CEMENT

Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
Composites •177
 Contents
• Introduction to cement
• Chemical composition of cement
• History of cement
• Methods of cement manufacturing
• Tests/properties of cements
• Heat of hydration
• Types of cements
What is Cement

•Dept of Mat Eng •179

What is Cement

•Dept of Mat Eng •180

What is Cement

•Dept of Mat Eng •181

Cements Types

+ •Dept of Mat Eng = •182

What is Cement

•Dept of Mat Eng •183

What is Cements

•Dept of Mat Eng •184

•Dept of Mat Eng •185
•Dept of Mat Eng •186
•Dept of Mat Eng •187
•Dept of Mat Eng •188
•Dept of Mat Eng •189
•Dept of Mat Eng •190
•Dept of Mat Eng •191
•Dept of Mat Eng •192
•Dept of Mat Eng •193
•Dept of Mat Eng •194
•Dept of Mat Eng •195
 Tests for OPC
• Fineness
• Chemical Composition
• Compressive Strength
• Setting Time
• Soundness

•Dept of Mat Eng •197

 Fineness
• It effects the rate of hydration
• Finer the cement, faster strength
development take place.
• However, finer cement may increase the
shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
• Fineness increases the amount of water
required for constant slump.

•198
 Methods for fineness measurements
• Fineness can be measured by two methods
• Sieve analysis
• Specific surface
 Sieve analysis
• In this method, 50gm cement is sieved (No. 100 &
200 sieve)for a known period of time. Separate the
residue and weigh it.

• The residue when weighed should not exceed 0ne

percent by weight of the cement sample.

• Fineness (%) = [Weight of cement passed sieve# 200/50]x100

 Specific surface
 It is the calculated particles area in square
centimeters per gram of cement.

 Specific surface area shall not be less than 2250 sq

cm/gm as determined by Blaine Air Permeability
Apparatus.

 Higher specific surface indicates finer-ground

cements and usually a more active cement.
 Chemical Composition
• By chemical composition we mean determining the
following parameters:
Factors Limits
• Lime Saturation Factor (LSF) = (not greater than 1.02 & less than 0.66)

• Insoluble residue in cement = (Shall not exceed 1.5%)

• Magnesia = (Shall not exceed 4%)

• Sulphuric anhydride = ( 2.5 to3.0% for OPC & HSPC)

(3.0 to3.5% for OPC & RHPC)

• Loss on ignition = (Shall not exceed 3%)

 Chemical Composition
• The composition of the cement helps determine
the rate of curing and the final properties of the
concrete
• e.g. 3CaO . Al2O3 and 3CaO . SiO2  Rapid setting but
low strengths
• 2CaO . Al2O3 Slowly during hydration but higher
strengths
•2CaO . Al2O3
Strength

•3CaO . SiO2

•3CaO . Al2O3

Time
 Compressive Strength
• There are two methods for testing the
compressive strength of cement;
• Average compressive strength of three mortar
cubes.
• Average compressive strength of three
concrete cubes.
• Cubes are of 7.06cm sides
Compressive Strength

Period in Mortar Cubes (N/mm2) Concrete Cubes (N/mm2)

Days

OPC HSPC RHPC OPC HSPC RHPC

3 days 15 23 29 8.5 13 18

7 days 23.5 32.5 36 14 18 22

28 days 34.5 41 46 19 29 33

•205
 Setting Time
• Setting time can be defined as the time in which
stiffening of the standard cement paste takes place.
• When cement is mixed with water to form a fluid
paste, the mixture will eventually become stiff and
then hard. This process is called setting.
• The setting time of cement paste of standard
consistency can be categorized as:
• Initial setting time (not less than 45 min.)

• Final setting time (not more than 10 hr.)

