA, A. K., Modifying teaching and assessment methods

to improve practical performance in students, 4, 2007, 3rd Sri Lanka Association

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

for Improving Higher Education Effectiveness (SLAIHEE) conference on “De-

veloping skills in university lecturers and students”, Colombo. Sri Lanka, 2007

WICKRAMASOORIYA, A. K., Importance of introducing Geoscience for the sec-

ondary and post-secondary education level in Sri Lanka, 8, 2008, Oslo Norway,
33rd International Geological Congress, , 2008

WICKRAMASOORIYA, A. K, How can geoscientists best engage with the

public and high school pupils, 8, 2012, Brisbane, Australia, 2nd World YES
Congress Early Career Earth Scientists For Society, 2012

WICKRAMASOORIYA, A.K, Influence of Earth Science Olympiad on pro-

moting geoscience education in Sri Lankan schools, 9, 2014, Hyderabad, India,
7th International Conference on Geoscience Education, 2014, p 49

http://www.ieso-info.org (12/05/2016)

http://www.igeoscied.org (21/05/2016)

http://www.gsslweb.org (10/06/2016)

Mr. Ashvin Wickramasooriya

Mr. Ashvin Wickramasooriya presently works as

a Senior Lecturer in Geology in the Department
of Geography, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
In addition to teaching Geoscience related courses
to both undergraduate and postgraduate students,
he is actively involved in Geoscience education
promotional activities in Sri Lanka and interna-
tionally. He is engaged in Geoscience promoting
activities of the International Geosciences Educa-
tion Organization (IGEO) as a Council Member from 2006 to 2016 and as a
Commissioner of the IUGS-COGE since 2008. Mr. Wickramasooriya is one
of the committee members initiating the international Geoscience syllabus. He
is the initiator of the Earth Science Olympiad competition in Sri Lanka and
founding Chairman of the Sri Lanka Earth Science Olympiad committee. He
served as the Chairman of this committee from 2009 to 2012. Further, Mr,
Wickramasooriya has participated as a resource person for the “Earth Science
for Schools” teacher training workshops conducted by the Geological Society
of Sri Lanka across the country for more than ten years.

316
 Chapter 25

Geosciences Education in Primary and

Secondary Schools in Turkey
Nizamettin Kazancı, Alper Gürbüz, Mübeccel Kazancı

Abstract

Turkey is geographically positioned as a bridge between the continents

of Asia, Europe and Africa. The country has very rich and complex geolo-
gy and geomorphology characterized by the presence of various rock expo-
sures, landscapes, active and inactive volcanic centers, mountain belts, ac-
tive fault zones, etc. However, geoscience education in a country with such
a geological and geographical heritage has become crucial, particularly in
the last two decades, after the two devastating earthquakes in the most
populated region of Turkey in 1999. From an educational point of view,
three periods are identified in the modern educational history of Turkey:
a) 1924-1974 – geology courses were compulsory, b) 1975-1998 – geology
was elective, c) 1999 to present – geography courses include basic geologi-
cal topics. Extensive teaching of geological subjects is included within the
geography courses, which is compulsory for all classes and branches of all
high schools presently, but this is insufficient. Today, the main problem
in geoscience education seems to be related to the curricula and the back-
grounds of educators in primary and secondary schools.

Keywords: Earth sciences education, geology, geography, primary

and secondary schools, Republic of Turkey.

25.1 Introduction

Humans learned early on that the Earth was the only home for liv-
ing things, and they tried to adapt to it in order to survive. Over time,
particularly due to the increasing population, new problems appeared, so
they deduced that adaptation to nature was not enough to be safe both

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as individuals and as societies. For example, increasing impacts of natural

hazards (from earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, avalanches, landslides), cli-
mate change, pollution and deteriorating environments, shortage of clean
water, food and energy, deforestation, desertification, sea-level rise, and
greenhouse effects are significant recent problems caused mostly by rapid
urbanization. Furthermore, raw materials, typically provided from nature,
are vital for urban dwellers but finite. Therefore, humankind had to learn
about the Earth and its nature, natural resources, hazards, and particularly
sustainability. Fortunately, people have known the significance of such ed-
ucation for a long time, and schools were opened to teach about the Earth.
Now, learning about nature is essential for education programs everywhere.
Education in Turkey is governed by a national system, which was
established mainly with the ‘Integration of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat
Kanunu)’ law in 1924. Details of the law greatly changed over time (Özel-
li, 1974; Akyüz, 1982). It is a government-supervised system designed to
produce skillful professionals for society. Private and free public schools
work in parallel, however, the majority are public. Presently, compulsory
education extends to 12 years. Primary and secondary education is fi-
nanced by the state and is free of charge in public schools; private schools
are also supported by the state. Presently, enrolment of children between
the ages of 6 and 18 is nearly 100 percent (Table 1).
Tab 25.1 Population distribution (total 77.6 million) and schooling ratios in Turkey
(SGB, 2015).

Agerange 0-14 15-24 25-65 >65

%ofpopulation 25.2 16.5 50.3 8

Pre-Primary Primary Secondary Highschool University

Schoolingra- 53 96 94 79 39
tio%
Personnel 33,183 267,171 259,315 249,601 155,000
Stillneedinprimaryandhighschools:121,763

NumberofDepartmentsofGeographyandGeographyTeachinginUniversities 33
NumberofDepartmentofGeologicalEngineeringinUniversities 30
NumberofFacultyofEducationalSciencesinUniversities 87

Although secondary and/or high school education is not mandatory, it

is required to progress to university education (Figure 25.1). In 2015, there
were 197 universities (state and private) in Turkey. Entrance is regulated by

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

a national examination, after which, high school graduates are assigned to

a university according to their performance. Overall, the present Turkish
education system (Figure 25.1) highly resembles that of Western countries,
as expected from a member of the European Union. The main difference
seems to be in the number of students in vocational schools; however, the
indicators have rapidly changed (OECD, 2013a, b).

Fig. 25.1 General structure of the Turkish education system. I–VIII and IX–XII grades
are in physically separated schools, even though they are both parts of compulsory
education(simplifi ed from SGB, 2015)

The Republic of Turkey, which was constructed by a hard war for

independence (1919–1922) against the winners of the First World War,
needed some new regulations not only in education but in all areas, as the

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

precedent Ottoman Empire had a different state system due to its extreme-
ly large area and multi-national structure. One of the basic reforms in the
early Republic of Turkey was the integration of laicized education and the
establishment of five years compulsory education by a law in 1924 (Akyüz,
1982; MEB, 2015). This law declared that no school could open in Turkey
without the permission and agreement of the Ministry of National Edu-
cation, and all school curricula should be prepared by the ministry. The
vocational-technical education institutions that were formerly directed by
local governments were put under the responsibility of the ministry. Four
years later, in 1928, the alphabet was changed from Arabic to Latin letters.
Such a reform was a real necessity for the fresh Republic, as education was
very weak and far from building a modern Turkey (Özelli, 1974). For ex-
ample, in 1923–24, the number of secondary school students was slightly
more than 7000, while the population of Turkey was around 13.5 million.
This education reform was successful and helped build modern Tur-
key. The main structure of the Law in 1924 is still valid, however, before
1997, compulsory primary education was only five years, for ages 7–12,
and the rest was optional as secondary schools (middle schools), lasting
three years for ages 12–15, and three-year high schools (lyceums) for ages
15–18. Compulsory education increased to eight years in 1997 and to
twelve years in 2012. Presently, the schooling ratio within the population
of 6–18 year olds is very high, close to 100 percent, and the number of per-
sonnel working in the education system is nearly one million (Table 25.1).
The aim of this article is to present the Earth sciences component of
Turkey’s compulsory education system curriculum. To achieve this goal,
some information about formal education is needed first.

25.2 The current formal education system in Turkey

Three institutions, the National Educational Council (NEC), the

Ministry of National Education (MNE), and the National Board of Edu-
cation (NBE), are significant actors in Turkey’s formal education system
according to the constitution. The NEC is an advisory institution for the
ministry that meets whenever the government needs new policy and sug-
gestions. Its members are experts and representatives of different parts of
society. The decisions of the 20 NEC meetings since 1921 have strongly
affected the Turkish education system. The MNE is the main authority on
education, while the NBE is responsible for the curriculum.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

As summarized in Figure 25.1, the Turkish formal education system

consists of pre-primary education, primary education, secondary educa-
tion and higher education. The system is bipartite as it is compulsory for
primary and secondary schools and optional for pre-primary and higher
education. Compulsory education lasts 12 years, divided into three four-
year components, providing options to transfer between general and vo-
cational schools. The first eight years (4+4), called first level education (=
primary school), are conducted in the same school building, while the last
four years (secondary or high school) is taught in separate, stand-alone
buildings to avoid problems due to student age differences.
The curricula of all primary and secondary schools are organized by the
NBE, a half-independent unit in the MNE. It decides and announces the
programs, courses and also the contents of courses regularly. Textbooks are
provided to students free of charge by the government in all public schools.
The higher education and/or university system has not been under the
direct control of the MNE since 1960. It is now coordinated by the Board
of Higher Education, members of which are nominated by the head of the
Turkish Republic. The following paragraphs briefly introduce the different
school levels, except for higher education.

