Course Code: 1645 = bt DUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Course Code: 1645 DN eae en Res eel ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY,ISLAMABAD,Educational Leadership PGD (ELM) Units: 1-9 Course Code: 1645 Department of Educational Planning Policy Studies & Leadership Faculty of Education Allama Iqbal Open University, IslamabadDISCLAIMER The material for the content development of this course were initially collected and prepared from several sources. A substantial amount of effort has been made to review and edit the materials and convert them into this courseware. References and acknowledgements are given as required. Care has been taken to avoid errors, but errors are possible. Please let us know of errors or failed links you discover. (All rights reserved with the publisher AIOU 2018) Edition. 2018 Year of Printing waunnnnnnnnne 2018 Quantity 200 Price Rs, PHINEE snncmnnnnnnnnnnnnnn ALOU-Printing Press, H-8, Islamabad Publisher Allama Iqbal Open University, IslamabadCOURSE TEAM Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Writers: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Dr. Kh, Sabir Hussain Dr. A. R. Sagl Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Dr. Muhammad Latif Javed Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem Reviewer: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Dr. Muhammad Latif Javed Mr. Hamid Ali Nadeem Editor: Mr. Fazal karim Composing & Layout: Asrar ul Haque Malik Print Production Unit (PPU)CONTENTS FORWARD. v INTRODUCTION COURSE OUTLINE Introduction to Leadership... UNIT 2: — Educational Leadership. 27 Leadership Theories UNIT 4: Leadership Styles 65 Education Institutional Leadership for Capacity Building... Leadership and Decision Making 125 Tasks and Responsibilities of Education Institutional Leadership.....159 Educational Leadership and Technology. 177 Challenges of Institutional Educational Leaders... 195 ivFOREWORD Education in Pakistan is going through a transition, As part of nationwide reforms to improve the quality of education Allama Iqbal Open University took initiative to launch new programme of PGD in (ELM). PGD (ELM) is a pathway for students of different disciplines to pursue their higher studies in ELM. Department is offering different new courses of Leadership and Management, In this new programme Educational Leadership is one of the newly developed course which is designed for institutional heads. Educational leadership is a particular phenomenon that is being studied and developed with the emergence of new trends in educational management. In early years of twentieth century, all organizational studies were revised and we saw a shift in educational organizations from goal oriented management toward improvement oriented leadership. Leadership and Management although seem inseparable but they divert at certain points from one another. A leader is the one who leads with a vision of future keeping in mind the human elements of working environment, and he/she does not strictly bound him/herself to the mechanics of the system, Leadership in organizations bring a strong essence of human needs. Motivation, diversity, and openness to change and innovation, Educational Leadership is one of the newly developed courses: and it is designed for prospective school heads. Contents of course are mainly based upon Leadership theories, Leadership skills and effective leadership for school improvement. As an educator, I am truly inspired by the creativity brought by the writers of this course. I appreciate the efforts of all those who have contributed to this course development process. Particularly the faculty and staff from Allama Iqbal Open University and external experts who gave generously their time and expertise for the purpose of preparing future educational leaders with knowledge, skills and arrangements required for the purpose of preparing future educational leaders with knowledge, skills and arrangements required for development of education at large. I wish all the students of this course a successful educational journey ahead. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood Dean Faculty of EducationINTRODUCTION s course is designed to introduce with the field of educational leadership as well as the main purpose of this course is to help them to become the best educational leaders of tomorrow. This course is based upon theoretical and conceptual background along with practical implications of leadership theories and concepts; horizon of educational leadership is very vast in which school heads are also seen as the most significant role-player. Leadership styles and strategies vary from situation to situation hence a student of educational leadership and management need to have a professional and practical knowledge and skills to perform the duties of a leader in most effective and efficient way by cooping with the existing challenges. LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this course the learner will be able to: 1. acknowledge and apply the knowledge about leadership in their practices. 2. by using the leadership skills develop effective learning environment in and around the educational institutions. 3. _ lead the field of education to a better tomorrow as a change agent 4, to handle the educational challenges in the field of education as a leader in more effective way. viUnit 1: Unit 2: Unit 3: Unit 4: Unit 5: Unit 6: Unit 7: COURSE OUTLINE Introduction of Leadership 1.1 Concept and Definitions of Leadership 1.2 Need and Scope of Leadership 1.3 Difference Between Leader and Manager 14 Levels of Leadership 1.5 Changing Context of Leadership ( Research, Theory & Practice) Educational Leadership 21 Scope of Educational Leadership 2.2. Education Institutional Leadership Practices, 23 Historical Perspective of Educational Leadership 24 Educational Leadership in Local Context 2.5 Educational Leadership in International Perspective Leadership Theories 3.1 Behavioral Theories 3.2 Contingency Theory 33 Powerand influence Theory 3.4 Implication of Leadership theories Leadership Styles 1.1 Ohio State Studies 1.2 University of Michigan Studies 1.3 Educational Leadership Styles Existing in Pakistan Education Institutional Leadership for Capacity Building 5.1 Concept of Educational Leadership as capacity Building 5.2 Transformational Leadership and organizational change 5.3 Leadership and Self-Efficacy 34 Building Capacity for Leading and Learning 5.5 Building Leadership Capacity for institutional improvement Leadership and Decision Making 6.1 Decision Making Verses Problem Solving 6.2 Programmed verses Non-programmed Decision 63 Approaches to Decision Making 64 Role of Values in Decision Making 6.5. Models for Decision Making Tasks and Responsibilities of Education Institutional Leaders 1.1 Academic Leadership 1.2 Financial Leadership 13 Social Leadership 14 General Leadership viiUnit 8: Educational Leadership and Technology 8.1 Technological Resources 8.2 Use of Technological Resources 83 Operational Issues in use of Technologies 84 Legal Issues in Educational Technologies Unit 9: Challenges of Institutional Educational Leaders 9.1 Challenges for Educational Leaders 9.2 Challenges for Educational Leaders of different level 9.2.1 Elementary Level 9.2.2 Secondary Level 9.2.3 Higher Level 9.3 Challenges in Private and Public Sector Fducational Institutional 9.4 Bducational Leaders as a Change Agent SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Brent, D. Linda. (2005)School Leadership in the 21st Century New York: Taylor and Francis Group. 2. Dimmock, C. Clive (2012) Leadership, capacity Building and school Improvement, Newyork: Taylor and Francis Group 3. Garland, T. Tadeja. (2013) Educational Leadership and Technology. Newyork: Taylor and Francis Group. 4, Harris, Christopher. (2005) Effective Leadership for School Improvement: Londen: Taylor and Francis Group. 5. Matthew, L. (2012) Effective School Leadership Theories. New York: Taylor and Francis Group. 6. John, C. Maxwei, (2011) The Five Levels of Leadership: proven steps to Maximize your potential. New York: Hachette Book Group. viiiUnit-1 INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP Compiled by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Latif Javed 1CONTENTS Introduction. 3 1.1 Concept and Definition of Leadership. 5 1.2. Need and Scope of Leadership .. Levels of Leadership. 10 Difference between Leadership and Management... 12 Changing Context of Leadership (Theory and Practice)... 14Introduction Leadership is a process in which a leader influences and motivates people to get things done, Northouse (2001) defined leadership as a process in which a group of individuals is influenced by one individual to achieve a common goal. It is a reciprocal process in between leaders and followers. It takes place in organizational context. According to Kouzes and Posner (2007), “Leadership is not a solo act; it isa team effort.” It involves a sharp interaction of many factors like organizational goals, personal values, individual working preferences, organizational structure and rules (Charles & Townley, 2009), However, leadership is not simply individual characteristic or difference. It is dyadic, shared relational, strategic, global, and a complex social dynamic (Avotio 2007, Yukl 2006). ‘There are many theories that explain the concept and practice of leadership differently. The Trait theories concentrate on personal traits. It separates leaders from non-leaders. ‘These traits are inner motivation, integrity, exercise of influence, self-confidence, intelligence, relevant knowledge, emotional maturity, and flexibility. Behavior theories analyze leaders’ behavior to understand leadership. They are also called classical behavioral theories of leadership. A sharp line cannot be drawn between the trait theories and the behavior theories of leadership. Some researcher and school administrators believe that leadership practice is too complex and cannot be explained just by a set of traits or behaviors. Here, contingency theories explain leadership in a different way. It focuses on the situation and context in which the act of leading is taking place. It says that leadership behavior is dependent on the situation. In unit three you will read these theories in more detail (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 201). Dear students the above mentioned theories suggest some style of leadership. Currently two models of leadership are considered basic, These are transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Transactional leaders give rewards to followers’ goal accomplishment and cohesion (loyalty). While transformational leaders think about high-level needs (Maslow’s hierarchy) of his followers (Kelly, 2003). They motivate followers to transcend thei own needs for some other collective goal (Feinberg, Ostroff & Burke, 2005), According to (Northouse, 2001) transformational leadership is a process which transforms the individuals and organizations. Transformational leaders induce high level of commitment in their teams by shared vision. According to (Leithwood, 2000), Transformational leadership is that which: ... “facilitates a redefinition of a people’s mission and vision, a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring of their systems for goal accomplishment. It is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into. moral agents.” Kouzes and Posner (2007) identified five practices that transformational leaders use to lead their followers: (1) modeling the way; (2) inspiring a shared vision; (3) challenging the process; (4) enabling others to act; and (5) encouraging the heartYuki (2006) devised a classification scheme for leadership theories. It is hierarchical model. Fach can be placed in any one of the four groups depending on the definition of the process of leadership. The first in hierarchy is for interpersonal leadership theories, second is for dyadic leadership processes, this is for group leading theories, and fourth is for organizational leadership theories, see figure 1.1 Organization Figure 1.1: Levels of Conceptualization in Leadership Process (Yukl, 2006, p. 33). This book explores the concept and definitions of leadership processes. This is an introductory course, aiming to raise your interest in educational leadership and to prepare ‘you for leadership of educational institutions. The course has been divided into nine units, The first unit provides introduction to leadership. It provides a brief description of leadership theories, concept, definitions, and its levels. The second unit focuses on educational leadership. Historical perspective, needs and scope of educational leadership hhave been discussed in the unit. In the third unit you will get acquainted with the latest leadership theories. Here you will read about leadership and making appropriate decisions, and characteristics of leadership. The fourth unit introduces. different leadership styles, focusing transactional leadership, moral leadership, situational, and transformational leadership. The remaining 4 units link the theories and concepts of leadership with the practices. In unit five you will leam roles and responsibilities of leaders and conflict resolution. Unit six is about effective leadership strategies. Leadership characteristics and skills are being discussed in unit seven. Change leadership will be explicated in unit eight. The last unit is about use of technology in educational leadership, In this unit you will study concept and definition of leadership, needs and scope of leadership, levels of leadership, and relation between Management and Leadership.Objective: To understand the concept and process of leadership. 1, To know the needs and scope of leadership. 2. Tounderstand different levels of leadership. 3. To differentiate between management and leadership. 1.1 Concept and Definition of Leadership ‘The term leadership has been defined by researchers in different ways. According to Yukl (2009) Leadership is the behavior of individuals directing their followers towards shared goal, The person who is assigned the specialized role of leadership is titled as leader and. the other members are called followers. Leaders and followers cannot be differentiated sharply, because followers may become leaders in a different situation, and vice versa. It is a multifaceted phenomenon consisting of leaders, followers, and the situation. Hughes, Ginnett, and Curphy (2009) have suggested the following definitions of leadership, to understand the complexity of leadership. + The process by which an agent induces subordinate to behave in a desired manner. * Directing and coordinating the work of group members. + An interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to, The process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals. Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities. ‘The leader's job is to create conditions for the team to be effective. ‘The ends of leadership involve getting results through others, and the means of leadership involve the ability to build cohesive, goal oriented teams, Good leaders, are those who build teams to get results across a variety of situation. + Leadership represents a complex form of social problem solving. (p. 4) There three terms common in most of the leadership definition; influence, goal, and followers. Leaders influence many aspects of followers’ behavior. For example a principal as a leader can change teachers’ behavior to control absenteeism and improve teaching and learning 1. Influence Leaders influence follower though power. According to Lunenburg (2012), Leaders have some power which makes them influential, because power is the ability to influence, There are two sources of power for leaders; personal, and organizational. Leaders have ‘one thing in common, that is they have a vision to achieve a goal. Vision provides an intrinsic power to leaders making them able, to attract commitment and energize followers, create meaning in workers’ lives, establishes a standard of excellence, bridges the present to the future, and transcends the status quo.Leaders of different styles possess different types of personal powers to influence people. For example charismatic leaders have power of charisma to influence. According to Stone, Russell, & Patterson (2004), transformational leaders develop a type of influence derived from their expertise, strength of relationships, and charismatic abilities. The personal power of leaders depends on their intelligence, their knowledge, their experiences, and their moral values. According to Lunenburg (2012, p. 4), “A great deal of power people have in organizations comes from the specific jobs or titles they hold... In other words, they are able to influence others because of the formal power associated with their positions.” ‘There are five sources of power within organization. Legitimate, reward, and coercive are organization, while expert, and referent are personal sources of power within the “organization. Legitimate It is a formal authority of persons due to their positions in an organization. Using this powers managers influence their subordinates. For example, a boss can assign projects, a policeman can arrest a citizen, and a teacher assigns grades. The subordinates understand, that the organization has given certain powers to their bosses, therefore they comply. Influence due to this power is weak and narrow. A leader using legitimate power is influential within the limits of his authority, and as long he is holding the position, Leaders who rely mostly on formal authority are not very influential and can create conflicts. However, its fair use along with the other sources increases influential skills of leaders, Reward Promotions, pay increases, working on special projects, training and developmental ‘opportunities, atractive assignments are the incentives. Leaders can use these incentives to influence co-workers. This is effective as long as workers consider it a reward. Like legitimate reward powers are also positional powers. The reward power can influence employees for better performance if the reward given has a link with the behavior of the employees. Therefore the managers should make a clear connection between the reward and the behavior awarded Coercive Warnings, undesirable work assignments, withholding key information, demotion, suspension, and dismissal are the examples of coercive influence, Autocratic leaders use frequently this organizational power. Care must be taken while using this power because it causes negative feelings, and resistance among workers, Expert Knowledge, experience, and skills are personal sources of power of leaders to influence followers. Leaders having the expert power can influence followers, even if they are not a high rank position. The influence depends on perception of followers. If followers perceive that the leader's knowledge and skills are relevant and the leader is trustworthythen influence will be deep and lasting. To be influential as expert, leaders continue their professional development through refresher courses, seminars, and workshops Referent The referent power is related to personality of a leader. Charismatic leaders are role models for their followers. The followers follow, even imitate them, Such leaders can influence deeply. They have the power to transform people and organizations, because followers trust them and copy them. According to Yukl (1981), Referent power is usually greater for someone who is friendly, attractive, charming, and trustworthy....Referent power is increased by showing concern for the needs and feelings of others, demonstrating trust and respect, and treating people fairly. However, to achieve and maintain strong referent power usually requires more than just flattery, favors, and charm, Referent power ultimately depends on the agent's character and integrity. Over time, actions, speak louder than words, and someone who tries to appear friendly but manipulates and exploits people will lose referent power. Integrity is demonstrated by being truthful, expressing a consistent set of values, acting in a way that is consistent with one's espoused values, and carrying out promises and agreements. (p. 207) Legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent are the basic sources of power. Nature of influence depends on the type of power used. Figure 1.1 depicts the influences caused by different types of powers. Table 1.1 consists of details about an article and book that should bbe read for further study and understanding of sources of power and their influences, Calernrreent ina pecans oe Table 1.1 Lunenbu', FC. (2012) | Power and leaders an influence process, Inlamalinaljoumal oF management business and administration, 15), 1. Yon GA (BI Leadershi in organizations, Pearson Education Inia. {BOOK]2. Followers In the process of leadership leaders exert influence on followers. There for leading requires followers. In organizations formal groups are leaded by the leaders, and thus the leadership is formal. In informal leadership the followers are not the subordinates. The followers are influenced by leader due to some special skills, and personality traits, In ‘any case the influence depends on followers’ skills and knowledge, too. According to Whitlock (2013), the employees in an organization must have appropriate skills for ‘optimized performance. The leaders then will be able to achieve the organization’s goals. According to Yung and Tsai (2013) there are two dimensions of followership: 1 ‘competency, 2.relationship. Competency implies working efficiently in group, accepting change, understanding what is expected, and seeing one’s self as a resource. Relationship refers to building trust, collaborating, identifying with the leader, and adopting the leader's vision, 3. Goal Leaders influence followers to change their behavior for the purpose of attainment of a goal, Leaders and their followers focus on goal attainment. For example one of the goals of a school could be to inculcate cultural value in children. For attainment of this goal principals influence teachers and other stakeholders, changing their behavior. Leaders ‘guide their followers to develop shared visions and goals. In case if employees do not know about vision and goals of their organizations, they would not be effective. Leaders aligned all their own and followers’ actions with the goals of their organizations. New and higher goals are set after achievement of set goals. Leadership is not a position, but a process, Leadership skills can be learnt, this is the reason that leaders continue their leaming to get more effective. The process of leadership involves, influence, followers, and goal attainment. Leaders influence their followers to align followers’ behavior with the goal attainment. The sources of power of influence ate personal, and organization. The personal power sources are charisma, skills, experience, and knowledge. While, formal authority or legitimate, rewards, and coercive are granted to leaders by their organizations. 1.2 Need and Scope of Leadership Dear students, in our society we face many problems, conflicts, and challenges. We seek ‘guidance formally or informally. We look for people who are able to influence and solve the problem, in other words to achieve the objectives. If you feel that there are numerous problems we are facing, or you feel that there is a need fo achieve goals then there is an intense need of leadership. It can affect our life in social setup as well as in a formal ‘organizational setup. Organizations achieve their goals by providing effective leadership. Leaders give vision to their followers and align followers’ thoughts with the vision, and translate vision into goals. The influences on followers, exerted by the leaders, modify their behavior in a waythat it contributes in achievement of goals. Leaders motivate and empower their followers to ensure the goals attainment. Leaders are to lead a group, and therefore the way leaders work with their followers is an important factor in goal attainment. School administrators should apprehend leadership styles and should be able adopt appropriate style in different situations. ‘The challenges to the educational institutions are of varying nature. For the school improvement and ‘making it successful institutions educational leaders develop and multiple and different goals for achievement of overall success. Leithwood, Seashore, Anderson, &Wahlstrom (2004) identified the following areas, for goal setting, for school leaders. Creating and sustaining a competitive school District educational leaders should set goals for school leaders, to make their school ‘competitive with other institutions. Such goals motivate principals, teachers, and students to improve leaming environment for better results. Comparisons with other institutions put extra pressure on all stakeholders to perform effectively. Empowering others to make significant decisions This goal is achieved by empowering stakeholders. Making informed decisions with involvement of all stakcholders is a part of this goal. Achieving this goal will improve monitoring and accountability of schools. The administrator should have the ability to delegate powers and guide their followers align their actions with the goal, Teachers should be empowered and should be involved in decision making related to curriculum design and selection. Providing instructional guidance Principals set goals for improvement of teaching and learning. Setting of professional standards for teachers helps school leaders’ in teachers’ appraisal and professional development, Principals’ instructional leadership skills will help in achieving this goal. They will be to coordinate and communicate effectively with teacher to improve teachers’ instructional practices, Leaming assessment should be done to make appropriate changes in the process. Developing and implementing strategic and school-improvement plans School improvement plan is a comprehensive and documented strategy. It is a cyclic process, implemented for improvement of every department of a school. It requires competencies and expiries in field, like financing and budgeting, professional development, resources management, implementation, and evaluation, Expert power is basic requirement for a leader to develop and implement the plan. It also requires leadership skills and behavior of teachers and community representatives. Blasé and Blasé conducted a research in 2000, in USA, to identify the ways principals can influence teachers. Qualitative data was collected from 800 American teaches. They reported that effective principals valued dialog that encouraged teachers to criticallyreflect on their learning and professional practice. This dialog consisted of five primary talking strategies including: Making suggestions, Giving feedback, Modeling, Using inquiry and soliciting advice and opinions, and Giving praise. Principals made suggestions to teachers both during post observation conferences and. informally, in day-to-day interactions. These suggestions were purposeful, appropriate, and nonthreatening, and were characterized by: + Listening, © Sharing their experiences, . 1g examples and demonstrations, + Giving teachers choice, + Contradicting outdated or destructive policies, Encouraging risk taking, Offering professional literature, Recognizing teachers’ strengths, and Maintaining a focus on improving instruction. (p. 133) Blave J, Blase, 1.2000) | EMecive nsbuctonal eadarship: Teachers perspectves on how prndpale promote teaching and fearing in schools. Joumal of Educatonal Administration, 38(2), 130-145, Teachers can play their roles as leaders to support school administration in goal attainment, Dear students you can play your role as leader in different ways. For example you can be a resource provider to your colleagues. AS an instructional leader you can ‘make a group to implement effective teaching strategies. Visionary teachers can play their role as change agent. They always look for better way instead of relaxed with the status quo. Teachers can also become part of school administration in such cases teachers ‘must understand leadership and have skills to exhibit, School leaders share vision of the school and align their personal and professional goals with those of the school. They share responsibility for improvement of their schools. 1.3 Levels of Leadership Maxwell (2011) described five levels of leadership. These levels are Position, Permission, Production, People Development, and Pinnacle. Figure 1.2 shows the levels, It is a road map for those who want to reach to highest level of leadership. It gives a learning path. It gives a clear picture of leadership. In the following section each step is explained in detail. 105. Pinnacle Respect Peco chow becawe ot ‘aha youare od ah you nore 4, People Development Asproducton ecto becave twat shave Seer = 3, Production a Pecpeclow became of wa you howe ana he 2. Permission Pcp you because ay want. 1. Position Fife ‘Pept toto you besa ty aren Figure 1.2 Five Levels of Leadership 1.3.1 Position This is the lowest level, leaders by position are considered leaders but they may not have leadership qualities. Such pseudo leaders are usually bosses having the authority to be followed. They have subordinates and ensure implementation of rules regulation. They control people and processes through rules and regulations. A leader does not need position to influence people. They might not have big name and may not be very famous. However, they possess leadership qualities and influence followers for achievement of a common goal. Those who have a leading position like principal, DEO, Director, etc. can learn leadership skills to become true leaders. They then will jump to a higher level of leadership. 1.3.2 Permission At this level leaders influence their followers in a manner that they go beyond comply and orders. Leaders influence followers not by position rather, by liking, caring, valuing, including, and trusting their followers. WWLeaders at position level may jump to this level by leaning leadership skills and changing their behavior accordingly. Subordinate can be turned into followers, changing totally the working environment. 1.33 Produetion When leader at permission level achieve or making progress towards achievement of objectives, they jump into to production, Some leaders stay at permission level, because they are not productive. Due to lacking of skills, self-discipline, and work ethics they are unproductive. 1.34 People Development Leaders at this level develop their team and organization, tuning their followers into leaders. At production level leaders their team to produce something while, at development level leaders focus on personnel development. Leaders at this level possess higher level of leadership abilities. Human resources are valuable assets of an organization, Human resouree development ‘ean accelerate and excel an organization. Therefore, leaders must acquire higher abilities of leadership for transit to the developer level. It gives high productivity teams to ‘organizations and transforms the organizations 1.35 Pinnacle This is the highest level of leadership. Leaders ate this level become legends. They go beyond their organization and influence the community. They change the lives of people. Leaders at this level possess leadership skills and some in born qualities. Usually this level of leadership is gained at the final stages of career. 1.4 Difference between Leadership and Management The terms leadership and management are used interchangeably, but they are different. For example leaders advocate change and are concemed with the people beliefs and gaining their commitments. While, managers advocate stability and the status quo, exercise authority and worry about how things get accomplished. ‘The process of leadership is different from the process of management. The leadership process involves developing a shared vision for organization, motivating and empowering people, and needs fulfillment, In contrast the management process involves planning and budgeting, organizing staffing, controlling. It reduces uncertainty and stabilizes organization, while leadership creates uncertainty and struggle for change. According to Kotterman (2006), Although leadership and management may be similar in a few ways, they have many very distinct differences. Both leaders and managers may have involvement in establishing direction, aligning resources, and motivating people. Managers, however, plan and budget while leaders establish direction. Managers have @ narrow purpose and try to maintain order, stabilize work, and organize resources. Leaders seek to develop 2new goals and align organizations...Managers control problem solve while leaders motivate and inspire. (p. 14) Lunenburg (2011) did a literature review on difference between leadership and ‘management and concluded that though managers are granted legitimate power to lead, there is no surety that they will lead efficiently. Leaders who have expert power and referent power ate able to lead efficiently. Organizations need both strong leaders and ‘200d managers for performance optimization. Table 1.1 shows the comparisons, reported. by Lunenburg. Table 1.1 Comparisons between Leadership and Management Categer Leadership Management Thinking Process Focuses on Deope Focuses on things Looks ward Looks outward eal Sang ‘culate awison Creatas the Ware Execs plane ‘So0s the forest Improve ‘Sous ta tres Enployes Relations pone Conta Colleagues Subordnates Truss & develops Directs & coordinates Operation Does the right things Does tings righ, (roates change Manages change ‘Serves subordinates Serves super ordinates Governance Uses influence Uses authoity Uses confer Avoids confit ‘Acts decisive Acts responsibly Lunenburg (2011, p. 2) In education leadership and management overlap with each other. Schools need both leadership and management (Bush, 2007). However, he criticized the Caldwell (1992) model, proposed for the school principals. According to this model of managerial leadership, principlas should be able to perform seven managerial functions: © Goal setting Needs identification Priority-setting Planning Budgeting Implementing Evaluating (p. 395) According to Bush, of leadership model given by Caldwell (1992) lacks the concept of vision. Vision is a basic element of leadership process. Due to absence of this element better future for school cannot be versioned. However, in centralized systems principals’‘main task is to implement policies made by bureaucracy. They will be very effective if they adopt the model proposed by Caldwell (1992), Activities: 1. Geta list of those principals and teachers who were awarded for their performance by the governments. Select at least one of them and analyze his personality and work, to find his leadership skills, and style. 2. Analyze your supervisor's sources of power used for influence. Please not the behavioral change caused by the power used. 3. Take a school or any other social organization and identify the areas in which it needs effective leadership, 4, Use table 1.6 given in appendix A to assess your basic leadership skills Self-Assessment Questions: 1, Compare source of personal power of servant leaders with that of transformational leaders 2. How would you define your role as a leader? What is your focus? What is really important to you? How do you define important? 3. Do you think influence, in the process of leadership, is a reciprocal process? If yes, please, explain with examples. 4, Why schools need leadership? How effective leadership can improve schools performance. 5. Do you think leadership and management are similar? Please explain your opinion with examples, 6. Ifa manager does not have charisma, can he be a good manager? Discuss. 1.5 Changing Context of Leadership (Theory and Practice) To improve our leadership, we read leadership books, attend seminars, observe famous leaders, even look at our bosses and swear we will never be like them, But do we have a conscious leadership discipline that we practice every day? Based on my observations (including exhaustive research on myself), most leadership is fairly unconscious, so here are three tips to come up with your very own leadership practice. What's A Leadership Practice? It is a leadership behavior or behaviors that you choose to practice consciously every day Here are several criteria for an effective leadership practice + Keep it Simple Limit your leadership practice to 2-3 behaviors and no more so that they are simple, easy to remember, and casy to put into action, + Make it Stretehy Make sure you have one leadership practice that you work on that stretches you outside your comfort zone, that helps you grow + Make it Fun Find a leadership practice you love to do that brings you energy and joy and then make sure you practice it every day. 14‘What's the Right Leadership Practice for Me? ‘There's not a one size fits all leadership practice. What’s right for you may be very different for whats right for someone else? Here are four simple questions for picking a leadership practice for yourself. They require some reflection and self-awareness to answer. 1) What is a behavior that helps me express my strengths? Practicing a behavior that reflects a strength is important because your greatest strengths help you be ‘most successful, To discover your true strengths. For example, one of my strengths is seeing connections. When meeting people, I can see how a person can benefit from knowing another person, so @ natural leadership practice for me is to make connections for people that they can mutually benefit from. 2) What one change in behavior will help me accelerate my impact or meet my goals? I was recently coaching a senior executive who has strong strategic thinking, skills and drive, but has a hard time enrolling others to follow. The feedback from peers and direct reports is consistently that this person is so focused on their agenda, that they do not listen. A simple leadership discipline this person chose was to practice active listening and ask at the end of each one-on-one discussion, “Did you feel heard?” 3) What core value is most important to me and what behavior demonstrates this core value? I recently met with a senior leader and although the meeting was a short half hour, the impact was strong. I felt tremendously energized from the conversation and asked this woman if she had a leadership practice. She said her leadership practice was to be present with people so they felt more comfortable in their own skin after they met with her. So reflect on your own core values ( 4) What is one behavior that always motivates or energizes me? We underestimate the importance of motivating ourselves and keeping our personal energy up. Staying personally energized is a huge foundation of our leadership. So pick leadership behavior that you know always lifts you up and practice it every day. It is very hard to lead others if you ate depleted yoursel. One that I love and employed at one point in my career was to at least thank one person a day for a job weil done or a strength that I observed in them. It always made me feel good and it engaged others more deeply in the organization and in their own contribution How Do I Stay on Track? You know yourself, so pick a way to motivate yourself to stay on track. Here are three ways to stick to your leadership practice. + Keep Score. It’s the Weight Watchers Points method, except more points are better. Calculate each day how many times you took the opportunity to practice your leadership practice + Make it Public. Let your friends and colleagues know your leadership practices so they can give you feedback, hold you accountable, or publicly shame you (this ‘works often with teen kids).+ Keep Reminders. On your desk, in your to-do list, in your car as you go to work. Make up a mantra that you repeat to yourself before heading into meetings. You ‘get the idea. By the way, I have three leadership practices I am working on these days. Here ‘opportunity to hold me accountable: * Assume that “people do the best they can under the circumstances” no matter what their actions or behaviors, especially when I have to have tough conversations (which I historically tend to avoid). This is my stretch area + Ask “How can I help you?” when meeting with others and to take notes on this to follow through. I've learned to temper this with being able to learn how to say a “guilt-free no” when I’m asked to do something I can’t take on. Every leadership practice has boundaries. + Remind myself of three things 1 am grateful for every morning and journal about them. These leadership practices help me create all kinds of great opportunities for my company and build toward great relationships with others. They make me a happier, more energized person too! * Practices of Exemplary Leadership * We've been conducting original, global research for more than 30 years. When we ask leaders to tell us about their Personal-Best Leadership Experiences— experiences that they believe are their individual standards of excellence—. We've found them in profit-based firms and nonprofits, agriculture and mining, ‘manufacturing and utilities, banking and healtheare, government and education, and the arts and community service + These leaders are employees and volunteers, young and old, women and men. Leadership knows no racial or religious bounds, no ethnic or cultural borders. Leaders reside in every city and every country, in every function and every organization, We find exemplary leadership everywhere we look + Related: 7 Personality Traits of a Great Leader * We've also found that in excellent organizations, everyone, regardless of title or position, is encouraged to act like a leader. In these places, people don’t just believe that everyone can make a difference, they act in ways to develop and grow people’s talents, including their leadership. They don’t subscribe to the many myths that keep people from developing their leadership capabilities, and organizations from creating leadership cultures. + One of the greatest myths about leadership is that some people have it and some don’t. A corollary myth is that if you don’t have it, then you can’t learn it. Neither could be further from the empirical truth. After reflecting on their Personal-Best Leadership Experiences, people come to the same conclusion as Tanvi Lotwala, a revenue accountant at Bloom Energy: “All of us are born leaders. We all have leadership qualities ingrained. All we need is polishing them up and bringing them to the forefront. It is an ongoing process to develop ourselves as a leader, but unless 16we take on the leadership challenges presented to us on a daily basis, we cannot become better at One of the greatest myths about leadership is that some people have it and some don’t. We first asked people in the early 1980s to tell us what they did when they were at their “personal best” leading others, and we continue to ask this question of people around the world. After analyzing thousands of these leadership experiences, we discovered—and continue to find—that regardless of the times or settings, individuals who guide others along pioneering joumeys follow surprisingly similar paths. Although cach experience was unique in its individual expression, there were clearly identifiable behaviors and actions that made a difference. When ‘making extraordinary things happen in organizations, leaders engage in what we call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership®. ‘These practices are not the private purview of the people we studied. Nor do they belong to a few select shining stars. Leadership is not about personality; it’s about behavior. The Five Practices are available to anyone who accepts the leadership challenge—the challenge of taking people and organizations to places they have never been before. It is the challenge of moving beyond the ordinary to the extraordinary, ‘The Five Practices framework is not an accident of a special moment in history. It hhas passed the test of time. Although the context of leadership has changed Gramatically over the years, the content of leadership has not changed much at all. ‘The fundamental behaviors and actions of leaders have remained essentially the same, and they are as relevant today as they were when we began our study of exemplary leadership. The truth of cach individual Personal-Best Leadership Experience, multiplied thousands of times and substantiated empirically by millions of respondents and hundreds of scholars, establishes The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership as an operating system for leaders everywhere. 1. Model the way. Titles are granted, but your behavior cams you respect. Exemplary leaders know that if they want to gain commitment and achieve the highest standards, they must bbe models of the behavior they expect of others. To model the behavior they expect of others, leaders must first be clear about guiding principles. They must clarity values. Leaders must find their own voice, and then they must clearly and distinctively give voice to their values. As the personal-best stories illustrate, leaders are supposed to stand up for their beliefs, so they'd better have some beliefs to stand up for. But it’s not just the leader's values that are important, Leaders aren't just representing themselves. They speak and act on behalf of a larger organization. When Terry Callahan asks, “How can I help you?” he means it, When Miller Valentine Group, a real estate solution provider, needed to make an important community grand opening event happen in record time, it required an “all hands on deck” effort. What surprised the team the most was when Callahan removed his jacket, rolled up his sleeves, and literally got down and dirty as he started mulching, the landscape. 7“Terry taught me that leadership is not about titles and ranks,” one of his direct reports says, “but about personal responsibility and setting a positive example.” Tomy sets the example through daily actions that demonstrate he is deeply committed to their beliefs 2. Inspire a shared vision. People describe their Petsonal-Best Leadership Experiences as times when they imagined an exciting, highly attractive future for their organizations. They had visions and dreams of what could be. They had absolute and total personal faith in their dreams, and they were confident in their abilities to make those extraordinary things happen. Every organization, every social movement, begins with a vision. it is the force that creates the future. Leaders envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities. You need to have an appreciation of the past and a clear image of what the results should look like even before starting any project, much as an architect draws a blueprint or an engineer builds @ model. As Ajay Aggrawal, an information technology project manager for Oracle, says, “You have to connect to what's ‘meaningful to others and create the belief that people can achieve something grand. Otherwise, people might fail to see how their work is meaningful and their contributions fit into the big picture.” Leaders have to enlist others in a common vision. To enlist people in a vision, leaders must know their constituents and speak their language. People must believe that leaders understand their needs and have their interests at heart, Leadership is a dialogue, not a monologue. To enlist support, leaders must have intimate knowledge of people’s dreams, hopes, aspirations, visions and values. 3. Challenge the process. Challenge is the crucible for greatness. Every single personal-best leadership case involved a change from the status quo. Not one person achieved a personal-best by keeping things the same. Regardless of the specifics, they all involved overcoming adversity and embracing opportunities to grow, innovate and improve. Leaders venture out, None of the individuals in our study sat idly by waiting for fate to smile upon them. Leaders are pioneers. They are willing to step out into the unknown. ‘They search for opportunities to innovate, grow and improve. But leaders aren't the only creators or originators of new products, services or processes. Leaders know well that innovation and change involve experimenting, and taking risks. Despite the inevitability of mistakes and failures, leaders proceed anyway. ‘One way of dealing with the potential risks and failures of experimentation is to approach change through incremental steps and small wins. Success in any endeavor isn’t a process of simply buying enough lottery tickets. Life is the leader's laboratory, and exemplary leaders use it to conduct as many experiments as possible. Try, fail, learn. Try, fail, learn. ‘Try, fail, learn, That’s the leader's mantra, 184, Enable others to act. Grand dreams don’t become significant realities through the actions of a single person. Achieving greatness requires a team effort. It requires solid trust and enduring relationships. It requires group collaboration and _ individual accountability, which begins, as Sushma Bhope, co-founder of Stealth Technology Startup, employed, “by empowering those around you.” She concluded, just as many others had when reviewing their personal-best experiences that “no one could have this done this alone. It was essential to be open to all ideas and to give everyone a voice in the decision-making process. The one guiding principle on the project was that the team was larger than any individual on the team.” Leaders foster collaboration and build trust. Leaders make it possible for others to do good work. They know that those who are expected to produce the results must feel a sense of personal power and ownership. Exemplary leaders work to make people feel strong, capable and committed. Leaders enable others to act not by hoarding the power they have, but by giving it away. Exemplary leaders strengthen everyone's capacity to deliver on the promises they make 5. Encourage the heart. ‘The climb to the top is arduous and steep, and people become exhausted, frustrated and disenchanted, They are often tempted to give up. Genuine acts of caring draw people forward, which is an important lesson Denise Straka, vice president of corporate insurance for Calpine, took away from her Personal-Best Leadership Experience: “People want to know that their managers believe in them and in their abilities to get a job done, They want to feel valued by their employers, and acknowledging an accomplishment is a great way to demonstrate their value.” Recognizing contributions can be one-to-one or with many people. It can come from dramatic gestures or simple actions. It's part of the leader’s job to show appreciation for people’s contributions and to create a culture of celebrating values and vietories. In the cases we collected, we saw thousands of examples of individual recognition and group celebration. Encouragement is, curiously, serious business. It’s how leaders visibly and behaviorally link rewards with performance. When striving to raise quality, recover from disaster, start up a new service ot make dramatic change of any kind, leaders make sure people see the benefit of behavior that’s aligned with cherished values. To improve our leadership, we read leadership books, attend seminars, observe famous leaders, even look at our bosses and swear we will never be like them, But do we have a conscious leadership discipline that we practice every day? Based on my observations (including exhaustive research on myself), most leadership is fairly unconscious, so here are three tips to come up with your very own leadership practice. Practices of Exemplary Leadership We've been conducting original, global research for more than 30 years. When we ask leaders to tell us about their Personal-Best Leadership Experiences— experiences that they believe are their individual standards of excellence—there are thousands of success stories. We've found them in profit-based firms and 19nonprofits, agriculture and mining, manufacturing and utilities, banking and healthcare, government and education, and the arts and community service. These leaders are employees and volunteers, young and old, women and men. Leadership knows no racial or religious bounds, no ethnic or cultural borders. Leaders reside in every city and every country, in every function and every organization, We find exemplary leadership everywhere we look. Related: 7 Personality Traits of a Great Leader We've also found that in excellent organizations, everyone, regardless of title or position, is encouraged to act like a leader. In these places, people don’t just believe that everyone can make a difference, they act in ways to develop and grow people’s talents, including their leadership. They don’t subscribe to the many myths that keep people from developing their leadership capabilities, and organizations from creating leadership cultures, One of the greatest myths about leadership is that some people have it and some don’t, A corollary myth is that if you don’t have it, then you can’t learn it. Neither could be further from the empirical truth. After reflecting on their Personal-Best Leadership Experiences, people come to the same conclusion as Tanvi Lotwala, a revenue accountant at Bloom Energy: “All of us are born leaders. We all have leadership qualities ingrained. All we need is polishing them up and bringing them to the forefront. It is an ongoing process to develop ourselves as a leader, but unless we take on the leadership challenges presented to us on a daily basis, we cannot become better at it.” One of the greatest myths about leadership is that some people have it and some don’t. We first asked people in the early 1980s to tell us what they did when they were at their “personal best” leading others, and we continue to ask this question of people around the world. After analyzing thousands of these leadership experiences, we discovered—and continue to find—that regardless of the times or settings, individuals who guide others along pioneering joumeys follow surprisingly similar paths, Although each experience was unique in its individual expression, there were clearly identifiable behaviors and actions that made a difference. When making extraordinary things happen in organizations, leaders engage in what we call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership®. ‘These practices are not the private purview of the people we studied. Nor do they belong to a few select shining stars. Leadership is not about personality; it’s about behavior. The Five Practices are available to anyone who accepts the leadership challenge—the challenge of taking people and organizations to places they have never been before. It is the challenge of moving beyond the ordinary to the extraordinary, ‘The Five Practices framework is not an accident of a special moment in history. It hhas passed the test of time. Although the context of leadership has changed dramatically over the years, the content of leadership has not changed much at all. The fundamental behaviors and actions of leaders have remained essentially the same, and they are as relevant today as they were when we began our study of exemplary leadership. The truth of cach individual Personal-Best Leadership 20Experience, multiplied thousands of times and substantiated empirically by millions of respondents and hundreds of scholars, establishes The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership as an operating system for leaders everywhere. 