 Initial Setting Time
• The time taken from the instant water was added to
cement to the moment when the needle fails to
penetrate beyond 5mm above the glass plate is
known as initial setting time.
• Initial setting time of cement is that stage in the
process of hardening after which any cracks that may
appear can not reunite.
• This test is carried out with Vicat’s apparatus and
1mm square needle.
 How to measure initial setting time

• The paste of 300gms cement made with

measured quantity of clean water required for
a paste of normal consistence is filled in the
mould.
• The needle is brought in contact with the
surface of paste and released.
• The initial setting time is said to have taken
place when the needles (1.13+0.05mm)fails to
penetrate beyond a point 5+1mm from
bottom.
 Final Setting Time
• Final setting time is that when cement has
attained sufficient strength and hardness. or
• The time from the moment water was
added to cement to the moment the
circular attachment fails to make
impression on the surface of cement paste
is known as final setting time.
• This needle has an annular attachment
around 1mm square needle
projecting(0.5mm behind the tip) by 0.5mm
below it.
•Dept of Mat Eng •209
 Standard Consistency Test
• Consistency is a measure of wetness or fluidity
of cement.
• The cement paste shall be of normal
consistency, when penetration of standard
plunger (10+0.05mm dia.) is 6+1mm from
bottom of the mould.

•210
 Soundness
• Soundness is the ability of cement to maintain
a stable volume after setting.
• An unsound cement that undergoes large
volume changes, will exhibits cracking,
disruption, and eventual disintegration of the
material mass.
• It may be due to excessive amount of free lime
or magnesium.

•211
 Free Lime
• The free lime is enclosed in cement particles,
and eventually the moisture reaches the lime
after the cement has set.
• At that time the lime expands with
considerable force, disrupting the set cement.

•212
 How to measure Soundness
• Soundness can be measured by
• “Le- Chatlier’s” apparatus. &
• Autoclave test

•213
 Soundness using Le- Chatlier’s” apparatus

• It consists of a split brass cylinder 30mm high, 30mm

internal diameter and 0.5mm thick.
• Two pointers, 165mm in length up to the axis of
cylinder are attached to the cylinder, one on each
side of the split.
• The paste of 100gms cement made with measured
quantity of clean water required for a paste of
normal consistence is filled in the mould resting on a
glass plate.

•214
 Soundness using Le- Chatlier’s” apparatus

• Another glass plate is placed on the mould and

weighed down.
• The whole is immediately placed in a water bath
maintained at a temperature of 270C to 320C.
• After 24 hours the distance between the pointer is
measured and the mould is transferred to a beaker
of water heated to boiling point and kept at this
temperature for one hour.

•215
 Soundness using Le- Chatlier’s” apparatus

• After cooling the increase in the distance

between the pointers is noted.
• The increase in this distance should not be
more than 5mm for cement that had been
aerated for seven days in a humidity of 50 to
80 percent before test or 10mm if the cement
had been kept in air-tight container.

•216
Soundness using Autoclave
• Standard specimens of neat cement
paste are subjected to high
pressure and temperature for 3
hours.

• After cooling, the length of bars is

compared with the length before
testing and cement which exhibits
an expansion of not more than 0.5
percent are considered to be
sound.

•217
 Heat of Hydration
• It is the heat produced by the chemical reaction
between cement and water.
• The amount of heat generated depends on chemical
composition of cement.
• Rate of heat generated is affected by the fineness of
cement, temperature during hydration, and chemical
composition.
• If heat is not rapidly dissipated, an undesirable rise in
temperature may occur which may be accompanied
by thermal expansion.

•218
 Heat of Hydration
• A subsequent drop in temperature may then create
undesirable stresses in the structure as such.
• On the other hand a rise in temperature may be beneficial in
cold weather, help to make favorable curing conditions.

Comparative amount of heat of hydration during first 7-days

ASTM Cement Type Heat Generated (%)

Type-I (Normal Portland) 100
Type-II (Modified cement) 80-85
Type-III (Early strength) 150
Type-IV (Low heat of hydration) 40-60
Type-V (Sulphate resisting)
•Dept of Mat Eng 60-75 •219
 False Setting
• It is abnormal or premature stiffening of the cement paste
within a few minutes of mixing with water.
• False set of Portland cement is a stiffening of a concrete
mixture with little evidence of significant heat generation.
• In false setting no appreciable heat is evolved and
remaining of cement paste without addition of water
restores the elasticity of cement paste until it sets in
normal manner.
• During storage the alkalis of cement reacts with moisture
of the air forming Ca(OH)2 which further converts to
limestone, which causes false set.
• To restore plasticity, all that is required is further mixing
without additional water.

•220
 Flash Setting
• If the cement has hydrated and further
remixing will do no good, the type of setting
will be flash setting.

•221
 Specific gravity
• Specific gravity of a portland cement is
generally about 3.15. cement made from
materials other than limestone and clay may
have some different values.
• Specific gravity is not an indicator of quality of
cement but is used in mix design.