25.2.1 Pre-primary education

Pre-primary schools in Turkey are an optional system for education of

children between 36–72-months old who are under the age of compulsory
primary education. Although it is optional, participation is rapidly increas-
ing due to urbanization. The relevant schools are generally independent
nurseries, some of which are opened as nursery classes and practical classes
within formal schools, when suitable physical capacity is available. Services
related to pre-primary education are given by nurseries and kindergartens
in practical classes operated first and foremost by the MNE. Additionally,
schools for this level of education are encouraged by MNE as day-centers,
nursery schools, day care houses, child care houses, and child care institu-
tions. Presently, the schooling ratio in this level of education is about 53
percent (Table 25.1). The goal is to reach 100 percent for children of this
age before the 100th anniversary of the republic in 2023 (SGB, 2015).

25.2.2 Primary education

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

In Turkey’s formal merit system, primary education is 4+4 years, cov-

ering the education of children between 6-14 years old. It is compulsory for
all citizens, boys and girls, and provided free of charge in public schools.
Private schools are present and even encouraged by the state.
Core courses of the first, second and third grades are mainly Turk-
ish, mathematics, life science, and foreign language, however the latter can
change from school to school. The course ‘life science’ is replaced by the
course ‘science and social studies’ in fourth grade. Foreign language teach-
ing is relatively strong in private schools, with English most commonly
taught, while some schools teach German, French or Spanish instead of
English. Some private schools teach two foreign languages at the same time.
In the sixth, seventh and eighth grades, Turkish, math, foreign lan-
guage, sciences, and social sciences are the five main courses, however ‘social
sciences’ is replaced by the courses history and citizenship in eighth grade.
As mentioned above, primary education institutions are schools that
provide eight years of uninterrupted education. Daily lessons are pro-
vided all day in some schools; however, two education sessions (morning
and afternoon) are conducted each day in some schools, due to capacity
shortages. There are typically six classes per day, lasting 45 minutes, with
10-minute breaks. The places and units of the schools are under the con-
trol of the MNE. At the end of the eight years, graduates receive a primary
education diploma.

25.2.3 Secondary education

Turkish secondary education includes all general, vocational and

technical schools that provide four years of education. The last year (12th
grade), however, is generally preparatory for university and/or working
life. Some schools and also types of schools in secondary education are
preferred (Tables 25.2, 25.3). Therefore, a relative level of success is needed
to enter a preferred school. To evaluate student success, the MNE orga-
nizes a common, national exam in the second semester of 8th grade. Some-
times private schools have different exams, and other times they only look
at school grades. Secondary education aims to give students a good level
of common knowledge and prepare them for higher education, a vocation,
life, and business, in line with their interests, skills and abilities.
Secondary schools cover the education of youth between 15–18 years
old for at least four years after primary education. General secondary edu-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

cation includes high schools, foreign language teaching high schools, Ana-
tolian high schools, science high schools, Anatolian teacher training high
schools, and Anatolian fine arts high schools (Table 25.2). In Anatolian
high schools and private high schools, the daily programs are typically
longer, up to eight classes each day, than those of public high schools.

Tab. 25.2 Types of secondary schools and hours of geography course in their programs
(SGB, 2015). Numbers in parenthesis show total hours for all courses.
Type Num- Number Weekly hours of Geography
of high ber of of and all courses
school Compul- Elective 9th grade 10th grade 11th grade 12th grade
sory (C) (E)
courses courses C E C E C E C E
General 17 16 2 - 2 - - 2 - 2
(30) (7) (20) (15) (20) (15) (17) (18)
Anato- 18 16 2 - 2 - - 2 - 2
lian (35) (19) (16) (20) (15) (17) (18)
Science 18 7 2 - 2 - - - - -
(39) (37) (36) (17) (18)
Social 26 - 2 - 4 - 3 - 4 -
sciences (40) (40) (40) (40)
Arts 28 4 2 - 2 - - - - -
(40) (35) (35) (35)
Sport 34 8 2 - 2 - - - - -
(40) (35) (35) (35)
Music 32 4 2 - 2 - - - - -
(40) (35) (35) (35)
Teacher’s 23 15 2 - 2 - - - - -
training (34) (5) (23) (15) (22) (16) (19) (19)

Vocational and technical secondary education involves schools that

train students for careers in business and other professional areas (MEB,
2015, SGB, 2015). It includes specified technical education schools for
boys and girls, i.e. trade and tourism schools, religious education schools,
multi-program high schools, special education schools, private education
schools, and health education schools (SGB, 2015).
The 9th-grade course program is similar more or less in all secondary
schools. Courses are about 36–37 hours per week, including some electives
(Tables 25.2, 25.3). The core classes are the Turkish language, Turkish litera-
ture, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geometry, history, geography,
religion and ethics, physical education, and foreign language (Table 25.3).
From 10th grade on, programs are highly differentiated in secondary
schools. Students of general schools choose one of four branches: Turkish

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

language–mathematics, science, social sciences, or foreign languages. In voca-

tional high schools, there are no branches, while only the science branch is
offered in science high schools. On the other hand, some schools offer elec-
tive courses instead of branches. For 10th, 11th and 12th grades, the com-
pulsory courses are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, History of the
Republic, and religion and ethics. In addition to these courses, students at-
tend classes in mathematics, geometry, statistics, physics, biology, chemis-
try, geography, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, logic, arts and
music, traffic and health, computer science, physical education, and first and
second foreign language, depending on the chosen branch and/or the high
school. The number and weekly hours of elective courses also changes in
different schools (Tables 25.2, 25.3). Branches help and provide advantages
to students preparing for university in a variety of fields, i.e. international
relations, law, education, psychology, economics, business management,
and similar fields require high marks in Turkish language and mathemat-
ics, while medicine, computer science and other science-related professions
require good marks in science. However, geography has always remained in
the social sciences branch of the Turkish education system (Şahin, 2001).

Tab. 25.3 Weekly program of a general high school in 2015 (http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/).

Note, nearly all of the courses are compulsory for 9th grade. Hours of a geography
course may reach up to 14 if desired.
Course Courses 9th 10th 11th 12th
category grade grade grade grade
C Turkish and composition 2 2 2 2
O Turkish literature 3 3 3 3
M Religious culture and ethics 1 1 1 1
M
History 2 2 - -
O
History of Turkish Republic - - 2 -
N
Geography 2 2 - -
and Mathematics 4 - - -
Geometry 2 - - -
C Physics 2 - - -
O Chemistry 2 - - -
M
Biology 2 - - -
P
U Introduction to Health 1 - - -
L Philosophy - - 2 -
S Foreign language 3 2 2 2
O Physical education 2 2 2 2
R Visual arts /music 1 1 1 1
Y Traffics and first aid - - - 1

Total compulsory courses hours 29 15 15 12

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Course Courses 9th 10th 11th 12th

category grade grade grade grade
E Turkish and composition - 2 2/3 2/3
Turkish literature - 1 1 1
L Mathematics - 2/4 2/4 2/4
Geometry - 1/2 2/3 1/2
E Physics - 2/3 2/4 2/3
Chemistry - 2/3 2/4 2/4
C Biology - 2/3 2/4 2/3
History - 2 2/4 -
T Modern Turkish and World - - - 2/4
history
I Geography - 2 2/4 2/4
Psychology - 2 - -
V Sociology - - 2 -
Logic - - - 2
E Foreign language - 2/4 2/4 2/4
Second foreign language - 2/4 2/4 2/4
S Other elective courses 7 2 1 2
Total elective courses hours 7 14 14 17
Consultancy and Guiding 1 1 1 1
Total weekly hours 37 30 30 30

25.3 Earth Sciences Education in Primary and Secondary

Schools

The Turkish curricula for students 6–18 years old includes a good deal
of basic information about the environment, nature, ecology, climate, wild-
life, and the formation and evolution of the Earth, rocks, minerals, fossils,
etc. This information has been distributed in courses of ‘Life science’ for
2nd and 3th grades, ‘Science and social studies’ for 4th–8th and Geography
for 9th–12th grades. In fact, information about the solid Earth and cos-
mos was taught in the Turkish education system since the Ottomans, with
courses called ‘Arziyat’ (Earth science) and ‘Kozmografya’ (Cosmography),
although they were not well designed for students’ abilities (Taş, 2005;
İncekara, 2007; Figure 25.2). After introducing the new law in 1924, ‘Arzi-
yat’ and ‘Kozmografya’ were replaced by ‘Geology’ and ‘Astronomy’, respec-
tively, which continued as two main courses in secondary schools until
1974 (archive of the bulletin ‘Tebligler Dergisi’; http://tebligler.meb.gov.tr/).
From then until 2012, the Geology course remained as an elective in the

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

science branch of secondary schools when it was removed completely from

the curriculum (Figure 25.2). However, Geology course content was partly
added into Geography from 9th to 12th grades (TTKB, 2011). According to
a recent announcement on the NBE website (http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/; last
access March 18, 2016), Earth sciences lectures in the current Geography
program will decrease significantly after 2016 to allow more time for re-
gions, cultures and population, based on the NEC’s advice.