1, Model the way Titles are granted, but your behavior earns you respect. Exemplary leaders know that if they want to gain commitment and achieve the highest standards, they must bbe models of the behavior they expect of others. To model the behavior they expect of others, leaders must first be clear about guiding principles, They must clarify values. Leaders must find their own voice, and then they must clearly and distinctively give voice to their values. As the personal-best stories illustrate, leaders are supposed to stand up for their beliefs, so they’d better have some beliefs to stand up for But it’s not just the leader's values that are important, Leaders aren’t just representing themselves. They speak and act on behalf of a larger organization. When Terry Callahan asks, “How can I help you?” he means it, When Miller Valentine Group, a real estate solution provider, needed to make an important community grand opening event happen in record time, it required an “all hands on deck” effort. What surprised the team the most was when Callahan removed his jacket, rolled up his sleeves, and literally got down and dirty as he started mulching the landscape. Terry taught me that leadership is not about titles and ranks,” one of his direct reports says, “but about personal responsibility and setting @ positive example.” Terry sets the example through daily actions that demonstrate he is deeply committed to their beliefs. 2. Inspire a shared vi People describe their Personal-Best Leadership Experiences as times when they imagined an exciting, highly attractive future for their organizations. They had visions and dreams of what could be. They had absolute and total personal faith in their dreams, and they were confident in their abilities to make those extraordinary things happen. Every organization, every social movement, begins with a vision. it is the force that creates the future. Leaders envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities. You need to have an appreciation of the past and a clear image of what the results should look like even before starting any project, much as an architect draws a blueprint or an engineer builds 2 model. As Ajay Aggrawal, an information technology project manager for Oracle, says, “You have to connect to what's ‘meaningful to others and create the belief that people can achieve something grand. Otherwise, people might fail to see how their work is meaningful and their contributions fit into the big picture.” Leaders have to enlist others in a common vision, To enlist people in a vision, leaders must know their constituents and speak their language. People must believe that leaders understand their needs and have their interests at heart. Leadership is a dialogue, not a monologue. To enlist support, leaders must have intimate knowledge of people’s dreams, hopes, aspirations, visions and values. 23. Challenge the process. Challenge is the crucible for greatness. Every single personal-best leadership case involved a change from the status quo. Not one person achieved a personal-best by keeping things the same, Regardless of the specifics, they all involved overcoming, adversity and embracing opportunities to grow, innovate and improve. Leaders venture out. None of the individuals in our study sat idly by waiting for fate to smile upon them. Leaders are pioneers. They are willing to step out into the unknown, They search for opportunities to innovate, grow and improve. But leaders aren’t the only creators or originators of new products, services or processes. Leaders know well that innovation and change involve experimenting and taking risks. Despite the inevitability of mistakes and failures, leaders proceed anyway, ‘One way of dealing with the potential risks and failures of experimentation is to approach change through incremental steps and small wins. Success in any endeavor isn’t a process of simply buying enough lottery tickets. Life is the leader’s laboratory, and exemplary leaders use it to conduct as many experiments as possible. Try, fail, learn. Try, fail, learn. Try, fail, learn, That’s the leader's mantra, 4. Enable others to act. Grand dreams don’t become significant realities through the actions of a single person. Achieving greatness requires a team effort. It requires solid trust and enduring relationships. It requires group collaboration and _ individual accountability, which begins, as Sushma Bhope, co-founder of Stealth Technology Startup, employed, “by empowering those around you.” She concluded, just as ‘many others had when reviewing their personal-best experiences that “no one could, have this done this alone. It was essential to be open to all ideas and to give everyone a voice in the decision-making process. The one guiding principle on the project was that the team was larger than any individual on the team.” Leaders foster collaboration and build trust. Leaders make it possible for others to do good work. They know that those who are expected to produce the results must feel a sense of personal power and ownership. Exemplary leaders work to make people feel strong, capable and committed. Leaders enable others to act not by hoarding the power they have, but by giving it away. Exemplary leaders strengthen, everyone's capacity to deliver on the promises they make 5, Encourage the heart. he climb to the top is arduous and steep, and people become exhausted, frustrated and disenchanted, They are often tempted to give up. Genuine acts of caring draw people forward, which is an important lesson Denise Straka, vice president of corporate insurance for Calpine, took away from her Personal-Best Leadership Experience: “People want to know that their managers believe in them and in their abilities to get a job done. They want to feel valued by their employers, and acknowledging an accomplishment is a great way to demonstrate their value.” Recognizing contributions can be one-to-one or with many people, It can come from dramatic gestures or simple actions. 2It's part of the leader’s job to show appreciation for people’s contributions and to create a culture of celebrating values and vietories. In the cases we collected, we saw thousands of examples of individual recognition and group celebration. Encouragement is, curiously, serious business. It’s how leaders visibly and behaviorally link rewards with performance. When striving to raise quality, recover from disaster, start up a new service ot make dramatic change of any kind, leaders make sure people sce the benefit of behavior that’s aligned with cherished values. To improve our leadership, we read leadership books, attend seminars, observe famous leaders, even look at our bosses and swear we will never be like them, But do we have a conscious leadership discipline that we practice every day? Based on my observations (including exhaustive research on myself), most leadership is fairly unconscious, so here are three tips to come up with your very own leadership practice.References Avolio BJ. (2007) Promoting mote integrative strategies for leadership theory-building, ‘Am, Psychol. 62:25-33. Blase, J., &Blase, J. (2000). Effective instructional leadership: Teachers’ perspectives on how principals promote teaching and leaning in schools. Jounal of Educational Administration, 38(2), 130-141 Bush, T. (2007). Educational leadership and management: Theory, policy and practice. South African Journal of Education, 27(3), 391-406. Caldwell, B. (1992). The principal as leader of the self-managing school in Australia, Journal of Educational Administration, 30:6-19 Charles, T. Townley, (2009) “The Innovation Challenge: Transformational Leadership in Technological University Libraries,” Tatul_—-Proceedings: 1-7, http://www. iatul.org/doclibrary/public/Conf_Proceedings/2009/Townley-text.pdf Feinberg, B.J., Ostroff, & Burke, W.W. (2005) The role of within-group agreement in understanding transformational leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 471-488, French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959)-The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies of social power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. Gregory Stone, A., Russell, R. F., & Patterson, K, (2004), Transformational versus swant leadership: A difference in leader focus. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 25(4), 349-361 Iughes, R. L., Ginnett, R. C., &Curphy, G. J.(2009) Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of experience Kelly, M.L. (2003, January 1) Academic advisers as transformational leaders. The Mentor. Retrieved on November 25 2012, from http://www.psu.edu /dus/mentor /03 0101mk.htm. Kotterman, J. (2006). Leadership versus management: what's the difference?. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 29(2), 13. Kouzes, JM. & B.Z. Posner (2007) The Leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, Leithwood, K. Jantzi, D. (2000).The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38(2), p. 112. 24Leithwood, K., Seashore Louis, K., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). Executive ‘Summary: Review of Research: How Leadership Influences Student Learning, Lunenburg, F.C. (2011). Leadership versus management: a key distinction—at least in theory, International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, 14(), 1-4 Lunenburg, F. C., & Omstein, A. C. (2011). Educational administration: Concepts and practices. Cengage Learning, Lunenburg, F. C. (2012). Power and leadership: an influence process. Intemational journal of management, business, and administration, 15(1), 1-9. Maxwell, J. C. (2011). The 5 levels of leadership: proven steps to maximize your potential. Center Street Northouse, Peter G. (2001) Leadership Theory and Practice, second edition, ‘Thousand aks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc, Whitlock, J. (2013). The value of active followership. Nursing Management, 20(2), 20- 23. http://x.doi.org/10.7748/nm2013.05.20.2.20,c677 Yukl, G. A. (1981). Leadership in organizations Pearson Education India. Yung, C. T., & Tsai, K. C, (2013), Followership: An Important Partner of Leadership, Business and Management Horizons, 1(2), 47.Appendix A Self Assessment of Leadership Abilities ‘Table 1.1 Self-assessment of leadership abilities. ‘SINS_] Statement one ofthe optonsgienin | Selon Oscasonaly | —Ofen —] —Frequenty front of each statement) 7 [am aware of what ram fang 2 | Ths my srengih and weannesses, 3 [al eaby with sos. 7 | Tele te four willbe beter an fe past | dat wih change easy 6 | Iset measurable goals when Ihave project. 7] Others say Tunderstand and sensiivets them, | Oters say rosea conf 9 | Others say | buld and maintain elatonships T0__| Other say Tinepre hem: T__| Others say ama team payer 12 [Others say [helped to develop ther abies Tota of checks i each column Muli snob xt Xe x8 x “To ge you soores add the Tour HUMES Interpretation: If your score is 36+ you are using key leadership abilities well, 30-35, room for improvement. 26 uggests some strengths but also some unused leadership abilities, 29 or less, suggestsUnit-2 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP Written by: Hamid Ali Nadeem Reviewed by: Dr. A.R. Saghir 21CONTENTS Introduction. 29 2.1 Scope of Educational Leadership. 29 2.2. Educational Institutional Leadership Practices... 2.3. Historical Perspectives of Educational Leadership...... 2.4 Educational Leadership in Local Context 2.5 Educational Leadership in International Perspectives... 28Introduction Different definitions of leadership imply that intentional influence is exerted by one petson or a group, over other people or groups, to structure the activities and relationships in a group or organization. Understood as a social influencing process, leadership concepts differ in terms of who exerts influence, the nature of that influence, the purpose for the exercise of influence and its outcomes. Educational leadership is usually associated with formal organizational position in educational institutions. Leadership is not necessarily attached to a role and can be viewed as a process rather than a position of authority Learning Outcomes After studying this unit, students will be able to: Describe the scope of educational leadership Explain the concept of education institutional leadership and its practices Elaborate historical perspectives of educational leadership Discuss prevailing situation of educational leadership in local context Explain the concept of educational leadership in international perspectives 2.1 Scope of Educational Leadership Leadership is not about what someone at a position in a war or having a high position can bbe counted as in an organization does, but it is about the responsibilities that keep the organization functioning, developing and effective and about what the functions of leadership. Leadership means effecting , leading and changing the thoughts, behaviors and intentions. It can also be defined as effective group and leading the members to achieve shared goals collaboratively. Leadership under certain conditions, can also be defined as a process during which one effects and leads others’ behaviors and actions to reach a personal or shared goal. A leader is one or more people who selects, equips, trains, and influences one or more follower(s) who have diverse gifts, abilities, and skills and focuses the follower(s) to the organization’s mission and objectives causing the follower(s) to willingly and enthusiastically expend spiritual, emotional, and physical energy in a concerted coordinated effort to achieve the organizational mission and objectives, Each individual lives his fate, but he is in an interactive environment with others, which is an indispensable aspect of social life. The individual interacting with others and acting with them and on his own has specific characteristics. Each individual in optimum condition is expected to do these all, Leaders are members of this social environment, but they are supposed to have some more features that everybody in the society so as to let them follow. It can be said that everybody is, somehow, a leader; however, a real one should have some special skills or characteristics to make other follow him, 29Ben-Zvi (2003) claims that the objectives underlying educational leadership ate raising the ability of those led to solve problems inspired by the leader, as well as building and encouraging those led to realize their potential, rise above mediocrity and move to high levels of performance and educational commitment. Karmi (2004) avers that educational leadership in general and the teacher as an educational leader in particular, should develop learning materials, curricula, programs for change and effectiveness in class activities The definition of "Leadership" is associated predominantly with the army, but also with the economy and polities. Most of us hear the concepts of military leadership, economic leadership, national leadership or political leadership. Kissinger, one of the greatest American statesmen, said that a leader's mission is to bring his people from the place where they are to a place where there have never been. Therefor, leadership is necessary and relevant for education the same as it relevant in economy: "to bring his people from the place where they are to a place where there have never been”. Educational leadership is a long-term campaign it grows out of knowledge, of experience and requires patience and much time, and its leadership can be enjoyed only in the long run. What it is known, about educational leadership? Throughout the world, the present period is the Golden Age of school leadership (Mulford, 2008: 1). In addition to the great interest in leadership governments and funds throughout the world invest in rescarch and development this, field. Training programs for school managers are now common. Many countries followed the way in which the National College for School Leadership (NCSL) in England developed and performed its mission. Other countries tried to go on its path and established a Leadership Institute or programs to train managers, or updated methods existing long before the Institute was founded, The importance is expressed by Leithwood, Day, Sammons, Harris, & Hopkins. (2006:4) that school leadership is of secondary importance to learning, after the quality of classroom teaching. Criticism of schools in England (Whelan, 2009: 78) shows that of every 100 schools that are administered well, 93 will have good achievements. Out of every 100 schools that are not, having managed well, only one will have good levels of student achievement. Accordingly, Whelan (2009) concludes that the students’ achievements in school rarely surpass the leadership and management there. It is essential for the leaders to understand the context which they are leading, Most leaders are aware of the professional environmental very early. A new manager in new school, and a new context contribute to their intense distinction between this experience and another in a previous school. School leaders try to understand how matters are conducted. They analyze cultural and social alienation, the procedures and running the school. Effective leaders have "contextual literacy" which includes understanding the type of school behavior and the reasons for it, and learning values on which it is based. Such literacy also requires such leaders to delve into the social and inter-personal dynamics in school - the organizational structure, history and politics. They have to get to know the role-holdets and to understand the micro-politics inside and outside school. They also face issues connected to the level of school performance, strengths and ‘weaknesses, and the opportunities to develop and leam that exist there. They must also 30take into account the economic factors and the character of the community that the school serves. There are many factors that must be considered and understood: the type of school and ages it serves, its size, location, the procedures, personnel, administration - all these affect the school leadership and the order they afford the diverse actions. According to Leithwood & Reihl (2003) and Leithwood et al. (2006) the educational leader has to: 1. Create a vision and establish directions: identify and formulate a vision, to create joint meaning and expectations of a high level of performance amongst members of the group, foster nurturing goals, and the ability for followup of the organization's performance, 2. Understand and develop people: The ability to provide intellectual stimulation and leadership through providing an example and establishing the skills that the teachers and the other members of the staff need to realize the school's goals of the school: open, guide, compensate. 3. Re-design the organization: Create cultures and processes based on the principal's cooperation to administer his environment and the work conditions; and all this while preserving the productive and sustainable relations with the parents and community, the school and the extended environment. ‘Managing the education system and the learning: Creating the productive work conditions for both the staff and the students, nurturing organizational stability for effective leadership that focuses on learning. ‘These core tasks also indicate that successful leadership necessitates certain characteristics. Leithwood et al. (2006) raise the possibility that much of the difference in effectiveness among leaders stems from a small number of personality attributes. In addition, the most successful school leaders are those with "an open mind” and willingness to learn from others. Their thought processes within the core values are more flexible than dogmatic, and they are more devoted to the objective (for example their expectations of high motivation amongst the staff, commitment, learning, achievements for all), They are also optimistic. Effective leadership creates motivation, and we expect the educational leader to be optimistic, good-natured, with a conscience and ethical, with ‘a developmental orientation that enables improvement, Besides the core missions and characteristics, we know that values are an inseparable part of leadership. As indicated in Flintham's (2003) work, the cote values of the leaders are ‘used for moral compass for their work. Work on moral purpose (Fullan, 2003), with ‘moral and spiritual aspects of leadership (West-Bumham, 2002) and with leaders who are ‘motivated by emotional heat (Flintham, 2009) clearly shows that the path they pave is led by values embedded in the vision every leader develops for his school. Teaching and learning are the main objectives in schools. Therefore, leadership for teaching and learning is of crucial importance. The McKinsey report of education systems with a high level of performance confirms the need for focus on these facets. The conclusions of that report are that systems with a high level of performance are different from other systems 31in that they focus in promoting high quality teaching throughout the system. The level of performance of any education system depends on the quality of the teachers (Whelan, 2009; 52). In other words, "quality of the education system cannot raise the level of the teachers", (Barber & Mourshed, 2007:16). This statement can be translated, believes this author, as, the quality of the school is no higher than the quality of the teachers, Classification of educational leadership according to management flexibility criteria: Management flexibility can characterize many managers, and especially those in community schools. According to the first article that was written by Friedman back in 1995, principals should adapt the management style to the school's level of readiness as, regards community matters. Such a principal has high leadership flexibility (Kelly, Thronton & Doherty 2005). When preparedness amongst the staff and community is low hhe must adopt a main style of clarification and persuasion, avoid applying too much pressure on the staff while providing explanations for the benefits for the community school. When the community preparedness is moderate, the principal must adopt sharing style to enable more mature factors among the teachers and members of the community to leave their mark on the school and community leaderships. When community preparedness is high, the principal should fashion himself a pattem of behavior of delegating authority to the staff. Thus, he is likely to strengthen the staff's desire to contribute of their time and willingness to the great effort for the school and ‘community survival. Leadership determination: As opposed to flexible administration, perfectionist principals (and not just autocratic principals) are liable to be fixated to the voice of their inner judgment, which prevents them from listening to any comments or feedback from the staff. The driving force that is anger, which bursts out when someone subordinate to them does not meet the standards they set. Basset calls them "bitter idealists". Hoy & Wallace present several dilemmas with which the principal must cope, and his solution influences the way he runs school. These authors classify the findings into two main categories — outward management dilemmas and inward management dilemmas. Wo | Year ‘thorResearcher ‘Characters ofa Leader 1 fie | Jonn ADA Trravalor, meio, enable, motvator,eneget 2 Fae | Francis YAUWARINO Tngivduaized Consideration, ralechal simulation, | Tnspraonal Motivation, loafzed infuonce | S_fa85 | Berna ASS 8BI AVOUO oii niuence| | a F880 | Ruh TAT Visionary, Commureaon Ss, rovers, CCharactorintogiy, Ambition, ‘Commitmeni,Inependence 5 _ fore [6 TeaTS i959 |B BIRD Trovalveness, Tang Riss, Professional Kroweige, ait o Co-operat, Tnleral Lous OF Cont efor [oc 990 | MeCLELLAND: i992 [JB ROTTER 323 [KVESKEA ] KG. WIENS THOMPSON Tena Locus OF Conbal | [7 [a8 | Joe JORDAN & Sue CARTWRIGHT — | Emotonal Stay, Seroance, alechal Competences, | The Absence Of Dogmats, Communscaton Skis, Low Newoticsm, Abily To Hare STes5 fs aod | Worserat ENTRIALGO "Need For Achievement, Tolerance For AnBguty, eral Locus Of conta, Proactive ‘What is the Theory behind Educational Leadership? Instructional leadership focuses on the school’s core business — teaching, leaming, pupils’ progress and achievements. Transformational leadership is concerned with the ‘commitment of colleagues, leading change, improving performance. Moral leadership emphasises the importance of values, vision and ethical leadership. Participative leadership stresses the importance of including colleagues, shared decision-making and social capital. Managerial leadership focuses on the importance of defining functions, tasks and behaviours. Contingency leadership highlights how leaders respond to the particular organisational circumstances and challenges they face and encounter over time Six leadership dimensions are identified as having moderate to large effects on outcomes: ‘+ establishing goals and expectations + strategic resourcing + planning ‘* coordinating and evaluating teaching and the curriculum ‘+ promoting and participating in teaching learning and development ‘+ ensuring an orderly and supportive environment Leadership is seen as a prime factor in improving school effectiveness. Leadership makes a difference. Effective leadership improves educational institutions. Leamer achievement in a school rarely exceeds the quality of its leadership. Three (of the many) factors that influence learners’ achievements are: parental involvement, the quality of teaching, and school leadership. Leadership is strongly associated with educational institutional performance. Good leadership is not only important in itself; itis also a powerful way to improve educational standards. 2.2 Educational Institutional Leadership Practices ‘A recently published Wallace Perspective report that takes a look back at the foundation’s research and field experiences finds that five practices in particular seem central to effective school leadership (The Wallace Foundation, 2012): 1. Shaping a vision of academic success for all students, one based on high standards; 2. Creating a climate hospitable to education in order that safety, a cooperative spirit, and other foundations of fruitful interaction prevail; 333. Cultivating leadership in others so that teachers and other adults assume their part in realizing the school vision; 4, Improving instruction to enable teachers to teach at their best and students to learn at their utmost; and 5. Managing people, data and processes to foster school improvement. 6. When principals put each of these elements in place — and in harmony — principals stand a fighting chance of making a real difference for students. School Leadership Practices in Pakistan Despite the importance of leadership for school effectiveness and school improvement, a key question always remains in the mind of researchers that what are effective leadership and what type of leadership contributes more effectively towards school improvement (Leithwood and Riehl, 2003). In the early, the emphasis of school leadership research was focused on the activities of individuals (Bridges, 1982) and successful leadership practices were associated with these individuals (Leithwood, 2005). But with the increase of educational reforms like site-based management, career ladders for teachers and ‘mentor teacher programmes, the focus of school leadership research has been changed and researchers started to focus not only on the leadership activities of school heads, but also on the leadership employed by other stakeholders of school community (Weiss and ‘Cambone, 1994). Findings of the study conducted by Salfi (2010) in Pakistan revealed that the head teachers of successfll schools empowered teachers and gave responsibilities to others to move school forward. Their leadership practices pointed towards an emerging ‘model of leadership that was less concerned with individual capabilities, skills and talents and more preoccupied with cteating collective responsibility for leadership action and activity. The focus was less upon the characteristics of the leader and more upon creating, shared contexts for learning and developing leadership capacity. A link was made between distributed and democratic leadership practices and school improvement in the majority of the schools. Their emphasis was upon the development and establishment of relationship among teachers, students, parents and other personnel of school community. Similarly, professional development of staff as well as leaders was also the paramount in these successful schools. Gurr et al. (2003) also found that head of the institution impacts indirectly on students’ outcomes by working with and through others and using a range of interventions in terms of individual and school capacity building, as well as teaching and Teaming. The extent of organizational learning was found to be linked to the leadership practices of successful heads that included the provision of individual support, development of a trusting culture, shared decision making and distributed leadership, development of shared goals and vision, and high expectations of students (Leithwood and Hallinger, 2002; Mulford et al., 2007; Mulford and Silins, 2003; Silins and Mulford, 2002). Educational Leadership Practices in Canada As an advanced country let us have a view of leadership practices of school heads. It will present a well-managed picture of these practices in various dimensions, In Canada, 34heads of the institutions use following strategies being leaders in their respective institutions Establishing Goals and Expectations. In order to set definite goals and expectations, the school team develops a plan involving (1) strategic planning, (2) annual operations planning, (3) progress reports, and (4) plan adjustments. 1. Strategic Planning. The teams responsible for the various programs establish their respective strategic plans. At the beginning of the year, the school leaders establish clear goals and expectations and communicate them to the staff: “The first thing to do is to know where you go, a good idea regarding where you want to go, and to communicate this message clearly and precisely” (5.SP) The following is another reference to this kind of planning: When they develop their global orientations, the team has a meeting. They have regular meetings where they discuss, think about the vision and the core orientations to adopt. This is probably where they do their planning. To ensure that this work is feasible, strategic planning development is linked to school planning, past achievements. Operations Planning. Following the drawing up of the strategic plan, the team meets with the teaching and nonteaching staff to discuss and validate whether the plan is ‘operational and feasible Involvement of Teaching and Nonteaching Staff. School heads and team leaders begin by drawing up an initial draft of the plan, To validate its feasibility, the teachers then participate in the process of establishing priorities and strategies. Presenting the Plan to Parents and Students. ‘This improvement plan is related as much to the students” behaviour as itis to their academic success. The plan can also be used to establish the expectations of the students and is presented to them as clearly as possible to guarantee their commitment to the process. Staff and parents involved in the school’s parents’ committee are generally well informed of the quinguennial plan and the improvement plan for the new school year, and they receive the necessary feedback. Strategic Resourcing. Strategic resourcing involves staff selection, hiring, and mobilization, 1. Staff Selection and Hiring. While school principals do not have that much to say as to the selection and hiring of their teaching staff, some strive to secure the best possible candidates. 2. Staff Mobilization. Leadership in effective schools uses four levers to mobilize their staff: information, power, knowledge, and recognition. Information: In effective schools, principals continuously share information with the various contributorsKnowledge: Effective school leaders are able to guide their teachers to acquire knowledge related to their work. They encourage them to see out the appropriate training to improve their capabilities. In so doing, the teachers are better equipped to help their students improve their scores. Recognition: The teachers mentioned that while their principals only rarely intervened with teachers who stray from the school’s culture, they often took the time to acknowledge the quality of their staff's work. 3. Curriculum Management Improving the curriculum is a team effort often supervised by the principal. When duties are delegated, the designated teachers receive the proper support. Any changes to the curriculum are preceded by a thorough student needs analysis 3.1, ‘Team Work to Improve the Curriculum Principals and teachers work together on the curriculum, In one school that had begun integrating a guidance approach in its programs, the principal and teachers collaborated to initiate projects that involved in-class. Effective principals also delegate duties pertaining to the curriculum and provide their teachers with the appropriate support, They focus on more than just the contents, for example, a new course on leaming strategies for students who have failed some of their courses. 3.2, Empowerment of Teachers The teachers actively participate in the development of programs and various committees. 3.3. Evaluating and Responding to the Students’ Needs Principals in effective schools propose changes and adjustments to adapt the curriculum to the students’ needs to ultimately achieve better results, 3.4. Integrating New Services Principals do not limit their actions to reorganize weekly schedules but also introduce new services to help with students’ needs in mathematics. 3.5. Review and Improvement of Curriculum Schedules Effective principals review course schedules for optimised results 4, Teacher Coaching (Supervision) This aspect could be divided into two subtopics: differentiated teacher supervision (according to their needs) and professional development strategies. New teachers are a top priority. The interviewed teachers spoke of the support they received from the principal at the beginning of their career by helping them with in-class discipline or being, present in the absence of any real social network. 364.1. Differentiated Coaching As school principals do not have much say in the selection of their teaching personnel, they choose to focus on their teachers’ professional development in both formal and informal training activities. Supervision by the Principal. The teachers undergo a formative evaluation aimed at improving their skills. The teachers themselves identify their needs regarding supervision and base their requests accordingly. Self-Evaluation and Expert Training. Other types of evaluation are proposed. Teachers in effective schools are encouraged to identify their needs and convey them to the principal who then follows up with them. The teachers felt that their principal backed ‘them up in their projects whenever possible. Peer Supervision. Teachers often present their training needs informally. In each case, the need for training may be addressed by internal resources (peers) or by external experts, “What we try to do is to provide training where staff members share their expertise with others” (I.SP). 5.4.2, Means Used for the Teachers’ Professional Development. In general, several means are deployed to support professional development. Resource Availability: A Prerequisite. Effective principals ensure the availability of resources to support their teachers with their proposed projects. 5. Ensuring Order and Support. The quality of life in a school is expressed through several interdependent components. We identified three themes based on our data: rules, communication, and interpersonal relations. 5.1 Rules Supervision and Control: The rules most often evoked by our participants regarded attendance and discipline. Accessible and People-Oriented Principals: Principals of effective schools have no qualms about losing control by being too close to their staff. To maintain control, no distance is created between themselves and others in their school because they know how to go from one style to another. Although they remain accessible, they know how to maintain their authority to resolve problem situations. Being Proactive: Effective principals establish not only proactive strategies (preventative measures), but also reactive ones. They use proactive strategies to minimize the opportunities for bullying and provide training in this regard. They use proactive strategies to apply consequences already detailed in the directives, and they adapt them to the situation, They do not wait for the problem to happen to act Ensuring @ Supportive Environment: Principals provide the students with the best possible working conditions each day and also during exams, 37Communication Methods: Principals in effective schools ensure quality communication and get involved when problem situations arise by maintaining the lines of ‘communication open with all of their staff. Their staff and superiors agree Solving Communication Problems: Effective principals resolve student-student ‘conflicts by analyzing the situation and each student's profile. Different strategies are applied: punishment, peer mediation, and involving the family. Positive Atmosphere, Friendly Relations, With this open communication comes a positive atmosphere which is conducive to collaboration Interpersonal Relations: In the case of conflicts between teachers, the effective principal gets involved to reestablish communication and to resolve problem situations. Several scenarios are proposed. 2.3 Historical Perspectives of Educational Leadership ‘The term school leadership came into currency in the late 20th century for several reasons. Demands were made on schools for higher levels of pupil achievement, and schools were expected to improve and reform. These expectations were accompanied by calls for accountability at the school level. Maintenance of the status quo was no longer considered acceptable, Administration and management are terms that connote stability through the exercise of control and supervision. The concept of leadership was favored because it conveys dynamism and pro-activity. The principal or school head is commonly thought to be the school leader; however, school leadership may include other persons, such as members of a formal leadership team and other persons who contribute toward the aims of the school While school leadership or educational leadership have become popular as replacements for educational administration in recent years, leadership arguably presents only a partial picture of the work of school, division or district, and ministerial or state education agency personnel, not to mention the areas of research explored by university faculty in depariments concerned with the operations of schools and educational institutions. For this reason, there may be grounds to question the merits of the term as a catch-all for the field. Rather, the etiology of its use may be found in more generally and con-temporarily experienced neo-liberal social and economic governance models, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom. On this view, the term is understood as having been borrowed from business, With advances in science and placing more importance on education, communities and especially people were started to be questioned, After the emergence of natural thoughts and freedom of thought, man and his ideas and thought were examined. Those people ‘who were examined were the persons of their age, or they were leaders, However, does a leader have any differences? If there is, what makes him different? How did he become a leader? What should be done to be @ leader? These questions and similar ones emerged with the examination of people who had leadership personalities. 38Development of Leadership Institute Ya eadership institute ‘Quotas of nstuto Tiitie 19105 | Prvaey Theory Ceadershipis an ib characteris 90-1960 | Benavarsie Theery Eficieney of leader's dopendent on ow he acs 960-1880 | Stustonal Theory An ecient ders susceptible othe condo, [The 12608 [New Approaches ‘leader has a vison 2.4 Educational Leadership in Local Context ‘The role of leadership and management in schools in developing countries is an under researched area. One of the reasons for this may be that much of the effort for educational improvement in such countries has been focused on top down, system-wide change rather than change at the level of the individual school. Such system-wide change has tended to emphasize the disciplines of planning and finance, rather than those of governance and ‘management that are likely to be the key to the effective institutionalization of change at ztassroots level. Also, there is often a presumption that within the highly bureaucratized education systems of many developing countries the role of head teachers, let alone that of others with managerial roles in schools, is relatively insignificant. Such people are essentially seen as functionaries operating at 2 fairly low level within a multilayered hierarchy: The main levers of change are assumed to lie elsewhere with central administrators and planners. This view, however, is no longer tenable, if it ever was, There is increasing recognition that school improvement requires effective management at school evel. One reason for this is the perceived capacity of those close to the point where policies are expected to have their impact to resist change imposed from above. Increasingly, however, more positive reasons for giving greater attention to school-level management ate being put forward. For example, De Grauwe (2000, p. 1) argues that: Much research has demonstrated that the quality of education depends primarily on the way schools are managed, more than on the abundance of available resources, and that the capacity of schools to improve teaching and learning is strongly influenced by the ‘quality of leadership provided by the head teacher. This view implies a move away from the “‘policy-mechanic”? paradigm, which seeks standard system-wide solutions to educational improvement built around key resource inputs, and towards a ‘classroom- culturalist"” model which emphasises the importance of change processes managed at the level of the school (Fuller & Clarke, 1994). This latter policy discourse argues that, if educational improvement is to be achieved, the prime responsibility must be placed with schools, which must be held accountable for the educational outcomes that they achieve To enable schools to fulfill this task, there has to be decentralization of management responsibilities to the school site and, in such a scenario, the leadership role of the headteacher is critical and requires new non-traditional managerial skills (De Grauwe, 2000). However, as with other arguments about educational policy, these propositions first emerged in developed countries, especially those of the English-speaking world — the United Kingdom, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. Their relevance and 39feasibility for developing countries remains to be tested to any substantial degree, although they are increasingly influential among aid donors (Department for International Development [DfID], 1999; World Bank, 1995). Proposals for decentralization take various forms (Lauglo, 1995). Some empower head teachers within the context of loosened hierarchies of control; others place the emphasis on the empowerment of parents through school boards or similar bodies at school level. However, their implementation raises many difficult issues (Govinda, 1997; Therkildsen, 2000). Despite the arguments for decentralization, traditional modes of bureaucratic organization remain ingrained in many developing country contexts, Even where decentralization policies have been attempted, implementation has often been hampered because insufficient attention has been given either to enhancing the understanding among key administrators of the values underpinning such policies or to strengthening the implementation capacity ‘of local managers, especially those at school level (De Grauwe, 2000), Education in Pakistan is delivered through a number of education systems. The structure of the public school system, which educates the large majority of school students, is similar to that of many developing countries, especially in Asia, It is based on a ““top- down’ bureaucratic model with schools in the public sector controlled through centralized policy decisions. The federal Ministry of Education is responsible for formulating education policies and plans with provincial Governments acting as implementing agencies rather than taking independent initiatives for education development in their respective provinces. The system is characterized by the kind of bureaucratic inertia described earlier. Government schools face perpetual challenges of low levels of resourcing and poor quality of provision and the majority of school head teachers are effectively receivers of policy decisions rather than playing an active role in school development for quality improvement, Some structural and policy reforms have been designed to replace the centralized education system with a more decentralized one, This is potentially a major paradigm shift in policy. However, these developments are at a very early stage and it remains to be seen how successful they will be, Alongside the Government system, and partly in response to its inadequacies, an enormous variety of Government schools and school systems have arisen run both by non-profit-makit often community-based, trusts and by private entrepreneurs. During the last 2 decades, this sector has made substantial investment in education in urban and semi-urban areas, although the public sector is still eatering to the needs of the vast majority of population in general and in rural areas in particular. Schools in both public and private sectors are managed by untrained head teachers who have been hired on the basis of teaching experience rather than management and administration experience. Recognizing the need for the professional development of headteachers, Pakistan's various education policies have proposed the recruitment of trained and qualified headteachers in public sector schools. However, this has made little headway nationally Ribbins and Gronn (2000) suggest a number of ways in which headship might be explored: situated portrayals of individual heads based on their own accounts; drawing on multiple perspectives fiom members of the head’s role set; and relating these to information on heads’ behaviour drawn from observational and other data, We have 40undertaken two studies of headship in Pakistan. Our first study focused primarily on the first perspective, drawing on interview data with six head teachers from Government and private secondary schools in Karachi (Simkins, Garrett, Memon, & Nazir Ali, 1998). The ‘major finding of that study was that the nature of the school system in which a head worked had significant implications for how they saw their role and how they played it In particular, the school system context within which Government and non-Government heads worked differed systematically in a number of ways: Government heads worked within a govemance regime dominated by relatively bureaucratic rules and structures, whereas non-Government heads were subject primarily to the direct and personal influence of trustees and system managers. Non-Government heads generally had considerable powers over the management of staffing (including appointments, discipline, and in some eases pay) and finance, whereas Government heads had no such powers. Non-Government schools were structured through salary-differentiated hierarchies of deputy heads and posts of responsibility such as heads of department, whereas Government school structures were flat, with no formal posts of responsibility other than “teachers in charge’ who received no extra remuneration for playing these roles. Associated with these system differences were a ‘number of differences in the ways in which heads in the two sectors saw and played their roles. Thus Government heads managed their teaching staff through direct supervision exercised through face-to-face contact and tours of the school. Non-Government heads, in contrast, operated through systems of delegated middle management systems, with defined middle management roles and meetings with holders of these. Associated with this, Government heads spent more time dealing with intemal issues. Non-Government hheads, in contrast, spent more time addressing boundary issues, especially personal relations with trustees who played a more directly interventionist role than Government district officers to whom heads related primarily through written communication. More generally, Government heads saw themselves as having considerably less freedom to manage than did non-Government heads. In part, this arose from real differences in powers as described above. Beyond this, however, a more general sense emerged that Government heads were less likely to exhibit ‘performance efficacy,” that is to say, a sense that “they are capable of improving student achievement through their deeds” (Chapman & Burchfield, 1994, p. 406). Our study (Simkins et al, 1998) raised some important issues about the work of heads in Pakistan. However, it was limited by its focus. Its emphasis on the day-to-day work of heads and their main role relationships inevitably led to an emphasis on the “maintenance” aspects of headship. Some information