•222
•223
 Types of cements
• Based on ASTM Classifications,
• ASTM Type-I (Normal)
• ASTM Type-II (Moderate Heat or Modified)
• ASTM Type-III (High Early Strength)
• ASTM Type-IV (Low Heat)
• ASTM Type-V (Sulfate Resisting)

•224
 ASTM Type-I (Normal)
• This type of cement is used in general concrete
construction when the special properties of the other
types are not required.
• It is used where the concrete will not be subjected to
sulfate attack from soil or water or be exposed to
severe weathering conditions.
• It is generally not used in large masses because of the
heat of hydration generated.
• Its uses includes in pavements, sidewalks, reinforced
concrete buildings, bridges, railways structures, tanks,
and reservoirs,, water pipes and masonry units.

•225
 ASTM Type-II (Modified)
• Type II cement is used where resistance to moderate sulfate
attack is important, as in areas where sulfate concentration in
ground water is higher than normal but not severe.
• Type II cements produce less heat of hydration than type I,
thus their use in structure of mass such as piers, abutments,
and retaining walls.
• They are used in warm weather concreting because of their
lower temperature rise than type I.

•226
 ASTM Type-III (Early High Strength)

• Type III cements are used where an early strength

gain is important and heat generating is not a critical
factor.
• When forms have to be removed for reuse as soon as
possible, type III supplies the strength required in
shorter periods of time than the other types.

•227
 ASTM Type-IV (Low Heat)

• Type IV cement is used where the rate and amount

of heat generated must be minimized.
• The strength development for this type is at a slower
rate than type I.
• It is primarily used in large mass placement such as
gravity dams where the amount of concrete at any
given time is so large that the temperature rise
resulting from heat generating during hardening
becomes a critical factor.

•228
ASTM Type-V (Sulfate Resisting)
• Type V is primarily used where the soil or
ground water contains high sulfate
concentrations and the structure would be
exposed to severe sulfate attack.

•229
 Types of Cement and their Uses in Concrete
Construction
There are various types of cement used in concrete construction. Each
type of cement has its own properties, uses and advantages based
on composition materials used during its manufacture.
13 Types of Cement and their Uses
• Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
• Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
• Rapid Hardening Cement
• Quick setting cement
• Low Heat Cement
• Sulphates resisting cement
• Blast Furnace Slag Cement
• High Alumina Cement
• White Cement
• Coloured cement
• Air Entraining Cement
• Expansive cement
• Hydrographic cement •Dept of Mat Eng •230
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of

cement which is suitable for all general concrete construction. It
is most widely produced and used type of cement around the
world with annual global production of around 3.8 million cubic
meters per year. This cement is suitable for all type of concrete
construction.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker
with Portland cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with
the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and
uniformly blending portland cement and finepozzolana.
This cement has high resistance to various chemical attacks on
concrete compared with ordinary portland cement and thus it is
widely used. It is used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage
works and for laying concrete under water such as bridges, piers,
dams and mass concrete works etc.

•Dept of Mat Eng •231

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in early days it is used in concrete
where formworks are removed at an early stage and is similar to ordinary portland
cement (OPC). This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s
content and finer grinding which gives greater strength development than OPC at an
early stage.
The strength of rapid hardening cement at the 3 days is similar to 7 days strength of
OPC with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, advantage of this cement is that
formwork can be removed earlier which increases the rate of construction and
decreases cost of construction by saving formwork cost.
Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works,
etc.

4. Quick setting cement

The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that
quick setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary
Portland Cement, while rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in
both cases can be removed earlier.
Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period
and for concreting in static or running water

•Dept of Mat Eng •232

5. Low Heat Cement
Low heat cement is prepared by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium
aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. This makes the
concrete to produce low heat of hydration and thus is used in mass
concrete construction like gravity dams, as the low heat of hydration
prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.
This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and
initial setting time is greater than OPC.
6. Sulphates Resisting Cement
Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on
concrete and thus is used in construction of foundations where soil has high
sulphate content. This cement has reduced contents of C3A and C4AF.
Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate
action by water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls,
siphons etc.
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about
60% slag and resembles more or less in properties of Portland cement. It
can be used for works economic considerations is predominant.