Fig. 25.2 Geosciences related courses in Turkey. Geology was an elective course
between 1974 and 2012 only for the 12th-grade science branches, while geography
was always compulsory for the Anatolian and general high schools. Total hours in the
graph represent the maximum hours in the social sciences branches of these schools.
For other branches, the compulsory geography course hours are less as 4 hours, but
they can be increased to 8 hours with elective courses. Data are from the formal course
programs that were published by the NBE.

In the meantime, there is no doubt that teachers and teacher-training

are always primary factors in education quality. In Turkey, the teacher train-
ing conducted by the MNE according to employment-based policy was
completely left to the universities in 1982. The Council of Higher Edu-
cation re-established the teacher training system for education faculties in
the 1998-1999 academic year. As a result, primary and secondary school
teachers started to be trained only in university Educational Sciences faculty
programs, whereas high school (branch) teachers started to be trained to the
Master’s degree level (Bilir, 2011). This reestablishment was not a positive
development for teaching Earth sciences because geology was an engineer-
ing program within Science or Engineering faculties. The solution was to
enlarge geography education within the Educational Sciences faculties pro-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

grams, including some Earth science topics. Presently, while all the Earth
science topics are taught by geography teachers in secondary schools, similar
content in 3th–8th grades are taught by general classroom teachers.

25.3.1 Earth Science Topics in the Curricula

Here, we summarize the general Earth science topics in the programs

of different grades. It is however, sometimes difficult to determine which
topics belong to geography, ecology or geology. It is noteworthy that the
topic’s teaching times determined by the NBE are not less than 1–2 hours/
week in a semester. The courses and their relevant topics are as follows in
the current curricula (TTKB, 2015).
In 3rd-grade Life Science: description of continents and oceans on the
map; hydrological cycle; movements of the Earth
In 4th -grade Social Sciences: atmosphere and atmospheric events; natu-
ral disasters and preparedness for hazards
In 5th-grade Social Sciences: relations of natural disasters and regional
geographic properties; natural hazards and causes
In 6th-grade Science and Technology: maps and scales; oceans and conti-
nents; climate and habitats; climatic zones of Turkey; climate and geomor-
phology; controlling factors of settlements
In 9th-grade Geography: maps and geomorphology; contour lines; tec-
tonics and tectonism; Geological times and events; control of endogenic
forces on morphology; and control of exogenic forces on landforms
In 10th-grade Geography: rocks and their characteristics; relations of
rocks and landscapes; groundwater and water sources; soil and soil types;
natural disasters and hazards; preparedness for hazards
In 11th-grade Geography: factors on the formation of biodiversity; el-
ements of ecosystems; water and water ecosystem; ore deposits; natural
energy sources
In 12th grade Geography: extreme conditions of natural events; interac-
tions of natural and anthropogenic processes; predicting natural transfor-
mations; management of natural environments; management of natural
resources; conservation of geological heritages.

25.3.2 Assessment and Evaluation

The results of Earth science education and its effects on citizen’s daily
lives are not very clear in Turkey as there is no reliable assessment to make

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

a satisfying evaluation. The only data could be weekly programs and their
coverage (Tables 25.2, 25.3). From the Earth sciences point of view, three
terms in Turkey’s modern education history are identified; a) 1924–1974,
a geology course was compulsory, b) 1975–1998, geology was elective, c)
1999 to present, geography courses include geology topics (Figure 25.2).
Surprisingly, we notice geology-related subjects were taught extensively for
the last two decades as the geography course was compulsory for all classes
and branches of all high schools. As a result, presently students in primary
and secondary education are relatively much more familiar with Earth sci-
ence topics. In this period, the problems are mainly dependent on teacher
training and qualification.
Earlier, geology education was good, as teachers were well educated
in geology, but the course was only compulsory for the 12th grade science
branches. Earth sciences education appeared very weak in 1974–1998 as it
was elective only for science branches of a few types of high schools in 12th
grade (Tables 25.2, 25.3). This meant that limited students could take the
course, even if there were enough teachers. Moreover, the course needed
to be elected by at least ten students to be offered, however, the absence
of Earth science questions on the joint exam for university entrance nega-
tively effects the elective geology course.
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TÜBİTAK) supports and encourages the attendance of students at the
International Science Olympiads. Unfortunately, there is not yet such an
organization for the Earth sciences. However, geology and/or Earth sci-
ences topics are favorites among secondary school students in the national
project competition of the TÜBİTAK.

25.4 Concluding remarks

Turkey looks like a bridge between the continents of Asia, Europe and
Africa. Therefore, it has very complex geology, characterized by the presence
of various rocks and fossils belonging to these continents. In addition to its
various landforms, active and inactive volcanic centers, mountain belts, and
seismic zones, the country has a long-lived cultural heritage. Hence, its spa-
tial position contains immense geoscientific and cultural values for discov-
ery by inhabitants, at least to avoid natural hazards. However, the university
geology and geography departments are not now favored by young people
due to unemployment. On the other hand, local authorities and municipali-
ties are now slowly becoming aware of the geotourism potential of natural

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

formations. Mountaineering, trekking, alpinism, and cave tourism are in-

creasing rapidly in Turkey. Moreover, society has learned the concepts of
geoparks, geoheritage and geoconservation. In conclusion, the authors hope
that clear geoscience education curricula will formally support this geologi-
cal richness and direct social development in the near future.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Editor Prof. Dr. Roberto Greco for invita-
tion to write this chapter, and for his criticism that greatly improved the
scope of the manuscript. Krystal Fitzgerald is also thanked for her review
that clarified the text.

References
Akyüz, Y., 1982. Türk Eğitim Tarihi (History of Turkish Education), An-
kara Universitesi Eğitim Fakültesi yayını, 450 pp., Ankara (in Turkish).

Bilir, A., 2011. Türkiye’de öğretmen yetiştirmenin tarihsel evrimi ve istihdam

politikaları (The historical evolution of teacher training and employment politicies in
Turkey). Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences 44, 223-
246 (in Turkish with an English extended summary).

İncekara, S., 2007. Ortaöğretim coğrafya eğitiminde uluslararası eğilimler ve

Türkiye örneği (International Trends in Secondary Geographic Education: The
Case of Turkey). Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi 16, 109-129 (in Turkish).

MEB (MNE), 2015. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığının kısa tarihçesi (Short history of the
Ministry of National Education (in Turkish). http://www.meb.gov.tr.

TTKB (NBE), 2011. Ortaöğretim Coğrafya Dersi (9, 10, 11, 12 sınıflar) Öğretim
Programı (Curricula of the Geography course for 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades in Sec-
ondary Education) . Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Ankara, 64 pp.

TTKB (NBE), 2015. Ortaöğretim Coğrafya Dersi (9, 10, 11, 12 sınıflar) Öğretim
Programı. (Curricula of the Geography course for 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades in
Secondary Education ). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Ankara, 63 pp (in Turkish).

OECD, 2013a. Education policy Outlook; Turkey. OECD Publishing, Paris.

OECD, 2013b. Education at a glance 2013. OECD Indicators, OECD publish-

ing, Paris.

Özelli, M.T., 1974. The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and Its

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Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic. International

Journal of Middle East Studies (London) 5, 77–92.

Özey, R.,1996. Osmanlı Döneminden Bugüne Coğrafya (Geography since Ot-

tomans to present). 21. Yüzyıla Doğru Türkiye, III. Coğrafya Sempozyumu (3th
Geograppy Symposium on Turkey Toward the 21 Century), 15–19 Nisan/April
1996, Ankara.

SGB (Strateji Geliştirme Dairesi Başkanlığı), 2015. Milli Eğtim İstatistikleri-

Örgün Öğretim. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (National Education Statistics; Formal
Education 2014/’15, Ministry of National Education), Ankara (in Turkish).