was obtained from the heads about their role in change management, and here too the non-Government heads seemed to have considered broader changes and taken more risks than had their Government colleagues. In general, however, the management of change was not the primary focus of the study ‘The emphasis was on the “what?” and the ‘*how?” of headship rather than the “‘why?”” ‘This latter question raises key issues about the nature of leadership in Pakistani schools, and in particular the degree to which “transformational” leadership is attainable or appropriate. Our second study took a rather wider view in two respects. Firs, it took a 41longitudinal approach by interviewing the heads three times over a petiod of some months. This enabled us to explore the heads’ perspectives on the management of change, a key theme in many concepts of leadership as we have seen. Educational Leadership and Motivation: The role of educational leadership is unique to achieve the National goals. It is the educational leadership that that provide guide map to the working force for achieving the set goals. Wallacfoundation published the findings of ‘ report entitled Learning from Leadership: Investigating the Links to Improved Student Learning (available at www.wallacfoundation.org) documented that Principals and teachers agree that three leadership practices in particular contribute to better instruction: ‘+ Focusing the school on goals and expectations for student achievement. ‘© Attending to teachers’ professional development needs. ‘+ Creating structures and opportunities for teacher collaboration. Qureshi (2006,) states that educational leadership have to have the capacity to achieve performance level both educational and organizational through effective supervision and influence. National Education Policy (2009, p.9) envisages Governance and management of education have fallen short of the commitments. As a consequence, Pakistan’s education system is afflicted with fissures that have created parallel systems of education and has performed poorly on the criteria of access, equity and quality. There are many responsibilities which are shoulder to educational leadership and are expected to fulfill them. On the other hand, educational leadership states many hurdles which keep them away to fulfill their responsibilities which start from financial matters to political interference, Education sector management shall be left to the Education managers without any intervention from politicians and generalist civil servants; only then the education managers can be held accountable for outcomes (National Education Policy, 2009). Highly motivated teachers are the key factor of a successful educational system. Motivation involves energy and drive to leam, work effectively and achieve potential (Pamela, 2005), Smith (1994) documented that motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Din and Inamullah (2008) conducted a study about the motivational techniques used by the head teachers in Pakistan and expressions of principal's expectations about teacher performance make motivate them. Leadership in education is a complex phenomenon. The literature on leadership is replete with myriad interpretations of leadership and its different aspects. According to Harris (2002), leadership has generated a lot of interest and the result is a vast literature on leadership and its different practices. There is an enormous amount of leadership literature containing empirical evidence of different practices, however, it has not been decided which style is the most effective 22.5 Educational Leadership in International Perspectives The belief that specific preparation makes a difference to the quality of school leadership is underpinned by research on the experience of new principals. Sackney and Walker's (2006) study of beginning principals in the United States found that they were not prepared for the pace of the job, the amount of time it took to complete tasks and the number of tasks required. They also felt unprepared for the loneliness of the position. Daresh and Male’s (2000, p. 95) research with first-year principals in England and the United States identifies the ‘culture shock” of moving into headship for the first time. Brundrett et al. (2006, p. 90) argue that leadership development is a ‘strategic necessity” because of the intensification of the principal's role. Avolio (2005) makes a compelling ‘case for leadership development based on the view that leaders are ‘made not bom’. This leads to a view that systematic preparation, rather than inadvertent experience, is more likely to produce effective leaders. Evidence to support the value of leadership preparation remains inconclusive. There is a widespread belief that it makes a difference, ‘but empirical support for such assumptions is limited and usually indirect. Heck (2003) uses the twin concepts of professional and organisational socialisation as a lens to examine the impact of preparation, Professional socialisation includes formal preparation, where it occurs, and the early phases of professional practice. The role of school leadership has received a particularly strong policy emphasis in England for over a decade with the creation of a National College for the Leadership of Schools and Children’s Services (formerly NCSL), and an increased focus on training, qualification and professional development for school leaders within a national ‘qualification framework. More recently the links between leadership and teaching have eon highlighted with the amalgamation of the Teaching Agency and the National College. The newly formed National College for Teaching and Leadership (2013) has emphasised its two key aims as: improving the quality of the workforce; and helping schools to help each other to improve. A consistent theme has been strong external accountability pressures, with school leaders increasingly held responsible for raising standards of achievement, leading school improvement and enhancing the quality of teaching in schools. A useful starting point in understanding how school leadership and its relationship to student learning has been conceptualised is provided by the following extract from the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) Framework. Ofsted is the national inspection agency responsible for inspecting schools and providing quality assurance and public accountability in England and it has played a very influential role in shaping schools’ approaches to improvement.This extract emphasises the connection between what leaders do and what happens in the classroom: Effective headteachers provide a clear vision and sense of direction for the school. They prioritise. They focus the attention of staff on what is important and do not let them get diverted and sidetracked with initiatives that will have little impact on the work of the students, They know what is going on in their classrooms. They have a clear view of the strengths and weaknesses of their staff. They know how to build on the strengths and reduce the weaknesses. They can focus their programme of staff development on the real needs of their staff and school. They gain this view through a systematic programme of monitoring 43and evaluation. Their clarity of thought, sense of purpose and knowledge of what is going ‘on mean that effective headteachers can get the best out of their staff, which is the key to influencing work in the classroom and to raising the standards achieved by student. ‘A set of National Standards for Headteachers was established in 2004 which identified core professional leadership and management practices in six key areas. These apply to all phases and types of schools and are in turn subdivided into the knowledge, professional qualities (skills, dispositions and personal capabilities) and actions needed to achieve them, These include: Shaping the Future: creating a shared vision and strategic plan for the school (in collaboration with governing body) that motivates staff and others in the community; * Leading Leaming and Teaching: headteachers taking responsibility for raising the quality of teaching and learning and for students’ achievement. This implies setting high expectations and monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of learning outcomes. A successful learning culture will enable students to become effective, enthusiastic, independent leamers, committed to life-long learning; * Developing Self and Working with Others: building effective relationships and building a professional learning community through performance management and, effective professional development for staff; * Managing the Organisation: improving organisational structures through selfevaluation, organisation and management of people and resources in order to build capacity across the workforce and deploy cost effective resources; Securing Accountability: headteachers are accountable to students, parents, carers, govemors, the local authority and the whole community to provide a high quality of education for promoting collective responsibility within the whole school community and for contributing to the education service more widely; * Strengthening Community: creating links and collaborating with other schools, parents, carers and other agencies to share expertise and ensure children’s wellbeing. People who exercise influence on educational matters of policy and practice come from. diverse backgrounds, and, therefore an inclusive definition of educational leadership is necessary in order to make sense of the drama of educational development. educational leaders in Malaysia are not confined to those who work in schools, colleges and universities but include influential and significant others whose range of various leadership roles have direct impact on education: politicians, civil servants, teacher educators, teacher union leaders, business leaders, leaders of non-governmental ‘organizations, community leaders, and opinion leaders. Among the most significant contributors to educational development, other than teachers, are those leaders from politics and the educational bureaucracy. Contributions from such domains may focus primarily on education policies or on the broader domain of social and national concems which impact on education, for instance, Consumer Education or Environmental Education or the prevention of social ills. Bach leader uses all available resources to 44structure national psyche in the mould of their particular definition of reality and development, Educational leaders have many opportunities to learn useful lessons from those who have lived long and who have wide experiences. Through mentoring and coaching by older and experienced leaders, younger educators could lear to construct, their own understanding of the nature of leadership and define their own construct harmony and values frames. There are, for instance, useful lessons to be learned from political leaders at the level of Prime Ministers, Ministers of Education and Director Generals of Education for the Substance/Contents of educational and school leadership development in Malaysia, Typically, politicians contribute to leadership development by propagating policies which become overarching development frameworks for national development ‘Tunku Abdul Rahman was the Father of the Nation and ensured that enshrined in the Malaysian Constitution was the recognition of Islam as the official religion, the Malay language would be the national language and that the indigenous people would have Special Rights. All other citizens were to have the basic freedoms of language, religion, culture and property. As national leader, the First Prime Minister focused on the critical importance of education and has said that “What is important for the country are books, not bullets.” (Tengku, 1980). For 50 years the focus of the nation has been educational development rather than over military might.The second Prime Minister, known as the Father of Rural Development, paid particular attention to education in the rural areas and. established educational institutions to provide education for the rural population. He also established relations with Communist China and promoted the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the concept of the Zone of Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOFPAN) in the ASEAN region and the National Ideology of Rukunegara, The third Prime Minister focused on the supremacy of law and the realm of justice. The fourth articulated what became known as Vision 2020 whereby Malaysia would become a fully- developed society by the year 2020 and thereby increasing Malaysian self-confidence. In the wake of international conflicts and terrorism when Islam is perceived pejoratively in the international arena, the fifth Prime Minister, Abdullah Badawi, has focussed on civilizational Islam, Islam Hadhari, and human capital (Hing, 2004). It is important to note that in the 1980s, the Minister of Education, Musa Hitam, initiated curriculum reform from the primary school right through the secondary school. This was the most wide sweeping curriculum policy and practice reform in the history of Malaysian education which provided indigenous perspectives on the knowledge worth knowing for transmission to future generations, Self Assessment Questions Describe the scope of educational leadership. Explain the concept of education institutional leadership and its practice Elaborate historical perspectives of educational leadership. Discuss prevailing situation of educational leadership in local context. Explain the concept of educational leadership in international perspectives.References htps://egr.umt.edu.pk/icobm2013/papers/Papers/IC3-Jan-2013-076. pdt http:/Avww ciitlahore.edu.pk/Papers/137-8589017773567519558.paf http.www.savap.org pk/journals/ARInt./Vol.3(2)/2012(3.2-41),pdf htp:/Avww.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1076/sesi.14.3.275,15841 https://www.idosi.ong/wasj/wasj15(3)11/13.pat btips://uk sagepub.com/sites/default/fileslupm-binaries/45143_Gill_2e.paf ‘nttps://www.sensepublishers.com/media/2184-educational-leadership-relationally.pdf https://www.g-casa.com/PDF/malaysia/TNG.pdf |ttp:/Avww.emeraldinsight,com/doi/full/10.1 108/09578231111146489 https:/learningforward.org/journal/february-2012-V http://article sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdt?/10.11648,j.edu.20120101.12.pdf |-33-no-I/the-effective-prineipal/ hitps://www.oced.org/edu/school/44374889.pdf hittps://vww-hindawi.com/journals/edri/2012/712149) bttps://ecommons.aku.edu/egi/viewcontent.cgiarticle=11 188econtext=pakistan_j ed_pdek bttps://ecommons.aku.edu/book_chapters/85/ ‘nttp:/Avww.invalsi.itinvalsi/ri/vales/documenti/04102012/03_| olapdt bitp://www.educationalrev.us.edu.pl/e2S/al I_pdf idership_educ_camb_scu /ttp:/ijll journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/ijll/index.php/ijlV/article/view!558/220 http: www-bildungsmanagement.net’pdf/PubsHuber/1_4/Huber-2010- Preparing%20SchoolL.eaders%20%E2%80%93IntemationalApproachesinLeadership Development pat ‘http://www mdpi.com/2075-4698/5/1/136 Inttp:/Avww.oced org/edu/school/37133264.pdf Excott, S. (2011). Preparing story, Journal of Educational Administration and History, 43(1), 43: cducational” leaders in managerialist times: An Australian, 9 The Development of Educational Leaders in Malaysia: The Creation of a Professional Community (PDF Download Available). Available from: hups:/ivww-researchgate.net/publication/226117104_The_Development_of_Educati onal_Leaders_in_Malaysia_The_Creation_of_a_Professional_Community 46Unit-3 LEADERSHIP THEORIES Compiled by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Reviewed by: Hamid Ali Nadeem 47CONTENTS Introduction. 49 3.1 Behavioral Theories 49 3.2 Contingency Theories... 3.3. Power and Influence Theories .... 259 3.4 Implementation of Leadership Theories... 48Introduction Leadership is considered as being “a part of the problem-solving machinery of the group,” (Gibb 1958, p.103). This recognizes that the leaders are highly powerful acquire all authority, and can influence decisions made in the workplace to achieve organizational goals. The ability to supervise the tasks and assess subordinates in the ‘workplace has been examined form the centuries to study a particular course of action of ‘organizational leaders. For instance; * Fredrick Taylor (late 1800s) gave the concept of Scientific Management to direct the organizational productivity. = Max Weber (1922) gave a concept of bureaucracy to deal with the organizational administration, where the leader possessed power by virtue of his position. © Mary Parker Follett (1926) - participatory management in “power with” as opposed to “power over.” Afier 1930s a revolutionary change occured in leadership approach and got importance and interest in the academics fields. To look at the leaders around us be it our principal or director or the President of State, it wonders that how and why these individuals excelled in such positions and have a skill to engage people, In this context, a number of theories of leadership have formed to comprehend the flashing characteristics of leaders that are particularly suited to leadership. Learning Outcomes After going through this unit students would be able to: * Describe the various theories of leadership, Discuss the necessary characteristics of Leadership. Enumerate the leadership styles and need of taking appropriate decisions. Infer the leadership style that has a high concer for people and for production Describe the important role of leadership that encourages participation and enhance contributions from group members. ‘There are a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders. How their certain personality traits make them better-suited to leadership roles. The effective leadership is a key factor in the life and success of an organization, It isa role of leader to transforms potential into reality. In this unit, the subsequent theories are described the complexity, subjectivity and dynamic role of leadership 3.1 Behavioral Theories Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theory, based on defined behaviour of 49leaders. Here, the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states, but people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. The behavioural theories exhibited two general types of behaviour of leaders: Concern for People and Concer for Production, which gave two assumptions. * Asa leader's gapsideration increased, employee tumover and absenteeism declined © Asalleader’s tick orientation increased, employee performance rose. But, sometimes the actual findings were contradictory. 3.3.1 The Managerial Leadership Grid ‘The managerial grid model (1964) is a style leadership model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton. This model originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concem for people and the concer for production. ajdoad 103 wss9u09 123456789 concern for production ‘The model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis; each axis range from 1 (Low) to 9 (High), where various ‘geometrical shapes represented the styles of management, Concern for | Concer for Sole Features People Task Tmpoverahed Tasseztare sje, minimal aor on T 1 Management | management, hoping to avoid blame for erors ounty Cb gy [Fos zaing sa, contacts wring 3 7 fanagemen environment minimal con Task Manenemant | Aooat yeconsstent wih Weep Thety T v X, Workers nave to complet tasks thing else Team Varaponant | Sia cosa vated n deeson nang area 3 a ‘valued, consistant wih MeGregor Theory ¥ Tide ofthe Read] Compromises made to achieve acceptable 5 5 Managenest eq prone, tevgho bees otacire leadership style Source: ‘utp: //wwew.tutor2u.net/business/reference/leadership-styles-blake-mouton- managerial-grid 503.3.2 Role theory Role theory of leadership as a theoretical approach borrows from the sociological role theory, in which the essential elements of the social system are used to link between the individual's roles in a society. It means, it is a combination of sociology and social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out defined roles like; mother, manager, teacher, etc,. Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person has to face and fulfilled, The term role theory has renowned around the period of 1920s and 1930s. It became more prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical works of George Herbert Mead, Jacob L. Moreno, Talcott Parsons, and Ralph Linton, They presented two ‘concepts - the mind and the self, which are the precursors to role theory, (Hindin, 2007). Cottrell, L. 8, (1942) worked further and said that the individuals play a variety of social roles in their lifetimes and these roles identify and describe them as a social being and their basis of self-concept. In addition to that how well they accept the role changes typical of later years, (YODANIS, 2016) (Sociological Theories of Aging, 2006). These roles form social systems which work best with a chain of command, When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede authority to their leader. For formal setup in an organization, the role theory reveals that through policies and positions set by upper management to develop corporate culture in an organization. They encourage and utilize resources i.e., 3M (man, material, money) to get product line by delegation of role in the organization. The purpose of this strategy is to influence the role behaviour of organizational members on following aspects: 1, The norms, determining a social situation. 2. Internal and extemal expectations are connected to @ social roe. 3. Social sanctions (punishment and reward) are used to influence role behaviour. ‘These three aspects are used to evaluate one's own behaviour as well as the behaviour of other people. But, to define the role of individuals, Cultural role, social differentiation and situation- specific roles are the main concemed areas of role theory. Cultural role is stable until political and social conflicts do not appear. If it happens the cultural change occurs and new roles are formed. As we have seen the feminist ‘movement (popular waves came in 1968, 1980 & 1990s) initiated a change in male and female roles in Western societies. Levels of conflict, however, vary across cultures as a result of perceptions of gender roles and the subsequent amount of time given to work and domestic roles, (Moore 1995), Social differentiation has a lot of attention due to the development of different job roles of employees in the organization. Robert K. Merton distinguished between intrapersonal and interpersonal role conflicts. Role conflict is when a leader and his officers fail to perform a certain role or refuse to accept their role and do not fulfill the set expectations. Another concept “Role overload” is also important in the role theory. It is referred as the experience of lacking the resources, including time and energy, which is needed to meet 51the demands of all roles. Role overload and conflict often lead to difficulties with meeting role expectations, known as role strain or role pressure and also create various negative psychological and physical problems, (Goode 1960), Another German-British sociologist Ralf Gustay Dahrendorf (1 May 1929 ~ 17 June 2009), presented social differentiation by distinguishing between must-expectations, with sanctions; shall-expectations, with sanctions and rewards and can-expectations, with rewards, He also argues that people should accept their own roles in the society and it is not the society that imposes them. Situation-specific roles develop ad hoc in a given social situation. Nevertheless, the expectations and norms are predetermined by the social role. It is a central weakness of role theory that only describing and explaining deviant behaviour, (Lorette, 2016). Researches find multiple roles to be associated with both positive and negative ‘consequences in an organization, but immediate attention is required when the problems associated with multiple roles. Under this assumption, leaders and the employee's role often defined or based on their organizational assignments which generate the Leader- ‘Member Exchange theory, (LMX). The goal of LMX theory is to explain the effects of leadership on members, teams, and organizations. It was found that leaders form strong trust, emotional, and respect-based relationships with some members of a team, but not with others, (Bauer & Ergoden, 2015). To strengthen the relationship, team members have to go through three phases to form their relationship with their manager: Role- ‘Taking, Role-Making, and Routinization, (Manktelow, 2016) ‘he major work has been done on leadermember exchange (LMX) in the past forty years, but LMX is still being actively researched. One of the main questions regards how LMX relationships form and how managers can most effectively create them. By this context, the researches are been conducted on organizational culture, employee retention and engagement, job- embeddedness and job satisfaction. It was found that the leadership technique is the two-way (dyadic) relationship between leaders and follower/team, Whereas, their characteristics help to create interpersonal relationship. Further Study Graen, G. B.; Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). "The Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of LMX theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective". Leadership Quarterly 6 (2): 219-247. doi:10.1016/1048- 9843(95)90036-5. 3.1.1 "Great Man Theory It describes as "bom to lead?" by this point of view, great leaders are simply bom with the necessary intemal or inherited characteristics, such as; charisma, wisdom, confidence, intelligence, and social skills. These characteristics make them natural bor leaders, which assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great leaders are born, not ‘made. This theory often portrays great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to 52leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership ‘was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. ‘The theory was popularized in the 1840s by the work of Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle but, in 1860, Herbert Spencer formulated a counter argument and said that great men are the products of their societies, and that their actions would be impossible without the social conditions built before their lifetimes, (Cameiro, 1981). This argument has remained influential throughout the 20th century. ‘The various scholars narrated the theory as ‘Scholars ‘Contibation| Digest | ‘Thomas Gaile (@ | On Heroes, HereWorship | He saw Hslay 6 having tumed on the deations of camber 1795 - 5 | and the Heroe in Hsiory | "heroes, gng delaled analysis of the uence of bruary 1881) a Seotish | published in 184%. 1 is a | several men, including Muhammad — (PBL philosopher tallecton of six lectures. | Shakespeare, Lue, Rousseau, Perides, and (ne of the lecture dalvered | Napoleon fon May 8, 1840 on The Hero as Prophet. Muammad: Islam Fredarek Adams Woods | Tho Wvluenca of Monarchs: | He ivestgaled 286 ners n Westem Europe From the (1873-1909) Stops in a New Sconce of | 12h century tthe French revolution in the late 18t History published in 1913 century and ther inuence on the course of historical vents, Saran Kerkegaard, Nay | Fear__and _—_Trembing | His discourses begin wih @ dedicaTon to the single 5, 1813~ November 11, | (Oars) publshedin 1843 | individual, who has become Abraham inthis work. He 1855) a Danish claims that tho individuals subjective relatonship tothe plhlosopher called "Father God-Man Jesus the Christ wich came trough ath of Exstetasm,” Some of his key ideas include the concept of “Tuh as. ‘Subjociviy’, tne knight of fath, the recolecton and repeition dchotomy, angst, the inte qualitative istnction, fath 2s a passion, and the thre stages on lies way (aesthetic, erica religious, Willan James (lanvary | Lectwe "Great Wan and [Willa James began with the fact that people are 41, 1842 to August 26, | Thar Environment | diferent. Some possess noticeable talents and gis 1910) an American | published by tie Harvard | How those dferences originate i a logtimate questo, philosopher, psychologist | Unversity Press going back through the wom to cimat, race, divine and trained physician wil and so fort, (Hater, 2003} James’ favourite quote from Kierkegaard came from Hoffding: "We live forwards, but we understand backwards". It is generally appropriate for common people, but the impact of {great men or heroes are highly influential, think forward and plan before time due to their personal personality ‘The theory assumes that leader is different ftom the average person in terms of personality traits (ike; intelligence, perseverance, ambition, ete.) and these traits might be the inherited traits.3.1.2 Trait Theory Similar in some Ways to the Great Man theory, trait theory assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them effective leaders. In early researches, trait theory was considered some physical leadership characteristics (such as height and appearance), personality characteristics (such as extraversion, self-confidence, and courage) and abilities (such as intelligence and verbal fluency), ‘These characteristics could potentially be linked to great leaders, (Kouging, 2009), If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theory to explain leadership. Further research found that not all leaders possess the same traits. No leadership traits have been found to relate consistently to group performance, whereas many of the traits possessed by leaders can be leamed or developed. But, possessing leadership traits is not enough, they must take some action. In this context, Kirkpatrick and Locke said that people with the traits are likely to engage in leadership activities. While, Stodgill’s (1974) enlisted some of the traits and skills for effective leadership as; Traits ‘Skills | + Adaptable to situations + Clever (inteligent) + Alertto social environment + Conceptually siled + Ambitious and achievement-orientated + Creative + Assertive + Diplomatic and tactful + Cooperative + Fluentin speaking + Decisive + Knowledgeable about group task + Dependable + Organized (administrative abilty) + Dominant (desire to infuence others) | + Persuasive + Energetic (high activity level) + Socially skilled + Persistent + Self-confident + Tolerant of stress Witing to assume responsibilty Souree: (IAAP, 2009) It concludes that the leaders born with leadership traits, but inconsistent findings of characteristics among leaders revealed that certain traits may enhance the perception that somebody is a leader. 3.2 Contingency Theories Contingency theories of leadership ate based on the variables related to the environment and particular surroundings of an organization where the leader rule upon. It might also determine particular style of leader which best suited for the situation. By this, the theory claims no leadership style is best in all situations. Success in any situation depends upon. 54a number of variables; the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation. The various researchers explain the contingency approach through various ‘models and theories. 3.4.1 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory ‘The Fred Fiedler Contingency theory is based on a Model which was created in the mid- 1960s, to study the personality and characteristics of leaders. The model states that the best or effective style of leadership is based on the situation or event. The model uses Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale, to identify leadership style. Toast Preferred Co-Worker LPO) Scale Unirindly Teasers rien Ungleasart T2345678 Pleasant Rejectog T2345 ere ‘Accepting Tense Tes4s 678 Relared ‘aia T2345 678 Warm Boring Tes4s 678 Terosing Beciong T2s4sere Loyal Uneooperaive Tee4s 678 Cooperative stl T2345 678 Supporive (Guarded T2345 678 ‘Opened Tnsinose T2345 678 ‘Sincere Unkind T2s4s5 67s Kind Tnoons rate T2345 678 Consort Untustwor T2345 678 Trustwor ‘Ghomy T2345678 Cheer (Quarelsone T2sase7s Faronaus Source: A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness by Professor F.E. Fiedler, 1967. Fiedler said that the leader is analyzed on leadership styles, which are task- oriented and relationship -oriented, He described the model that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively, resulting in a lower score and called these low LPC-leaders. But, the low LPCs are very effective at completing tasks. The leaders are quick to ‘organize a group to get tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority, Mowever, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving them a higher score and called high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal ‘connections, and they are good at avoiding and managing conflict as well as better able to make complex decisions, (Yolandé, 2016). Further Fiedler explains the "situational favorableness" also called "situational control.” He said that the leaders are analyzed on 3 dimensions: Position Power, Task Structure, and Leader-Member Relations. These are the "situational favourableness" explains below: © Leader-Member Relations create the level of trust and confidence of team to their leader. Here, the leader who is more trusted and has more influence with the team than a leader who is not trusted.* Task Structure refers that the clear and structured tasks are develop favourable situation rather than vague and unstructured, because no one has a knowledge to achieve them, + Leader's Position Power refers the amount of leader's power to direct the team, ‘The power either strong or weak and also direct reward or punishment for a team or individual, ‘The main criticism on the Fiedler Contingency Model is a lack of flexibility in leadership style to handle various situations. 3.4.2 Path-Goal Theory An Ametican Psychologist, Robert House, developed Path-Goal Theory in 1971, and then redefined and updated it in 1996 in The Leadership Quarterly Article. The theory inspired by the work of Victor Vroom (1964) and Martin G. Evans (1970) and assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require. The path-goal model can also be classified as a form of Transactional leadership. ‘The theory is designed on expectancy approach to motivate followers through communication styles of leadership and studying it in various situational factors. Commaneaton ses Teadership Role Directive “The Feeders are Senstve fo RaWvGual eam MeTbers nee, espeCay When the tasks ar repetitive and stress Supports ‘The leaders explain the goal and expocaions whan the tasks ave complex | and team is inexperienced Paricpaive ‘The mutual participation is requed between leader and team before any decsion, lt warks when he teams experienced and skies. Tatiovernen-Ovenso ‘The leader sls the changing goals and sandards for each lean member, when they are urmtivaled and unchallenged in their work, ‘The theory proposes two situational factors; Nature of Followers and Nature of task. In the context of effective followers, Kelley (1988) defines two dimensions that underlie as; 1, The degree to which a person exercises independent, critical thinking 2, The degree of active or passive participation, (Chipscholz, 2011). He further said, “In an organization of effective followers, a leader tends to be more an overseer of change and progress than a hero. As organizational structures flatten, the quality of those who follow will become more and more important,” (Kelley, 1988), ‘To study the situational factors, the nature of tasks also affects the path-goal approach. Any task related to the environment and with the person, The organizational leadership makes the task open or closed depending on whether the task environment is stable ot changing as well as discrete, continuous, or serial, depending on their relation to other tasks. It is also found that the organizational practices, use of the mechanism of feedback 56and adaptive task or teach the task in parts depend upon the individual’s ability, (Thompson, 1999). The theory emphasizes that in each scenario, the path clarification and compensation is necessary to satisfy the team and gain the desired outcomes. And, the team shows their confidence and increased efforts in the accomplishment of organizational goals. 3.4.3 Cognitive Resource Theory (CRT) The theory is based on industrial and organizational psychology developed by Fred Fiedler and Joe Garcia in 1987 as a reconceptualization of the Fiedler contingency model, the theory focuses on the influence of the leader's intelligence and experience in account of his or her personality, degree of situational stress and group-leader relations. The theory is originating from studies into military leadership style, but now use in sports and ‘raining purposes to assess the performance and contribution of an individual in assigned tasks. Further Study Murphy, S. E., Blyth, D. & Fiedler, F, (1995), Cognitive Resource Theory and the Utilization of the Leader's and Group Members’ Technical Competence. The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 3, pp. 237-255. 3.4.4 Strategic Contingencies Theory It presents the intra-organizational power and hypothesizes that organizations have systems of interdependent subunits and have a power distribution with its sources in the division of labour, (Hickson, Hinings, Lee, Schneck, & Pennings, June 1971). The theory focuses on leadership personality and skills that need to solve the problems. It explains that if a person does not have charisma, but is able to solve problem, then he or she can be an effective leader. Here, the leader has a central role and the ability to view the situation and its problems. Simply, the theory helps to objectify leadership techniques, as opposed to relying on personalities In scientific and formal academic problem situations, the theory would have shown more force and effect, because, the persons are rational agents in this situation to identify and orient the problem and able to address it directly. 3.4.5 Situational Theories Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables and use different styles of leadership for certain types of decision- ‘making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be the most appropriate, where group members are skilled and experts, a democratic style would be more effective, ‘These theories are the essence of contributions of American authors, Dr. Paul Hersey (1931 - December 18, 2012), professor and author of the book “The Situational Leader,"and Kenneth Hartley Blanchard (Bom in 1939), leadership trainer and author of 37popular book “The One Minute Manager.” In the late 1970s or early 1980s, the authors both developed their own models using the situational leadership theory; Hersey - Situational Leadership Model and Blanchard et al. Situational Leadership- I Model and both characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of Task Behaviour and Relationship Behaviour that the leader provides to their followers, (https:/, 2016) (Clayton, 2016) (Shea, 2016), (Sheroo, 2011) Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model describes; The level of maturity of a worker plays a role in leadership behaviour, that is, Maturity consists of; Job maturity which relates to talks-related abilities, skills and, knowledge, and Psychological maturity which relates feelings of confidence, willingness and motivation. Follower readiness Leader behaviour In case of leadership style, the model is based on a directive and supportive behaviour, and shows four situational conditions; S1, $2, $3, $4. 35 Supporing SE Coaching Askinglistening Explringlasking 5 Reassuring Expliningllariying 2 | Facttating sterolant problem solving Redirecting Collaborating ‘Sharing feedback Encouraging feedback Encouragi “Appreciating Praising = SE Delegating ‘Si Dieting or ling g Allowingttusting Defining 3 Contig Planning 3 Empowering viontting 2 Acknowledging ‘Teachingishowing & ting how z Challenging Checkingimanitoring g Giving Feedback LOW njrectve Behaviour — HCH For development needs of employees or followers, the model gives the following performan: ‘Competency ~ function of knowledge and skills variables based on four levels: Commitment — function of confidence and motivation 58cH <-> MODERATE = +=» LOW High High Some Tow Competency Competency Competency Competency High Variable Low High Commitment Commitment Commitment Commitment De OE OF oi Peak Performer Reluctant Contbutor | Disilusioned Learner Beginner In short, situational leadership is not something that does “For” people, but something that does “With” people. 3.3. Power and Influence Theory Usually, people ask! Are the leaders’ forms with power? Or /and is it true that people come in their influence with their thoughts and attitude? These are correct under some conditions, according to leadership theory of Power and Influence. This theory was the work of J. French and Bertram Raven (1960), to determine the sources of leader's power use to influence others, (Lunenburg, 2012). Power and Influence are the abilities that should be aware of all leaders and managers to make things happen, overcoming potential resistance in order to achieve desired results. Power is considered as a natural talent in the fabric of organizational life, (Haugaard & Clegg, 2012; McClelland & Burnham, 2003), Getting things done requires power (Pfeffer, 2003) by using positive or negative behavior to accomplish various orders. Sometimes, the negative behaviour shows biasness may ‘cause conflict, while positive behaviour overcome conflict and even avert it, ‘A Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) has conducted @ research on the role of power in effective leadership in 2008 and asked with sample participants that to what extent the leader leverage the various sources of power at work. Source: A CCL Research White Paper 2008, a) Most frequently leveraged sources of power, and b) the sources of power would be most important in the next five years. The pone oon Tepes ‘Tepows casa pe Teper ass Teper tetris | 9% ‘Te pvercttrsin { Te pmerliomstn Te pe dene a parte ‘epoca pistes IK posto shots poeta erates ‘epee ed es ora. a i 4 ee ee 59The findings in case a reveal that the three most frequently leveraged sources of power are: the power of expertise, the power of information, and the power of relationships. ‘Whereas, the power of punishment was the least leveraged source among all criteria. ‘The information received from the respondents in case b was slightly different, that they ranked third to the power of reward and it would be most important in the next five years along with top two powers; power of relationships and information. 3.5.1 Sources of Power he various forms or sources of power are operating within organizations. While, some appear formally on organization charts, and exist by virtue of official position or capacity to reward or punish. Expert power succeeds because of its ability to convince or persuade people based on what rhetoricians call the ethos of the person doing the persuading. To deal the organizational situations different sources of power have been identified and can bbe described on the basis of two main categories; (a) Positional Power, and (b) Personal Power 3.5.1.1 Positional Power Sources The common positional power sources are Legitimate Power, Reward Power and Coercive Power. Legitimate Power Legitimate power is 2 power of formal position in the office and forms the organization's hierarchy of authority. For example, the president of state has certain powers because of position or status in the state, Legitimate power gives the manager power over their direct, reports. By this sometimes, the person in power believes that they have the right to make ‘demands on others and expect them to be compliant. To some extend the position power is right but, usually the subordinates influenced by the position and not to the person. It weakens the working relationship and lead to the conflicts rather than sharing of expertise. Reward Power Reward power is the ability to give rewards. For examples; the rewards are promotions, pay increases, working on special projects, training and developmental opportunities and. compliments. Reward is the result of position-power and sometime shows the limitation in designing the categories for rewards. Due to key position in the organization, the influence on the rewarding system might be happened to use other's behaviours and actions on oneself benefit. Coercive Power Coercive Power is the opposite of reward power and promotes the expression of threats and punishments. Extensive use of coercive power usually seen in autocratic leadership which is inappropriate and people fecls stifled. (Khagendra, 2012) (Daugherty & Williams) (Faeth, 2004), 603.5.2 Personal Power Sources ‘The common personal power sources are Referent Power, Expert Power, and Information Power Referent Power Referent power is one of the Social Power, which refers to the ability of an organization leader to influence a team, because of the team's loyalty, respect, friendship, admiration, affection, ot a desire to gain approval. Here, the leader needs strong interpersonal relationship skills. Therefore, it is important for the organizational leadership to increase collaboration and influence rather than command and control. The team members feel comfortable to express about work in front of their leader and more committed in duties due respect of their self este Expert Power Expert power is based upon individuals’ perception that an individual can influence other individuals on the basis of a high level of knowledge ot a specialized set of skills that others do not possess in the organization. These experts do not require position power and people tend to listen more to those who demonstrate expertise. It also shows the potential of the expert and can be developed by offering guidance and support to others. ‘These expertise should be rationalized by keeping yourself informed of new developments in your concerned areas, (Bal, Campbell, Steed, & Meddings, (2008); http, 2016). Power and influence theory occupy an exalted status in any organization. It is required to take appropriate decisions. The leaders use it to find new paths or modify an existing path oor supervise, train and review others. They also use it to figure out ways to increase the productivity, profit and brand value of the organization. 3.4 Implementation of Leadership Theories Leadership Development: Past, Present, and Future Trends Researches indicate that the effective leadership is more strongly correlated with lower tumover rates, higher productivity, and higher employee satisfaction. The Command- Coordinate-Control (CCC) is the strategy used to value the leadership techniques. ‘The past and present trends of leadership provide recognition of the importance of a leader's emotional resonance with others, along with the organizational activities like coaching, mentoring, action learning, and 360-degree feedback. Future trends require exciting potential advances in globalization, technology, retum on investment (ROI), and new ways of thinking about the nature of leadership and leadership development, (Hernez- Broome & Hughes) 61References Bal, V., Campbell, M., Steed, J., & Meddings, K. (2008). A CCL Reseatch White Paper: ‘The Role of Power in Effective Leadership. Center for Creativeleadership. Bauer, T., & Ergoden, B, (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. New York, NY 10016: : Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199326174, Cameiro, R. L. (1981). Herbert Spencer as an Anthropologist. Journal of Libertarian Studies, vol. 5, , pp. V1=172. Cherry, K. (August 19, 2016). Leadership: —Theory and Practice hitp://www.afide.org.cn/afdc/ UploadFile/2009111335843449.pdf. Retrieved from http://www.afide.org.cn/afde/ UploadFile/20091 11335843449 pdf Chipscholz. (2011, June 8). Effective Followers: 4 Qualities to Strive For. Retrieved from http://www. chipscholz,com/201 1/06/08/effective-followers-4-qualities-to-strive-for! Clayton, V. (2016). Situational Leadership. Retrieved from — www portfolio- info.co.ukifiles/file/Situational%20Leadership.ppt Daugherty, R.A., & Williams, S. E, (n.d.). Power and Influence: Strategies for Leaders. Faeth, M. A. (2004, April 8). Power, Authority and Influence: A Comparative Study of the Behavioral Influence Tactics Used by Lay and Ordained Leaders in the Episcopal Church Retrieved September 28,2016, from https://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04202004- 172143/unrestricted/mabfacthdiss pdf French, J., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. Studies in social power Rettieved from The bases of social power. Studies in social power (1959). Gibb, C. A. (lune, 1958). An Interactional View of the Emergence of Leadership, Austerlian Journal of Psychology, Vol.l0, No.2, pages 101-110, DOE 10.1080/00049535808255958. Harter, N. (2003). Between Great Men and Leadership: William James on the Importance of Individuals . Journal of Leadership Education , Volume 2, Issue 1, http://aole. memberlodge.org/Resources/Documents/jole/2003_summer/JOLE_2_1_H arter pdf Haugaard, M., & Clegg, $. (2012). Power and organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Hemnez-Broome, G., & Hughes, R. L. (n.d.). Leadership Development: Past,Present,and Future. Retrieved from Center. for Creative Leadership: http://www.ccl.org/leadership/pat/research/cclLeadershipDevelopment.paf, retreived con October 2016, 62Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R., Lee, C. A., Schneck, R. E., & Pennings, J. M. (June 1971). ‘A Strategic Contingencies’ Theory of Intraorganizational Power. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 216-229, Sage Publications, Inc. Hindin, M. J. (2007). Role Theory in George Ritzer (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Blackwell Publishing, pp 3959-3962. |http. (2016). https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/leadership-theories. htm, itps:/. (2016). Retrieved from hitps:/fen. wikipedia org/wiki/Situational_leadership_theory IAAP. (2009, April 28). Leadership Theories and Styles. 2009 Administrative Professionals Week Event Kelley, R. E. (1988). In Praise of Followers. Harvard Business Review. Khagendra, (2012, June). Theories of Leadership. Retrieved September 28, 2016, from http://www. slideshare net/kesarinandan96/theories-of-leadership- 13415459 Kouging, L. (2009). Leadership:Theory and Practice. Strategic Leadership for GMS Cooperation Leaming Program, Asia-Pacific Finance and Development Center, Shanghai, PRC. Lorette, K. (2016). Small-Business. ‘Retrieved from Chron: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/role-theory-organizational-leadership-4958.html retrevied September10, 2016 Lunenburg, F.C. (2012). Power and Leadership: An Influence Process. International Journal Of Management, Business, And Administration, Volume 15, Number 1.. Managerial Grid Model. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managerial_grid_model, Manktelow, J. (2016). The Leader-Member Exchange Theory. Retrieved from Mind Tools: hitps://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/leader-member-exchange.htm ‘MoClelland, D. C., & Bumham, D. H. (2003). Power is the Great Motivator. Harvard Review, vol. 81 (1), 117-129. Pfeffer, J. (2011). Power: Why some people have it-and others don't, New York, NY: HarperCollins. Riley, J. (2015). Leadership Styles - Blake Mouton Managerial Grid. Retrieved from tutor2u: _http:/iwww.tutor2u.net/business/reference/leadership-styles-blake-mouton- managerial-grid Role Theory of Leadership. (nd). Retrieved from http://ink.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7908-2158-1_lO#page-2 Shea, D. (2016). Situational Leadership. Retrieved from cte-cets.info/She0809/509/In- service?%20Situational%20Leadership ppt 63Sheroo. (2011, June 8). Retrieved from http:!/www.slideshare.net/sherooo83/situational- Teadership-ii Sociological Theories of Aging. (2006, Febuary 20). Retrieved from : Lecture 7- Chapter 9, www.csub.edu/~isumaya/382/382lec7win06.ppt ‘Thompson, D. (1999, Feburary 11). Motor Teaching and Motor Learning. Retrieved from http://coph.ouhse.edu/dthompsoyweb/mtrlmg/ntask.htm Winkler, 1. (2009). Contemporary Leadership Theories. ISBN: 978-3-7908-2157-4 (Print) 978-3-7908-2158-1 (Online) Yodanis, C. L. (2016). Role Theory - Accumulating and Changing Roles. Retrieved from Net Industries and its Licensors: http://family jrank.org/pages/1417/Rok Accumulating-Changing-Roles.html ‘Yolandé, (2016). https://www.mindtools.com/pages/atticle/fiedler.htm. 64Unit-4 LEADERSHIP STYLES Written by: Dr. Khawaja Sabir Hussain Reviewed by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool 65CONTENTS Introduction. 