•Dept of Mat Eng •233

8. High Alumina Cement
High alumina cement is obtained by melting mixture of bauxite
and lime and grinding with the clinker. It is a rapid hardening
cement with initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5
hours respectively.
The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more
workable than ordinary portland cement and is used in works
where concrete is subjected to high temperatures, frost, and
acidic action.
9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a
type of ordinary portland cement which is white in color. It is
costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast
curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo surface etc. and for
interior and exterior decorative work like external renderings
of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental concrete
products, paths of gardens, swimming pools etc.

•Dept of Mat Eng •234

10. Colored cement
It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They
are widely used for decorative works in floors.

11. Air Entraining Cement

Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air entraining agents
such as resins, glues, sodium salts of sulphates etc. during the grinding of
clinker.
This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with
smaller water cement ratio and to improve frost resistance of concrete.
12. Expansive Cement
Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and
after the time of hardening . This cement is mainly used for grouting anchor
bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.
13. Hydrographic cement
Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals and
has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water and
is unaffected during monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement is mainly used
for the construction of water structures such dams, water tanks, spillways,
water retaining structures etc.

•Dept of Mat Eng •235

 Properties of cement
• Physical properties of cement
• Mechanical properties of cement
• Chemical composition
• Fineness
• Soundness
• Setting of cement
•Dept of Mat Eng •237
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Different blends of cement used in construction are
characterized by their physical properties. Some key
parameters control the quality of cement.
The physical properties of good cement are based on:
• Fineness of cement
• Soundness
• Consistency
• Strength
• Setting time
• Heat of hydration
• Loss of ignition
• Bulk density
• Specific gravity (Relative density)

•Dept of Mat Eng •238

• Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required
fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker
in the last step of cement production process. As hydration rate of
cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of
cement is very important.
• Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon
hardening. Good quality cement retains its volume after setting
without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime
and magnesia.
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests
for ensuring soundness must be able to determine that potential.
• Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.

•Dept of Mat Eng •239

• SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

• Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time
can vary depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement,
cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement
used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not
too low and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting
times are measured:
• Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically
occurs within 30-45 minutes)
• Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some
load (occurs below 10 hours)
• Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

•Dept of Mat Eng •240

 STRENGTH OF CEMENT

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various factors
affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size
and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age. While
testing the strength, the following should be considered:
Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement strength is
merely a quality control measure.
The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should be mentioned.

Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a compressive
load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.
Standard tests:
AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-
in. Cube Specimens)
ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of Prisms Broken in
Flexure)
Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it does not offer
any useful information about the properties of cement.
Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm
cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

•Dept of Mat Eng •241

Heat of Hydration
• When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining
curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially
in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and
C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of
hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the
partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).
• Standard Test:
• ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
Loss of Ignition
• Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes weight
loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage
or adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which
might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.
• Standard Test:
• AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement
Bulk density
• When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be air.
Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range of
density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere
from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
• Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a specific
gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-
pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

•Dept of Mat Eng •242

 HOW TO STORE CEMENT ON SITE?

• Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and

as moisture proof as possible.
• There should be minimum number of windows in the
storage building.
• Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks
in such a way, so that it is about 150 mm to 200 mm
above the floor.
• The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or
two layers of dry bricks laid on well consolidated earth.
• Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the
exterior walls and the stacks.(see figure below)
•Dept of Mat Eng •243
•Dept of Mat Eng •244
ARRANGEMENT IN CEMENT GODOWN
• Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of air.
• The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of
lumping under pressure.
• The width of the stack should not be more than four bags length or 3 meters.
• In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags should be arranged alternately
length-wise and cross-wise, so as to tie the stacks together and minimize the
danger of toppling over.
• Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to facilitate their removal and use in
the order in which they are received.
• Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of cement bags to know
the age of cement.
• When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or during the
monsoon; completely enclose the stack by a water proofing membrane such as
polyethylene.
• Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.

•Dept of Mat Eng •245

 Uses of cement
• It is used in making joints for drains ,pipes.
• It is used to prepare RCC structures of building by using
reinforcement with cement concrete.
• it is used in construction of buildings, bridges, tanks,
domes, flyovers, dockyard etc.
• It is used to prepare cement mortar for building
construction works like masonry, plaster, painting,
flooring etc.
• It is used to prepare cement concrete for various
construction works.