Şahin, K., 2001. Cumhuriyet döneminde ortaöğretim kurumlarında coğrafya

öğretiminin gelişim süreci (Development of georaphy education in secondary schools
in Republic time of Turkey). Osman Gazi Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 2,
137-147 (in Tukish).

Taş, H.I., 2005. Middle and high school geography curriculum changes since
the begining of 20th century in Turkey. Eastern Geographical Review 14,
319-330 (in Turkish with an English abstract).

Nizamettin Kazancı

Nizamettin is a professor of Geology in

Ankara University since 1980, where he
earned his BSc in 1972, MSc in 1975 and
PhD in 1980. He was the vice chair of the
European Association for Geoconserva-
tion (ProGEO) and the coordinator of the
Southeast Europe Group of the ProGEO
between 2005 and 2010. He is the found-
er and president of the Turkish Associa-
tion for Protection of Geological Heritage
(JEMİRKO) since 2000, and is a board
member of UNESCO-Turkey since 2012. His research areas are mainly
based on sedimentology, Quaternary science, geological heritage and geo-
sciences education. He has published approximately 100 peer-reviewed
papers in national and international journals, nearly 200 presentations
and seven books. Nizamettin has also supervised 25 postgraduate students
(MSc and PhD) over the last 25 years. Ankara Üniversitesi, Mühendislik
Fakültesi, Jeoloji Mühendisliği Bölümü, 06100, Tandoğan, Ankara, Turkey.
E-mail: nkazanci@ankara.edu.tr

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Alper Gürbüz

Alper is an assistant professor of Geology

in Nigde University since 2012. He gradu-
ated from the Department of Geological
Engineering of Kocaeli University in 2005
and earned his PhD in 2012 from Ankara
University. Alper is mainly interested in
topics of tectonics, geomorphology and
sedimentology. Niğde Üniversitesi, Müh-
endislik Fakültesi, Jeoloji Mühendisliği
Bölümü, 51240, Niğde, Turkey.

Mübeccel Kazancı

Mübeccel is a retired professor and lec-

turer from the Education Faculty of Gazi
University. She earned her BSc degree
from the Department of Biology of An-
kara University in 1975, and PhD in 1985
from the same university. As a member of
the Department of Science and Mathe-
matics Education since 1983, her research
interests are mainly based on understand-
ing the effects of technological tools in
the education of natural sciences, espe-
cially in Biology, from primary to university education systems. In addi-
tion to educational topics, as a biologist, Mübeccel is also interested in
genetics and cell biology. She is a member of the Turkish Association for
Protection of Gelogical Heritage (JEMİRKO) since 2000. Gazi Üniversi-
tesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Ortaöğretim Fen ve Matematik Alan. Eğt. Bölümü,
06100, Ankara, Turkey.

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 Chapter 26

Earth Science Education in the United

States
Mary E. Dowse and Sharon Locke

Abstract

In the United States, the federal government provides guidance to

develop standards, but it is the responsibility of each state to establish
curriculum and standards for teacher preparation and licensure. National
Science Education Standards, first published in 1995 and updated as the
Next Generation Science Standards in 2014, are guidelines and models
for science standards adopted in each state. Earth and space science have
a prominent place in the science standards as one of the three topic ar-
eas with physical science and life science incorporated into the standards.
There are at present no national exams for students in the United States.
Regulations for teacher licensure are also enacted at the state level, hence
there is considerable variation from state to state in teacher requirements.

Keywords: United States, Earth Science Education, Next Generation

Science Standards, Teacher Preparation

26.1 Educational System in the United States

The responsibility for education in public schools, those funded by

the government, in the United States is spread between the federal, state
and local authorities. The federal government provides policy guidance,
assistance in developing instructional material, and best pedagogic prac-
tices. On average, the federal government provides 9.6% of the funding
for schools (National Education Association, 2015). The states take the
lead in establishing curriculum, setting standards for teacher licensure, re-
quirements for graduation, and in some cases, approving instructional ma-
terials (Table 26.1). The states provide, on average, 46.4% of the funding
for schools (National Education Association, 2015). Local school districts,

333
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

clusters of schools in cities and other areas, establish curriculum follow-

ing state guidelines, adding additional materials as decided. Local revenue
provides on average 44.0% of the funding for public schools.
Educational policies are not uniform across the United States but vary
as each state establishes its own policy. In general, most states mandate
that students from the age of 5 or 6 to age 16 must be enrolled in school.
The transition from elementary school to middle school and middle school
to high school varies from one school district to another.

Tab. 26.1 Average age ranges and educational terminology in the United States
Age Type of School School Years Comparison to UK
(years)
5-10 Elementary/Primary School Kindergarten Kindergarten is
Grades 1-5 in most school equivalent to year 1 in
systems. England. Grades K-5
May range from 1-4 to 1-8 are equivalent to school
in other systems. years 1-6 in England.
11-13 Middle School Grades 6-8 in most school Equivalent to lower
systems. May range from secondary, school years
5-9 in other systems. 7-9 in England.
14-18 High School Grades 9-12. Maybe grades Equivalent to upper sec-
10-12. ondary and sixth form
or college. School years
10-13 in England.
18 or 19+ University 4-year undergraduate College/University

Traditionally, most school systems in the United States offered Earth

science to students in middle school or first year high school students.
Physical Science, a combination of physics and chemistry, and Earth sci-
ence were often perceived as the sciences for slower students as the ‘better’
students took biology, usually followed by chemistry and then physics. A
few schools with committed and dedicated Earth science teachers do offer
an advanced Earth science course to students in grades 11 or 12 that is
viewed as a capstone course.

26.2 National Science Education Standards

One of the roles of the federal government is to establish standards and

encourage accountability, but the standards cannot in any way be regarded
as a national curriculum. The standards provide guidance to the states in
developing and implementing standards. Thus, standards may vary signifi-
cantly from state to state. According to a 2012 report, The State of State

334
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Science Standards 2012 (Lerner, et al., 2012), many standards written by

the states are weak. According to the report the four most prominent issues
with state standards are: (1) attempts to undermine the teaching of evolu-
tion; (2) standards that are frequently vague; (3) poor integration of scientific
inquiry; and (4) the disconnect between math and science in standards.

26.3 Developing the Standards

Following Russia’s launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957, the United

States passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in 1958. The
NDEA was intended to increase the capacity of the United States in sci-
ence and technology using a broad range of strategies. One of the com-
ponents of the NDEA was the development of curriculum materials. The
Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP) was sponsored by the American
Geological Institute (AGI, now the American Geoscience Institute) and
funded by the National Science Foundation. The ESCP produced a text-
book for 9th grade students, Investigating the Earth (Harris, 1976). The
emphasis was an investigative and integrative approach to Earth Science.
In 1995, the National Research Council published the National Sci-
ence Education Standards (NSES) in response to reports such as A Nation
at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) that
called attention to the fact that schools in the United States were failing to
adequately prepare students for the future.
The NSES clearly established the importance of Earth and Space Sci-
ence as a content area for students. The Science Content Standards place
physical science, life science and Earth and space science on the same
level. These Content Standards were developed for three levels: Grades
K-4, Grades 5-8, and Grades 9-12. The standards also highlight unifying
concepts and processes and teaching science as inquiry.
In 2012, the National Research Council published A Framework for
K-12 Science Standards. The framework highlighted the scientific ideas
and practices that all students should know by the end of high school
(Grade 12) and was the basis for the Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS Lead States, 2013). Twenty-six states, the National Science Teach-
ers Association, and the American Association for the Advancement of
Science worked together to write the updated standards. The standards
integrate findings from recent research on how people learn, and therefore
offer a vision for learning science grounded in cognitive science.

335
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The NGSS are arranged in three dimensions: cross-cutting concepts,

disciplinary core ideas, and scientific and engineering practices. The stan-
dards are designed to show how the concepts and practices relate to the
core ideas. Cross-cutting concepts highlight the connections between all
of the sciences by considering seven topics: patterns; cause and effect; scale,
proportion and quantity; systems and system models; energy and matter;
structure and function; stability and change. Likewise eight scientific and
engineering practices highlight how scientists study the natural world: 1)
asking questions and defining problems, 2) developing and using models, 3)
planning and conducting investigations, 4) analyzing and interpreting data,
5) using mathematics and computational thinking, 6) constructing expla-
nations and designing solutions, 7) engaging in argument from evidence,
and 8) obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. The intent
is that students should engage in all eight practices at every grade level.
The standards include performance expectations of what students
should know and be able to in grades K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12. The expec-
tations are designed to show a progression of increasing sophistication as
student moves through school.