67 4.1 Ohio State University 68 4.2 University of Michigan Studies... 43° Leadership Grid .. 4.4. Factors Affecting Leadership Style .. 4.5. Educational Leadership Styles Existing in Pakistan... 66Introduction Leadership style has to deal people, way of interaction with those people who seek to lead. This human behavior has diversity to handle various situations in multi-faceted organization in different fields. Therefore leadership styles have many names; however, most of the leadership styles fall into five categories, i.e. autocratic, democratic, participative, goal-oriented, and situational. Similarly these leadership styles have gone through evolution including personality traits theories, behavioral theories and situation leadership’s theories. In this chapter, we have to learn particularly researches conducted by Ohio State University, university of Michigan and University of Texas, in fact researchers of these universities conducted research studies on the behavioral approaches of leadership and conclusions were drawn on the basis of empirical evidences, however, it is necessary to have look on the different concepts of leadership styles in order to develop some understanding regarding different concepts, the author of this units expects that you have definitely leamed regarding different leadership theories in the previous units of this course. Hence, to reinforce or refresh your knowledge different styles have bbeen described before explaining theories presented by researchers of these universities and at the end existing educational leadership styles that are being practiced in Pakistan have also been explained. Learning Outcomes Students after successful study of this unit will be able to 1, discuss the concept of leadership styles 2, elaborate research conducted by Ohio state university regarding behavioral leadership style 3. understand research conducted by University of Michigan and university of Taxes regarding leadership styles 4, analyze the difference of researches conducted by these universities 5. suggest potential solutions to meet the challenges of leadership styles in existing scenario of education in Pakistan. The above objectives can be materialized by developing insight regarding concepts of leadership styles, Researches conducted by these three universities ic. Ohio state university, university of Michigan and University of Taxes, differentiate between findings of researches of these universities as to how behavioral leadership styles are different from other approaches. Students will also lear about existing educational leadership styles in Pakistan. The self assessment questions would help the students to evaluate their knowledge before moving forward. These self assessment questions have been designed considering acquired knowledge, skills, and capability of the students to apply knowledge in practical fields. Further recommended material will enrich existing knowledge on the subject matter. orLeadership Styles The term Leader is used for those people who can lead the people; therefore leadership is the ability of a leader to move a group towards a common goal which eannot be achieved without a leader. Leadership styles are behavioral approach used to motivate followers toward the destination. Leadership styles are adapted in accordance with structural design as well as environment to the organizations, situations, groups, and individuals. It depends on the size of the organization and nature of work, potential capabilities of the hhuman resources, financial, physical and informational resources having knowledge of the competitors in the market, all these have to be considered while adopting leadership ‘working style in the organization. The leadership styles are concemed with behavior and traits the history indicates the evolutionary process of leadership theories. The first evolution started with the great man theories that are based on the idea that leaders are “born.” It means that leader does not require any training and experience of life for learning strategies to lead the people. The theory emphasize on the traits that differentiated leaders from followers, personality traits including, intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. These theories could not show the desired result and gone through evolution in 1940 when behavioral theories were developed and the focus of these theories remained on the initiation and consideration, Now-a-days, modern-day contingency theories have been developed which increased other variable participation of the followers in decision making. Emphasis today is that leadership styles should match the situation at hand, which is a contingency approach. 4.1 Ohio State University Leadership behavior and styles is significant to accomplish tasks through people. Before 1945 most studies of leadership sought to identify the individual traits of effective leaders. Trait theories of leadership were the first to attempt a systematic approach of studying leadership style in the organization effectively. The research found disappointing results because no set of traits were found with effective leadership style in the organization, Therefore it was felt to study behavior of leadership with the people. Consequently research had shifted the paradigm from personality traits to behavior theory because behavior theory had contributed in achieving organizational goals in effective and efficient manner. In fact autocratic and democratic styles indicates that behavior is very important than the personality trait for determining leadership effectiveness in the organization. But unfortunately no single leadership style was found to be consistently associated with leadership effectiveness. Research was conducted to study leadership styles by different universities. Findings of these researches can be summarized as under Tare ofan Pease Tasisorened_——] ‘ho Sate Univers Consceraton Tataing severe | University of Michigan Employee sorted Jobcenaed Univers of Teas Concer or people Concer or produto 68If we analyze the findings of these researches of the universities, the researchers found that no single one leadership style can influence people to accomplish tasks, but it ean be said that leadership is a process which consider situation or environment while taking decision making. Hence it was consistently found that behavior of leader should be interactive with employee to enhance production of the organization. The history of these researches leads us that in mid-1940 Or 1945 Ohio State University a group of renowned researchers studied the behavior of effective leaders on basis of observable behaviors instead to personality traits or autocratic and democratic leadership style. They developed ‘a questionnaire consisting on 1790 statements to accomplish tasks. This questionnaire was called leaders behavior description questionnaire (LBDQ). This questionnaire was later on narrowed down to 150 statements to measure the hundreds of dimensions of leader behavior. The respondents were given open choice to perceive their leaders? behavior toward them by considering two dimensions i.e. (initiating structure and consideration) of leadership styles in various organizations. Ohio state University leadership model identified four leadership styles:- i) Low structure and high consideration ii) High structure and high consideration iii) Low structure and low consideration iv) High structure and low consideration Consequently research found two dimensions and four leadership styles. They considered that leaders with high structure and having low consideration behavior use one-way communication and decision are made by the managers but when leaders have high consideration and low structure use two-way communication and share decision making, with all concerned. While determining two dimensional leadership style consider job- centered and employee centered dimension to influence the followers to do the job in the same manner which are wanted by the leaders. a) Consideration Behavior The focus of this leadership style is to meet needs of the people and develop relationship with these people/followers, in other words it is interpersonal consideration with all concerned and developing mutual trust, and friendship is essential for the welfare of the people. This leadership style is people-oriented. Some of the statements used to measure this factor in the LBDQ were:- i) Statements regarding being friendly ii) Given equal treatments to all groups iii) Considering welfare of all group member's personal iv) Ensure accessible to all group members It can be concluded that consideration behavior of leadership style is no doubt task- oriented but simultaneously give weightage for the welfare of the people. b) _ Initiating Structure Behavior ‘The initiating structure behavior is similar to the task-oriented and focuses on getting the tasks done by people, The leaders are responsible to define roles of the group by initiating 3)actions and organize group activities which are essential to accomplish by the group. This factor was measured in the LBDQ by considering following factors:- i) Setting individual expectations ii) Maintaining performance standards iii) Scheduling and planning tasks iv) Ensuring the group maintains organizational expectations ‘The initiating structure behavior of leadership defines the roles and expectation which are expected from the individual and certain performance standards are maintained. It can be concluded that as a result of Ohio state university's’ questionnaire two different dimensions were identified with four leadership styles but these are interrelated with each other: 4.2 University of Michigan Studies ‘The University of Michigan conducted studies on leadership styles in around 1950s. Hence literature also indicates that Michigan leadership studies, along with the Ohio State University studies that took place in the 1940s, are two of the best-known behavioral leadership studies. The Michigan studies had objective to identify the principles which must be adopted to enhance job satisfaction among workers in the organization, Researchers studied different approaches by comparing the behavior of effective and ineffective leaders. These studies found two broad leadership styles icc employee-oriented and production-oriented. In fact these are the similar with Ohio state university with one addition i.e, participative leadership. The studies concluded that an employee orientation rather than a production orientation, coupled with general instead of close supervision, led to better results. These studies found three main critical characteristics of effective leaders in various organizations. i) Task-oriented Behavior The research found task-oriented behavior of leaders/managers that did not do the same types of tasks as their subordinates. The task-oriented managers spent most of the time for planning, coordinating, and watching the work of their subordinates. The leaders emphasize on the production and other technical aspecis of the job of employees. They are of the view that the goals of the organization, working condition’ environment of the ‘organization as well as_method of doing the work is to be understood better in this style of the leadership. The effective leadersimanagers focus on the task by ensuring availability of resources, guidance, leading, monitoring, and controlling the employees to accomplish the assigned tasks within time limits ii) _Relationship-oriented Behavior The effective managers develop relationships with their subordinates, consider internal and external rewards to the employees with concentration to tasks results. The employee oriented style of the leader emphasizes the relationship aspect of the jobs of the individual. While establishing relationship with them the leaders take interest in every individual’s needs. Leaders have complete confidence and trust in all matters with 70subordinates in organization. The employees have freedom to discuss things relating their jobs and their opinion are given consideration while making constructive decision for their usefulness in the organization. The effective managers always are ready to help and support the subordinates for their career development and professional upward mobility of the employee. i) Participative Leadership Behavior ‘The University of Michigan added the third participative leadership style in the previous identified by Ohio state university. In this style managers facilitate rather than directing the working method of the employees and they try to build a cohesive team in order to achieve teams’ results instead of individuals result. Effective leaders use a participative style, managing at the group level as well as individually, for example using team ‘meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group decisions and problem-solving. Effective leaders use a participative style, managing at the group level as well as individually, for example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group decisions and problem-solving. In fact leaders are seeking ideas from the employees and decisions are made by him, The focus is on the participation of the individual or group and collective wisdom can be considered by the leaders while making decision. 4.3 Leadership Grid The third behavioral approach was proposed by Blake and Mouton of the University of Texas. They presented two dimensional leadership theories that measures leaders’ concerned for people and concern for production with five management styles with the following description. a) Improvised management Improvised leadership where leaders have low concer for both production and people. It means that minimum efforts are made to get required work done only to sustain membership in the organization b) Middle of the road management It means that adequate performance of the organization is possible through maintaining balance among work and morale of the people at a satisfactory level. ©) Team management It means that work is accomplished by committed people, and interdependence is enhancing with trust and respect. 4) Authority compliance It focuses on the efficiency in operational result of the organization by arranging working conditions where minimum human interference can be done. ‘The country club leader has a high concern for people and low concern for production, ‘The leader strives to maintain a friendly atmosphere without regard production. 1After studying all these three behavioral approaches leadership style, it can be said that researchers have tried to study human relations or interaction of employees in ‘organizational behavior. The earlier studies focused on employee-centered and production-centered dimension of leaders. However, later studies discovered two dimensions of leaders that could be independent and occur simultaneously. The study revealed that task- and relationship-oriented behaviors have not major significance within psychology or the organization. Therefore leaders or managers should become more employee-centered to improve their effectiveness. In this way new concept emerged that is participative leadership as well as participative management. Consequently teams were encouraged based on these studies to have good working relationship in the organization. ‘The Michigan studies added "Participative leadership’ to the Ohio state university findings, towards starting debate on the important question of leading teams rather than just individuals, Further difference can also be found out that University of Michigan identified two leadership behavior at opposite ends of the same continuum by making it with one dimension whereas Ohio State University model considered two leadership behavior and these are independent of one another by making it two dimensional with four leadership styles. In spite of these differences these behavioral models have strong empirical evidences as leadership behaviors were designed and repeatedly tested by using appropriate statistics to narrow the dimensions to the structured job oriented and consideration oriented 44 Factors Affecting Leadership Style There are manifold factors that can determine the type of leadership style in effective ‘manner in any organization. Some organizations have capacity to grow rapidly whereas some grow slowly. As the size of the organization become bigger than bigger definitely decision making power are to be affected as needs of the different employees and ‘organization are changed with the advancement of science and technology, knowledge explosion, production process, change in appearance of product. Usually it become more difficult to address at micro and macro by senior management some powers are to be delegated to low level management, consequently multifaceted problem for decision ‘making either to be centralized or decentralized can be rose up with the passage of time leading to limited employee patticipation or no participation, direct and indirect effect on the leadership style are to be considered, The main factors are explained below:- i) Communication ‘The nature of organizational working environment, level of interaction among employees and communication paradigm approach between two or more individuals on the basis of social and organizational structures aimed at achieving goals leads towards adaptation of leadership style in the most of the organization. ‘The uncertainty surrounds many situations in organizations; leaders need to be involved with their staff. In this way, leaders can keep focused on key issues and, ensure that organizational leaming takes place. The quantity and quality of 2iv) interaction in an organization tends to influence the style of organizational management with the main issue being that employees must work together in order to accomplish tasks, Managers must constantly share information, with having open channels of communication, information of sufficient potential to demand regular attention from leaders at all levels, interpretations of complex situation, information collected by in face-to-face discussions with staff, debate the nature of information, possible assumptions and actions which needs to be taken, all these factors have direct and indirect effect on the leaders behavior. Organizations can be operated as open or closed in accordance with decision making requirements. The open system receives information from any organ of the organization, which interact dynamically with its environment. It is perception that openness increases the likelihood of better communication and in turn the functioning and survival of organizations in the competitive environment, whereas closed system cannot provide such environment that demand different behavioral approach of leader to ‘get work done by the employ. Personality traits of leader The personality attributes leaders usually have influence the leadership style of an organization. Some people tend to react more to certain styles of leadership than others. Individuals who like to depend on others generally do not like to participate in organizational affairs since their nced for security and direction is better served by a rigid organizational structure. Those with an understandable sense of direction wish to advance in their careers and enjoy participating in organizational decision- making processes tend to be more inclined towards open and collaborative leadership styles. Leaders should adapt to such situations by providing opportunities for participation to those who desire them and directing those who find it more difficult to participate in organizational decision-making Goal Congrueney The term goal congruence means that ensure operations system and activities of organization support the accomplishment of its goals/objectives. It is expected that organizations with high goal congruence level with better review capacity to their operations and activities to ensure that none of these limit or inhibit the ability to achieve organizational predetermined goals. The situation like this indicates that there is a unity of direction to every employee, as individuals and department is ‘working towards the attainment of a common goal. ‘Therefore different leadership styles can be operationalized depending on the degree of existing goal congruence in an organization for achieving goals by optimal utilization of the available Position of Decision Making It is very important to differentiate the effective leaders from ineffective leaders in any organization, The differentiation may depend on quality of decision making, and effective leaders make good decisions or choices that yield favorable outcomes for the organization. In addition to leadership ability, employee perception often plays a big role in implementation and outcome of decisions. In a centralized otganization, there is little ot no provision for decisions or input from lower level staff, Directives are handed down and strict obedience is expected, Leadership in Bthese organizations tends to be directive rather than participative or laissez-faire. Henee, the location of decision-making, which is the functional specialization of the organization, determines the style of leadership that is called for identified five levels of decision making in organizations. With cach level the amount of time and, the decision making involvement increases: Level One: Leader makes the decision alone & announces the decision. This level requires little time and no staff involvement. This is particularly useful in crisis situations ‘where immediate action is needed. Level Two: Leader gathers input from individuals and makes the decision. The leader seeks input, usually to cover blind spots and enhance the depth of understanding of the issue at hand. Key individuals hold important information and not consulting is seen to be irresponsible. Level Three: Leader gathers input from team and makes the decision. The leader holds @ team meeting and solicits input from the team, listens to the team’s ideas and then using, that information, makes a decision, Level Four: Consensus building. At this level, the leader is part of the team and s/he is just one vote/voice among many. The group processes all possible options and ‘compromises until everyone is in agreement. Level Five: Consensus and delegation with criteria/constraints. The leader delegates decision making to the team and is not a part of decision making discussions. This requires the leader to be very clear with the team as to the criteria/constraints that must be ‘met for their decision to be able to move forward. Failure to meet these criteria could result in the need for the team to reconsider their decision or the need for the leader to choose a default and/or use another level (ftom above) for moving the decision forward 4.5. Educational Leadership Styles Existing in Pakistan Since the inception of Pakistan the history of educational leadership clarifies that leadership in education is a stroke of luck and not a nourished and groomed phenomenon, Educational leadership appears on an adhoc basis or by chance as a result of any eventuality in the educational environment, This phenomenon, enhances the scope of leadership may be one way of explaining it better or the other way, but the fact is that educational leadership could not get flourished in Pakistan. If we evaluate educational policy from high benchmark countries like USA, Canada, UK and try to make a ‘comparison of Pakistani education policy and practice. The comparison makes an interesting situation because in these advanced countries educational leadership have ‘gone through an evolution and developed an effective leadership with clear vision having, capabilities to lead the education in contextual perspective of their countries. Whereas in Pakistan there is a shortage of educational leaders who have a vision and ability to lead in education, as they are not selected on merits; rather they are ill-educated having not 74sufficient grounding for the position of leadership. The need is to break away from ‘policy mechanic paradigm’ and go for ‘classroom cutturist model’ and this is influenced by the quality of leadership. The objective of this unit at master level program education is to understand what leadership in reality is and how docs it translate in the context of education, and to understand what a good model of educational leadership is and how to develop this in the context of cultural and regional factors in Pakistan. Development and enhancement is not possible without the expertise and knowledge of the educational leader. It has been observed that those education leader/manager or principals of educational institutions who were cooperative and enthusiastic they exhibit that there was a sign of enhancing the educational system in its employees which was ‘making their environment unique and their employees were also satisfied but in so many other institutions were found complaining about the fact that they do not involve them in ‘making or taking any decision regarding management or academics. The leaders not even consider their advices to take any progressive step they would rather prefer implementing the decisions. The job of a leader is to give such instructions through which the self respect of the employee should also not get affected and institutions also make progress. Problems which act as a hurdle to enhance the standard of an educational institution includes employees who do not take interest in activities and avoid staff meeting the dictatorial behavior of the leaders and lack of positive resources available for teaching aid results in lousiness and bizarre among the staff members. If a principal takes the responsibility to solve all the above mentioned problems so it will automatically turns the staff towards working sincerely and with more effort in their department or institution without any fear. ‘A good and successful leader who plays an important role to enhance administrative structure, management, or professional development should have a competency related to teachers training program, curriculum design, and implementation, teaching techniques and methods, enhancing the school culture, teachers’ principal relation, to take important decisions or adopting the new strategies and their implementations. Professional learning, community is a group of behavioral complexity. In this situation it is important to understand that which model of Educational Leadership is appropriate for Pakistan for ‘quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education system, Leadership is all about people and interaction between them. The quality of leadership greatly depends upon the quality of followership. Visionary capabilities and influential qualities of leaders’ along with personality traits of leaders and behavioral approaches towards goals, these all factors are to synergize to meet the challenges of educational needs of the ‘masses in Pakistan, The educational leadership includes @ range of responsibilities such as maintaining, discipline, public relations, faculty administrative relationship, accounts, maintenance, and funds rising. Educational leader has to do this without being over burdened or haughty. Similarly leader has to deal with personal problems of the teachers, students, and even community members in their respective areas. The head of educational institutions has to be caring and emphasize human dimensions. Finally they must believe 15in values and cultural change and be adaptable to a learning organization, This in fact is almost job description and calls for bottom line standard. This situation clarifies that educational leadership style depends upon personality traits and given situation that needs to be solved. However, it is important to understand how many educational leadership styles existed in Pakistan. The empirical evidences show that following leadership styles are being in practice in educational environment. 4.5.1 Autocratic Leadership Style The term autocratic style is an extreme form of leadership where leader has complete power over hisher followers and team members have no opportunity to give any suggestion even they have the best or appropriate knowledge in interest of the organization at that particular situation, However this leadership style has benefit because of incredibly efficient, decisions are made quickly implementation is to be made immediately. An autocratic leader is one who would come up with a solution for the entire group on their own. The autocratic leader would generally solve an issue and make decisions for the group using observations and what they feel is needed or most important for the majority of the group members to benefit at that time some experts have opinion that this leadership style is suitable for crisis situation because situation demands for quick decision and its implementation. Similarly this leadership style has disadvantages because the followers/staff could not participate in the decision making process, that is why they usually do not take ownership. Autoctatic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders have complete power over staff. Staff and team members have little opportunity to make suggestions, even if these are in the best interest of the team or organization. The benefit of autocratic leadership is that it is incredibly efficient. Decisions are made quickly, and the work to implement those decisions can begin immediately. In terms of disadvantages, ‘most of the staff show resentment for being dealt with in this way. Autocratic leadership is often best used in crisis situation, when decisions must be made quickly and without dissent. 4.5.2 Bureaucratic Leadership Style Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their staff also follows procedures precisely. This is an appropriate leadership style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money are involved. Bureaucratic leadership is also useful in organizations where employees do routine tasks. The drawback of this type of leadership is that it is ineffective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity, or innovation, Now-a-days the bureaucratic leadership style has been adopted in various organizations around the world due to involvement of bureaucrat in decision making in the organization. The bureaucratic styles follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their staffs also follow procedures precisely. This is an appropriate leadership style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxie substances, or 16at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money are involved, Bureaucratic leadership is also useful in organizations where employees do routine tasks. 4.5.3 Charismatic Leadership Style Charismatic leadership theory describes what to expect from both leaders and followers. Charismatic leadership is a leadership style that is identifiable but may be perceived with, less tangibility than other leadership styles. Often called a transformational leadership style, charismatic leaders inspire eagerness in their teams and are energetic in motivating employees to move forward, The ensuing excitement and commitment from teams is an enormous asset to productivity and goal achievement. The negative side of charismatic leadership is the amount of confidence placed in the leader rather than in employees. This ‘can create the risk of a project or even in an entire organization collapsing if the leader leaves. Additionally, a charismatic leader may come to believe that they can do no wrong, even when others are warming them about the path they are on feelings of invincibility can ruin a team or an organization. 4.5.4 Democratic/Participative Leadership Style ‘The democratic leadership styles also call participative style; in this style all team members given opportunity to express their opinion in the decision-making process. Democratic leaders encourage the creativity, of team members are often highly engaged in projects and decisions. ‘There are many benefits of democratic leadership. Team ‘members tend to have high job satisfaction and are productive because they are more involved. This style also helps develop employees" skills. Team members feel a part of something larger and meaningful and so are motivated to by more than just a financial reward. The democratic leaders were those who took a very relaxed yet in-control approach to leading the group. Participative leaders, more often than not, would consult the group when approaching an issue and consider their suggestions, but the leader retains the final say in what particular approach is taken. ‘The danger of democratic leadership is that it can falter in situations where speed or efficiency is essential. During a crisis, for instance, a team can waste time and sometime decision is taken late due to deliberation and result could not be achieved. Another potential danger is team members without the knowledge or expertise to provide high ‘quality input. 4.5.5 Laissez-Faire Leadership Style ‘The laissez-fair leadership style is the idea that the participants should be able to work ‘out the problems and make their own way through an expedition without too much extra ‘guidance, These kinds of leaders would provide very little guidance while dealing with group issues on the expedition and would allow group members to come up with decisions at their own end, The leader would take an extremely “hands-off” approach to leading in order to encourage group problem-solving and critical thinking, without allowing participants to depend on the leader for the final word, 1Laissez-faire leadership may be the best or the worst of leadership styles when applied to describe the leaders who allow people to work on their own. In fact, when leader does not take the responsibilities of decision making, they may give teams’ complete freedom to do their work and set their own deadlines. Laissez-faire leaders usually allow their subordinate the power to make decisions about their work. Laissez-fairs leader provide members all available resources and advise them to take decisions at their own end to handle the situation, ‘The advantage of laissez-faire leadership style is that allow the team members too much autonomy that can lead to high job satisfaction and increased productivity. Hence some time if team members do not manage their time well or do not have the knowledge, skills, or ‘motivation to do their work effectively they cannot take decision on time or having lack of capabilities to take right decision, this situation is very dangerous for the organization, 4.5.6 Transactional Leadership Style This leadership style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they accept a job. The transaction usually involves the organization paying team ‘members in return for their effort and compliance. The leader has a right to punish team. ‘members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard. The minimalistic working, relationships that result (between staff and managers or leaders) are based on this transaction effort for pay. Literature also show transitional leadership style which starts with the idea that team ‘members agree to obey theit leaders when they accept a job. ‘The transaction usually involves the organization paying team members in retum for their effort and compliance. The leader hhas a right to punish team members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard, Self Assessment Questions 1. Define concept of leadership style. 2, Elaborate the concept of leadership style presented by Ohio state university 3. Why university of Michigan conducted research on leadership style, how it can be differentiated from the concept leadership presented Ohio state university 4, Explain concept of leadership style presented by university of Texas. 5. What factors are affecting leadership style and how these can be used for effective leadership in educational institutions? 6. Why transformational leadership style is given preference in educational development, discuss in detail? 7. How can be differentiated autocratic style from democratic leadership style and which is suitable in your opinion for educational development in Pakistan? 8. Discuss in detail advantages of democratic, Laissez-Faire and autocratic leadership styles. 9. Explain the transactional leadership style, do you think it is appropriate for ‘educational development in Pakistan. 10, Write note on Educational leadership styles existing in Pakistan, do you think, is there any need to bring change in behavioral of educational leadership, 8References Draft R.L (2002) the leadership experience; second edition. Australia Thomson; South- western Lussier, R.N. (2001) Leadership; Theory. Application. Skill Development. Australia South-Western College Publishing Buller, P.F.& Schler.R.S (2006) Cases in Management, Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management: Managing Organizations. Australia South-Western College Publishing Goetsch D,L. & Chauhan, D. & Chauhan. S.P (2012) Effective leadership: Strategies for Beiter Results, PERSON: Delhi. Chennai, Chandigarh Draft.R.L (2003) Management sixth Edition. Australia —THOMSON-South-Western College Publishing Website hitps://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Consideration_and_Initiating_Structure https://www-boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management- textbook/leadership-9/bchavioral-approach-70/leadership-model-the-ohio-state- university-350-34 https://iedunote.com/ohio-state-leadership-studies btp://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/KM/Leadership%20Models/the_university_of_michigan_studi es.html https://en.wikipedia org/wiki/Michigan_Studies_of_Leadership +ttp:/changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/actions/michigan.htm http:/www-technofune.com/index.php/leadership-skills-2/leadership-theories/item/the- michigan-studies-on-leadership-styles 7980Unit-5 EDUCATION INSTITUTIONAL LEADERSHIP FOR CAPACITY BUILDING Compiled by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool Reviewed by: Dr. M. Latif Javed 81CONTENTS Introduction... 5.1 Concept of Educational Leadership as Capacity Building . 5.2 Transformational Leadership and Organizational Change «0.000 91 5.3 Leadership and Self-Efficacy.. 5.4 Building Capacity for Leading and Learning 5.5 Building Capacity for Institutional Improvement..... 5.6 Building Leadership Capacity for Institutional Improvement 119 82Introduction Change and development has been a prevalent issue for schools and educational systems. High public value associated with education makes it a critical strategic public service for governments. Improving and sustaining student outcomes in the face of various forces of change originating from demographic, technological, political, and economic developments have been pushing schools and education systems to undertake frequent change interventions. Depending on the characteristics of individual educational systems change interventions exhibit different natures (pace, linearity, and scale) and origins (top- down vs bottom-up). The revival of school effectiveness and school improvement movements, particularly after the emergence of world-wide PISA movements made change a top agenda for school and education systems. As a result, change and development efforts in individual schools and broader school systems have been conceived as the primary managerial practice to accomplish improved student outcomes while principal leadership has been indicated as a key ingredient of these change interventions in bringing positive outcomes in educational change. Learning Outcomes 1) After completion of this unit students would be able to understand the concept of educational leadership and role of leadership in capacity building 2) Students would be able to understand Transformational Leadership and its importance for Organizational change 3) Students would be able to know the role of leadership for institutional improvement 5.1 Concept of Educational Leadership as Capacity Building Most of us probably think of a particular person or set of behaviors when we think of leadership. When we use the word “leadership,” the next sentence often suggests what the principal, superintendent, or president did or did not do. “We have strong leadership in the school.” “We have weak leadership in this school, and we are clearly not going to achieve our goals.” “We need a change of leadership!” Each of these assertions refers to the principal. We generally consider leadership to be synonymous with a person in a position of formal authority. When we equate the powerful concept of leadership with the behaviors of one person, we are limiting the achievement of broad-based participation by a community or a society. School leadership needs to be a broad concept that is separated from person, role, and a discrete set of individual behaviors. It needs to be embedded in the school community as a whole. Such a broadening of the concept of leadership suggests shared responsibility for a shared purpose of community. 83‘When we equate “leadership” with “leader,” we are immersed in “trait theory”: If only a leader possessed these certain traits, we would have good leadership. This tendency has caused those who might have rolled up their sleeves and pitched in to help to abstain from the work of leadership, thereby abdicating both their responsibilities and their opportunities. Although leaders do perform acts of leadership, a separation of the ‘concepts can allow us to reconceptualize leadership itself, Leadership needs to speak to a group broader than the individual leaders. This breadth ‘can become more evident if we consider the connections or learning processes among individuals in a school community. This concept that I call “leadership” is broader than the sum total ofits “leaders,” for it also involves an energy flow or synergy generated by those who choose to lead, Sometimes we think of our reactions to an energized environment as being caught up in the excitement and stimulation of an idea or a movement. It is this wave of energy and purpose that engages and pulls others into the work of leadership. This is what it is like to have a group of “leaders,” including, of course, the principal, engaged in improving a school. The key notion in this definition is that leadership is about leaming together, and constructing meaning and knowledge collectively and collaboratively. It involves ‘opportunities to surface and mediate perceptions, values, beliefs, information, and assumptions through continuing conversations; to inquire about and generate ideas together; to seek to reflect upon and make sense of work in the light of shared beliefs and new information; and to create actions that grow out of these new understandings. Such is the core of leadership. When the Fairview High School staff and community, working together, identified and clarified their values, beliefs, assumptions, and perceptions about what they wanted children to know and be able to do, an important next step was to discover which of these values and expectations were now being achieved. Such a discovery required that the staff and community members inquire into their own practice. What information do we have? What information do we need?” The problems to be solved rested in the discrepancies: Is there a gap between our current practice and achievements and what we want children to be able to know and be able to 40? ‘These conversations clarified and framed the school’s plans and actions for improvement. Further, these conversations also identified responsibilities and strategies for implementation and for continuous feedback that could be understood by the entire school community—not just the principal of the principal and one or two teachers. This is a difficult undertaking. Throughout this book I will describe the leadership dispositions, ‘understandings, and skills that are essential if schools are to tackle such elegant and ‘demanding work. Using the Fairview High example above, let's look more closely at the key reciprocal learning processes that engaged this school community in the work of leadership, enabling the community to renew itself. 84Surface, clarify, and define community values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, and experiences, Fairview chose to use this process as a means to discover what they valued about student's learning (what students should know and be able to do). Such an effort requires many small and informal conversations as well as large-group work, in which stalf surface and consider their personal schemas (what they already believe, think, and know). Fundamentally, leaning is about clarifying and altering these personal schemas as shared beliefs and purpose are created and evolve. 1. Inquire into practice. Discover or generate information (data) that could point to whether or not—and how well—students are learning in the desired ways. Fairveiw staff looked at student work, disaggregated test and participation data (e2., attendance, suspensions), and a community profile. They formed collaborative action research teams to help them understand whether all students were learning equitably. 2. Construct meaning and knowledge by comparing beliefs and expectations with the results of the inquiry. The “problem(s)” or issues to be considered reside in this discrepancy. In these conversations (involving both large and small groups), the Fairview community made sense of what was occurring with student learning in their school and more clearly identified the problems to be solved. They ultimately realized that three areas constituted major needs: improvement of student writing, understanding of science concepts, and development of skills in cooperative work. 3. Frame action and develop implementation plans on the basis of the various conversations. At Fairview, the school staff, with active leadership from many teachers and the principal, decided to have a school wide research paper, to chedule field trips that emphasized the same environmental concepts, to teach all students the skills of cooperative leaming, and to expand student involvement in, decision making. The action plan included strategies for implementation, continuous feedback from inside and outside the school, and provisions for shared responsibility. This is where the rubber meets the road, so to speak; this is where broad-based responsibility for leadership work can be most critica ‘These processes are part of a repertoire of continuous learning interactions. Staff needs to continually tie their work conversations to their shared purpose: “Now, what is it that we are trying to do here?” “Why is that?” Altering personal and collective schemas requires revisiting and reinterpreting ideas many times—in hallway conversations, informal small- group dialogue, lively faculty discussions, and quiet personal reflection as well as structured meetings. All of the leaming must be embedded in a trusting environment in which relationships form a safety net of support and positive challenge (like a net under a high-wire walker) Especially in the beginning, people are taking risks. Because these processes occur among participants in a school community, it means that people are in relationship with one another. To be in authentic relationship means that we provide long-term support for ‘one another, challenging one another to improve and to question our current perceptions, 85and to lear together, Attention to relationship is critical, for, just as in the classroom, “process is content” (Costa & Garmston, 1994). Not all learning processes constitute leadership. To be “leadership,” these processes must enable participants fo learn themselves toward a shared sense of purpase—a purpose made real by the collaboration of committed adults. Leadership has direction and ‘momentum, and it negotiates tough passages. It is this type of leadership we are secking to build—the capacity to collectively leam ourselves toward purposeful action so that a school community can keep moving when current leaders leave whether the leaders are two teachers, a principal, or a powerful parent. The term "capacity building” has evolved from past terms such as institutional building and organizational development. In the 1950s and 1960s these terms referred to community development that focused on enhancing the technological and self-help capacities of individuals in rural areas. In the 1970s, following a series of reports on international development an emphasis was put on building capacity for technical skills in rural areas, and also in the administrative sectors of developing countries. In the 1980s the concept of institutional development expanded even more. Institutional development was viewed as a long-term process of building up a developing country's government, public and private sector institutions, and NGOs. Though precursors to capacity building existed before, they were not powerful forces in international development like “capacity building” became during the 1990s. ‘The emergence of capacity building as a leading development concept in the 1990s ‘occurred due to a confluence of factors: + New philosophies that promoted empowerment and participation, like Paulo Freire’s Education for Critical Consciousness (1973), which emphasized that education, could not be handed down from an omniscient teacher to an ignorant student; rather it must be achieved through the process of a dialogue among equals. + Commissioned reports and research during the 1980s, like the Capacity and ‘Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA) which posited three assumptions: development is the process by which vulnerabilities are reduced and capacities increased no one develops anyone else relief programs are never neutral in their development impact + Changes in international development approaches During the 1980s many low-income states were subject to "structural adjustment packages"—the neoliberal nature of the packages led to increasing disparities of wealth, In response, a series of "social dimension adjustments were enacted”. The growing wealth gap coupled with "social dimension adjustments” allowed for an increased significance for NGOs in developing states as they actively participated in social service delivery to the poor. + Then, inthe 1990s a new emphasis was placed on the idea of In governments. 36One of the most fundamental ideas associated with capacity building is the idea of building the capacities of governments in developing countries so they are able to handle the problems associated with environmental, economic and social transformations. Developing a government's capacity whether at the local, regional or national level will allow for better governance that can lead to sustainable development and democracy. To avoid authoritarianism in developing nations, a focus has been placed on developing the abilities and skills of national and local governments so power can be diffused across state. Capacity building in governments often involves providing the tools to help them best fulfill their responsibilities. These include building up a govemment’s ability to budget, collect revenue, create and implement laws, promote civic engagement,’ be transparent and accountable and fight corruption. Joel S. Migdal explains that governments can strengthen weak states by building capacity through changing land tenure pattems, adjusting methods of taxation, and improving ‘modes of transportation. Migdal cites Mexico's passing of Ley de desamortizacién in 1856 as an example of establishing property rights as a means to strengthen a ‘government's capacity for rule by establishing order. This establishes a social structure to reduce citizen conflict within the state and a means to organize agricultural production for optimal output. Adjusting methods of taxation is another way to consolidate power in a weak state's government. This can be done through increasing government revenue through increased taxation and also formalizing tax collection by collecting taxes in cash instead of in kind. Migdal cites the example of 19th Century Egypt's declaration of cash taxes only as the reason for increased economic capacity as farmers were forced into more market relations, pushing them to produce crops for export to increase cash revenue. This gave the state more liquid income. Also, Migdal explains that new mode of transportation can strengthen a state's capacity through decreased isolation leading to increasing economic opportunity by regional trade, increased accessibility, and reduced cost of transporting goods. Migdal cites the example of the railroad in India in 1853 as a means of growing the cotton export industry by 500%,Below are examples of capacity building in governments of developing countries: In 1999, the UNDP supported capacity building of the state government in Bosnia Herzegovina. The program focused on strengthening the State's government by fostering new organizational, leadership and management skills in government figures, improved the government's technical abilities to communicate with the international community and civil society within the country. Since 2000, developing organizations like the National Area-Based Development Programme have approached the development of local governments in Afghanistan, through a capacity building approach. NABDP holds training sessions across Afghanistan in areas where there exist foundations for local governments. The NABDP holds workshops trying community leaders on how to best address the local needs of the society. Providing weak local government institutions with the capacity to address pertinent problems, reinforces the weak governments and brings them closer to being institutionalized. The goal of capacity builders in Afghanistan is to build up local governments and provide those burgeoning institutions with training that will allow them to address and advocate for what the community needs most. Leaders are 87trained in "governance, conflict resolution, gender equity, project planning, implementation, management, procurement financial, and disaster management and mitigation." The Municipality of Rosario, Batangas, Philippines provided a conerete example related to this concept. This municipal government implemented its Aksyon ng Bayan Rosario 2001 And Beyond Human and Ecological Security Plan using as a core strategy the Minimum Basic Needs Approach to Improved Quality of Life — Community- Based Information System (MBN-CBIS) prescribed by the Philippine Government. This approach helped the municipal government identify priority families and communities for intervention, as well as rationalize the allocation of its social development funds. More importantly, it made definite steps to encourage community participation in situation analysis, planning, monitoring and evaluation of social development projects by building the capacity of local government officials, indigenous leaders and other stakeholders to ‘converge in the management of these concerns. Isomorphie Mimiery One approach that some developing countries have attempted to foster capacity building is through isomorphic mimicry. Similar to the concept of mimetic isomorphism used in organizational theory, isomorphic mimicry refers to the tendency of government to mimic other governments’ successes by replicating methods and policy designs deemed successful in other countries. While such an approach can be effective for solving certain development problems that have "a universal technical solution", it often ignores the political and organizational realities on the ground and produces little benefits to those using it! An example of a failed mimicry relates to the legal reform in Melanesia. Response to a major international assistance mission to improve the quality of the justice system, a jail and a courthouse were built, costing millions of dollars. However, the new justice infrastructure has been rarely used since its establishment, because there has been a lack of bureaucracy and financial sources to support the expensive justice system. As summarized by Haggard et al., accelerated modernization is an entirely inappropriate strategy for enhancing the functionality of legal system as solutions like this often require state capacities that developing countries do not have. Another example took place in Argentina, During the economic crisis in late 1980s, the government implemented a fiscal policies as recommended by IMF to regulate high point inflation affecting the country's economy. However, rather than constraining aggregate spending, the fiscal rule merely shifted spending from the central and to provincial governments. Adopting Intemational best practices do not often translate into positive changes; in the case of Argentina, the mimicry produced little change to the vulnerable economy. Local The capacity building approach is used at many levels throughout, including local, regional, national and international levels. Capacity building can be used to reorganize and capacitate governments or individuals. International donors like USAID often include capacity building as a form of assistance for developing governments or NGOs working in developing areas. Historically this has been through a US contractor identifying an in-country NGO and supporting its financial, M&E and technical systems toward the goals of that USAID intervention. The NGO's capacity is developed as a sub- 38implementer of the donor, However, many NGOs participate in a form of capacity building that is aimed toward individuals and the building of local capacity. In a recent report commissioned by UNAIDS and the Global Fund, individual NGOs voiced their needs and preference for broader capacity development inputs by donors and governments. For individuals and in-country NGOs, capacity building may relate to leadership development, advocacy skills, ttaining/speaking abilities, technical skills, ‘organizing skills, and other areas of personal and professional development. One of the most difficult problems with building capacity on a local level is the lack of higher education in developing countries. Between 2 and 5 percent of Alticans have been to tertiary school Another difficulty is ongoing brain drain in developing countries. Often, young people ‘who develop skills and capacities that can allow for sustainable development leave their home country. Damtew Teferra of Boston College's Center for African Higher Education argues that local capacity builders are needed now more than ever and increased resources should be provided for programs that focus on developing local expertise and skills. Societal development in poorer nations is often contingent upon the efficiency of ‘organizations working within that nation. Organizational capacity building focuses on developing the capacities of organizations, specifically NGOs, so they are better equipped to accomplish the missions they have set out to fulfil. Failures in development ‘can often be traced back to an organization's inability to deliver on the service promises it hhas pledged to keep. Capacity building in NGOs often involves building up skills and abilities, such as decision making, policy-formulation, appraisal, and learning. It is not uncommon for donors in the global north to fund capacity building for NGOs themselves. For organizations, capacity building may relate to almost any aspect of its work: improved governance, leadership, mission and strategy, administration (including human resources, financial management, and legal matters), program development and implementation, fund-raising and income generation, diversity, partnerships and collaboration, evaluation, advocacy and policy change, marketing, positioning, and planning. Capacity building in NGOS is a way to strengthen an organization so that it can perform the specific mission it has set out to do and thus survive as an organization. It is an ongoing process that incites organizations to continually reflect on their work, ‘organization, and leadership and ensure that they are fulfilling the mission and goals they originally set out to do. Alan Kaplan, an international development practitioner, asserts that capacity development of organizations involves the build-up of an organization's tangible and intangible assets. He argues that for an NGO to work efficiently and effectively in developing country they must first focus on developing their organization. Kaplan argues that capacity building in organizations should first focus on intangible qualities such as: 89Organizational Attitude ‘This focuses on the way an organization views itself. Kaplan asserts that an organization must view itself not as a vietim of the slights of the world, rather as an active player that has the ability to effect change and progress Vision and Strategy This refers to the organization's understanding of its vision and mission and what it is looking to accomplish and the program it wishes to follow to do so Organizational Structure ‘A clear method of operating wherein communication flow is not hindered, each actor understands theit role and responsibility. Though he asserts that intangible qualities are of ‘utmost importance — Kaplan says that tangible qualities such as skills, training and ‘material resources are also imperative. Another aspect of organizational capacity building is an organization's capacity to reassess, reexamine and change according to what is most needed and what will be the most effective. Opportunity Management Opportunity Management may be defined as "a process to identify business and community development opportunities that could be implemented to sustain or improve the local economy.” When driving capacity building initiatives, opportunity management may help to target resources. The opportunity management process will firstly help identify the opportunity for improvement — a challenge that will be addressed by the capacity building initiative. Likewise, criteria will be developed and applied to proposed capacity building initiatives evaluate the effectiveness of the alternatives, and select an option for the driving phase. During the driving phase of the capacity building initiative, leads are assigned, accountability is established, action plans are developed, and project management may be used. Once the driving stage has reached fruition, constant monitoring of the capacity building initiative is required to make a decision to advance, rework or kill the initiative. If it determined in the monitoring phase that the initiative is not meeting the objectives outlined in the criteria of the evaluating and prioritizing stage, then the initiative will either need to be reworked (often requiring additional resources) or killed ~ meaning the end of the initiative, Following opportunity management guidelines, itis often effective to end or rework an initiative before excessive resources are wasted on a strategy that has proven not to work. 90Key Assumptions Five assumptions for building leadership capacity: 1, Leadership is not trait theory; leadership and leader are not the same. Leadership can mean (and does mean in this context) the reciprocal leaming processes that enable participants to construct and negotiate meanings leading to a shared purpose of schooling. 2. Leadership is about learning that leads to constructive change. Learning is among participants and therefore occurs collectively. Learning has direction toward a shared purpose. 3. Everyone has the potential and right to work as a leader. Leading is skilled and complicated work that every member of the school community can learn. Democracy clearly defines the rights of individuals to actively participate in the decisions that affect their lives. 4, Leading is a shared endeavor, the foundation for the democratization of schools. School change is a collective endeavor; therefore, people do this most effectively in the presence of others. The learning joumney must be shared; otherwise, shared purpose and action are never achieved. 5. Leadership requires the redistribution of power and authority. Shared learning, purpose, action, and responsibility demand the realignment of power and authority. Districts and principals need to explicitly release authority, and staff need to learn how to enhance personal power and informal authority (for a fuller examination of this notion, see Lambert, Kent, Richert, Collay, & Dietz, 1997, pp. 122-143), School leadership is the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims. This term is often used synonymously with educational leadership in the United States and has supplanted educational management in the United Kingdom. Several universities in the United States offer graduate degrees in educational leadership.!”) Certain obstacles of educational leadership can be overcome."! A self-assessment technique can help examine equity and justice that affects student diversity, especially with selection of candidates. 5.2. Transformational Leadership and Organizational Change For those who have experience in organizational transformation, they undoubtedly see the benefit of having leaders in that organization able to engage in transformational leadership, “As its name implies, transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms people.” (Northouse, 2016, p. 161) Through transforming people, indeed ‘organizations can transform as well. There are also many similarities and supporting factors between change management methodologies and transformational leadership. “Although the transformational leader plays a pivotal role in precipitating change, followers and leaders are inextricably bound together in the transformation process.” (Worthouse, 2016) First, the differentiation between transformational leadership and transactional leadership parallel the differences between static organizational behavior and organizational a1change. Transactional leadership is defined as “leaders develop exchanges or agreements with followers, pointing out what the followers will receive if they do something right as, well as wrong.” (Bass & Avolio, 1993, p. 112) If do X and Y happens today, if I do X tomorrow then I have reasonable intuition that Y will also happen tomorrow. This is how behavior is maintained in a static fashion and norms are perpetuated over time. “they work within the existing culture, framing their decisions and action based on the operative norms” (Bass & Avolio, 1993, pp. 112-113). ‘Transformational leadership, through its incorporation of “charismatic and visionary leadership” (Northouse, 2016, p. 161) can look to influence rather fundamental change within organizations. Indeed, research by Bennis and Nanus (as referenced in Northouse, 2015) has outlined how transformational leaders help transform organizations, This is done through the following strategies (Northouse, 2016) © Clear vision * Social architects + Creating trust + Creative deployment of self Compare this with selected aspects of the Lean Enterprise Transformation Roadmap (Bozdogan, et al., 2000): + Create Vision of the Future State + Analyze Processes and Interaction + Nurture, Process, and Embed Lean Culture + Empower change agents It is clear that those who study transformational leadership and those that study organizational change are treading on common ground, ‘The concepts of transformational leaders and the organizational change they initiate intuitively support each other. Between the leader and the change, itis difficult to separate the two. Change oriented models of leadership have sustained the interest of managers and scholars alike because of their promise of extraordinary individual and organizational ‘outcomes, As we move closer to the new millennium, models of outstanding leadership such as transformational, charismatic, and visionary leadership, which focus on organizational transformation, are likely to become even more important to organizations because of the breathtaking changes foreseen in the business and political environment. ‘These include workforces with a greater degree of demographic diversity, technological change, and increased international competition which will place new demands on the leaders of tomorrow (House, 1995). The importance of leadership to the change management process is underscored by the fact that change, by definition, requires creating a new system and then institutionalizing the new approaches (Kotter, 1995). While change management depends on leadership to be enacted, to date there has been litte integration of these two bodies of literature, The key role leaders play in the change process has been noted by change theorists, yet there is no conclusive research that 92focuses on this relationship between leadership and change (Almaraz, 1994), Recent theoretical research has attempted to integrate change as a contextual variable influencing, transformational leadership (Pawar and Eastman, 1997). Such research focuses on determining when organizations will be more receptive to transformational leadership and the match between receptivity level and the actual transformational leadership process. However, Pawar and Eastman (1997) do not address the issue of the capabilities of transformational leaders required to carry out the pertinent change process. ‘Thus, the purpose of this article is to draw parallels between the change literature and the leadership literature; specifically, the transformational leadership literature that is primarily concemed with the capabilities required to enact change successfully. First, we will describe the latest literature relating to change management, Next, we will review theories of change oriented leadership. Finally, we will integrate these literatures and link them to the articles that comprise this special issue, Types of change: incremental, radical, continuous Section: ¥ Tushman and Romanelli’s (1985) punctuated equilibrium model of change emphasizes the discontinuous nature of change. Long periods of small incremental change are interrupted by brief periods of discontinuous, radical change. These occasional dramatic revolutions or punctuations overcome organizational inertia, which alters the organization frame. The deep structure, or metacontext, persists and limits change during stages of equilibrium (Roach and Bednar, 1997). The metacontext, which Gersick (1991) refers to as the “design of the playing field and rules of the game” (Gersick, 1991, p. 16) changes during metamorphosis. Advocates of the punctuated equilibrium model (Miller and Friesen, 1980) support the view that organizations are both inertial and adaptable as they evolve through stages of convergence in which only incremental change takes place, and reorientation, during which fundamental change occurs. Nadler and Tushman (1989) discuss the skills managers need to navigate the turmoil of metamorphosis, Gersick (1994) expanded her earlier work on change in project groups (Gersick, 1988, 1989) to the organizational level of analysis, She concluded that two distinct ‘mechanisms, temporal pacing and event pacing, were used to modulate the speed and course of organization change, She suggests that temporal pacing is well suited to nonroutine situations as it offers the possibility for punctuated change at milestone transition points. It also serves as a check against escalating commitment (Staw, 1981). ‘The key is to match the organization’s pacing to the rate of change in its particular environment. In contrast, event-based pacing is shown to be well suited to fostering incremental change. The focus is on specific events that signal when actions should be initiated or corrections made. Its focus is on keeping on a given track and is motivated by the desire to achieve specific outcomes. 93Sastry (1997) also found that time-based pacing, rather than responding to events in the external environment, is beneficial in turbulent environments. In calm environments, managers can use external pacing, where change is triggered by environmental shifts Sastry (1997), using the punctuated organizational change model, studied why ‘organizations may fail following reorientation, He concluded that organizations need time to reap the benefits of earlier reorganization — time free of further restructuring. He proposes a trial period during which change is suspended. Sastry (1997) uses the example of a transformational leader, Jack Welch of General Electric, as evidence that this trial period works in real-world organizations. Without an explicit ttial period of “soft initiatives,” Welch suggests, GE. would not have realized the performance gains in the 1990s set in motion by the major changes in GE’s businesses and management structure implemented in the 1980s (Sastry, 1997). A recent article by Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) argues that, although the punctuated equilibrium model has academic interest, it is not representative of the experience of many firms. They drew theoretical insights about the structure and processes that characterize firms that compete by changing continuously. Their study of multiple-product innovation in the computer industry focuses on an industry characterized by an extraordinary rate of change. Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) argue that ‘organizational survival depends on the firm’s ability to engage in rapid and continuous change, in contrast to the rate, episodic phenomenon described by the punctuated equilibrium model. Ford and Ford (1994) use models of logic to provide different understandings of the change process. They argue that our understanding of organization change will vary depending on the logic that is deployed. The logic of dialectics emphasizes conflict or struggle as the basis for change. The conflict between the forces for and against change are two opposing actions that “work at each other” until one dominates and the resulting ‘outcome is a synthesis that is distinct but contains elements of the forces for and against change. This model assumes that dissatisfaction with the status quo is necessary before ‘change can occur. In contrast, the logic of trialectics proposes that change occurs through. attraction, Changes do not result from “pushes” or pressure to move away from the present situation, but instead result from being “pulled” toward or attracted to different possibilities. In addition to developing these models of logic, change researchers have sought to describe other aspects involved in implementing successful change. Brown and Risenhardt (1997) identified three key characteristics of successful managers in continuously changing organizations. Successfull managers provided clear responsibility and priorities with extensive communication and freedom to improvise, Analogous to jazz improvisation, these managers created an environment that supports intensive ‘communication in real time, within a structure of a few, very specific rules. The limited structure provides framework without which there are too many degrees of freedom. Yet, these fundamentals provide a firm backdrop against which individual members can be creative, 94A second characteristic of successful managers is exploration of the future by experimenting with a wide variety of low-cost probes. They argue that low-cost probes enhance learning about future possibilities. This learning opportunity is ertical because, while the future is uncertain, it is possible to leam something about it. Leaning makes it easier for leaders to anticipate and even create the future (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1997). ‘Third, effective managers link current projects to the future with predictable (time-paced rather than event-paced) intervals and choreographed transition procedures. Familiar routines are created by predictable timing and by transition procedures that link the present to the future. They use the term “links in time” to portray explicit organizational practices that address past, present and future time horizons and the transitions between them. Rhythms are created that enable people to pace their work and synchronize their energies with one another, creating a focussed flow of attention that enhan performance. Consistent with Gersick (1991), performance is further enhanced if the thythm created by the transition process becomes synchronized with the thythm of change in the environment. ‘Theory of change oriented leadership Section: Given the change literature’s emphasis on the importance of the leader in enacting change, we next turn our attention to a discussion of a leadership theory that is intimately tied to change: transformational leadership. One of the most comprehensive leadership theories of organizational transformation is the theory of transformational and transactional leadership. Bums (1978) developed the initial ideas on transformational and transactional leadership in the political context and Bass (1985) further refined them and introduced them into the organizational context. Transactional leadership develops from the exchange process between leaders and subordinates wherein the leader provides rewards in exchange for subordinates’ performance. Transformational leadership behaviors go beyond transactional leadership and motivate followers to identify with the leader’s vision and sacrifice their self-interest for that of the group or the organization (Bass, 1985). Bass’ (1985) conceptualization of transformational leadership includes charisma or idealized influence (followers trust in and emotionally identify with the leader), intellectual stimulation (followers are encouraged to question their own ways of doing things) and individualized consideration (assignments are delegated to followers providing them with learning opportunities). Descriptive research by Tichy and Devanna (1990) shows that transformational leaders engage in a process, which includes a sequence of phases: recognizing the need for change, creating a new vision, and then institutionalizing the change. A review of the literature on change oriented or outstanding leadership, which also includes charismatic and visionary leadership (House, 1995), indicates that the “majority of the approaches share the common perspective that by articulating a vision, fostering the acceptance of group goals, and providing individualized support, effective leaders change the basic 95values, beliefs, and attitudes of followers so that they are willing to perform beyond the minimum levels specified by the organization” (Podsakoff et al,, 1996, p. 260), Most of the research on the transformational and charismatic leadership paradigms has focused on its relationship to individual and organizational outcomes such as. job satisfaction and performance (both subjective and objective). These studies have been conducted in a variety of settings using lab, field, and archival data and a variety of samples that include private and public sector organizations, students, military leaders, presidents, and different national cultures (Bass, 1990; House ef al., 1991; Pillai ef al, in press; Podsakoff ef al, 1996). According to Bass (1995), charisma, attention to individualized development, and the ability and willingness to provide intellectual stimulation are critical to leaders whose firms are faced with demands for renewal and ‘change. Links between transformational leadership and change management Section: ‘As the above descriptions of the change and transformational leadership literatures illustrate, there is a need to integrate these perspectives to gain a greater understanding of how to effectively enact change. It is our belief that the leadership and change literatures both show that certain transformational leadership qualities are uniquely appropriate for leading certain types of change. For example, research in the leadership area supports the idea that transformational leadership is better for non-routine situations (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, Pawar and Eastman (1997) propose that organizations will be more receptive to transformational leadership when adaptation (as opposed to efficiency) is the goal. In the change literature, the definition of event-based pacing (ie. centered on ‘maintaining status quo and achieving specific goals (Gersick, 1994)) may be a better fit with transactional leadership that emphasizes clarification of goals, follower compliance through incentives and rewards, with a focus on task completion (Bass, 1995). In order to further this argument, we next describe areas of convergence between the two literatures that point to the appropriateness of transformational leadership in enacting change. ‘Transformational, charismatic, and visionary leaders can successfully change the status ‘quo in their organizations by displaying the appropriate behaviors at the appropriate stage in the transformation process. When there is a realization that the old ways no longer work, such leaders may undertake the task of developing an appealing vision of the future. A good vision provides both a strategic and a motivational focus. It provides a clear statement of the purpose of the organization and is, at the same time, a source of inspiration and commitment. Consistent with Ford and Ford (1994), this view holds that leaders create change by providing a vision that is attractive to followers rather than creating dissatisfaction with the status quo. There is yet no consensus in the transformational leadership literature concerning whether a crisis or dissatisfaction with the status quo is necessary for transformational leadership to occur. Leaders may not need to create dissatisfaction with the present, but instead may provide a vision of a possible future that is attractive and engaging (Kouzes and Posner, 1988), 96Even without dissatisfaction or crisis, both literatures suggest itis critical that the leader bbe a change champion who can assemble and motivate a group with enough power to lead the change effort (Kotter, 1995). The change literature also suggests that a leader's ability to effectively use inducements and interventions that get people to change is only effective if people have an active need that the change can satisfy. As described in the change literature, in order to pull or attract followers to different change possibilities (see Ford and Ford, 1994), the leader must craft an appealing vision that takes into consideration the underlying needs and values of the key stakeholders. Once this vision is developed, the leader must implement the change. This could be done through intellectual stimulation, whereby the leader sets challenging goals for the employees and motivates them to rethink old ways of doing business. The leader frames the change by appealing to follower needs for achievement and growth that induces the follower to find the change attractive. The process may also be facilitated if the leader shows individualized consideration where he or she provides support, coaching and ‘guidance to the employees. Coaching and guiding behaviors are particularly important in large-scale transformation and in the development of self-managing work teams. A number of modem corporations are adopting the team approach to structuring the organization, which in itself is a major transformation of the culture. ‘A transformational leader would be a good facilitator of this process by promoting the creation of a culture that encourages team-decision making and behavioral control (Manz. and Sims, 1990). Individualized consideration would also play a role in neutralizing the inevitable resistance that is bound to accompany the transformational process. The leader must work at getting large numbers of people in the organization involved in the transformation process. Otherwise, it is likely to be greeted with cynicism and strong, resistance from key constituents, which is a sure-fire route to failure, This idea that the transformational leader creates a culture which embraces change is consistent with the change literature research by Brown and Eisenhardt (1997). Their description of the three key characteristics of successful managers in continuously changing organizations proposes that the successful leader creates a system (ie. an organizational culture) that is neither too rigid (over-controlling the change process) nor too chaotic (so the change process falls apart) Throughout the transformation process, the leader should set high performance expectations and reward behaviors that are directed toward fulfillment of the vision. It is also important that the leader models the behaviors that are required to institutionalize the ‘change and sets the standards for the rest of the organization to emulate. As Kotter (1995) argues, change sticks only when it becomes “the way we do things around here”, when it seeps into the bloodstream of the corporate body. This is similar to Sastry’s (1997) conclusion that enforcing a waiting period after every significant change in strategic orientation is necessary to maintain competence. The transformational leader can play @ critical role in communicating how the changes have led to better performance and ensuring that the next generation of top management personifies the new approach (Kotter, 1995). 7Social influence processes enabling leaders to successfully enact change Pamela ‘Tiemey's empirical study shows that the quality of relationships with supervisors and fellow team members may be used as vehicles to create a favorable climate for change. Furthermore, Ken Parry's study concludes this issue by adding that a successful strategy for dealing with continuous organizational change is to resolve followers’ uncertainty about the change process and enhance their adaptability through frequent communication, training, and mentoring As mentioned throughout this article, the importance of successfully enacting change is a critical issue facing today’s organizational leaders. The articles presented in this special issue were chosen because they all provide insights into this crucial topic. Moreover, they address concerns of both academics and practitioners as we all attempt to gain a greater understanding of how leaders can and should enact change How Transformational Leaders Make Organizational Change Stick —==5 Change is an inevitable process that every organization must face and successfully ‘manage if they want to remain competitive and grow. Since most people are naturally resistant to change of any kind, itis a leader’s ability to effectively frame change will make a significant difference in how it is viewed and embraced by your team and is often the difference between success and failure when it ‘comes to adoption. 98Emotional Triggers that will Make Change Stick Many organizations implement change — but the key is to introduce it in a way that will make it stick. Naturally, leaders will deal with intemal resistance — this is normal. If you want your team to accept change and make it stick, you need to frame it in a way that will tap into people’s emotions. This is why leaders have to make the concept of change real for people — it cannot exist as a conceptual theory. ‘You need to effectively communicate what change will be taking place, and how it will impact each member of your team from the top down, How can you tap into people’s emotions? + Inspiration; With change comes the opportunity to inspire. Use the prospective change to inspire your team about what is possible. The desirable end results will ‘open them up to change, and also interest them in adopting change for the long term. + Opportunity: When change is proposed, discuss the new opportunities that will be presented to each and every individual. Answer “What's in it for me?” for each person so they start to see the personal benefits of the direction the organization is going, + Input: Give your team the floor. Make it easy for them to openly discuss their concerns and raise questions about how change will impact them personally and professionally. Give Change Time to Stick If you want change to stick you need to set a realistic timeframe, You cannot immediately expect everyone in your organization to accept it with open arms, even if it is a positive change. This is why it is important to make time for change: + Set a realistic time frame and structure for change to take place. + Schedule discussions, open forums, and meeting to help your team understand, accept, and adopt. Be ready and willing to have open discussions that raise concerns. + Change is not @ theoretical process; it needs to link directly with everyday activities. So set a series of mini goals or milestones to guide your team through the process of change and highlight how the changes you are undergoing are having a positive impact on everyday activities and outcomes How to Make Organizational Change Stick Here are a number of proven strategies that you can use to assist with making change stick in your company: 1. Tie change into your vision and values: It is important to communicate how change reflects the organizations’ core values and how it supports the company goals and objectives. 992, Make change matter from an individual perspective: When communicating change, tie it into what matters to your team, Depending on the individual, it could be an expansion of duties, increased responsibility, or personal growth opportunities. 3. Find champions at all levels of the organization: It is important to identify people that champion the idea of change at all levels of your company. They can provide support and help motivate others to accept change so it will stick. They can also put out mini fires and address misinformation about the changes being made. 4, Provide training to support the change: Offer training and information sessions to ramp up individual skills and knowledge that are needed for people to be successful in the new environment. Also, make sure that ongoing support is in place to reinforce the value of change. Expect accountability: You need to hold people accountable by tracking the success of implementation and through recognition and reward — offering rewards alone will not create the desired change in culture 5.3. Leadership and Self -Efficacy ‘When facing a leadership challenge, do you move into a combination of diagnostic and possibility thinking driven by the feeling of confidence, or do you move into an assessment of how daunting is the situation supported by your internal master storyteller about why this is likely an insurmountable task leading to you doubting your own abilities to rise up and overcome the difficulties of life? Self-efficacy, or your belief in ‘your own abilities to deal with various situations, can play a role in not only how you feel about yourself, but whether or not you successfully achieve your goals in life. During a succession plan, the CEO decided to not retire, The succession candidates were stunned. One of the leaders became COO at another organization while the other left to run a larger SBU in a mid-sized conglomerate. Shortly, after the transition, both of the leaders began to struggle with feelings of doubt. Under the stress of the suddenly dismantled succession plan and the completely new role definition, the transition was anything but smooth. Suddenly, the very confident leaders began to second-guess and listen to negative self talk. Self-efficacy is the comerstone of leadership. You can teach a leader to be an effective problem solver who is more decisive or to be a better communicator who can also coach, mentor and hold team members accountable (and many other fundamentals of leadership). Yet, without that leader first believing in himself or herself, true leadership will exist only in title. A leader that is technically qualified for the position, but lacks the confidence generated by self-efficacy, will find it difficult to lead others. Often, self-confidence comes from a life-long process of developing the sense of an internal authority of who you are. It is developed by directly engaging life in a resilient 100and courageous way. It requires balancing the external demands of life, work, and family that seek to influence who you are and how you behave, Moreover, itis self-efficacy. Internal authority comes from having developed the courage to self-define who you are and how you engage people, places, and life’s experiences. It is giving yourself permission to be your true authentic self in any circumstance. Albert Bandura described the sense of deep knowing this internal authority as self-efficacy. What Is Self-Efficacy? According to Bandura, self-efficacy is "the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.” In other words, self-efficacy is a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994), The Role of Self-Efficacy Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change, and things they would like to achieve. However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, challenges, including crisis, failed projects, and scandals are approached, Strong Sense of Self-Efficacy People with a strong sense of self-efficacy: + View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered + Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate «Forma stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities + Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments A strong sense of efficacy enhances personal accomplishment in many ways. People with high efficacy approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. Such an efficacious outlook fosters interest and deep engrossment in activities. They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them. They maintain a task-diagnostic focus that guides effective performance. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure, They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills that are acquirable. They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks. They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them. Such an eflicacious ‘outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress, and lowers vulnerability to depression. Low Sense of Self-Efficacy People with a weak sense of self-efficacy: * Avoid challenging tasks + Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities 101* Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes * Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, People who have a low sense of efficacy in a given domain shy away from difficult tasks, which they perceive as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak ‘commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. They maintain a self-diagnostic focus rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and on all kinds of adverse outcomes. ‘They slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties. They are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks. Because they diagnose insufficient performance as deficient aptitude, it does not require ‘much failure for them to lose faith in their capabilities. They fall easy victim to stress and depression. ‘The multiple benefits of a sense of personal efficacy do not arise simply from the incantation of capability. Saying something should not be confused with believing it to be so. Simply saying that one is capable is not necessarily self-convincing that it is true. Self-efficacy beliefs are the product of a complex process of self-persuasion and a deep knowing that relies on cognitive processing of diverse sources of efficacy information conveyed enactively, vicariously, socially, and physiologically (A. Bandura, 1986). Once formed, efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to the level and quality of human functioning. Sources of Self-Efficacy How does self-efficacy develop? These beliefs begin to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations, However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end during youth, but continues to evolve throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding. According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy. A new CEO was suddenly promoted without any transition between roles or assistance from the prior CEO. Little trans of information or role knowledge was provided. ‘The suddenness of the promotion created a ripple in the organization with much disagreement with the selection. Blatant challenges to the CEO’s competency as well as right to the position were common, The organization struggled from a void in leadership while the CEO struggled to find confidence in the role. Self-efficacy waffled from brilliant vision of what could be to massive second-guessing. Once the CEO got over the shock and realized that some of the leadership would never accept the selection, a new team was built that could support the CEO. The CEO regained his sense of self and ‘moved the organization into a long and successful tenure. 1. Mastery Experiences: Bandura believed that the most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences." Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy. A critical 102component of mastery is that it requires the leader to accurately assess what is factual versus what is imagination. When under immense stress, it is not always clear what the facts are. Social Modeling: Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities to succeed. For example, fone client was not able to get her land-legs under her. He had successfully led the organization through a multi-year growth spurt that suddenly stopped as significant competition began to erode market share. It was suggested that the client meet with, other CEO’s in related situations. One acquaintance became a mentor that suggested visiting the organization and providing some feedback. Besides the feedback, she shared her experiences including detailed description of actions taken. Thereafter the client reclaimed his competency and moved the organization into the direction to address the competition and streamline the organization to be more agile. One client was struggling with getting a clear perspective of not only the market but in how to lead a change. We focused on past successes through an in-depth reflection process. After a brief but deep dive into past successes (and project failures), a deep knowing appeared that supported moving forward. As coach, the focus was on supporting the client to fully unravel what had led to prior successes and learning from project failures. As a result, the client seemed to complete a deep integration within himself that fortified his self-efficacy. Social Persuasion: Bandura indicated that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand, Psychological Responses: Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations. For example, one client tended to get tongue-tied when publically speaking. Rather than focus on the speech (and his fear of embarrassment), the focus became on telling an interesting story by being fully present to himself and to the story. His self-efficacy returned shortly after he began. He had realized that the story was as much the audience's (his direct reports) as it was his. He expressed how proud he was of their performance and flew through the presentation. Hence, it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted by the individual. By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy. 103Bullies and Persecutors Some people may think that leaders who are overly aggressive in their communication and/or leadership style have strong confidence and therefore self-efficacy. When taken to an extreme, leaders who are overly aggressive are often referred to as bullies. Interestingly enough, people with strong efficacy (authentic confidence) do not have need to be overly aggressive to get their goals accomplished. Being overly aggressive is actually a sign of a lack of confidence and low self-efficacy. Executive Presence (Self-Efficacy) People like to work with leaders whose self-efficacy reveals that they are truly confident in who they are and how they approach life. There is a natural tendency to trust people ‘more when they appear confident in who they are and how they interact with the various daily challenges. For most of us, dealing with an authentically confident person helps assure us that the person is also competent. Generally, when a leader embodies strong self-efficacy and therefore exhibits confidence, it makes it easier to trust that leader, and people want to work with leaders they trust. In reality, self-efficacy (and therefore authentic self-confidence) is a more important asset than skill, knowledge, or even experience. Without authentic confidence, you will find it difficult to make tough decisions, lead meetings with authority, get people to ‘communicate with you candidly, and be open to feedback, particularly when it is of the constructive type. Without self-efficacy (and authentic self-confidence), you will second ‘guess your decisions and find yourself becoming defensive, when chalienged. Without well developed self-efficacy (and therefore self-confidence), you may find yourself sadly lacking in one very important component of leadership: followers. Coaching for Self-Efficacy ‘To support the understanding and how to reframe a breach in self-efficacy, in the following pages, there is a worksheet that can be used to guide the client through a deep reflective process that will in all likelihood lead to insights that will support the client to reclaim their sense of self and self-efficacy. 