26.4 Earth Science in the Next Generation Science Standards

The NGSS (NGSS Lead States, 2013) are arranged into three disci-
plinary content areas: Physical Science, Life Science, and Earth and Space
Science. The content standards for Earth and Space Science is grouped
into three themes or threads:

t
&BSUIT
QMBDF
JO
UIF
VOJWFSTF

t
&BSUIT
TZTUFNT
BOE

t
&BSUI
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IVNBO
BDUJWJUZ

At the elementary level, standards and storylines are provided at each

grade level. Table 26.2 shows the core ideas in Earth Science for students
at the 5th grade level. Links to the cross-cutting concepts and science and
engineering practices are omitted here, as are links to other locations where
each of the topics is discussed in the standards.

336
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Tab. 26.2 Grade 5 Disciplinary Core Ideas

ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems

t
&BSUIT
NBKPS
TZTUFNT
BSF
UIF
HFPTQIFSF
TPMJE
BOE
NPMUFO
SPDL
TPJM
BOE
TFEJNFOUT

UIF
IZESP-
sphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans).
These systems interact in multiple ways to affect Earth’s surface materials and processes. The ocean
supports a variety of ecosystems and organisms, shapes landforms, and influences climate. Winds
and clouds in the atmosphere interact with the landforms to determine patterns of weather.
ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes
t
/FBSMZ
BMM
PG
&BSUIT
BWBJMBCMF
XBUFS
JT
JO
UIF
PDFBO
.PTU
GSFTI
XBUFS
JT
JO
HMBDJFST
PS
VOEFSHSPVOE

only a tiny fraction is in streams, lakes, wetlands, and the atmosphere.
ESS3.C: Human Impacts on Earth Systems
t
)VNBO
BDUJWJUJFT
JO
BHSJDVMUVSF
JOEVTUSZ
BOE
FWFSZEBZ
MJGF
IBWF
IBE
NBKPS
FĊFDUT
PO
UIF
MBOE

vegetation, streams, ocean, air, and even outer space. But individuals and communities are doing
things to help protect Earth’s resources and environments.

Table 26.3 shows the disciplinary core ideas for Earth Science for stu-
dents at the middle school level. The standards for space science are not
shown. The links to the cross-cutting concepts and science and engineer-
ing practices are omitted here, as are links to other locations where each of
the topics is discussed in the standards.

Tab. 26.3 Middle School (Grades 6-8): Disciplinary Core ideas

ESS1.C: The History of Planet Earth

t
5FDUPOJD
QSPDFTTFT
DPOUJOVBMMZ
HFOFSBUF
OFX
PDFBO
TFB
nPPS
BU
SJEHFT
BOE
EFTUSPZ
PME
TFB
nPPS
BU

trenches.
ESS2.A: Earth’s Materials and Systems
t
"MM
&BSUI
QSPDFTTFT
BSF
UIF
SFTVMU
PG
FOFSHZ
nPXJOH
BOE
NBUUFS
DZDMJOH
XJUIJO
BOE
BNPOH
UIF
QMBO-
et’s systems. This energy is derived from the sun and Earth’s hot interior. The energy that flows and
matter that cycles produce chemical and physical changes in Earth’s materials and living organisms.
t
ɨF
QMBOFUT
TZTUFNT
JOUFSBDU
PWFS
TDBMFT
UIBU
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UP
HMPCBM
JO
TJ[F
BOE
UIFZ

operate over fractions of a second to billions of years. These interactions have shaped Earth’s history
and will determine its future.
ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions
t
.BQT
PG
BODJFOU
MBOE
BOE
XBUFS
QBUUFSOT
CBTFE
PO
JOWFTUJHBUJPOT
PG
SPDLT
BOE
GPTTJMT
NBLF
DMFBS

how Earth’s plates have moved great distances, collided, and spread apart.
ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes
t
8BUFS
DPOUJOVBMMZ
DZDMFT
BNPOH
MBOE
PDFBO
BOE
BUNPTQIFSF
WJB
USBOTQJSBUJPO
FWBQPSBUJPO
DPO-
densation and crystallization, and precipitation, as well as downhill flows on land.
t
ɨF
DPNQMFY
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PG
UIF
DIBOHFT
BOE
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EFUFSNJOFE

by winds, landforms, and ocean temperatures and currents, are major determinants of local weather
patterns.
t
(MPCBM
NPWFNFOUT
PG
XBUFS
BOE
JUT
DIBOHFT
JO
GPSN
BSF
QSPQFMMFE
CZ
TVOMJHIU
BOE
HSBWJUZ

337
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

t Variations in density due to variations in temperature and salinity drive a global pattern of inter-
connected ocean currents.
t
8BUFST
NPWFNFOUT
CPUI
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UIF
MBOE
BOE
VOEFSHSPVOE
DBVTF
XFBUIFSJOH
BOE
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XIJDI

change the land’s surface features and create underground formations.
ESS2.D: Weather and Climate
t
8FBUIFS
BOE
DMJNBUF
BSF
JOnVFODFE
CZ
JOUFSBDUJPOT
JOWPMWJOH
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UIF
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ice, landforms, and living things. These interactions vary with latitude, altitude, and local and
regional geography, all of which can affect oceanic and atmospheric flow patterns.
t
#FDBVTF
UIFTF
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QSFEJDUFE
QSPCBCJMJTUJDBMMZ

t
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PDFBO
FYFSUT
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NBKPS
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BOE
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CZ
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FOFSHZ
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UIF
TVO

releasing it over time, and globally redistributing it through ocean currents.

Table 26.4 shows the disciplinary core ideas for Earth Science for
students at the high school level. The standards for space science are not
shown. The links to the cross-cutting concepts and science and engineer-
ing practices are omitted here, as are links to other locations where each of
the topics is discussed in the standards.

Tab. 26.4 High School (Grades 9-12): Disciplinary Core ideas

ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System
t
$ZDMJDBM
DIBOHFT
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UIF
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the planet’s axis of rotation, both occurring over hundreds of thousands of years, have altered the
intensity and distribution of sunlight falling on the earth. These phenomena cause a cycle of ice ages
and other gradual climate changes.
ESS1.C: The History of Planet Earth
t
$POUJOFOUBM
SPDLT
XIJDI
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CF
PMEFS
UIBO

CJMMJPO
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rocks of the ocean floor, which are less than 200 million years old.
t
"MUIPVHI
BDUJWF
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BT
QMBUF
UFDUPOJDT
BOE
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IBWF
EFTUSPZFE
PS
BMUFSFE

most of the very early rock record on Earth, other objects in the solar system, such as lunar rocks,
asteroids, and meteorites, have changed little over billions of years. Studying these objects can
provide information about Earth’s formation and early history.
ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems
t
&BSUIT
TZTUFNT
CFJOH
EZOBNJD
BOE
JOUFSBDUJOH
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DBO
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EF-
crease the original changes.
t
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PG
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JO
&BSUIT

surface and its magnetic field, and an understanding of physical and chemical processes lead to a
model of Earth with a hot but solid inner core, a liquid outer core, a solid mantle and crust. Mo-
tions of the mantle and its plates occur primarily through thermal convection, which involves the
cycling of matter due to the outward flow of energy from Earth’s interior and gravitational move-
ment of denser materials toward the interior.
t
ɨF
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BOE
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CZ
JOUFSBDUJPOT

among changes in the sun’s energy output or Earth’s orbit, tectonic events, ocean circulation, volcanic
activity, glaciers, vegetation, and human activities. These changes can occur on a variety of time scales
from sudden (e.g., volcanic ash clouds) to intermediate (ice ages) to very long-term tectonic cycles.
ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions
t
1MBUF
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Earth’s surface and provides a framework for understanding its geologic history.
ESS2.C: The Roles of Water in Earth’s Surface Processes
t
ɨF
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PG
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chemical properties are central to the planet’s dynamics. These properties include water’s exception-
al capacity to absorb, store, and release large amounts of energy, transmit sunlight, expand upon
freezing, dissolve and transport materials, and lower the viscosities and melting points of rocks.
ESS2.D: Weather and Climate