5.4 Building Capacity for Leading and Learning ¥ There is a relatively clear consensus that the factor with the most immediate and powerful influence on student learning is the quality of instruction that teachers provide (Leithwood et al., 2004) and improvement efforts must focus on the “instruction core” (Elmore, 2000). Intellectually challenging, conceptually based, and relevant instruction is at the core of a shared vision of teaching that cuts actoss grade level and subject areas, and should be the focus of leadership and improvement efforts (e.g. Darling-Hammond, 2010; Newmann and Associates, 1996; Wagner et al., 2006). Individual teacher competence is obviously necessary for effective classroom practice. Teachers must be able to integrate knowledge of students, subject matter, and teaching context in planning units and lessons, carrying out instruction, assessing student work, and reflecting on 104practice, At the same time, to promote achievement among all students from one year to the next, teachers must employ their individual knowledge, skills, and dispositions in ‘ways that advance the collective work of their schools. The collective power of an entire faculty to strengthen student performance throughout their school can be summarized as school organizational capacity (Newmann et al., 2000). The relationship of capacity to instructional quality and student achievement is depicted in Figure 1, which is based on a synthesis of prior research on school reform and educational change (see King, 2002; Newmann ef ai., 2000; Youngs and King, 2002). While other formulations of school capacity appear in the literature over the past decade (c.g. Bryk et al,, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Fullan, 2007; Wagner et al., 2006), the framework for school capacity presented here captures important dimensions consistent across these formulations. Figure I indicates that student achievement is affected most directly by the quality of instruction, which in turn is influenced by five key dimensions of capacity. All five dimensions of school capacity are related, and each one has the potential to affect one or more of the others. For example, teacher collaboration within professional community can strengthen teachers’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions for instruction, On the other hand, a lack of program coherence can weaken professional ‘community, especially shared goals for student learning. ‘A school’s capacity includes the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of individual teachers. All teaching staff must be professionally competent in curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, and classroom management, and they must maintain high expectations for student learning, The influence of individual teachers’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions ‘on student achievement is well recognized in the literature on teacher education, teacher licensure, and professional development. Individual teacher competence must, however, be exercised in an organized, collective enterprise. This aspect of capacity emphasizes the educative importance of social resources in the school, which we refer to as school wide professional community. A strong school wide professional community is characterized by: + Shared goals for student leaning and collective re + Meaningful collaboration among faculty members; + In-depth inquiry into assumptions, evidence, and alternative solutions to problems; * Opportunities for teachers to exert influence over their work onsibility to reach them; Definitions of professional community vary in the literature, but it is clear that higher levels of professional community are linked to higher student achievement (Seashore Louis and Marks, 1998). A third component of school capacity is program coherence, which is defined here as the extent to which student and faculty programs at a school are coordinated, directed at clear learning goals, and sustained over time, Program coherence can be thought of as measure of organizational integration. Student and staff learning can be weakened by organizational fragmentation when schools implement programs that are unrelated 10 each other, that address only limited numbers of students and staff, or that are ended after 105short periods of time. Recent research (e.g. Childress et al., 2007; Newmann et al, 2001; Payne, 2008) has demonstrated the important potential of program coherence for teaching ‘quality and student achievement. Instruction that boosts student achievement also requires technical resources, that is, high-quality curricula, books and other instructional materials, laboratory equipment, ‘computers, and adequate workspace. Finally, school capacity requires effective principal leadership. Principals have the authority to affect each of the previously shown aspects of capacity in positive or negative ways and to varying degrees, depending on the quality of their leadership. Our framework now acknowledges the critical importance not only of principal leadership but of distributed forms of leadership that both influence, and are influenced by, other dimensions of capacity (Cambur ef al., 2003; Elmore, 2000; Spillane and Diamond, 2007). Capacity building rests on school leadership, and principals collaborate with teacher leaders in common efforts and enable the leadership of others (Crowther ef al, 2002) rather than individually manage or orchestrate improvement efforts. For low-performing schools, or even historically successful schools that now face increasing achievement gaps across student groups, gaining traction on one or more of these dimensions has remained elusive. In the next section, we consider some important ‘organizational barriers to building school capacity. “A business world maxim holds that ‘every organization is perfectly structured to get the results that it gets’. A corollary is that substantially different results require organizational redesign, not just incentives for staff to try harder within traditional constraints” (Darling-Hammond, 2010, p. 237). What are the problems and what are some redesign themes that may help make more headway in a enhancing a school's capacity to deliver instructional quality that leads to high and equitable student achievement? Barriers to building capacity and rethinking the intersection of bureaucratic and learning organization Section: Actions of educational leaders, those charged with steering improvement efforts, have historically mirrored the conventional form of school and district organization. That is, leaders managed a bureaucracy and the workforce within it, and the practice of leadership hhas been largely hierarchical and gendered. Leadership responsibilities were associated with specitic, official positions within the hierarchy and tended to focus on administrative maiters rather than instructional ones. As with most attempts at educational innovation and reform, changes in leadership practice tinkered around the edges of the core technologies of schooling, teaching and learning, rather than addressing them head on, ‘The result: “Direct involvement in instruction is among the least frequent activities performed by administrators of any kind at any level, and those who engage in instructional leadership activities on a consistent basis are a relatively small proportion of the total administrative force” (Elmore, 2000, p. 7). Little has changed since Cuban (1988) showed how the job of education leaders has historically encompassed three main 106roles ~ the managerial, the political, and the instructional — and how the first two have clearly dominated the instructional role. Numerous reasons have been offered for why reform tinkers around the edges and fails to engage with the instructional core. Of these, the bureaucratic nature of schools and schoo! systems is often cited, and at the heart of the bureaucracy is control and regulation. About 15 years ago, Smylie (1996, p. 9) showed that educational policy has proceeded from the theory that “problems of schooling are due in large part to lack of direction, excessive discretion, and low accountability within the educational system. This theory claims that these conditions can best be corrected through extemal regulation and bureaucratic control”. Educational policy thus tends to reduce the need for complex innovation to predictable, compliance-driven mandates Much has been made of how the bureaucracy of US school systems, particularly state departments of education and nearly 18,000 school districts, has hamstrung reform efforts. Rule- and compliance-based approaches, hierarchy, and contrived affiliation are perceived to limit freedom and initiative, curtail the spread of expertise, and neutralize the power of teachers to better meet the needs of students. The emphasis in the reform literature, contrasted to bureaucratic systems, has been on learning organizations and profession learning communities (e.g. Senge et al., 2000; Seashore Louis et al., 1995). Bureaucracy is a type of “administrative tyranny” and treated as a failure, while learning organizations and professional learning communities (PLCs) the desired state. ‘There is a “long-standing theme in bureaucracy critique in the social sciences that more oor less assumes that bureaucracy is an antiquated or ineffective form of organization” (Styhre, 2007, p. 193). Murphy and Meyers (2008, p. 87), for instance, draw on the literature of organizations in multiple fields and state, “One source of mal-adaptation (of organizations) that ribbons the literature on turnaround organizations is ‘the vicious circle of bureaucracy”. “Standard operating procedures”, “hierarchy”, “rigid structures,”, “adherence to well-established work routines” do not serve firms well in addressing problems, tending to reinforce the status quo and pigeonhole challenges into compliance efforts that do little to disturb conditions which helped create the problems in the first place. A variety of school tumaround efforts designed to remedy the shortcomings of bureaucracies have shown mixed and inconclusive results (Murphy and Meyers, 2008). This is no less the case in education research. For example, Bryk et al, (2010) have long, argued that bureaucratic forms are counter-productive for schools. They_ state, “Mechanistic forms of management (in other words, centralized decisions within a bureaucratic structure) are more likely to be effective in contexts where the core work on the job floor involves enacting standard routines and the organization operates within a relatively stable external environment. In contrast, organic forms of management are more likely to be deployed in dynamic environments where considerable uncertainty surrounds the execution of core tasks” (Bryk ef al., 2010, p. 68). Thus, inclusive ot distributed leadership with teacher influence and PLCs to sustain and support efforts to improve classroom instruction are advocated. As Darling-Hammond (2010, p. 238) 107states, “The effort to create leaming organizations in both business and education sectors hhas sought to replace the bureaucratic forms of organization dominant throughout the twentieth century” ‘There is not so much disagreement here, but the need to push past some “false choices” or “either/or” thinking that Dewey (1938/1997) warned us against. Post-structuralism has also made clear that power and control are still and ever functioning even within high-level learning organizations and professional communities (e.g. Gunn and King, 2003; Hargreaves, 1995). Rather than the usual association of the bureaucracy as mechanical model (with functional and hierarchical structures, emphasis on and compliance to rules, requirements for specific skills and professional identities, and top-down governance), the metaphor of a biological organism may be a more helpful image. A biological organism is a type of organization, even “dominated and regulated by specific rules and mechanisms” (Styhre, 2007, p. 180). But it is still fundamentally open-ended, adaptive to new conditions, and becoming. Bureaucracy is better conceived as something “intrinsically dynamic and capable of changing, along with a great many other things, (and so) the mechanical model is mistaken because it is inadequate and incapable of accounting for the changes bureaucracies can be proven to have orchestrated” (Styhre, 2007, p. 13). In Weick’s (1976) terms, the goal of transformative bureaucracies is not in a conversion from loose to tight couplings within a system. Rather, working towards establishing a flexible pattern of tight and loose couplings among previously disparate levels that ate transparent, frequently examined, and deliberately coordinated around shared values related to learning and growth of the organization may yield productive innovation. ‘Thus bureaucracy and innovation are compatible, and bureaucracies are dysfunctional, not by definition, but when they are characterized by stability and rule-governed behavior. Styhre (2007, p. 92), drawing on Delueze, claims that all entities are ‘multiplicities, and in “post-bureaucracies” (such as schools as learning organizations), there are elements of “trust-based control”. He suggests, “we do not know what a bureaucracy can do” (Styhre, 2007, p. 195), indicating that entry points for transformation are possible even within bureaucracies Given this tension and this possibility, we need to explore some sort of “hybrid” where elements of both the bureaucracy and the learning community are reflected. Importantly, the combination of elements from either “pure” form needs to be conceived as, and expected to be in fact, radically different depending on the contexts of differing schools and districts (Cuban, 1998). Writing from the field of special education, Skrtic (1995) has argued for an “educational adhocracy”, which acknowledges and embraces some structural elements of school's organization, but uses them to propel the leaning of the ‘organization forward. Adhocr adherence to traditional, established hierarchies of authority within schools. Their strength is derived from the ways in which educators collaboratively search for novel solutions to problems that they name and enact, as ‘opposed to central authorities identifying problems based on previously established 108categories, easily available for standardization. In other words, hybrids and adhocracies ‘operate under the assumption that “leaming and organizing are seen as mutually constitutive and unstable, yet pragmatic, constructs that might enable a dynamic appreciation of organizational life” (Clegg et al., 2005, p. 150). Schools with stronger initial levels of capacity are more likely to use reform efforts in ways that further enhance capacity (Newman et al., 2000), and site-based, organic approaches can leave many schools (the “sand” schools according to Slavin, 1998) behind because they do not have the capacity to generate or sustain significant improvements. Weak and ineffective leadership reinforces the wheel-spinning and inability to implement the “best practices” offered by external authorities and providers. For these troubled schools, some centralization seems absolutely required, a necessary fact. Concems for more equitable student achievement demand some central oversight. To enhance the quality of teaching and leaning on a large scale, district, state, and perhaps national policy can provide important extemal guidance for reform, But improvement efforts must combine centralized with more decentralized strategies, including those related to teacher learning, in order to effectively build local school capacity. Improving the instructional core is something that cannot be controlled (Elmore, 2000) and as such, is essentially a problem of learning. Put differently, “One could say that organizational learning can evolve through decentralized power. This is ‘one of the insights we take from Foucault: where there is no power there must be no knowledge, and, we can add, where there is no decentralized power there can be no ‘organizational learning” (Clegg et al., 2005, p. 155). What we can take, then, from learning organizations is that striving for concrete, stable definitions, and practices to produce improved levels of capacity, is misguided. But education policy and reform efforts do not live comfortably in this hybrid-middle. “The becoming that is in organization and in learning implies a permanent non-rational movement such that, despite the best attempts of science, ‘organization’ can never be known or rationally defined, yet it might learn, become and be connected with [...] ‘what is between is where the real action’ is to be found” (Clegg et al., 2005, pp. 150-2). As has been clearly shown (Bryk et al, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2010; Elmore, 2000; Newmann and Associates, 1996; Payne, 2008), there are no easy answers or magic bullets. The work is unpredictable, and while it can be planned, it is always emerging, improvised. “New competencies and new functions emerge after (at best during) the time when the organization is assembled with other elements such that ‘there is no preformed logical order to becomings and multiplicities” (Clegg et al., 2005, p. 160). In the next section, we explore how a hybrid project addresses the goals of building capacity for ‘more equitable schools and more powerful learning for all students. Working in the hybrid zone Section: The Wisconsin Idea Leadership Academy (WILA) is a unique partnership that bridges four organizational levels of the educational system: the University of 109Wisconsin-Madison’s Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis, the State's department of education, the local mid-sized urban district of over 21,000 students, and six schools. The schools are economically and racially diverse with poor and unequal achievement histories. Both the state department and the school district provide the funding for the leadership coaching positions and project management with the university. Annual funding is about $60000 per school. WILA attempts to address critical needs in K-12 education in the state. Substantive partnerships for leadership development and school improvement between the universities and state departments are needed to put important education research and theory into practice. Specifically, high quality technical assistance for schools to build capacity (especially in urban schools and other schools serving poor students, students of color, students with disabilities, and non-English speaking students; or schools identified for improvement) has been limited. Efforts to build leadership and instructional capacity have tended to be short term; approaches for quick fixes and “reforms du jour” do not lead to powerful, sustainable improvements that impact student achievement and the achievement gaps. And the reliance on external accountability systems and mandates to do the “checklist” of research-based practices (with the attending diversion of key resources to compliance monitoring) have only limited success in leading to powerful, sustainable reforms. WILA leadership coaches provide technical assistance, professional development, and support to principals and school leadership teams for school improvement to enhance teaching and leaming. The work entails five main, interrelated action steps: 1, Providing leadership development coaching for principals and leadership teams. Leadership development and school improvement is jointly designed and implemented by WILA coaches and school-based leadership teams. 2. Providing instructional coaching for improving student achievement for all students. Leadership coaching must lead to improved curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment — the instructional core that has the most direct affect on student outcomes. 3. Creating networks of support for targeted schools. The Principal Critical Friends Group (CEG) brings the six principals together monthly with two coaches- facilitators for their own focused professional development. 4, Enhancing district level coherence and instructional leadership to support school improvement. Regular consultation and collective learning opportunities with the superintendent, deputy superintendent, and other relevant central office staff help establish district-level support structures and coherent programs for school improvement. 5. Building a community of practice for WILA itself. WILA leadership coaches and the liaison from the state Department meet monthly to generate a professional learning community focused on problem-based issues of coaching practice. 110‘These actions steps are designed to lead to three main outcomes: 1. School capacity: The principal's and teacher-leaders' instructional leadership builds a strong community of practice among all staff members that build individual and collective knowledge, skills, and expectations for teaching and learning, 2. Powerful instruction, assessment and curriculum: A critical mass of highly qualified staff support sustainability for school improvement through effective instructional and assessment practices tied to a intellectually rigorous (Newmann and Associates, 1996) and culturally relevant curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 1994), 3. Equity and excellence: Learning of challenging content and skills is improved across student groups, especially for those traditionally marginalized in schools, ‘The WILA framework for school renewal that guides leadership coaching appears in the Appendix (see Figure Al). As a mechanism of external support, WILA coaches act most directly to build school organizational capacity that enhances teaching and thereby improves learning for all students. The three main intervention types found most potent among high performing school systems (structure, resources, and processes; see Mourshed ef al., 2010) are all elements integrated within our WILA structure. We address structural issues by creating within- and eross- school networks of professional learning and supporting district level staff as they negotiate a new leadership configuration. WILA coaches represent a shift in resource allocation and they provide consistent, continuous, job- embedded professional development, radically different from fragmented efforts available to schools in the past. Lastly, WILA's greatest impact is within the process domain; we have primarily emphasized the “how” of teaching and leading. Next we present one case that illustrates the work of the WILA coach and how it attempts to impact different dimensions of capacity Southfield Elementary School Section: Southfield Elementary School (a pseudonym) is a pre-kindergarten through grade (year) 5, school of just under 500 students. It is @ diverse school with around 30 percent African American, 17 percent Latino/a, and 53 percent White students. Two-thirds of all students are economically disadvantaged, 17 percent ate students with disabilities, and 9 percent are students with limited English proficiencies. Typical achievement gaps exist actoss all student groups. Using the WILA framework as a guide, we trace the highlights and challenges of the work with the school administrator (Principal Davis), the leadership team, and staff. Excellence and equity in student learning: The default stance to low performance at Southfield had always been one of resignation. Teachers could identify many reasons for low achievement, but they located them all within the child, parent, or community, and rarely, if ever, the school, or teacher. Together with the Principal Davis, we planned how to confront this problem in the school’s collective responsibility. Our coach's main role 1‘was to listen as Principal Davis wrestled with his next steps, but also to ask provocative questions, focus his concems, and resurface them even when the pressures of bureaucratic and managerial tasks threatened to overwhelm our collective commitment. At our first faculty meeting, he openly shared with the whole staff his disappointment with a survey that indicated low levels of teacher confidence in Southfield students’ ability to lean, Sharing his deep dissatisfaction with this condition was a priority for Principal Davis, and revealing it to the staff demonstrated significant growth for him as a leader. Teachers were visibly piqued; he raised the level of concem and could not “unsay” what he had shared. Our challenge since then has been to confront that dissatisfaction in constructive ways as we work with teachers. As a result of our critical conversations, primary questions we ask ourselves (Principal Davis, the leadership team, and the WILA coach) are, “How can we ensure that all of our actions work towards improving the status of teacher efficacy?” and, “How can we make sure Southfield is a place where teachers believe all students can learn, and have the resource to be able to facilitate the learning?” Staying anchored to these questions has been difficult, but they have served as touchstones for us even as our challenges become increasingly thornier as time goes on, The school (and district for that matter) now confronts the issue of effectively including students with disabilities in mainstream, general education classrooms, Powerful instruction, assessment, and curriculum: At Southfield, we are addressing issues related to powerful instruction, assessment, and curriculum systemically through the structure of monthly grade-level meetings organized around the continuous processes of assessing student work, planning instruction to address what we see, and reflecting on approaches tried. To address our concerns that whole school professional development lacked opportunities for specificity and immediacy of feedback on instructional practice, the leadership team decided to gear professional development to grade levels. Principal Davis and the coach have developed a plan that calls for a mix of structured protocols for teachers to engage in as well as less formalized discussions of student work. When he introduced the concept, Principal Davis met with significant resistance from individual teachers and the teachers’ union. The resistance was overt as teachers publicly challenged hhim, and subtle as teachers quietly yet steadfastly refused to mect in grade level groups to discuss data. As we discussed ways to meet this challenge, we decided that he would personally address teachers and grade levels that chose not to meet, rather than send an e-mail, or ignore it, as was a past practice. Directly, and personally, confronting the refusals has proven effective as Principal Davis believes they were a tactic to derail the initiative, To reinforce Davis's commitment and skills, we rearranged his schedule so that he and the coach can facilitate the meetings at grade levels where less initiative is shown (with the goal of fading that support), and also participate at the grade levels that demonstrate more progress toward goals. Further, while the leadership team was instrumental in suggesting the change towards grade level work, they have been far less involved in guiding those meetings. Aligned with our goal of increased organizational capacity, we will strive for far greater participation, inquiry, and reflective dialogue from the leadership team, We will not consider grade level meetings as a way to work towards 112powerful instruction, assessment, and curriculum a sustainable practice until broad collaboration in planning them occurs. School organizational capacity: Principal Davis and the WILA coach have identified the level of school's organizational capacity as a central area of concern. When we began ‘our work at Southfield, Principal Davis shared his reservations about collaboration, explaining that he did not see strong potential for partnership with teachers due to apathy and low morale, Consequently, he alone had been largely responsible for creating Southlield’s School Improvement Plan (SIP), and collaboration consisted of little more than a cursory rubber-stamping from the leadership team. Early Release Days (the time allotted by the district to engage in professional development) were occasions that often found Principal Davis alone scrambling to cobble together various district-level personne! to address some aspect of the SIP. Incoherent, fragmented, and disconnected from teacher's work, Principal Davis was dissatisfied. As we discussed possibilities. for changing this system of practice, we began to envision professional development that engaged teachers in collaboration, was organized around instruction, and was ereated and facilitated by members of the school’s leadership team. As a result, Principal Davis and the coach now serve more as coaches rather than a creator-implementer with regard to professional development. While we have not yet realized this goal, we have experienced some successes. During recent professional development days, teachers from the leadership team facilitated the sessions while Principal Davis and the coach were active participants; a sea change from the practices of the past. External support: WILA coaching is the main source of external support to the school in a largely dysfunctional district. But it would be a mistake to assume the coaching exhibits high levels of capacity, so how can the coaching work itself be advanced? One of the most significant strengths of the WILA model has been the monthly meetings of the six WILA coaches, the project director, and the State department of education's liaison, ‘The organization of our meetings has varied, Occasionally, we have utilized traditional formats such as round robin sharing of updates from our schools. Sharing aloud, in a confidential setting, has provided a safe space to challenge coaches’ assumptions and question hasty judgments. However, while WILA sharing is safe, coaches are not free from scrutiny. The appeal to “push your thinking” is regularly made; and we are pushed! Coaching colleagues have questioned other coaches’ approaches, strategies, and assessments in critical, thoughtful ways. After nearly every meeting, at least one coach sends out resources (book titles, articles, web sites) that pertain to our recent conversations. Constant, diligent engagement with professional development, curriculum, and instructional approaches supports our effectiveness. Coaches have also engaged in rigorous collaborative work, such as role-playing, goal envisioning, designing district-level professional development, and engaging in various problem-solving protocols. While we share strong ideological agreements focused around issues of equity as indicated by the WILA framework, there have been instances of difference and dissent. Rather than serving as an end-point, this has provided fertile areas for growth for us. The trust we have developed within our group has allowed opposition 113to ideas to encourage rather than daunt us. The diversity of experiences within WILA propels and strengthens our work, While our experiences are diverse, we are grounded and guided by a commitment to equity and excellence. As John Goodlad (1983) argued almost 30 years ago, the individual school is the key unit for educational improvement and that is the level at which WILA concentrates its efforts, However, the work in the schools is also critically important to informing ongoing discussions with district central office. Successful district leadership establishes a ‘compelling vision for teaching and learning to guide professional development and other supports for teachers and schools. Successful districts also establish a system wide approach to improving instruction (Bryk et al., 2010; Childress et al., 2007). To support district wide improvement, WILA coaches lead ongoing, half-day professional development with central office staff focused on these essential questions: 1. What is Teaching for Understanding? 2. What does it look like in the classroom? 3. How do we help and support school leaders to advance practices for Teaching for Understanding? At the school and district levels, attempts to strike the most productive balance or combination of decentralized and centralized initiatives, school- based development and getting to scale, are a persisting dilemma. The critical challenge for districts is to promote both school reform and systems coherence. Summary and conclusions Section: ‘The work of Wisconsin Idea Leadership Academy (WILA) attempts to addresses one of the critical tensions around school reform, framed alternatively as external control vs internal commitment, bureaucratic vs decentralized management, top-down vs organicidemocratic decision making. Clearly, for historically troubled schools, some pressure from the state and district is required. However, without the on-site, context-dependent assistance to generate the school-level buy in and capacity, little of what matters most will improve. Michael Fullan (2007, p. 46) captured this dilemma noting that different leadership strategies are needed for different circumstances, “The need for external intervention is inversely proportionate to how well the school is progressing. In the case of persistent failure, dramatic, assertive leadership and external intervention appear to be necessary. In the long run, however, effectiveness depends on developing internal commitment in which ideas and internal motivation of the vast ‘majority of organizational members become activated”. While WILA is a state-supported intervention providing external assistance to troubled schools, it secks to build the internal capacity of each school for improved teaching and enhanced and more equitable learning. We conclude with four action themes from the WILA work, revealing ongoing tensions that demonstrate how complicated the work is. 1141. Find and work from strengths (and there are strengths even in low-performing schools) but get to the weaknesses of the instructional core as soon as possible, AS illustrated in Southfield, a significant amount of time and effort has been spent laying the groundwork, or foundations, for improvement. Low capacity schools clearly cannot take on the complex work of reform without these, in order to jump-start the real work of improving the instructional core, 2. Simultaneously tear down and build up. Old and useless structures need to be eliminated but changes in practice and culture must happen at the same time. Similarly, positive relationships are built while constructive feedback and critical reflection are nurtured. The technical assistance and professional development at each school must be consistent with four important characteristics of best practice to enhance school capacity (e.g. Newmann et al, 2000): itis sustained and focused; involves Ieaders and teachers collaboratively in active leaning, inquiry, and reflective dialogue; addresses knowledge and skills related to curriculum, instruction, and assessment; and relates to key contextual factors of the particular school. 3. Focus extemal pressure and help on the school but push up to the district Schooklevel improvement need not wait for the system to get its act together (Weiner, 2003) but can in turn cultivate needed development at the top. As school-level capacity increases, external coaches and school leaders become clear on what policies and practices from district leaders need reform. The work to move the district to become more of a learning organization could entail serious risk, as ‘well as compromise the ongoing focus on the school level. But this approach seems to have better chances of building more active and meaningful involvement in building capacity for systemic and sustainable reform than historically failed attempts that avoid the hybrid zone. 4, Coaching is a helpful metaphor for the kinds of external assistance needed but coaches and other sources of external assistance must draw on many leadership styles (affiliative, authoritative, coercive, democratic, pacesetting; see Goleman, 2000). The work is with and on adults, and as with students, must be appropriately flexible and differentiated, Just over ten years ago, Judith Warren Little (1999, p. 234) was instructive, “Reform might more productively be seen as @ problem of earning than as a problem of ‘implementation.’ That is, the progress of reform appears to rest in crucial ways on the capacity of teachers, both individually and collectively.” In turn, the problem of leaming for capacity building requires effective teaching that too often is ignored in policies for school tumaround, high stakes accountability and compliance, and market-driven approaches. ‘Teacher development through enhancing individual and collective capacities cannot be fashioned independently of its members. Thus leadership takes center stage, both at the school and from the district, in ways that further the work of the members of each school. A school community must genuinely make their model or approach to reform and improvement its own, and policy should assist schools in this endeavor. The implication here is that schools clearly need different kinds of support for teacher development and 1sbuilding their capacity, but state and district policies still tend to reflect a ‘one- size- fits- all approach, which can diminish commitment and overall capacity. Policies need to be flexible enough to fit particular school contexts and needs, and allow for the time it takes for educators to learn new approaches and for organizations to ‘change in ways that support teacher development for improved practices that impact student learning. The work in the middle involves some sort of fluid hybrid of administrative control (je. instructional improvement must be the focus) and active, broad participation (e.g. in a leaming community that advances the changes in instructional practices) (see Courpasson and Clegg, 2006). This echoes recent work at the istrict level that emphasizes the paradoxes of organizational learning from experience, trial-and-error learning, and learning under conditions of ambiguity (Honig, 2008). Previously, we discussed the persisting problem of educational inequality and its implications for the extent of centralization in district efforts to improve teachers and schools. This equity concern encourages one further notion for rethinking leadership. If teachers’ capacity focuses their individual and collective power to enhance achievement for all students, leadership must purposefully support these efforts. In a stratified society, with economic and cultural resources unequally distributed across racial/ethnic and socioeconomic groups, educational leaders can work to minimize the impact of power and privilege and the school's role in reproducing these inequalities. Pierre Bourdieu (2003, p. 14) has encouraged academics and researchers to enact a “scholarship with commitment” and take scholarly knowledge into action. He said, “We must design new forms of organization capable of bringing together researchers and activists in a collective work of critique and proposition, leading to new forms of mobilization and action”. Nothing can be truer in education where we know what to do but getting there is the complex, murky waters of action and praxis. At some level, the work can only be done by doing it, realizing the transformative potential of practices (Strike, 2010). With the Wisconsin Idea Leadership Academy, we are attempting to bring four levels of that system together to act more like a hybrid organization of learning, with elements of centralized bureaucratic enactments of power, that will build school capacity for ‘meaningful reform. As Bourdieu suggests, it's both critique and activism that are needed. to confront the social injustices reproduced in schooling. We are now familiar with high performing teachers, schools, and systems of excellence and equity; the challenge for ‘widespread reform still remains ahead. 5.5 Building Capacity for Institutional Development Capacity development is the process by which individual and organizations obtain, improve, and retain the skills and knowledge needed to do their jobs competently. Capacity building and capacity development are often used interchangeably; however, some people interpret capacity building as not recognizing people's existing capacity whereas capacity development recognizes existing capacities which require improvement. Community capacity building is a conceptual approach to social, behavioral change and leads to infrastructure development in case of water and sanitation that focuses on 116understanding the obstacles that inhibit people, governments, international organizations and non-governmental organizations from realizing their development goals while enhancing the abilities that will allow them to achieve measurable and sustainable results. ‘The term community capacity building emerged in the lexicon of international development during the 1990s. Today, "community capacity building” is included in the programs of most intemational organizations that work in development, the World Bank, the United Nations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Oxfam International. Wide use of the term has resulted in controversy over its true meaning. Community capacity building often refers to strengthening the skills, competencies and abilities of people and communities in developing societies so they can overcome the causes of their exclusion and suffering. Organizational capacity building is used by NGOs & Governments to guide their internal development and activities. Many organizations interpret community capacity building in their own ways and focus on it rather than promoting two-way development in developing nations. Fundraising, training centers, exposure visit, office and documentation support, on the job training, learning centers and consultants are all some forms of capacity building. To prevent international aid for development from becoming perpetual dependency, developing nations are adopting strategies provided by the organizations in the form of capacity building, ‘The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was one of the forerunners in developing an understanding of capacity building or development. Since the carly 70s the UNDP offered guidance for its staff and governments on what was considered “institution building”. ‘The UNISDR defines capacity development in the DRR domain as "the process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capability over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions — within a wider social and cultural enabling environment." In 1991, the term evolved to be "community capacity building". The UNDP defines capacity’ building as a long-term continual process of development that involves all stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities, non-governmental organizations, professionals, community members, academics and more. Capacity building uses a country's human, scientifie, technological, organizational, and institutional and resource capabilites, The goal of capacity building is to tackle problems related to policy and ‘methods of development, while considering the potential, limits and needs of the people of the country coneemed, The UNDP outlines tht capacity building takes place on an individual level, an institutional level and the societal level." 7+ Individual level - Community capacity-building on an individual level requires the development of conditions that allow individual participants to build and enhance knowledge and skills. It also calls for the establishment of conditions that will allow individuals to engage in the "process of learning and adapting to change". + Institutional level - Community capacity building on an institutional level should involve aiding institutions in developing countries. It should not involve creating new institutions, rather modernizing existing institutions and supporting them in forming sound policies, organizational structures, and effective methods of ‘management and revenue control." + Societal level — Community capacity building at the societal level should support the establishment of a more "interactive public administration that learns equally from its actions and from feedback it receives from the population at large." Community capacity building must be used to develop public administrators that are responsive and accountable. Non Training Level providing enabling environment to the trained staff to perform at his optimum level ‘The World Customs Organization — an intergovernmental organization (IO) that develops standards for governing the movement of people and commodities,” defines capacity building as "activities which strengthen the knowledge, abilities, skills and behaviour of individuals and improve institutional structures and processes such that the organization can efficiently meet its mission and goals in a sustainable way." It is, however, important to put into consideration the principles that govern community capacity building, Oxfam International — a globally recognized NGO, defines community capacity building in terms of its own principals. OXFAM believes that community capacity building is an approach to development based on the fundamental concept that people all have an equal share of the world’s resources and they have the right to be "authors of their own development and denial of such right is at the heart of poverty and suffering." For the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development/Development Assistance Committee (OECD/DAC), capacity development is the process whereby people, ‘organizations and society as a whole unleash, strengthen, create, adapt and maintain capacity over time. For the Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, capacity development is the process of strengthening the abilities of individuals, organizations and societies to make effective use of the resources, in order to achieve their own goals on a sustainable basis. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) defined capacity development as the activities, approaches, strategies, and methodologies which help organizations, groups and individuals to improve their performance, generate development benefits and achieve their objectives. The World Bank — Africa Region defines capacity as the proven ability of key actors in a society to achieve socio-economic goals on their own. This is demonstrated through the functional presence of a combination of most of the following factors: viable institutions and respective organizations; commitment and vision of leadership; financial and material resources; skilled human resources. Organizational capacity building — another form of capacity building that is focused on developing capacity within organizations like NGOs. It refers to the process of enhancing an organization's abilities to perform specific 118activities. An Organizational capacity building approach is used by NGOs to develop internally so they can better fulfill their defined mission, Allan Kaplan, a leading NGO scholar argues that to be effective facilitators of capacity building in developing areas, NGOs must participate in organizational capacity building first. Steps to building ‘organizational capacity include: + Developing a conceptual framework Establishing an organizational attitude Developing @ vision and strategy Developing an organizational structure Acquiring skills and resources .Preparing required tools, hand books, manuals, advisories, primers and guidelines etc. Kaplan argues that NGOs who focus on developing a conceptual framework, an organizational attitude, vision and strategy are more adept at being self-reflective and critical, two qualities that enable more effective capacity building. Some common elements and learning emerge from the definitions above: + Capacity development is a process of change, and hence is about managing transformations. People's capacities and institutional capacity and a society's capacity change over time. A focus on what development policies and investments ‘work best to strengthen the abilities, networks, skills and knowledge base cannot be a one-off intervention. + There can be short-term results. And often in crises and post conflict situations there is a need for such. But even short-term capacity gains, such as increase in monetary incentives or introducing a new information system, must be supported by a sustained resource and political commitment to yield longer term results that truly impact on existing capacities. + Capacity development is about who and how and where the decisions are made, management takes place, services are delivered and results are monitored and evaluated, It is primarily an endogenous process, and whilst supported and facilitated by the international development community, it cannot be owned or Griven from the outside. At the end of the day, it is about capable and transformational states, which enable capable and resilient societies to achieve their own development objectives over time. But rather how they are perceived and interpreted by the individual, By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy. 5.6 Building Leadership Capacity for Institutional Improvement ‘What Kind of a Leader Are You? A 21st Century 360° Self Assessment. Effective leadership behaviors are necessary to maintain a culture of collaborative leadership and to establish a process for successful school change. The following 21st Century School Leadership Skills Assessment instrument identifies current leadership 119standards needed to lead an effective school leaming community. Schools that show significant improvement in student outcomes attribute improved and distributed leadership as one of the reasons for the improvement. Leadership from administrators, teachers, parents, and others in the community is essential in order to reach school goals. ‘This instrument will evaluate and confirm leadership strengths and weaknesses and offer improvement suggestions. Building Capacity + Think about a person you know whose leadership skills you admire. This person can have any position—teacher, principal, clerical worker—it doesn’t matter. What traits or behaviors does the person exhibit that make you appreciate his or her leadership skills? + List three or more of those traits. In groups of four or more, compare the traits you've identified with the ones listed by others at your table. How many ‘commonalities do you find? Come to agreement on five or six traits that you think are most important Debrief the conversation by asking each group to read its list and record the leadership characteristics on chart paper. Indicate (by checks, hash marks, or some other notation) ‘when traits or behaviors are listed by more than one group Increasing Capacity Research shows that if leadership is to improve, leaders must increase capacity in three areas: knowledge of effective practices, skills, and attitudes. Begin with several of the prompts provided and facilitate a discussion around the following: + Knowledge: What is your knowledge of effective middle level and high school practices? Include learning styles, differentiated instruction, developmental appropriateness, and so on. How and where do we develop additional knowledge? + Skills: What can you do? What skills are necessary to effectively lead a school toward continuous improvement? How and where do we develop skills? + Attitudes: Another description for atitudes is will and the disposition to do what is right. What do you know about your attitudes? How do you interact with people with different styles than yours? How and where do we develop or alter our attitude. The Capacity to Build Organizational Capacity in Schools Inequalities in academic achievement across student groups and low expectations for learning that leave many students neither college nor career ready (Apple and Beane, 2007; Peske and Haycock, 2006; Noguera, 2005; Wagner et al., 2006) reveal a deepening educational crisis in the United States and other countries (Wagner, 2008). Many proposals for reform, however, skirt the issue. High-stakes accountability, school reconstitution and closings, charter and voucher schools, and similar attempts at restructuring or privatization do not engage directly with ctitical tasks of building ‘organizational capacity in low-performing schools. These approaches are to a large degree about something other than improving public education (Apple, 2006), and none 120of them promote organizational learning, In other words, they have almost no capacity to build a school's capacity. In this same period, somewhat ironically, many reformers, policymakers, and researchers have given considerable attention to organizational capacity in schools, especially in those schools that perpetuate or exacerbate achievement gaps among diverse student ‘groups and reproduce social inequalities. With examples of successful schools and districts emerging in many parts of the world (e.g. Chenowith, 2007; Mourshed et al, 2010), we know quite a bit about key dimensions of school capacity and how they can help promote both equity and excellence in student learning. For example, there is ‘consensus on what high quality professional development for teachers is (arguably, one critically important influence on a school's capacity). But, weak, ineffective forms of professional development persist because the capacity of policies and programs, as well as individuals and organizations responsible for them, to influence and support productive change remains weak. We are still not very clear on how capacity building itself can be enhanced. This article addresses this critical disjuncture through two main purposes: 1. Summarizing the key dimensions of school organizational capacity. 2, Synthesizing the recent conceptual and empirical work on the important mechanisms of policies and programs to influence and support a school’s organizational development We first provide an overview of the dimensions of school organizational capacity. We then discuss barriers to building capacity in schools, and argue for hybrid models that combine clements of both learning communities and bureaucracies. Our recent research and practice related to one such intervention, leadership coaching for school improvement, is presented, 121References Apple, M.W. (2006), Educating the “Right” Way: Markets, Standards, God and Inequality, 2nd ed., Routledge, New York, NY. [Google Scholar] Apple, M.W. and Beane, J.A. (2007), Democratic Schools: Lessons in Powerful Education, 2nd ed., Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. [Google Scholar] Bourdieu, P. (2003), Firing Back: Against the Tyranny of the Market 2, The New Press, New York, NY. [Google Scholar] Bryk, A.S,, Sebring, P.B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S. and Easton, J.Q. (2010), Organizing Schools for Improvement: Lessons from Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. [Google Scholar] Camburn, E,, Rowan, B. and Taylor, LE. (2003), “Distributed leadership in schools: the case of elementary schools adopting comprehensive school reform models”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 347 73. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] [Infotrieve] Chenowith, K. (2007), “It's Being Done”: Academic Success in Unexpected Schools, Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, MA. [Google Scholar] Childress, S., Elmore, RF, Grossman, AS. and Johnson, S.M. (2007), Managing School Districts for High Performance: Cases in Public Education Leadership, Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, MA. [Google Scholar] Clegg, S, —-Kornherger, M. —and_—Rhodes, = C.—(2005), “Learning/becoming/organizing "Organization, Vol. 12, pp. 147 67. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] Cowrpasson, D. and Clegg, S. (2006), “Dissolving the iron cages? Tocqueville, Michels, bureaucracy and the perpetuation of elite power”, Organization, Vol. 13, pp. 319 43. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] Crowther, F, Kaagan, S.S., Ferguson, M. and Hann, L. (2002), Developing Teacher Leaders: How Teacher Leadership Enhances School Success, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. [Google Scholar] Cuban, L. (1988), The Managerial Imperative and the Practice of Leadership in Schools, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY. [Google Scholar] Cuban, L. (1998), “How schools change reforms: redefining reform success and failure”, Teachers College Record, Vol. 99 No. 3, pp. 453 77. [Google Scholar) [ISI] [Infotrieve] Darling Hammond, L. (2010), The Flat World and Education: How America's Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future, Teachers College Press, New York, NY. [Google Scholar] 122Dewey, J. (1938/1997), Experience and Education, Touchstone, New York, NY. [Google Scholar] Elmore, RF. (2000), Building a New Structure for School Leadership, Albert Shanker Institute, Washington, DC. [Google Scholar} Fullan, M. (2007), Leading in a Culture of Change, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. [Google Scholar] Goleman, R. (2000), “Leadership that gets results”, Harvard Business Review, March April, pp. 78 90. [Google Scholar] Goodlad, J.L. (1983), “The school as workplace”, in Griffin, GA. (Ed), Staff Development. The Bighty Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part If, National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago, IL, pp. 36 61. [Google Scholar] Gunn, LH, and King, M.B. (2003), “Trouble in paradise: power, conflict, and community in an interdisciplinary teaching team”, Urban Education, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 173 95. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] [Infotrieve] Hargreaves, A, (1995), “Development and desire: a postmodern perspective”, in Guskey, TR. and Huberman, M. (Eds), Professional Development in Education: New Paradigms and Practices, Teachers College Press, New York, NY, pp. 9 34. [Google Scholar} Honig, ML. (2008), “District central offices as learning organizations: how sociocultural and organizational learning theories elaborate district central office administrators’ participation in teaching and learning improvement efforts”, American Journal of Education, Vol. 114, available at education washington.edu/areas/edlpsiprofilesifaculty/honig.htmltipub. [Google Scholar} [Crossref], [ISI] King, M.B. (2002), “Professional development to promote school wide inquiry”, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 18, pp. 243 57. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]. isi Ladson Billings, G. (1994), The Dream Keepers: Successful Teachers of African American Children, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. [Google Scholar] Leithwood, K., Seashore Louis, K., Anderson, S. and Wahlstrom, K. (2004), How Leadership Influences Student Learning, Wallace Foundation, New York, NY. [Google Scholar] Little, LW. (1999), “Organizing schools for teacher learning”, in Darling Hammond, L and Sykes, G. (Eds), Teaching as the Learning Profession: Handbook of Teaching and Policy, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 233 62. [Google Scholar] 123Mourshed, M., Chijioke, C. and Barber, M. (2010), How the World's Most Improved School "Systems Keep_—-Geetting Better, _— available at. www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/Social Sector/our_practices/Education/Knowledge _Highlights/How%20School%420Systems%20Get/20Better.aspx. [Google Scholar] Murphy, J. and Meyers, C.V. (2008), Turning Around Failing Schools: Leadership Lessons from the Organizational Sciences, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. [Google Scholar] Newmann, FM. and Associates (1996), Authentic Achievement: Restructuring Schools ‘for Intellectual Quality, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. [Google Scholar] Newmann, F.M., King, M.B. and Youngs, P. (2000), “Professional development that addresses school capacity: lessons from urban elementary schools”, American Journal of Education, Vol. 108 No. 4, pp. 259 99. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] [infotrieve] Newmann, FM. Smith, B., Allensworth, E. and Bryk, AS. (2001), “Instructional ‘program coherence: what it is and why it should guide school improvement policy”, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 297 321. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [1SI] [Infotrieve] Noguera, P. (2005), “The racial achievement gap: how can we assure an equity of ‘outcomes?”, in Johnson, L., Finn, M. and Lewis, R. (Eds), Urban Education with an Attitude, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, pp. 11 20. [Google Scholar} Payne, CM, (2008), So Much Reform, So Little Change: The Persistence of Failure in Urban Schools, Harvard Education Press, Cambridge, MA. [Google Scholar] Peske, H. and Haycock, K. (2006), Teaching Inequality: How Poor and Minority Students are Shortchanged on Teacher Quality, available at. www.closingtheachievementgap.orgies/ctag/view/resources/49. [Google Scholar] Seashore Louis, K. and Marks, HM. (1998), “Does professional community affect the classroom? Teachers’ work and student experiences in restructuring schools” American Journal of Education, Vol. 106 No. 4, pp. 532 75. [Google Scholar] [Crossref], [ISI] [Infotrieve] 124Unit-6 LEADERSHIP AND DECISION MAKING Written by: Dr. Azhar Mumtaz Saadi Reviewed by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool 125CONTENTS Introduction. 127 6.1 Problem Solving Verses Decision Making. 129 wu wT 146 147 6.2 Programmed Verses Non-Programmed Decision... 6.3. Approaches to Decision Making... 64 Role of Values in Decision Making... 6.5 Models for Decision Making... 126Introduction Making a decision implies that there are altemative choices to be considered, and in such. ‘a.case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on. The two important ideas here are that first, there must be some genuine alternatives to choose from among. Second, every decision must be made in the light of some standard of judgment. This standard usually ‘gets expressed in the form of criteria, which reflect the values and preferences of the decision maker. These values and preferences are often influenced by corporate rules or cculture, law, best practices, and so forth Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This definition stresses the information-gathering function of decision making. It should be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom possible. Thus, every decision involves a certain amount of risk. If there is no ‘uncertainty, you do not have a decision; you have an algorithm-a set of steps or a recipe that is followed to bring about a fixed result. A critical factor that decision theorists sometimes neglect to emphasize is that in spite of the way the process is presented on paper, decision making is a nonlinear, recursive process. That is, most decisions are made by moving back and forth between the choice of criteria (the characteristics we want our choice to meet) and the identification of alternatives (the possibilities we can choose from among). The altematives available influence the criteria we apply to them, and similarly the criteria we establish influence the alternatives we will consider. Every decision is made within a decision environment, which is defined as the collection of information, alternatives, values, and preferences available at the time of the decision, An ideal decision environment would include all possible information, all of it accurate, and every possible alternative. However, both information and alternatives are constrained because the time and effort to gain information or identify alternatives are limited. Since decisions must be made within this constrained environment, we can say that the major challenge of decision making is uncertainty, and a major goal of decision analysis is to reduce uncertainty. We can almost never have all information needed to make a decision with certainty, so most decisions involve an undeniable amount of risk. You will feel quite comfortable after reading this unit in making decisions in your life, This unit will guide you process and different models of decision making, You will also know different types of decisions in your life Thope you will enjoy this unit and it will bring positive change in your life. 127Learning Outcomes The key objectives of this unit are that you will be able to 1) understand the concepts and nature of decision making and its types. 2) comparatively analyze the models of decision of decision making, 3) analyze all the steps involve in decision making 4) understand different approaches used in decision making 5) make wise decisions in your professional life Nature of Decision Making Decision making is the act of choosing one alternative from among a set of alternatives. We have to first decide that a decision has to be made and then secondly identify a set of feasible alternatives before we select one. Making effective decisions, as well as recognizing when a bad decision has been made and quickly responding to mistakes, is a key ingredient in organizational effectiveness. Some experts believe that decision making is the most basic and fundamental of all ‘managerial activities. Decision making is most closely linked with the Planning function. However, itis also part of Organizing, Leading and Controlling. Decision-Making Process includes + recognizing and defining the nature of a decision situation + identifying alternatives * choosing the ‘best’ [most effective] alternative and + Putting it into practice. Sometimes effective decisions must be made to: + Optimize some set of factors such as profits, sales, employee welfare and market share or + Minimize loss, expenses or employee tumover or Select best method for going out of business, laying off employees, or terminating a strategic alliance. Managers make decisions about both problems (undesirable situations) and opportunities (desirable situations). E.g., learning that the company has earned higher-than-projected profits. It may take a long time before a manager can know for sure if the right decision was made. There are two basic types of decision makings: 1) Programmed decision is one that is fairly structured or recurs with some frequency (or both). 2) Non-programmed decision is one that is unstructured and occurs much less often than a programmed decision. Programmed decision: Many decisions regarding basic operating systems and procedures and standard organizational transactions fall into this category. 128MeDonald’s employees are trained to make the Big Mac according to specific procedures. Starbucks, and many other organizations, use programmed decisions to purchase new supplies [coffee beans, cups and napkins} Non Programmed decision: Most of the decisions made by top managers involving strategy and organization design are non-programmed. Decisions about- mergers, acquisitions and takeovers, new facilities, new products, labor contracts and legal issues are non-programmed decisions. ‘Managers faced with non-programmed decisions must treat each one as unique, investing great amounts of time, energy and resources into exploring the situation from all views. Intuition and experience are major factors in these decisions. Now the conditions for decision makings * Decision Making Under Certainty * Decision Making Under Risk * Decision Making Under Uncertainty Decision Making Under Certainty: A state of certainty exists when a decision maker knows, with reasonable certainty, what the alternatives are and what conditions are associated with each alternative. Very few organizational decisions, however, are made under these conditions. The complex and turbulent environment in which businesses exist rarely allows for such decisions. Decision Making Under Risk: A state of risk exists when a decision maker makes decisions under a condition in which the availability of each alternative and its potential payoffs and costs are all associated with probability estimate. Decisions such as these are based on past experiences, relevant information, the advice of others and one’s own judgment. Decision is ‘calculated’ on the basis of which alternative has the highest probability of working effectively. 6.1 Problem Solving Verses Decision Making Problems are at the center of what many people do at work every day. Whether you're solving a problem for a client (intemal or external), supporting those who are solving problems, or discovering new problems to solve, the problems you face can be large or small, simple or complex, and easy or difficult. Find out how to solve your problems ‘A fundamental part of every manager's role is finding ways to solve them. So, being a confident problem solver is really important to your success. Much of that confidence ‘comes from having a good process to use when approaching a problem, With one, you 129can solve problems quickly and effectively. Without one, your solutions may be ineffective, or you'll get stuck and do nothing, with sometimes painful consequences, ‘There are four basic steps in solving a problem: 1. Defining the problem. 2. Generating alternatives 3. Evaluating and selecting altematives. 4, Implementing solutions. Steps 2 to 4 of this process are covered in depth in other areas of Mind Tools. For these, see our sections on Creativity for step 2 (generating alternatives); Decision Making for step 3 (evaluating and selecting alternatives); and Project Management for step 4 (implementing solutions), ‘The articles in this section of Mind Tools therefore focus on helping you make a success of the first of these steps — defining the problem. A very significant part of this involves ‘making sense of the complex situation in which the problem occurs, so that you can pinpoint exactly what the problem is, Many of the tools in this section help you do just that. We look at these, and then review some usefal, well-established problem-solving, frameworks Defining the Problem ‘The key to a good problem definition is ensuring that you deal with the real problem — not its symptoms. For example, if performance in your department is substandard, you ‘might think the problem is with the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper, the real issue might be a lack of training, or an unreasonable workload. Tools like $ Whys, Appreciation and Root Cause Analysis help you ask the right ‘questions, and work through the layers of a problem to uncover what's really going on. At this stage, its also important to ensure that you look at the issue from a variety of perspectives. If you commit yourself too early, you can end up with a problem statement that’s really a solution instead. For example, consider this problem statement: "We have to find a way of disciplining of people who do substandard work." This doesnt allow you the opportunity of discovering the real reasons for under-performance. The CATWOE checklist provides a powerful reminder to look at many elements that may contribute to the problem, and to expand your thinking around it. Understanding Complexity When your problem is simple, the solution is usually obvious, and you don’t need to follow the four steps we outlined earlier. So it follows that when you're taking this more formal approach, your problem is likely to be complex and difficult to understand, because there's a web of interrelated issues. 130The good news is that there are numerous tools you can use to make sense of this tangled mess! Many of these help you create a clear visual representation of the situation, so that you can better understand what's going on. Affinity Diagrams are great for organizing many different pieces of information into ‘common themes, and for discovering relationships between these. Another popular tool is the Cause-and-Effect Diagram. To generate viable solutions, you ‘must have a solid understanding of what's causing the problem. Using our example of substandard work, Cause-and-Effect diagrams would highlight that a lack of training could contribute to the problem, and they could also highlight possible causes such as work overload and problems with technology. When your problem occurs within a business process, creating a Flow Chart, Swim Lane Diagram or a Systems Diagram will help you see how various activities and inputs fit together. This will often help you identify a missing element or bottleneck that’s causing your problem. Quite often, what may seem to be a single problem tums out to be a whole series of problems. Going back to our example, substandard work could be caused by insufficient skills, but excessive workloads could also be contributing, as could excessively short lead times and poor motivation. The Drill Down technique will help you split your problem. into smaller parts, each of which can then be solved appropriately. Problem-Solving Processes ‘The four-step approach to solving problems that we mentioned at the beginning of this article will serve you well in many situations. However, for a more comprehensive process, you can use Simplex, Appreciative Inquiry or Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). These provide detailed steps that you can use to solve a problem effectively. Simplex involves an eight-stage process: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem, idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea, and acting. These steps build upon the basic process described carlier, and they create a cycle of problem finding and solving that will continually improve your organization, Appreciative Inquiry takes a uniquely positive approach by helping you solve problems by examining what's working well in the areas surrounding them. Soft Systems Methodology is designed to help you understand complex problems so that ‘you can start the process of solving them. It uses four stages to help you uncover more details about what's creating the problem, and then define actions that will improve the situation. 1316.2, Programmed Verses Non-Programmed Decision Programmed decision and Non-Programmed decision are the two basic types of deci that managers make. This depends on their authority, responsibility and position in organizational decision making structure. Definition, similarities and differences of Programmed Decision and Non-Programmed Decision are explained below; Programmed Decision Programmed decisions are those that are traditionally made using standard operating procedures or other well-defined methods. These are routines that deal with frequently ‘occurring situations, such as requests for leaves of absence by employees. In routine situations, it is usually much more desirable for managers to use programmed decision than to make a new decision for each similar situation. In programmed decisions ‘managers make a real decision only once, when the program is created. Subsequently, the program itself specifies procedures to follow when similar circumstances arise. The creation of these routines results in the formulation of rules, procedures, and policies Programmed decisions do not necessarily remain confined to simple issues, such as vacation policies or similar such things; they are also used to deal with very complex issues, such as the types of tests that a doctor needs to conduct before performing a major surgery on a patient with diabetes. Decisions related to structured situations, where the problem is more or less routine and repetitive in nature are known as programmed decisions. For example, problems related to leave are solved by policy relating to leave rules. Employees who take leave according to leave rules Bire granted leave and those who do not follow the leave rules may not be granted leave, The routine problems may not always be simple. There may be complex routine problems. For example, production department follows a routine that managers order for inventory when it reaches the re-order point. If there is sudden increase in ‘demand for the product, managers cannot wait for inventory to reach the re-order point to make fresh orders. Orders are placed before this level is reached. Ordering inventory is, 132thus, a problem of routine nature but ordering inventory before the re-order point is a routine but complex problem. In cither situation, managers depend on pre-established criteria for taking decisions. Various policies, schedules and procedures guide these decisions and, therefore, policies and procedures should be as clear as possible, Since decisions are based on pre-defined standards, they do not require much of brainstorming and are taken normally by middle and lower-level managers, Managers do not think of innovative ways to solve the routine problems. Therefore, they can concentrate on important and crucial activities. These decisions also involve some amount of certainty, ic., outcomes of these decisions are, by and large, known. Various Types of Programmed Decisions are: Organizational decisions Operational decisions Research decisions, and 1 2 4, Opportunity decisions. To summarize; programmed decisions features are: = Programmed decisions made using standard operating procedures. + Deals with frequently occurring situations. (Such as requests for leaves of absence by employees) + Much more appropriate for managers to use programmed decision for similar and frequent situations, = In programmed decisions managers make a real decision only on: itself specifies procedures to follow when similar circumstances arise. = Leads to the formulation of rules, procedures, and policies. ind program Non-Programmed Decision Non-programmed decisions are unique. They are often ill-structured, one-shot decisions, Traditionally they have been handled by techniques such as judgment, intuition, and creativity More recently decision makers have tuned to heuristic problem-solving approaches in which logic; common sense and trial and error are used to deal with problems that are too large or too complex to be solved through quantitative or computerized approaches. In fact, many management training programs on decision-making are designed to help ‘managers think through problems using a logical, non-programmed approach. In this way they learn how to deal with extraordinary, unexpected, and unique problems ‘These decisions are taken in unstructured situations which reflect novel, ill-defined and complex problems. The problems are non-recurring or exceptional in nature. Since they have not occurred before, they require extensive brainstorming. Managers use skills and 133subjective judgment to solve the problems through scientific analysis and logical reasoning, Subjective judgment is based on assessment of the situation. In objective judgment (in case of programmed decisions), past experience forms the basis for decision-making. ‘These decisions involve fair degree of uncertainty since outcomes of decisions are not always known. These decisions are based on partial ignorance as the altematives and their outcomes cannot be known in advance, They are taken in the context of changing, ‘dynamic environmental conditions. For example, increase in advertising expenditure, effective salesmanship, upgraded technology, quality controls, brand image and reasonable prices ate expected to increase sales and profits. If, despite all this, profits are declining, it requires immediate decision- ‘making and such decisions are non-programmed decisions. These decisions are taken by top-level managers. As we move up the organizational hierarchy, the need for taking non- programmed decisions increases. Different Types of Non-Programmed Decisions are: 1. Personal decisions, 2, Strategic decisions, 3. Crisis intuitive decisions, and 4, Problem-solving decisions. Non-Programmed Decision Features are; + Situations for Non-programmed decisions are unique, ill-structured Non-programmed decisions are one-shot decisions. Handled by techniques such as judgment, intuition, and creativity. A logical approach to deal with extraordinary, unexpected, and unique problems. Managers take heuristic problem-solving approaches in which logic; common sense and trial and error are used. Similarities of Programmed Decision & Non-Programmed Decision Both are required to run operations of Business efficiently. ‘Complements each other in setting goals and managing resources of the organization. Differences of Programmed Decision & Non-Programmed Decision Programmed Decleion Non-Programmed Dedleion Used for fequent. sluatons of organization, both) Used fr unique and irstucuredstuaions of organization iteral and exer both internal and extoral Wosly Lower level managers are —maling these] Mosly Uppe-lavel managers ave maxing Deve deco, Folows siveured and ron ceatve paler, Takes an culide of Whe box unstucured, 1ogeal and] creive approach 134Programmed decisions usually relate to structured problems while non-programmed decisions are taken to solve unstructured problems. Its also to be noted that the programmed decisions are taken at the lowest level whereas the non-programmed decisions are taken at the highest level of organization hierarchy. Programmed Decisions Non-programmed Dedsions —] Natu o Bako SicredRovingWeldeined | UrstuctuedNovelll dened | 7 Reourenes of Problem | Retin Nonepetive | 3. Wathod of olin Poles SiadaGoRues Managerial ave | Judgment Objcive Subecive 3. Probably Tauioone | Sone deg of eotaniys mvaNed | Uncerain Lael of ranagona MidllLowor ive Top Love 7 Types ‘Orga satonalOperaiona Personal STaiagaiss ResearctvOpporunty InuitveProbler-sohing There is no clear line of demarcation between programmed and non-programmed decisions. Decisions are neither totally programmed nor non-programmed. They are a combination of both and lie on continuum of decision; between totally programmed decisions at one end of the continuum and totally non-programmed decisions at the other end. A brief description of different types of programmed and non-programmed decisions is given below: 1. Organizational and personal decision These decisions reflect use of authority, Decisions taken in interest of the organization are organizational decisions and decisions taken for personal interests are personal decisions. Organizational decisions can be delegated but personal decisions cannot Managers are officially authorized to make organizational decisions but they do not, have authority to make personal decisions. They are based on personal biases. For example, firing an employee because he does not conform to rules is an organizational decision but firing due to personal enmity is a personal decision. 2. Operational and strategic decisions: These decisions reflect scope of decision-making processes. Operational decisions are taken as a matter of routine. They relate to daily operations and aim to achieve short-term objectives of the firm. They are taken by middle and lower- level ‘managers within the framework of policies and procedures and allow limited use of discretion by managers. Their impact is also limited and short-range in nature ‘These decisions affect part of the organization and are based on pre-defined policies and procedures. For instance, purchase of stationery and raw material are day-to-day 135decisions which affect only the purchase department and are taken according to pre- defined procedures defined for the purchase department. Strategie Decisions: Decisions related to important and non-recurring problems are called strategic decisions. Managerial skill and judgment are used to make these decisions. They relate to long-term goals of the company, define relationship of the organization with the environment and are risky in nature. They are taken by top-level managers. Decisions to update the technology, launch a new plant or change the policies are strategic decisions. These decisions affect the whole or major part of the organization and contribute directly to organizational objectives. They are usually not based on past experience and involve a ‘major departure from carlier business practices regarding various business decisions like expansion of business in intemational markets, diversification, and change in marketing mix ete, Strategic decisions involve three important elements: (a) Result element It specifies the result (objective) to be achieved through the decision. (b) Action element: It specifies the action to be taken to achieve the result, (©) Commitment element: It specifies the dedication, loyalty and commitment with which people who are responsible for taking action to achieve results are involved in making the decisions, 3. Research and erisis—intuitive decisions: These decisions reflect urgency of decision-making. Decisions which involve regular survey of the market are research decisions and decisions made under situations of crisis or emergency are crisis — intuitive decisions. For example, decision to allocate funds to Research and Development for product designing is a research decision; decision to increase production of medicines because of earthquake or war is a crisis-intuitive decision, 4. Opportunity and problem-solving decisions: These decisions reflect foresightedness. Managers forecast opportunities to ptomote organizational growth. The decision to grow and diversify (market penetration and market development) is an opportunity decision. Problem-solving decision solves a specific problem. For example, decision to enter into ‘new markets even when the company is making profits in the existing market is an ‘opportunity decision and decision to drop a product line because it is unprofitable is a problem-solving decision. 136(Market penetration increases sale of existing products to the existing and new customers in the existing markets and market development inereases sale by entering into new ‘markets with same products or products with minor modifications). 6.3. Approaches to Decision Making In the traditional approach to decision making or judgment, a comparison is made between a decision and a judgment (that is, a decision or judgment about what to do), and a standard one or “benchmark”. This leads to an evaluation of whether a particular decision or judgment is good or bad relative to the standard one, Decision-making behavior is present in almost every sphere of life and so is studied in many very different fields, from medicine and economics to psychology, with major contributions from ‘mathematics, statistics, computer science, artificial intel-ligence and many other branches of the scientific-technical disciplines. However, conceptualization of decision making, and the methods applicable for studying it with success vary greatly. This has resulted in fragmentation of this field. According to Wang, “Decision making is one of the 37 fundamental cognitive processes modelled in the Layered Reference Model of the Brain (LRMB)” , where each of the disciplines explores specifically the special aspect of decision making connected to a particular problem in that discipline. So, the basic problem for the conceptualization of decision making is to address what kind of methods are needed to be applied and followed successfully, to study it. These methods vary in sub-stantial ways, from problem to problem, the results of which lead to the frag- ‘mentation of this field into many categories. ‘The criteria for the success of this theory cover the whole decision cycle. They consist of, e.g. the framing of a particular decision which has been reached based on belief, goals, ete. They should also include the background knowledge of the decision-maker regarding the formulation of the decision options. It establishes more preferences compared to others, together with making commitments which ultimately initiate the making of some new decisions. These decisions may lead, again, to some other newly developing indecision, The next step of the problem concerned necessitates in bringing steps where, in turn, it is needed to incorporate the reasons towards the consecutive cycle about previous decisions as well as the rationales for them. This process, ultimately may lead either to the revision or abandonment of commitments that already exist. In this way, the theory of decision making depends on the successful roles played by other high-level cognitive capabilities like problem solving, planning and collaborative decision making. Three domains are responsible for assessing the canonical approach: artificial intelligence, cognitive and neuropsychology and decision engineering. These standards can be achieved or provided in “normative models”. ‘Normative’ means relating to a ‘model or an ideal standard. In this approach, people are primarily concerned in making. their decisions logically and rationally. The normative process is typically contrasted with informative (referring to the standard descriptive, explanatory or positive content) data. This can be termed as supplemental information, for example, additional guidance, tutorials, history, supplemental 137recommendations and commentary, as well as the background development together with, relationships with other elements. Informative data is not a basic requirement and doesn’t compel compliance. They are valuable because of their sets of rules or axioms which are derived from utility theory in economics and probability theory. These can be used to test the predictions about human behaviors. Biases are studied if the behavior deviates from the predictions of normative models. There are other approaches to decision making than the nor-mative approach, e.g, the rational theory of decision making. ‘Thus decision making is linked with a vast set of phenomena and processes (Rangel et al. 2008; Sanfey and Chang 2008). For example, all human beings when in normal, healthy, ‘mental and physical states, try to make decisions resulting in their natural control of their actions: “I would rather prepare for the exam instead of joining that evening party”, ie., some kind of self-conscious control of decisions and actions comes into play. But voluntary control of actions can be realized only from the angle of pure reflexes. When hit by the doctor in the right spot, the patient's foot moves without having any intention. But regarding reflexes, it can happen due to earlier learned experiences which could be encountered in most common experiences. An example of such reflexive decision making, i.., of taking action (controlling the speed or when to stop, etc.), is when you start to apply your car's break even before you become aware of your conscious decision, and it happens as fast as a reflex. The classic experiment in the research field of human. volition was performed by Libet (1985a, b). However, after a modified and modern version of this experiment, the authors (Soon et al. 2008) sought to predict the final response outcome, based on the activity pattems observed via localized brain waves. ‘They observed the activity pattems in the frontopolar cortex V, seconds ahead of the “urge to move”, which enabled them to predict the final choice (Soon et al. 2008). While the latter result was above chance, however, one cannot arrive at a reliable prediction. Research advances of modern neuroscience lead us to classify the approaches to decision ‘making as follow in the next section. To start with, on the basis of human decisions, decision making can be categorized so: 1. Decision making, developed for money making, ic., ‘+ Mathematical formalization, made in game theory ‘+ Phenomenological models of rationality. Il. Decision Making (with application from and of neuroscience) These are models based on learning theories from artificial intelligence (Al) research, i. ‘+ Based on the findings of neural correlates of realistic models of decision making in the brain. ‘+ Models arising from understanding the cellular basis of cognition, Canonical Approach and Normative Models In general, two paradigms can be stated as dealing with the categorization of decision theories into descriptive and normative theories. Descriptive theories are based on empirical observations and on experimental studies of choice behaviors. But the 138normative theories specifically assume a rational decision maker who fol-lows well- defined preferences of behaviors, as well as obeys certain axioms of rational processes. ‘Many researchers (e.g., Zachery et al. 1982) have proposed three components of decision making as the main contributors, identifying them as: 1, decision situation 2. decision maker 3. decision process Even if different decision makers possess cognitive capacities varying greatly in degree, the human brain shares similar and recursive characteristics and mecha-nisms, with all the core cognitive processes being interconnected within the mechanism of the brain. The canonical approach to decision making can be assessed in three domains: 1, cognitive and neuropsychology 2. decision making in artificial intelligence 3. decision engincering All these standards can be achieved or provided in “normative models”. Normative, by definition, relates to an ideal standard of model, or is based on what is considered to be the normal or correct way of doing something. Typically, the informative data approach is in contrast to the normative approach. The informative data approach can be applicable and related to standardized positive contents. Here, the data could have the nature of a descriptive or explanatory nature, which can be, for example, supplemental information or recommendations, additional guidance, ete, This also includes data from the tutorials, or from background history, development, and relationships with other elements. It is interesting to note that informative data does not require and compel compliance. They are valuable because of their set of rules or axioms which are derived from utility theory in economies and probability theory. These can be used to test the predictions about human behaviors. Biases are studied if the behavior deviates from the predictions of normative models. ‘There are other approaches to decision making than normative models, which vary in the extent they correspond to observed choices. But the normative approach can be stated as a rational theory of decision making. However, there exist dif-ferences between these three functions—descriptive, normative and prescriptive when choosing models, where the evaluation criteria are interesting to study. For example, empirical validity, i.c., the extent to which they correspond with the observed data, determines the evaluation of descriptive models, whereas normative models are evaluated only when the theoretical adequacy, i., the degree to which they provide acceptable idealization or rational choices, is provided. Lastly, the ability in helping people to make better decisions, i.., their pragmatic values, are deciding factors for the evaluation of the prescriptive models. However, difficulties are faced in defining as well as in evaluating all these three criteria, which could be encountered by the students of philosophy of science. It is also a fact, nevertheless, that the criteria are obviously different, thus indicating that the argument posed in the case of normative model might not be an argument against a descriptive ‘model and vice versa. 139Next, considering the property of stochastic dominance, this condition is con-sidered as the comerstone of rational choice, and any theory contrary to this can be regarded unsatisfactory from a normative standpoint. A descriptive theory, on the other hand, is expected to be responsible in accounting for the obscrved violations of stochastic dominance problems 2 and 8 as stated and explained in Tversky and Kahneman (1986). Only prescriptive analysis could be developed in order to eliminate and reduce such violations. The failure of dominance therefore could be the only answer to this kind of violation culminating in the proper counter-example to a normative model. It is due to this fact that this could be the observation to be explained by the descriptive model, and it appear to be a challenge for a prospective model. The Axiomatic Approach ‘The axiomatic approach, belonging to the first category of approaches, plays an important role in formulating theories of decision making (Roberst 1979). In this process, theories of decision making ate often formulated in terms of deterministic axioms that do not necessarily account for stochastic variations that attends empirical data, But, a rigorous description of the decision process is only possible when provided through real-time perception. Then itis possible to avail the real-time decisions by repetitive application of the fundamental cognitive process. In many cases, however, the applicability of algebraic axioms comes into question regarding viability, especially when applications connected to empirical data arise, The axiomatic approach is intended to characterize the fundamental principles of human decision making, which provides the necessary inputs to find out the essentially important and sufficient conditions needed for the existence of ‘numerical representations. Usually, the deterministic axioms are the real base upon which the decision-making theories are formulated, and these axioms do not take into account the stochastic variation associated with empirical data, But the probabilistic approach to decision making, again, needs to be investigated properly to study the empirical data, In such cases, where typical inference questions are addressed, the Bayesian framework provides readily applicable statistical procedures. This situation arises when algebraic axioms are applied to empirical data, and the applicability of these axioms is to be tested. It is well known that employing a prior distribution is the key idea of the Bayesian framework where the parametric order constrains the implications of a given axiom, Here, the Bayesian framework is discussed, considering this as a suitable probabilistic approach to handle the empirical data employing a prior distribution that represents the parametric order constraints, implied by a given axiom. Usually, to estimate the posterior distribution, modern methods of Bayesian computation such as Markov chain Monte Carlo (MeMC) is used. The advantage of following this method is that it provides the needed information enabling an axiom to be evaluated. Specifically, the descriptive adequacy of a given model is assessable only when we adopt the Bayesian p-value as the criterion. In turn, this can assess the descriptive adequacy of a given axio-matic model so that it becomes possible to select the deviance information criterion (DIC) among a set of candidate models. Bayesian framework, thus, can be tested in this way and at the same time helps us to test already established, well-known axioms of decision making which also includes the 140axioms of monotonicity of joint receipt and stochastic transitivity. It is a well-known fact, that monotonicity is a property of certain types of digital-to-analog-converter (DAC) circuits where the analog output always increases or remains constant whenever the digital input increases. This characteristic becomes an important factor in many ‘communications applications in which DACs are used. It is interesting to note that such applications can function in the presence of nonlinearity, but not in the presence of non- ‘monotonicity. Bayesian Probabilistic Approach Since this book studies modelling in the cognitive domain, specifically we will focus our attention on the Bayesian approach in the context of brain functions, Our thoughts, though abstract, are determined by the actions of specific neuronal circuits in our brains. ‘The new field under consideration is known as “decision neuro-science” which is meant to discover these circuits, theteby mapping thinking on a cellular level. This way, cognitive neuroscience, a joint investigation with the aim of investigating the nature of human intelligence, is connected to decision making. Particular emphasis is given to improving these functions through cognitive neu-roscience, based on the knowledge of the neural basis on which human beings make decisions. This includes two aspects, ic., how we learn the value of good, as well as the actions to be taken. Among all global brain functions, arguably, the ability to predict the outcome of future events is universally the most significant. The results of a given action depend not only ‘on the ability to anticipate the amount of the outcome, but also on sensory stimuli. This, information is fed by not only the outside world but also from previously learned experience or inherited instincts. As a next step, applying prior knowledge to decision making, as well as that to judgment, is then absolutely needed to develop a theory of inference. Typically, it has been found that the Bayesian models of inference are useful in solving such problems involve probabilistic frameworks. According to Atram (1985 263-264): By nature, human minds everywhere are endowed with common sense. They possess universal cognitive dispositions that determine a core of spontaneously formulated representations about the world. The world is basically represented in the same way in every culture. Core concepts and beliefs about the world are easily acquired, yet they are restricted to certain cognitive domains and are rather fixed, Not all advocates of domain specific biological constraints on cognition are so concemed to stress that only one ‘outcome is permitted. ‘The basic question, addressed by the Bayesian framework is to find out the way how one updates beliefs and achieves the result, makes inferences, and applies the observed data. However, appropriate application of Bayesian analysis in the human cognitive domain has remained largely unexplored. Only a few attempts have been made (Griffith et al. 1998; Yu and Smith 2007; Berniker and Kérding 2008; etc.) to model or explain human- brain dynamics rather than the cognition mechanism (although the two are definitely related). In this regard, Bayes paradigm may offer a possible solution by offering a 141tractable version of the so-called hierarchical modelling of the Bayes paradigm, which may be termed as the “Bayesian Brain Hypothesis” (Friston 2003, 2005; Knill and Pouget 2004; Doya et al. 2007). According to Griffith et al, (2000: 29): Cognitive processes, including those which can be explained in evolutionary terms, are not “inherited” or produced in accordance with an inherited program. Instead, they are constructed in each generation through the interaction of a range of developmental resources. The attractors which emerge during development and explain robust and/or ‘widespread outcomes are themselves constructed during the process. At no stage is there an explanatory stopping point where some resources control or program the rest of the developmental cascade. “Human nature” is a description of how things generally turn out, not an explanation of why they tum out that way. Finally, we suggest that what is distinctive about human development is its degree of reliance on external scaffolding, ‘Thus, this characteristic tums out to be a major virtue of the hierarchical, predictive coding account. Following Clark (2012), we can arrive at the conclusion that this method effectively implements a computationally tractable version of the so-called Bayesian Brain Hypothesis. “But can Bayesian brains really be the same as a predictive brain? Or is the claim merely informal or imprecise, shorthand for something which is formally and factually false?” However, even besides being an intrinsically interesting and suggestive one, demonstration of behavior through this model needs to be established. Especially, the need resides in the observation of facts by which one could arrive at strong conclusions regarding the shape of the mechanisms that generates those behaviours. In the hierarchical predictive coding framework, the brain is assumed to represent the statistical structure of the world at different levels of abstraction by maintaining different causal models which are organized, accordingly, on different levels of a hierarchy. In such a case, each level of abstraction obtains input from its corresponding subordinate level. Now, predictions, for the level below, are made by employing a feed-backward chain. ‘This means that the errors obtained between the models’ predicted and the observed (for the lowest level) or inferred (for higher levels) input at that level, are used. These are cartied out: @) Ina feed-forward chain to estimate the causes at the level above and (b) To reconfigure the causal models for future predictions. Ultimately, this will produce the needed output for stabilizing the system when the overall prediction error is minimized. In his famous paper, Griffith (2000) beautifully expressed his views regarding the “developmental systems” perspective to replace the idea of a genetic program. This idea appears to be clearly and boldly convergent with the recent works in psychology involving situated/embodied cognition and the role played by, so to say, external ‘scaffolding’ in cognitive development. He stated as follows Developmental Systems Theory (DST) is a general theoretical perspective on development, heredity and evolution, It is intended to facilitate the study of interactions 142between the many factors that influence development without reviving ‘dichotomous? debates over nature or nurture, gene or environment, biology or culture. (Paul B. Griffith, Discussion: three ways to misunderstand developmental system theory, Biology and Philosophy (2005); 20; 417) At this stage of development, we can now add, for example, the evolutionary accounts of art, religion and science (Mithen 1996), family dynamics, conscience (de Waal 1996), categorization (Atram 1990), cooperation (Sober and Wilson 1998) and cheating detection (Cosmides and Toby 1992). On the other hand, many other researchers (Byrne and Whiten 1988; Whiten and Byme 1997) proposed new theories of human cognitive evolution, Not only that, but a strident movement has been started, even in psychology and anthropology during the same period. The arguments made against earlier theorists in that discipline concerned neglecting the basic fact about the mind. Their proposal considered theories of human cognitive evolution as, basically, a product of evolution (Cosmides and Tooby 1992). This gives rise to the necessity of taking into consideration and paying attention to this context, and much research is yet to be accomplished. Thus, the very idea, which once we would have considered as a failure of rationality, now appears to be likely interpreted as good evolutionary design. Gigerenzer (2000) opined that, under the condition of our evolving statistical reasoning abilities, statistical information would accumulate in the form of natural frequencies. So, nothing appears wrong with our rationality if we like to use it in the domain for which it was designed, maybe, exclusively for this purpose. Currently, much attention has been focused on the suggestion that the evolved regularities in human cognition are very rich and domain specific. This fact has profound effects on the conceptualization of innate theories of the domain, such as grammar, physics, biology and psychology, to name a few of some of the most widely discussed spheres (Carey 1985a, b; Keil 1979; Welman 1990; Wellman and Gelman 1992; Gunner and Maratsos 1992; Pinker 1994). In fact, we do not construct these theories on the basis of the evidence available to us; instead, we inherit them from. ‘our ancestors, Such claims are commonly expressed in terms of biological “constraints” ‘on the human mind and believed to be constructed in order to reason in particular ways. Very recently, several theories of human memory have revolutionized our perspective on human cognition. They propose memory as a rational solution to computational problems posed, especially by the environment. The first rational model of memory offered the idea along with convincing demonstrations that human memory appears to be well adapted in a remarkable way to environmental statistics. But proper assumptions for these ideas are needed, at a bare minimum, as long as the form of environmental information is represented in memory. Several probabilistic methods have been developed recently for representing the latent semantic structure of language in order to delineate the ‘connections to research in computer science, statistics and computational linguistics, Now, before going into the details of the Bayesian model for cognitive science, let us elaborate the Bayesian framework itself. The Bayesian rule of decision theory is named after Thomas Bayes, who lived in the eighteenth century. After the death of Bayes, hi friend Richard Price sent Bayes’ papers to ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal 143Society’ for publication, In 1974, the paper “Essay towards solving a problem in the doctrine of chances” was published and became the mainstream of statistics. It is well known that among different branches of statistics, the two major paradigms in ‘mathematical statistics are the frequentist and Bayesian statisties. Under the uncertainty of information contained in empirical data, methods based on the statistical inference and, decision making are efficiently handled by Bayesian methods. Bayesian inference has ‘tremendous impact on different kinds of popular components among formal models of human cognition (Chatter et al. 2006). This approach provides a general methodology which can be derived from an axiomatic system, But Kwisthout (2011) raised some serious questions about a few difficulties while discussing the computational tractability of this method. Rational Model Business people are faced with decision making every day. Intuitive and rational decision ‘making are the two ways that an individual can approach problem solving. Some people are very aware of feclings or instincts and use them as guides to decision making. These types of feelings are instinctive and rely on intuition and not facts. In fact, intuition is the ability to have a grasp on a situation or information without the need for reasoning. In business, people use this type of decision making when facts are unavailable or when decisions are difficult in nature. ‘The second, opposing type of decision making is called rational decision making, which is when individuals use analysis, facts and a step-by-step process to come to a decision. Rational decision making is a precise, analytical process that companies use to come up with a fact-based decision. Let's take @ look at how the rational decision-making process ‘ean work in an organizational environment. Violet Jones is a manager at the Intestinal Distress Tacos fast food restaurant. She is under enormous pressure from headquarters to increase her monthly profits. Violet is not sure what the solution is for her financial dilemma, She has to decide to use the rational decision-making model to determine the best path for a solution, To do this, Violet must follow these six steps Define the problem. Identify the decision criteria. Allocate weights to the criteria. Develop the alternatives. Evaluate the alternatives. Select the best altemative It consists of six (6) steps that keep the decision maker focused on facts and logic and help guard against inappropriate assumptions and pitfalls. It is designed to help the ‘manager approach a decision rationally and logically. 