338
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

t
ɨF
GPVOEBUJPO
GPS
&BSUIT
HMPCBM
DMJNBUF
TZTUFNT
JT
UIF
FMFDUSPNBHOFUJD
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BT

well as its reflection, absorption, storage, and redistribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and land
systems, and this energy’s re-radiation into space.
t
(SBEVBM
BUNPTQIFSJD
DIBOHFT
XFSF
EVF
UP
QMBOUT
BOE
PUIFS
PSHBOJTNT
UIBU
DBQUVSFE
DBSCPO
EJPY-
ide and released oxygen.
t
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UIF
BUNPTQIFSF
EVF
UP
IVNBO
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IBWF
JODSFBTFE
DBSCPO
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DPODFOUSBUJPOT

and thus affect climate.
t
$VSSFOU
NPEFMT
QSFEJDU
UIBU
BMUIPVHI
GVUVSF
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DMJNBUF
DIBOHFT
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CF
DPNQMFY
BOE
WBSJFE

average global temperatures will continue to rise. The outcomes predicted by global climate models
strongly depend on the amounts of human-generated greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere
each year and by the ways in which these gases are absorbed by the ocean and biosphere.
ESS2.E Biogeology
t
ɨF
NBOZ
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BOE
EFMJDBUF
GFFECBDLT
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&BSUI
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continual co-evolution of Earth’s surface and the life that exists on it.
ESS3.A: Natural Resources
t
3FTPVSDF
BWBJMBCJMJUZ
IBT
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UIF
EFWFMPQNFOU
PG
IVNBO
TPDJFUZ

t
"MM
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PG
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BOE
PUIFS
SFTPVSDF
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IBWF
BTTPDJBUFE
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TPDJBM

environmental, and geopolitical costs and risks as well as benefits. New technologies and social
regulations can change the balance of these factors.
SS3.B: Natural Hazards
t
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IB[BSET
BOE
PUIFS
HFPMPHJD
FWFOUT
IBWF
TIBQFE
UIF
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IJTUPSZ
<UIFZ>
IBWF

significantly altered the sizes of human populations and have driven human migrations.
ESS3.C: Human Impacts on Earth Systems
t
ɨF
TVTUBJOBCJMJUZ
PG
IVNBO
TPDJFUJFT
BOE
UIF
CJPEJWFSTJUZ
UIBU
TVQQPSUT
UIFN
SFRVJSFT
SFTQPOTJCMF

management of natural resources.
t
4DJFOUJTUT
BOE
FOHJOFFST
DBO
NBLF
NBKPS
DPOUSJCVUJPOT
CZ
EFWFMPQJOH
UFDIOPMPHJFT
UIBU
QSPEVDF

less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosystem degradation.
ESS3.D: Global Climate Change
t
ɨPVHI
UIF
NBHOJUVEFT
PG
IVNBO
JNQBDUT
BSF
HSFBUFS
UIBO
UIFZ
IBWF
FWFS
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BSF
IVNBO

abilities to model, predict, and manage current and future impacts.
t
ɨSPVHI
DPNQVUFS
TJNVMBUJPOT
BOE
PUIFS
TUVEJFT
JNQPSUBOU
EJTDPWFSJFT
BSF
TUJMM
CFJOH
NBEF

about how the ocean, the atmosphere, and the biosphere interact and are modified in response to
human activities.

It is important to reiterate that in the United States the proposed stan-

dards are not mandated but serve as guides for the states, who have the re-
sponsibility for adopting standards. There continue to be significant politi-
cal debates in the United States about standards, not only in science but in
other areas as well. Objections to standards are about content in some cases
and also reflect concerns about maintaining local control over education.

26.5 National Tests

In the United States there are presently no national exams in science

for students graduating from high school. The Federal government man-
dates annual testing of students in language arts and math, but leaves the
design, implementation and evaluation of the tests to the individual states.

339
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Additionally, the National Assessment for Educational Progress

(NAEP) is administered approximately every four years to small samples of
students in grades 4, 8, and 12. Results and analysis of the NAEP exams
are reported in the The Nation’s Report Card (National Center for Educa-
tional Statistics, 2016). The most recently reported results in science are for
8th grade students in 2011. Overall, 32 percent of students were considered
proficient in science. The assessment does include Earth and space Science.
In order to be considered proficient in Earth and space science students

“should be able to explain how gravity accounts for the visible patterns
of motion of the Earth, Sun, and Moon; explain how fossils and rock
formations are used for relative dating; use models of Earth’s interior
to explain lithospheric plate movement; explain the formation of Earth
materials using the properties of rocks and soils; identify recurring pat-
terns of weather phenomena; and predict surface and groundwater
movement in different regions of the world.” (National Center for
Educational Statistics, 2011).

26.6 Teacher Education and Certification

In the United States the public school system is not a single system, but
more than 50 different systems. Each state ultimately holds the responsibility
for establishing standards for education, teacher training, and certification.
Teachers are certified at the state level and the requirements for teacher
training and certification vary from state to state. Although some states will
accept certification from other states, there is no nationally accepted certificate.
The qualifications for each state can be viewed at the web site www.Teach.
org. Most states require a bachelor’s degree at a minimum and completion
of a teacher preparation program at either the bachelor’s level, master’s level
or through an alternative licensure program. Generally states require teachers
to pass a general teaching exam and may require content-area exams as well.
State requirements for content education vary significantly and vary
between institutions of higher education that offer teacher preparation.
The duration and depth of Earth science content varies significantly. Some
elementary pre-service teachers may take a semester-long (15 week) general
Earth science course or a specialized Earth science course designed for
teachers. Others may receive almost no instruction in Earth science.
Secondary Earth science teachers may major in geology or a closely
related science in addition to their teacher preparation courses. The All Pur-

340
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

pose Science Teacher report from the National Council on Teacher Quality
(2011) notes that only 11 states require certification in a specific subject.
All others certify teachers in general science or in multiple disciplines. The
teachers are expected to pass a general knowledge exam in science, but
those exams do not ensure in-depth knowledge in any one discipline.
An increasing number of institutions are offering Master of Arts in
Teaching in Earth Science. Increasingly these programs are offered online
with a summer residence to conduct field work. Many states also offer pro-
fessionals with a bachelor’s degree in science the opportunity to pursue an al-
ternative licensure which may include teaching while pursuing certification.

26.7 Professional Development for In-Service Teachers

Ongoing teacher professional development is a way for teachers to con-

tinue to deepen their content knowledge, visit unique field sites, learn new
teaching strategies, and fulfill their continuing education requirements.
As states move to adopt the NGSS, teachers, particularly at the elementary
level, may need additional training and support to implement a curricu-
lum consistent with the three dimensions: core ideas, science and engi-
neering practices, and cross-cutting concepts.
The U.S. Department of Education provides funding administered by
the states through the Math Science Partnerships program for the devel-
opment of high-quality teacher professional development programs. Uni-
versities, professional organizations, science museums, and nature centers
are increasingly offering a wide-range of programs for in-service teachers.
These vary in format, length and cost.

26.8 Conclusion

The government-funded public school system in the United States in an

amalgamation of more than 50 different systems. Each state is ultimately
responsible to establish education standards, teacher training, and certi-
fication processes. The new science standards provide a strong, research-
based guiding framework for Earth science education, but ultimately
states decide whether to adopt the standards or create their own. Early
evidence suggests that states developing their own science standards are
drawing heavily on the NGSS. Universities have moved relatively quickly
to incorporate NGSS into teacher certification programs, but in-service

341
 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

professional development for the NGSS Earth science standards needs

further development. The National Science Teachers Association (www.
nsta.org) is an early leader providing online resources to support teachers
implementing the three-dimensional approach to science learning.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

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Acknowledgements:
Roberto Greco and Sharon Locke reviewed the paper and offered suggestions
and additions that improved the paper.

Mary E. Dowse

Mary E. Dowse is Emeritus Professor of

Geology at Western New Mexico Univer-
sity. Prior to her retirement in May 2016,
she taught a range of geology courses and
was the science education specialist in the
Department of Natural Sciences. She
taught methods in teaching of science and
workshops in geology for teachers. She
has a long history of outreach and service
from the local to the international arena.
Department of Natural Sciences Western
New Mexico University P. O. Box 680. Silver City, NM 88062. E-mail:
mary.dowse@wnmu.edu

Sharon Locke

Sharon Locke is associate professor in the

departments of Geography and Teaching
& Learning and director of the Center for
STEM Research, Education, and Out-
reach at Southern Illinois University, Ed-
wardsville. She conducts research on geo-
science learning of pre-service teachers and
the general public and teaches university
geoscience courses. She also serves as a del-
egate to the International Geoscience Edu-
cation Organization. Professor Locke has a
particular interest in bringing members of underrepresented groups (wom-
en, racial/ethnic minorities, persons with disabilities) into the geosciences,
and has received over $7 million in U.S. federal funding to improve access

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to science for all students. Currently she is the principal investigator for the
National Science Foundation (NSF) funded project “EarthCaching for Pre-
Service Teachers: Examining Attitudes and Intentions towards Informal
Science Learning.” She is a former NSF program director and distinguished
speaker for the National Association of Geoscience Teachers. Professor
Locke received her PhD in geology from the University of Minnesota. Di-
rector, Center for STEM Research, Education, and Outreach at Southern Illi-
nois University Edwardsville. E-mail: sharon.locke1@gmail.com

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 Chapter 27

Earth science education: the case of

secondary school education, general of
Venezuela
Adriana Mercedes Camejo Aviles

Abstract

Incorporating Earth Sciences studies into the Venezuelan secondary

education curriculum represented and represents an important tool for the
student population to gain a better understanding of natural phenomena
throughout geologic history and how it has influenced the development
of life on the planet. This work presents an overview of the Venezuelan
educational system structure, consisting of subsystems, levels, and mo-
dalities, according to the stages of human development. Similarly, it de-
tails the professional Geosciences education profile, how the Earth Science
discipline is addressed in the national secondary education system, and
finally exposes some weaknesses with suggestions to improve Earth Sci-
ences teaching nationally.

Keywords: science education, Earth Sciences, General Secondary

Education, Venezuela

27.1 Introduction

Earth Science education in Venezuela is an important tool for the stu-

dent population to better understand the natural phenomena that have
shaped the development of life on the planet throughout geologic history.
Due to its geographic location and its geomorphic diversity, Venezuela
is prone to natural events such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, and tsu-
namis, among others. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that teach-
ers trained in this area contribute to the formation of a culture of inte-

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grated risk management within all levels of secondary education, focusing

on the fundamental use of appropriate scientific language. The primary
objective is that the population possesses the necessary tools to manage
high-risk situations that may occur before, during and after an event, and
translating this into a well informed citizenry.
Additionally, Venezuela has one of the largest oil reserves in the world,
plus important mineral deposits, so it is essential to create a greater sense
of connection to the great oil and mining wealth that the national territory
possesses, driving its main economic activities. The contribution of Earth
Science education is fundamentally focused on students’ understanding of
how these mineral resources are formed and exploited, as well as knowing
what tools facilitate ecosystem conservation and repair from the affects of
these activities.
This document aims to provide a general overview of how the Ven-
ezuelan educational system is structured, the profile of the Earth Science
professor, and finally, how the Earth Sciences discipline is addressed in the
national secondary education system.

27.2 Venezuelan educational system

The Venezuelan Educational System has a set of laws and fundamental

rules that govern its operation. Within these laws, the most relevant at the
national level are: the Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezue-
la (CRBV) of 1961 and reformed in 1999, and the Organic Law of Educa-
tion (LOE) reformed in 2009; the Rule of the Organic Law of Education,
applied to Basic Education levels, the Teaching Profession Regulation Ex-
ercise in 2000; and the Organic Law for the Protection of Children and
Adolescents of 2007, among others. This set of laws also governs private
education nationally.
Education is considered within Articles 102 and 103 of the Consti-
tution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela as a human right and a
fundamental social duty, as well as being democratic, free and manda-
tory for all Venezuelan citizens. Similarly, Article 4 of the Organic Law of
Education (2009) states that education is the central axis in the creation,
transmission and reproduction of the various manifestations and cultural
values, inventions, expressions, representations and own characteristics to
appreciate, assume and transform reality.
The subsystem of Venezuelan secondary education has undergone a

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

series of iterative transformative processes, generating significant changes,

according to a retrospective study on design and curricular changes from
1971 to 2013 (Andrés, et al., 2014). They examine the curriculum reform
process tackled from the consolidation of representative democracy to the
implementation of the Bolivarian High Schools and texts of the Ministry
of the Popular Power for Education (MPPE).
In 1980, the new Organic Law on Education (LOE) was approved,
wherein the educational system became structured by levels and modali-
ties. Primary Education was subdivided into three levels: 1st to 3rd grade,
4th to 6th grade, and 7th to 9th year, plus Diversified and Professional
Education, with durations of two to three years, respectively. The National
Center for the Improvement of the Teaching of Sciences (CENAMEC)
was also created. Starting in 1999, political and social changes in the
country resulted in new modifications in the national education system,
consummated in the 2009 Organic Law of Education reform.
According to Article 24 of the LOE (2009), the Educational System is
made up of subsystems, levels, and modalities, according to the stages of
human development (see Table 27.1).

Tab. 27.1 Venezuelan Educational System Structure

Subsystem Levels Modalities Duration Age

Initial education Maternal stage 5 years 0 and 5 years
Basic Education Preschool stage
Primary education First to sixth grade 5 years 6 to 12 years
General middle education First to fifth year 5 years 12-18 years
Technical secondary First to sixth year 12-18 years
education
University Edu- Undergraduate Bachelor’s degree 5 years
cation
Technicians 3 years
Postgraduate

The modalities of the education system, set out in Article No. 26 of the
LOE, represent variants available for individuals who, due to their charac-
teristics and specific conditions of their integral development, culture, eth-
nicity, linguistic abilities, etc., require curricular adaptations permanently
or temporarily to respond to the demands of different educational levels.
The educational modalities are: special education, youth education, adult
education, border education, rural education, arts education, military edu-

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

cation, intercultural education, and bilingual intercultural education.

In the Venezuelan Educational System, students attend educational
centers for 200 working days, beginning in September of each year, ac-
cording to Article 49 of the Organic Law of Education. The University
education subsystem is governed by special regulations.

27.3 The Professor of Earth Sciences: Vocational Training

The Pedagogical Experimental University Liberator (UPEL), is the

main university responsible for teacher training in Venezuela. One area
of teacher training offered provides specialization in Earth Sciences. An-
other instituion, the University of the Andes (ULA), offers a degree in
Education, Geography and Earth Sciences. Although these two national
institutions have different core directives, they are the primary centers for
training Earth Sciences specialist educators. Additionally, Geologists, Ge-
ographers and related specialists, provided they have a pedagogical com-
ponent completed or in development, can teach classrooms in the subsys-
tem of general and higher education.
Of the eight centers of the UPEL, only the Pedagogical Institute of
Caracas (IPC) and the Pedagogical Institute of Maracay (IPM) have Earth
Sciences departments, through which they train teachers specialized in
the areas of Geosciences and Comprehensive Risk Management. The
teacher training plan in these two institutes is approved, and comprises
four components, namely: Specialized Training, with a total of 21 dis-
ciplinary courses (see Table 27.2); Pedagogical, with 15 courses; General
Training, with a total of nine courses; and finally the Teaching Practice,
with four phases of professional practice developed in general secondary
education classrooms.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Table 27.2 The specialized Earth Sciences Study Plan training component from
UPEL. Taken from the 1997 curriculum design

Specialized Training Components (obligatory courses)

Area Courses
Mathematics Introduction to Calculation
Calculation
Basic physics Basic Physics for Earth Sciences
General Chemistry Fundamentals of Chemistry
Probability and Statistics Statistics Applied to Earth Sciences
Geology General Geology
Geomorphology
Geochemistry
Structural Geology
Introduction to Pedology
Geology of Venezuela
Hydrometeorology Hydrosphere
Physical Climatology
Astronomy
Geodesy Cartography and Photogrammetry
Applied Cartography
Territorial Planning
Project in Earth Sciences
Optional courses (Variables)

At the ULA, the profile of geography and Earth Sciences teachers is

a specialist who knows the physical and sociocultural space of the Ven-
ezuelan territory, its potential and sustainable use, with training in TIC
management. They are expected to have extensive information and com-
munication skills, plus experience managing and executing territorial, en-
vironmental and social-cultural projects. Modifications to the study cur-
riculum began in 2015 with the aim of integrating specialists in the social
and productive processes of the environment, with a focus on meaningful
learning. The specialty training courses are primarily the different branch-
es of geodesy, geology, and geography.
Teachers trained in Earth Sciences education can cover disciplines in
different levels of secondary education, such as First-Year Nature Studies or
Geography disciplines in all years of basic education. Due to the demand
for physics and chemistry specialists, those trained in Earth Sciences can
teach these disciplines, at least in the third year of secondary education.

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27.4 The discipline of earth sciences in middle education

The Earth Sciences discipline corresponds To the level general middle

education, specifically the 5th year the education, with students ages of
15 to 18 years old. With a workload of only three hours per week, one for
theory and two dedicated to practical activities in small groups, this short
time allotment is concerning considering this discipline is of utmost im-
portance for the country’s main economic activities. Venezuela’s economic
dependence on oil and mining activities, plus the diversity of the Venezuelan
geography and its exposure to natural hazards, requires an informed popu-
lace prepared to act before, during and after crisis events. Yet there no have
been a few modifications made to the increase the Earth Sciences workload.
In Table 27.3 lists the Natural Sciences themes addressed in secondary
education levels, with the Natural Sciences content, in particular Earth
Sciences, mainly addressed in the fourth and fifth year, detailed in Table
27.4. There is Earth Science content between the first and third years,
however these form parts of other disciplines that are usually taught by
teachers from other areas without specialized Earth Sciences training.
Earth Sciences trained teachers in Venezuela generally do not receive a
solid Biology training, yet they are obliged to instruct a variety of disciplines,
including Biology. Therefore, it is worrisome that many teachers teach this
discipline to complete their workload wekly of 36, 48 or 54 hours of weekly
classes because Earth Sciences are only introduced in the 5th year of second-
ary education. although they can teach other disciplines, generally those of
greater demand are the disciplines of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.
A curricular reform of secondary education began in Venezuela in
2002. During this reform, the Bolivarian High Schools and the Robinso-
nian Technical Schools were formed. In 2007, the Bolivarian Educational
System (SBE). In 2012, the production and distribution of textbooks
called the Bicentennial Collection began.
In 2015, continuing with this process of curricular change in second-
ary education, the curricular proposal is published, which establishes that
it must be developed in the Bolivarian Secondary Schools from the begin-
ning of the school year in September 2015.
With respect to the textbook of Earth Sciences of the Bicentennial,
they are born as a proposal to update scientific content, as reflected by
Andrés, et al (2014), the recognition of science as a social construction that
generates knowledge, expanding this vision of theoretical experiments a
bit, towards a more social context.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

The books of the bicentennial collection have had a great impact at the
national level, for free distribution, reaching the hands of students with
limited resources, but it is important to note that they require constant
updating and readjustments of many contents that, in my opinion, do not
deepen, working in a very superficial way.

27.5 Elements of the curriculum related to earth sciences

Tables 27.3 and 27.4 below outline the Earth Sciences curriculum
elements and the related content addressed in secondary education. The
key Earth Sciences related subjects aimed at supporting a dynamic cur-
riculum, introduced as of September 2015, are: the preservation of life on
the planet, health and good living, oil and energy, and science, technol-
ogy and innovation. Within the training areas proposed in the integration
process, are the Natural Sciences, including Biology, Chemistry, Physics,
Earth Sciences, Anthropology, and Health, among others.

Tab. 27.3 Central natural science curriculum topics. Taken from Curriculum
Reform (2015)
Year Generating Themes
First Year - The research process in Science and Technology, Environment, Biodiversity and
food sovereignty.
- Integral health of living beings and their functions of nutrition with the environment.
- Water and soil: Sources of life and food.
- Matter and its transformations necessary for life.
- Movement and interactions in social-productive activities.
Second Year - Investigating in Science and Technology.
- Threats of nature. Comprehensive risk management.
- The integral health of living beings and their role in relation to the environment.
- The planet Earth as a complex system
- Matter reacts to changes.
- Bone-muscle movement and its interactions with the environment.
Third Year - Research projects in science and technology.
- Socio-environmental effects of science and technology.
- The fundamental piece of life: The cell and its changes.
- Properties of water and its social distribution.
- Light and sound.
- Security and Road Education. Road culture of coexistence.
Fourth Year - Research in science and technology at the service of good living.
- Rational, responsible and sovereign use of water, oil and electric power as social
production systems.
- The sustainability of biodiversity at local, regional, national and global levels.
- Terrestrial systems and life on the planet
- Responsible and sovereign uses of inorganic matter.
- The macroscopic phenomena of nature as sustainable systems of social production.

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 Earth Science Education: Global Perspectives

Fifth Year - Research on community participation, researching, transforming and producing.

- The petrochemical industry, electric power, and biotechnology for good living.
- The integral health of living beings and their reproductive functions and relation-
ship with the planet.
- Venezuela on Earth: Save the planet.
- Responsible and sovereign use of organic matter present in nature.
- The microscopic phenomena of nature as sustainable systems of social production.

Tab. 27.4 Earth Sciences centered themes included in the fourth and fifth years of
Secondary Education. Taken from the Process of Curricular Change in Secondary
Education applied since September 2015

Year Generating Themes

Fourth year - The Earth Sciences and their implications.
- Reading and interpreting maps, satellite images and other models.
- Earth’s home in the Universe.
- Themes of conceptualization, systematization, and generalization: The Universe.
- The Earth: a complex and living system.
- Themes of conceptualization, systematization, and generalization: Geosphere.
- Interactions in the Geosystem.
- System focus.
- Functioning of the terrestrial dynamics, it is superficial and internal effects.
- Climate and weather: The troughs in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
- Risk maps.
Fifth year - Methods to determine ages of rocks. Geological cycles.
- Physiography. Oil basins and reserves in Venezuela. Mineral deposits in Venezuela.
- Complex climate.
- Anthropocentrism. Development Economizer.
- Earth Charter.

27.6 Weaknesses in venezuelan earth sciences teaching

The weaknesses mentioned below are at the discretion of the author

and can be addressed with a broad national discussion and improved in-
vestment in the education system:

1. Teachers trained in Natural Sciences, especially Earth Sciences, re-

quire continuous training to maintain up-to-date classroom content.
This is limited by the few offererings available from the Ministry of
Power Popular for Education on pedagogical and specialized training
courses nationally and internationally.
2. Few teachers actively participate in producing theoretical knowledge
about learning processes and the respective implications in teaching
Earth Sciences.
3. Earth Sciences teaching is, in many cases, limited to theory, as it is
hampered by the lack of equipped laboratories and field practices. The

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last key aspect is addressed within the 2015 curricular reform as one of
the pedagogical strategies, but, unfortunately, it is generally limited by
scarce resources for implementating these practices.
4. Teachers not trained in the discipline area they must teach is a con-
cern for the importance it represents nationally.
5. The 2015 curricular proposal simplifies the Earth Sciences content,
which should be called a deep rectification to extend and deepen the
content. The texts destined for the Bicentennial Collection of Earth
Sciences are: Kéller and Blodgett (2007) for natural risks; Tarbuck
and Lutgens (2000), for Earth Sciences; and Craig, et al. (2007), for
Earth Resources: origin, use, and environmental impact.

27.7 Final considerations

Venezuela’s participation in the International Earth Science Olympiad

(IESO) is not currently included in the 2015 curricular reform, nor in the
programmed activities of the Ministry of the Popular Power for Educa-
tion. The participation of Venezuelan students, which would represent an
important future activity of academic and cultural exchange in the public
sphere, is not currently under consideration.

References
Andrés, M.M.; Diez, D.; Guilarte, G.; Pino, I.M. (2014). Retrospectiva sobre el
currículo para la Enseñanza de las Ciencias en la Educación secundaria en Ven-
ezuela (19712013). IMEA-UNILA. Vol.2.num 2.p.76-86.

Centro Nacional Para el Mejoramiento de la Enseñanza de la Ciencia (CENA-

MEC) (1992).Boletín Multidisciplinario 6. Caracas.

Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela (1999). Gaceta oficial no.

5453. Marzo 3, 2000.

Craig, J.R.; Vaughan, D, J.; Skinner, B.J. (2007). Recursos de la Tierra: Origen,
uso e impacto ambiental. Pearson Prentice Hall. Madrid

Kéller, E.A.; Blodgett, R.H. (2007). Riesgos naturales. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Madrid.

Ley Orgánica de Educación (LOE) Gaceta Oficial no. 5929. Agosto 15, 2009.

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Diseño curricular de la Especialidad Ciencias de la Tierra. (1997). Universidad

Pedagógica Experimental Libertador. Instituto Pedagógico de Caracas.

Ley orgánica para la protección del Niño, Niña y Adolescente. Gaceta oficial
extraordinaria no. 5859. Diciembre 10, 2007.

Ministerio del Poder Popular Para la Educación. Proceso de Cambio Curricular

en Educación Media. Documento general de sistematización de las propuestas
pedagógicas y curriculares surgidas en el debate y discusión septiembre 2015.

Reglamento del ejercicio de la profesión docente. Gaceta oficial no 5496. Octu-

bre 31 2000.

Reglamento de la ley orgánica de educación. Gaceta Oficial no. 36.787. No-

viembre 16, 1999.

Tarbuck, E. J. y Lutgens, F. K. (2000). Ciencias de la Tierra. Una Introducción a

la Geología Física. Prentice-Hall. Madrid.

Adriana Camejo

Bachelor of Science in Education on Earth

Sciences, Pedagogical Experimental
University of Libertador, Pedagogical
Institute of Caracas. Caracas, Venezuela
2005-2010. Professor of the Ministry of
Education of the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela in the subject Earth Sciences
and Nature Studies 2010-2015. State of
Vargas – Venezuela. Master’s Degree in
Geoscience, 2015-2017 from the State
University of Campinas, Department of Geology and Natural Resources,
Sao Paulo – Brazil. He is currently a Doctorate student in Geoscience, from
the State University of Campinas, Department of Geology and Natural
Resources, Area of Palynology and paleoenvironmental reconstruction
studies. University Pedagogical Experimental Libertador, Institute Pedagogical
of Caracas, Venezuela. Professor titular of the Ministry of Popular Power for
Education. Caracas, Venezuela. Student PhD in Geosciences UNICAMP, São
Paulo -Brazil. E-mail: adrianacanejo@ige.unicamp.br

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