144y 2 3) » 5) 6) Recognizing and defining the decision situation. a) Need to ‘define’ precisely what the problem is. b) Manager must develop a complete understanding of the problem, ©) Manager must carefully analyze and consider the situation. Identifying alternatives a) Managers must realize that their alternatives may be limited by legal, moral and ethical norms, authority constraints, available technology, economic considerations and unofficial social norms. Evaluating alternatives a) Each alternative must pass successfully through three stages before it may be worthy of consideration as a solution. 1) Feasibility — Is it financially possible? Is it legally possible? Are there limited human, material and/or informational resources available? 2) Satisfactory — Does the alternative satisfy the conditions of the decision situation? [50% increase in sales} 3) Affordability — How will this altemative affect other parts of the organization? What financial and non-financial costs are associated? b) The manager must put ‘price tags” on the consequences of cach alternative ©) Even an alternative that is both feasible and satisfactory must be rejected if the consequences are too expensive for the total system, Selecting an alternative a) Choosing the best alternative is the real test of decision making, b) Optimization is the goal because a decision is likely to affect several individuals or departments. ©) Finding multiple acceptable altematives may be possible; selecting one and rejecting the others may not be necessary. Implementing the chosen alternative a) Managers must consider people’s resistance to change when implementing decisions, b) For some decisions, implementation is easy; for others, very difficult or time consuming, ©) Operational plans are very useful in implementing alternatives. 4) Managers must also recognize that even when all of the alternatives and their consequences have been evaluated as precisely as possible, unanticipated consequences are still likely. Following up and evaluating the results a) Managers must evaluate the effectiveness of their decisions ~ did the chosen altemative serve its original purpose? b) If the implemented altemative appears not to be working, the manager has several choices: 1451) Another previously identified alternative might be adopted or 2) Recognize that the situation was not correctly defined and start the process all over again ot 3) Decide that the alternative has not been given enough time to work or should be implemented in a different way. ao ricaenie | yg, Meteora | seater feasible? satisfactory? Sou dab ‘consideration. Figure: Evaluating Alternatives in the Decision-Making Process ‘Moreover, the behavioral aspects of decision making are given below + Sometimes decision making must reflect subjective considerations (tastes, etc.) * Other behavioral aspects include: political forces, intuition, escalation of commitment, risk propensity and ethics. ‘The Administrative Model of Decision Making, * Herbert A Simon, a Nobel Prize winner in Economies, developed the model to describe how decisions are often made rather than to prescribe how they should be made. * Argues that decision makers have incomplete and imperfect information, are constrained by “bounded rationality’ and tend to ‘satisfice’ when making decisions. * Bounded rationality suggests that decision makers are limited by their values and unconscious reflexes, skills and habits. [American vs foreign automakers] ‘+ Satisficing is the tendency to search for alternatives only until one is found that meets some minimum standard of sufficiency. + Rather than conducting an exhaustive scarch for the best possible altemative, decision makers tend to search only until they identify an alternative that meets some minimum standard of sufficiency. 6.4 Role of Values in Decision Making A complete chapter is added at the end as annexure to follow the decision making on cthical grounds. Please follow it you will use it as an activity 1466.5. Models for Decision -Making The approach managers use to make decisions usually falls into one of three types * the classical model, the administrative model, + the political model. ‘The choice of model depends on the manager’s personal preference, whether the decision is programmed or non-programmed, and the degree of uncertainty associated with the decision, Classical Model The Ideal, Rational Model The classical model of decision making is based on rational economic assumptions and manager beliefs about what ideal decision making should be. This model has arisen within the management literature because managers are expected to make decisions that are economically sensible and in the organization’s best economic interests. The four assumptions underlying this model are as follows: 1. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and agreed on. Problems are precisely formulated and defined 2, The decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete information, All alternatives and the potential results of each are calculated. Criteria for evaluating altematives are known, The decision maker selects the alternative that will maximize the economic return to the organization. 4, The decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, order preferences, evaluate altematives, and make the decision that will maximize the attainment of organizational goals The classical model of decision making is considered to be normative, which means it defines how a decision maker should make decisions. It does not describe how managers actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal ‘outcome for the organization, The ideal, rational approach of the classical model is often ‘unattainable by real people in real organizations, but the model has value because it helps decision makers be more rational and not rely entirely on personal preference in making decisions. The classical model is most useful when applied to programmed decisions and, to decisions characterized by certainty ot risk because relevant information is available and probabilities can be calculated. For example, new analytical software programs automate many programmed decisions, such as freezing the account of a customer who hhas failed to make payments, determining the cell phone service plan that is most appropriate for a particular customer, or sorting insurance claims so that cases are handled most efficiently.14 Airlines use automated systems to optimize seat pricing, flight scheduling, and crew assignment decisions. Retailers such as the Home Depot and Gap use software programs to analyze sales data and decide when, where, and how much to mark down prices. Many companies use systems that capture information about 147customers to help managers evaluate risks and make credit decisions.15 The growth of ‘quantitative decision techniques that use computers has expanded the use of the classical approach. Quantitative techniques include such things as decision trees, payoff matrices, break-even analysis, linear programming, forceasting, and operations research models. Southwest Airlines uses quantitative models to help retain its position as the industry’s low-cost leader. Administrative Model Another approach to decision making, called the administrative model, is considered to be descriptive, meaning that it describes how managers actually make decisions in ‘complex situations rather than dictating how they should make decisions according to a theoretical ideal. The administrative model recognizes the human and environmental limitations that affect the degree to which managers can pursue a rational decision- ‘making process. In difficult situations, such as those characterized by non-programmed decisions, uncertainty, and ambiguity, managers are typically unable to make economically rational decisions even if they want to.17 Bounded Rationality and Satisficing The administrative model of decision making is based on the work of Herbert A. Simon. Simon proposed two concepts that were instrumental in shaping the administrative model: bounded rationality and satisficing. Bounded rationality means that people have limits, or boundaries, on how rational they can be, The organization is incredibly complex, and managers have the time and ability to process only a limited amount of information with which to make decisions.18 Because managers do not have the time or cognitive ability to process complete information about complex decisions, they must satisfice. Satisficing means that decision makers choose the first solution alternative that satisfies minimal decision criteria, Rather than pursuing all alternatives to identify the single solution that will maximize economic returns, managers will opt for the first solution that appears to solve the problem, even if better solutions are presumed. to exist. The decision maker cannot justify the time and expense of obtaining complete information ‘Managers sometimes generate alternatives for complex problems only until they find one they believe will work. For example, several years ago, then-CEO William Smithburg of ‘Quaker attempted to thwart takeover attempts but had limited options. He satisfied with a ‘quick decision to acquire Snapple, thinking he could use the debt acquired in the deal to discourage a takeover. The acquisition had the potential to solve the problem at hand; thus, Smithburg looked no further for possibly better alternatives.20 The administrative ‘model relies on assumptions different from those of the classical model and focuses on ‘organizational factors that influence individual decisions. According to the administrative model: 1, Decision goals often are vague, conflicting, and lack consensus among managers Managers often are unaware of problems or opportunities that exist in the organization. 1482, Rational procedures are not always used, and, when they are, they are confined to a simplistic view of the problem that does not capture the complexity of real organizational events. 3. Managers’ searches for alternatives are limited because of human, information, and resource constraints. 4, Most managers settle for a satisficing rather than a maximizing solution, partly because they have limited information and partly because they have only vague criteria for what constitutes a maximizing solution, Intuition Another aspect of administrative decision making is intuition. Intuition represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experience but without conscious thought.21 Intuitive decision making is not arbitrary or irrational because it is based on years of practice and hands-on experience that enable managers to quickly identify solutions without going through painstaking computations. In today’s fast-paced business environment, intuition plays an increasingly important role in decision making. A survey of managers conducted by Christian and Timbers found that nearly half of executives say they rely more on intuition than on rational analysis to run their companies.22 Psychologists and neuroscientists have studied how people make ‘good decisions using their intuition under extreme time pressure and uncertainty.23 Good intuitive decision making is based on an ability to recognize patterns at lightning speed, When people have a depth of experience and knowledge in a particular area, the right decision often comes quickly and effortlessly as a recognition of information that has been largely forgotten by the conscious mind. For example, fire fighters make decisions by recognizing what is typical or abnormal about a fire, based on their experiences. Similarly, in the business world, managers continuously perceive and process information that they may not consciously be aware of, and their base of knowledge and experience helps them make decisions that may be characterized by uncertainty and ambiguity. However, intuitive decisions don’t always work out, and managers should take care to apply intuition under the right circumstances and in the right way rather than considering, ita magical way to make important decisions.24 Managers may walk a fine line between two extremes: on the one hand, making arbitrary decisions without careful study; and on the other, relying obsessively on rational analysis. One is not better than the other, and ‘managers need to take a balanced approach by considering both rationality and intuition as important components of effective decision making. Political Model ‘The third model of decision making is useful for making non-programmed decisions when conditions are uncertain, information is limited, and there are manager conflicts about what goals to pursue or what course of action to take. Most organizational decisions involve many managers who are pursuing different goals, and they have to talk with one another to share information and reach an agreement. Managers often engage in coalition building for making complex organizational decisions. A coalition is an informal alliance among managers who support a specific goal. Coalition building is the process of forming alliances among managers. In other words, a manager who supports a specific alternative, such as increasing the corporation’s growth by acquiring another 149‘company, talks informally to other executives and tries to persuade them to support the decision, Without a coalition, a powerful individual or group could derail the decision- ‘making process. Coalition building gives several managers an opportunity to contribute to decision making, enhancing their commitment to the alternative that is ultimately adopted.26 The political model closely resembles the real environment in which most ‘managers and decision makers operate. For example, interviews with CEOs in high-tech industries found that they strived to use some type of rational process in making decisions, but the way they actually decided things was through a complex interaction with other managers, subordinates, environmental factors, and organizational events.27 Decisions are complex and involve many people, information is often ambiguous, and disagreement and conflict over problems and solutions are normal. The political model begins with four basic assumptions: 1, Organizations are made up of groups with diverse interests, goals, and values. Managers disagree about problem priorities and may not understand or share the goals and interests of other managers. 2, Information is ambiguous and incomplete. The attempt to be rational is limited by the complexity of many problems as well as personal and organizational constraints. 3. Managers do not have the time, resources, or mental capacity to identify all dimensions of the problem and process all relevant information. Managers talk to each other and exchange viewpoints to gather information and reduce ambiguity 4, Managers engage in the push and pull of debate to decide goals and discuss alternatives. Decisions are the result of bargaining and discussion among coalition members, ‘An example of the political model was when AOL chief executive Jonathan Miller built a coalition to support the development of a Yahoo-like free Web site. Opposition to offering AOL's rich content for free was strong, but Miller talked with other executives and formed a coalition that supported the move as the best way to rejuvenate the declining AOL in the shifting Internet service business. The decision proved to be a turning point, making AOL once more a relevant force on the Web and enticing tech titans such as Google and Microsoft as potential partners.28 The key dimensions of the classical, administrative, and political models are listed in Exhibit 8.2, Research into decision-making procedures found rational, classical procedures to be associated with high performance for organizations in stable environments. However, administrative and political decision-making procedures and intuition have been associated with high performance in unstable environments in which decisions must be made rapidly and ‘under more difficult conditions The Process of Decision Making: The decision making is @ daily activity for any human being, There is no exception about that, When it comes to business organizations, decision making is a habit and a process as well, Effective and successful decisions make profit to the company and unsuccessful 150‘ones make losses. Therefore, corporate decision making process is the most critical process in any organization, In the decision making process, we choose one course of action from a few possible alternatives. In the process of decision making, we may use many tools, techniques and perceptions. In addition, we may make our own private decisions or may prefer a collective decision. Usually, decision making is hard. Majority of corporate decisions involve some level of dissatisfaction or conflict with another party. Let's have a look at the decision making process in detail. The Importance of Understanding Decision Making as a Process Decision-making in business is important because there are consequences to making the wrong decision. When managers are making decisions on behalf of the company, it is important that they weigh their options because poor choices can result in legal, financial or brand issues. To make better decisions, most managers start by defining the problem. Defining the problem removes distractions that are irrelevant to the decision. Once they have a clear understanding the problem, they can determine altemate ways of approaching the problem. Implementing the best altemative is always the course of action, but the best alternative looks different for many companies. After implementing the solution, managers measure their choice to ensure they consistently make wise decisions. ‘The same decision process managers use works for day-to-day scenarios as well. Irrelevant “noise” distracts people during the decision process, making it hard for them to make a decision. Using the decision process, people who consistently make poor decisions can improve their track record. The problem must first be defined for proper framing. Doing this step incorrectly increases the chances of solving the wrong problem, Using the decision-making process consistently, anyone can make better decisions; otherwise they continue to make the same poor choices. Defining the Situation Any organization is confronted with a multitude of problems in a dynamic and complex environment, These problems can be independent, but, many times, they are interconnected. In this myriad of situations, itis difficult to identify the causality relations between problems, which, logically, should also determine the solving order. An ‘organization is faced with a cash crisis, a substantial loss of clients, production equipment wear, poorly qualified personnel, and unsuitable products from a quality- related perspective, And in this context, what is the original problem, primary, and through its solving, the solution to the other problems could be found? Is this the loss of clients, ot cash crisis? Are we facing a cash crisis because the products are of poor quality and don’t 151sell, or is it because we are facing a cash crisis we are unable to invest in research- development, in order to increase product quality? We will try to find an answer to such dilemmas in this material. ‘The problem is not a new one in the specialized literature. In the first part of the article we will present a couple of previous solutions this problem has been given, and during the second part we will propose a model derived from those known in the specialized literature Identifying the Alternatives Any changes should always be judged against the current operation. You need to justify why the new solution is better than what you have now. After all, what you are doing now probably worked for a reason. ‘What about altematives that allow you to lear quickly or even fail fast? A clear decision to research an issue (by allocating a small amount of resources within a short time frame) ‘might be the best way forward in a complex situation. The research project may fail, but at the end you will be in a better place than before. Delaying the decision is also an alternative, but be careful that you are not just being. indecisive. Product management is about getting out there, deciding on product issues and then making sure it happens — product managers are naturally biased towards action, Sometimes it can be too early to decide; either you don’t have enough information or @ short delay will have no effect. It is important that any delay should be for a good reason (ie. key information will become available), and not just due to indecision. Not only is indecision bad for the project, it is bad for the team. Your team needs to see you as understanding the problem and not just delaying everything until itis too late. Valid alternatives can also include areas of uncertainty; either the details can be worked ‘out later, or the uncertainty won’t have a big impact, Both Waterfall and Agile use this uncertainty, but in different ways, Waterfall might simply define high level requirements without defining how they will be implemented, while Agile might define a solution for the current sprint but not expect it be the final solution, If possible, get out an investigate the market place. How have your competitors or customers solved this question in the past? For a more lateral approach, identify a related industry and look at how they solved issues, Remember that Nothing Interesting Happens in the Office (NIHITO). This is a good time to collect some new ideas as well as the usual ideas “A desk is a dangerous place from which to view the world.” John le Carre The obvious way to identify alternatives is brainstorming. This can be the classic “get, everyone in a room’ method, or it could be a simple chat with a colleague. The usual 152brainstorming is to be completely open, or it can be bounded towards the alternatives required, Both methods have merit, bt I prefer everyone facing the same direction. ‘One way of doing this is SCAMPER which prompts people to alter different aspects of a product. SCAMPER is a mnemonic that stands for: Substitute. Combine. Adapt Modify, Put to another use. Eliminate. Reverse, ‘An example of applying each of these is on the brainstorming, Your team and colleagues are naturally a good source of ideas for alternatives, and this is also a good time to share decision making with the team. Ensure you get their ideas and input will help them feel like they are part of the process. It is also a good coaching opportunity to involve newer or junior team members. Larger projects will now start their process of generating buy-in. Start early. This is a good time to start any engagement and, if necessary, pre-meetings. These are less-formal meetings where you socialise an issue and build consensus among your stakeholders and team. Identifying alternatives is a good place to start involving the right people at an carly stage. ‘The challenge is working out who are they. You may get someone from the shop floor who may give great insight into what might go wrong, ot they just become baggage by sticking to the “ways we do thing around here.” Start with the RACT list you generated in the last section. If itis for large decision making or large corporates, then ensure that all the alternatives are written down. Not only does this help formalise and share the altematives, some extra thinking goes into writing things down, Your brain needs to choose words that represent your thoughts and it is only when the ink hits the page do you discover whether you are using the right words. This is just like those times you have to explain something, to a bunch of people ~ it is only then when you discover you don’t really understand the topic. Assessing the Alternatives No one can have all the information he would like, but he may have enough information to decide. However, the information he already have may be wrong, of inapplicable, And he may be able to get more of the missing information he would like to have, First consider the timing they assumed, If the timing were shorter or longer, would the trend change? For example, if it were longer, then competitors would have more time to 153react, or technology might change, ot customer preferences might evolve. Make sure the assumptions on timing for implementation are not too optimistic. If needed, revise the ‘numbers, and then reconsider potential courses of action. ‘Think and ponder to design a quick experiment or test to get more certainty about key numbers. This could be a market test, a promotion, a limited process change, ete. Given the results of such experiments, you may want to revise the numbers and the potential courses of action. First, remove passion and bias. Emotions don’t help your reasoning, or your advisor’s. A couple techniques are using value-neutral words, and evaluating problems not people. If ‘you think a person is the problem, then think through why itis in their interests to behave the way they do. Then change those incentives. You won't change the person, but you ‘ean change their behavior, and that is the real issue. Removing bias ~ both advisor’s and yours — starts with seriously considering each step of the logic. What if the assumption at that step is wrong? Would that change the expected outcome? If it does, then dig into that step. Are they ignoring the risks because they've fallen in love with a particular approach? Do they have something to gain from that approach? Are they assuming that some prior experience will be repeated here, even if the situation is clearly different? Get another opinion! Second, here are some techniques for assessing alternatives you created, or those suggested by advisors. 1. Does the recommended course solve the problem — does it meet the solution criteria? 2, “Theard your recommended approach, What is your second-best approach? What ‘would have to happen for that to be better than your first reeommendation?” Then you can assess a new scenario. 3. __Re-anchor to your vision for the company. Which course fits best with that vision? 4, Ask the advisor (or yourself) for all the reasons you should say no to his recommendation. These are the “cons”. Evaluate whether they outweigh the pros, 5. Ask advisors "What is our response if your recommendation fails to achieve the solution criteria?” Is that scenario acceptable? 6. Were there people in the advisory group who disagreed with the group’s recommendation? Talk to them and understand their thinking 7. Several rounds of action and reaction by competitors and customers. This helps identify “unintended consequences,” which could make that course of action unacceptable. 8. What if the timing changed? Maybe you could do it all at once, or in slower steps. Maybe the scenario assumes that all goes well and all dates are met, which hardly ever happens! Would different timing, usually slower, change the expected outcomes? Would it be safer, giving you more time to adjust if expectations turned out to be wrong? 154People, particularly men, tend to pride themselves on being decision-makers, which means deciding quickly. A fast decision that does not solve, or worsens, the problem is nothing to be proud of! It takes a bit more humility to recognize that you don’t have all the information needed, and neither do your advisors. The best decisions can result if we take a little more time to set up the Framework, validate our assumptions, make sure we have several altematives to assess, and then examine why our first reaction might be wrong. ‘The French have a saying that translates roughly as “I was in error but not at fault.” If you decide without testing assumptions and assessing altematives, without anticipating ‘consequences and competitor and customer reactions, you will be both in ertor and at fault! Selecting the Desirable Alternatives The process of analyzing and evaluating altematives applies evaluation criteria to alternatives or options in a way that facilitates decision making. This may be a one-step ‘or multi-step process, depending on the complexity of the alternatives and the decision. ‘The evaluation process may include refining alternatives to develop the final alternative ‘or option. A critical element in this step is the evaluation of all ideas using all previously established criteria Effective use of criteria in the evaluation and selection of altematives applies the criteria at appropriate levels of the decision-making process. If the decision or the criteria are complex, the process may be iterative, applying a series of criteria at differing levels of detail, For example, a three-level process may use broad criteria to screen out unrealistic, ‘or unfeasible altematives and apply more detailed evaluation criteria in subsequent evaluation steps. This helps to streamline the evaluation by focusing data collection and analysis on viable alternatives. Multi-level evaluation also provides an opportunity to refine options or alternatives to meet the desired goals or outcomes more effectively with, a greater understanding of the alternative’s strengths and weaknesses in each criterion. ‘The Project Staff must clearly document how evaluation criteria are applied to all ideas to provide an casily accessible record of how cach idea generated through brainstorming, was evaluated and possibly modified, Implementing the Decision First develop a plan for implementation, The key elements are as follows: = Step-by-step process or actions for solving the problem = Communications strategy for notifying stakeholders where important or necessary, inform those who care for you and/or will be affected by the change. Prepare them as necessary about your decision = Resource identification/allocation + Timeline for implementation 155Fig: Monitoring process. ‘Your implementation will only be successful if you are monitoring your solution, the effects of it on resources and stakeholders, your timeline, and your progress, As you monitor your progress, if results are not what you expect, review your options and alternatives. Whether or not you achieved your goals, it is important to consider what you have leamed from your experience: about yourself, about what you consider important. Lastly, if you have done your best, you have this as one measure of success, Steps in Decision Making Process 156Step 1: Identification of the Purpose of the Decision In this step, the problem is thoroughly analysed. There are a couple of questions one should ask when it comes to identifying the purpose of the decision. © What exactly is the problem? Why the problem should be solved? Who are the affected parties of the problem? Does the problem have a deadline or a specific time-line? Step 2: Information Gathering A problem of an organization will have many stakeholders. In addition, there can be dozens of factors involved and affected by the problem. In the process of solving the problem, you will have to gather as much as information related to the factors and stakeholders involved in the problem. For the process of information gathering, tools such as ‘Check Sheets’ can be effectively used. Step 3: Assessing the Alternatives In this step, the baseline criteria for judging the alternatives should be set up. When it ‘comes to defining the criteria, organizational goals as well as the corporate culture should bbe taken into consideration ‘As an example, profit is one of the main concems in every decision making process. ‘Companies usually do not make decisions that reduce profits, unless it is an exceptional cease. Likewise, baseline principles should be identified related to the problem in hand. Step 4: Brainstorm and Analyses the Different Choices For this step, brainstorming to list down all the ideas is the best option. Before the idea ‘generation step, it is vital to understand the causes of the problem and prioritization of ‘causes For this, you can make use of Cause-and-Effect diagrams and Pareto Chart tool. Cause- and-Effect diagram helps you to identify all possible causes of the problem and Pareto chart helps you to prioritize and identify the causes with highest effec. Then, you can move on generating all possible solutions (alternatives) for the problem in hand, Step 5: Evaluation of Alternatives Use your judgment principles and decision-making criteria to evaluate each alternative In this step, experience and effectiveness of the judgment principles come into play. You need to compare each alternative for their positives and negatives. 157Step 6: Select the Best Alternative Once you go through from Step I to Step 5, this step is easy. In addition, the selection of the best alternative is an informed decision since you have already followed a methodology to derive and select the best alternative. Step 7: Execute the Decision Convert your decision into a plan or a sequence of activities. Execute your plan by yourself or with the help of subordinates. Step 8: Evaluate the Results Evaluate the outcome of your decision. See whether there is anything you should learn and then correct in future decision making. This is one of the best practices that will improve your decision-making skills. So, when it comes to making decisions, one should always weigh the positive and negative business consequences and should favor the positive outcomes. This avoids the possible losses to the organization and keeps the company running with a sustained growth, Sometimes, avoiding decision making seems easier; especially, when you get into a lot of confrontation after making the tough decision. But, making the decisions and accepting its consequences is the only way to stay in control of your corporate life and time. 158Unit-7 TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EDUCATION INSTITUTIONAL LEADERSHIP Written by: Dr. Allah Rakha Saghir Reviewed by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool 159CONTENTS Introduction. 162 7.1 Academic Leadership. 7.2. Financial Leadership... 7.3. Social Leadership... 74 General Leadership..... 160A Word to the Student The concept of leadership has come to occupy an immense significance in educational management in the recent times. Gone are the days when educational institutions were run by traditional managers who were interested in mechanically implementing the rule and regulations over and above the subtle aspirations of stakeholders, especially the employees and target beneficiaries. On the contrary, educational institutions have to be ‘run in such a manner that itis really responsive to the needs of all stakeholders. These on- ‘ground hard realities of life in general and those of educational institutions in particular paved the way for the emergence of the concept of leadership parallel to that of ‘management. It is anticipated that the students have adequately understood the concept of leadership in relation to educational planning and management while studying the earlier study units. With the backdrop of democratic moves around the globe, itis essential that the students of MPhil. in EPM i.e. the prospective educational planners and managers are sensitized about the infusion of and imbedding leadership concepts while performing different tasks and responsibilities in an educational institution. In some earlier study units of this course, you must have studied the concepts of leadership and management and length. Consequently, you are now supposed to be fully aware of the points of difference between a manager and a leader. This unit focuses on different tasks and responsibilities and their allied aspects as performed by an institutional leader. A thorough study thereof would help you in understanding the impact of these roles in ensuring an effective management of education as an enterprise. The concepts of tasks and responsibilities have been used synonymously as roles and responsibilities, functions ete. performed by leadership. While developing this study unit, extensive use has been made of different sour mentioned in the bibliography. ‘The same are gratefully acknowledged. This is the first launching of the course leaving much to be added to/deleted from the stuff for the improvement of the content and the format, which will be taken care of in due course of time during subsequent revisions of the course. Dr. Allah Rakha Saghir 161Learning Outcomes In this unit, you will study the nature and processes involved in performing multiple leadership roies at institutional level with focus on academic, financial, social and general aspeets. After a thorough study of this Unit you should be able: 1. to describe the roles and responsibilities of academic leadership in an educational institution 2. to explain the roles and responsibilities of financial leadership in an educational institution 3. to appreciate the roles and responsibilities of general leadership in an educational institution 4, to internalize the major processes involved in performing multiple leadership roles in an educational institution Introduction This unit is focusing on sensitizing the prospective educational planners about different roles and responsibilities performed by the institutional leader with a focus on academic, financial, social and general aspects. These different aspects of leadership do not necessarily mean that there have to be separate persons playing these diversified leadership roles, As a matter of fact, breaking these concepts into different types necessitates that the person assuming leadership role at the institutional level is supposed to embody in himself/herself these multiple types of roles. However, in view of varying situations and specific bent of minds of persons at the helm of affairs, possibility cannot be ruled out of assigning different types of roles to different selected persons within an educational institution under the overall guidance provided by the leadership. In that case, such roles may be coordinated at the institutional leader’s level to ensure a meaningful impact on the overall functioning of an educational institution, It may be pointed out that in this unit, words like tasks, responsibilities, roles, functions have been used synonymously. In a qualitative study, Cardno (2014), investigated the nature and demands of academic leadership in the New Zealand polytechnic sector by analysing documentary evidence and investigating the perceptions held by 15 academic leaders in four institutions. Findings of the study highlight the four roles of organisational leadership, which include curriculum leadership, academic management and academic currency. In this way, it is generally held that in view of the variety of educational programmes and objectives thereof, the institutional leadership is under obligation to perform multiple roles. They have been described in the following pages. 1627.1 Academic Leadership In the case of academic institutions, it is generally believed that if the institutions are operating in routine manner and relatively stable situation, the role of academic leadership may not be that challenging. It implies that if otherwise, the academic role will have to be extremely challenging. Reason behind this belief is quite obvious in the sense that changes in policies and programs are not that frequent and hence, many things are supposed to proceed ahead automatically. However, in the foreword of a book ‘Academic leadership and Governance of Higher Education, Ikenberry holds that this approach may be true to a great extent at elementary level and to some extent at secondary level, but absolutely not so at college and more at the university level. The reason told by him is, that “The environment is in continual flux, and the implications and consequences of these changes for the future of colleges and universities are often profound”. This fact, therefore, tends to make the academic role of leadership extremely challenging. Hence his academic functions are supposed to be quite focused especially to ensure i, continuous updating of the programs and study materials ete ii, identification of new materials/books ete. to make them available to the faculty and the student. iii, The on-time initiative for the development and launching of new programs as per the policy of the institution 7.1.1 Ensuring Managerial Support to Academic Enterprises Discharging academic responsibilities requires that the leader holds himself to be accountable for shaping, consolidating and promoting an adequate academic strategy of the institution which is line with the long-term departmental strategic policies and the plans. For that purpose, he will have not only to actively ensure but also to participate as a vibrant member of different academic bodies of the institution, He will be responsible for ensuring the on-time implementation of mutually agreed upon programs. He will be responsible for coordinating and carrying out all the functions pertaining to mutually agreed cross-cutting academic a He has to be the central most figure in ensuring the development and then sustainability of appropriate institutional structures needed for effective management, mutual consultation, timely decision-making and meaningful communication not only with staff and students, but also with parents and the community at large. If the academic leadership religiously takes care of all these aspects, only then he would be able to represent the institution and promote its cause at all relevant forums both internally and extemally. 7.1.2 Close Involvement with Academic Journey of Students Another very important function of the academic leadership is to actively engage himself with the process of imparting instruction to students, For making this process really meaningful and effective, he should directly associate himself with the processes involved in their entry, induction, instruction, and gradual progress and assessment throughout the academic program, He has to play the central role in ensuring that the 163relevant rules and regulations and other procedural steps are followed in real sense of the term. Through the close involvement of all concemed he has to make arrangements for timely development of new programs and review of ongoing academic programs of the institution. These timely actions would help him in aligning school/nstitutional activities with market requirements and thus attract new students towards its new programs in future 7.1.3 Ensuring Academic Quality Obviously, nobody can deny the need and importance of ensuring the quality of ction in the institution. Since the concept of quality is a common thread running throughout different activities in institutional programs, the leader will have to keep a close eye on what is going on all around in academic circles. Hence to ensure academic ‘quality, he will have to ensure the participation of all concerned in thrashing out different activities from quantitative as well as qualitative aspects. He will have to take special care in respect of the following: i, Teachers recruitment and continuous in-service training ii, Curriculum development iii, Material preparation iv, Provision of instructional aids vy, Student assessment practices vi. Follow-up for improvement 7.1.4 Shaping Successful Research Environment Carlsson, Kettis and Séderholm (2014) hold that the academic leadership has also to play an effective role in designing and shaping successful research environment in the institution so as to enable the faculty conduct and deliver high quality research, It is a very distressing fact that in Pakistan, lot of work has to be done in ensuring the creation of a conducive research culture. Therefore, he has to give serious thought to identify as to what can, and should be done by the institutional leadership. To make the enterprise cost- effective, he will have to take external restrictions and the academic freedom of individual researchers into account and plan for moving forward within the scope of the available opportunities. His efforts can go a long way in creating a dynamically progressive and forward-looking research environment for both staff and students. Activity a list of those /headmasters teachers who were awarded for their best institutional ‘management performance by the federal government/ provincial government. Interview himvher and prepare a list of functions performed by him as an academic leader In the above context, Peters and Schaffer (2005) very rightly hold that “Financial Leadership for Nonprofit Executives 1647.2, Financial Leadership 7.2.1 Development of Financial Vision To ensure that your institution is going to make an impact in the field on long-term bases, requires a vigilant and effective financial leadership. This very fact necessitates an immediate development of an effective and fault-free financial vision for the institution and comprehensive planning as to how one would achieve the objectives of that planning. All these things provide the leader with the framework, specific technical language, and most relevant processes to Tead the institution with confidence. With the development of requisite financial vision, the leader leams how to protect and grow the assets of his “organization and accomplish as much mission as possible with those resources.” ‘One of the websites of the Government Finance Officers Association of the United States ‘maintains that the following aspects need special emphasis in financial leadership at institutional level: 7.2.2 Asset Management Policies indoubtedly, asset management is one of the very important functions mutually shared between the finance office and the institutional leadership through the operational/engineering office. The leadership should give special attention on developing policies to provide guidelines for capital asset management practices in the institution, As a re-requisite for that, it is of utmost importance that it should be recognized and embedded in the institutional fabric as a sort of on-going and regular feature of the institutional practices which should hint at the needed inputs. 7.2.3 Understanding of the Asset Inventory One of the very important pre-requisites for asset management is a clear understanding of each of the institutional assets. A good asset inventory of the institution, inter alia, includes a description of the assets, especially in terms of their “location, condition, age ‘and remaining useful life, and economic value.” 7.2.4 Asset Valuation While replacement costs are critical for asset management purposes, adding a new asset and including a historical cost for the financial systems fixed asset database for reporting purposes is just as vital. The process of creating an asset registry or inventory of assets provides a systematic way to identify new assets. Each asset needs to be assigned a replacement value and expected asset life for repair and replacement decision making ‘The above source further maintains that in addition to what has already been mentioned, it is also imperative that the financial leadership provides necessary guidance to the accounting staff in respect of the following: (i) Business procedures, (ii) Level of service and sondition of assets, (iii) Contribution of asset to overall performance of the institution, (iv) Budgeting for repair, replacement, and retirement (v) Integration of asset 165‘management to financial models used for planning, (vi) Budgeting, and procurement, and (vi) Use of automated tools 7.2.5 Ensuring the Preparation of Balance Sheet Another very important aspect of financial leadership pertains to getting the Balance Sheet prepared in time. Balance Sheet is a statement which depicts the overall financial picture of the organization. According to “Ramchandran and Kakani (2009), “The Balance Sheet is a quantitative summary of a company’s financial condition at a specific point in time, which includes assets, liabilities and net worth. It is snapshot of the financial health of an entity” It is very obvious that the preparation of a correct Balance Sheet does involve correct entries of all revenues and expenditure and the use of a correct formula for finding out the depreciated value of fixed assets of the institution and the net present value of all types of assets owned by it. Since it presents the financial worth of the organization at the given point of time, it has to be based on correct data entries to void any confusion later on. While performing financial leadership roles, it is of utmost significance that the leader does give due consideration to the following four principles which will go long way in ensuring financial stability for the organization: i. Objectivity: This principle refers to the fact that he must ensure the inclusion of all such information in accounts “that can be supported by independent and provable information”. It means record keeping has to be free of any personal biases or decisions, Materiality: It refers to recording all types of information and financial transactions, whether important or unimportant, big or small. For example, common pins and paper clips, though do not involve much finances, yet have to be recorded as they provide useful information for the suppliers, ili, Consistency: This principle ensures that the workers follow the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) rules which stand for uniformity in all types of recording and record keeping. It may pertain to format of entries, tabular presentation ete. That helps in arriving at conclusions much more easily. Prudence: This principle ensures that the leader guides the financial workers to record the things in a wise manner that does not lead to misleading conclusion. If, for example, the institution is in receipt of certain fees/dues of students in advance, it should not create confusion about the patterns of receipt in each month. Hence, that has to be clarified accordingly. Activity Visit your local university/college/school and interview its head to find out his/her major practi a financial leader to provide guidance to employees of the Department! college etc. ete. 1667.3 Social Leadership Let us first of all understand the meaning of the term ‘Social Leadership” According to Stodd (2014), “Being a social leader is about agility and fluidity of role: it is highly contextual and can complement other styles. At heart, it is anchored in the principles and ethics of value-led behavior. It's about authenticity and support. You can’t be a Social leader all alone.” Thus, “Social Leadership encapsulates the mindset and skills required to be an effective leader in the Social Age. It recognizes that power and authority are founded on more what you share and how you build your reputation than simple positional authority." In view of the subtle nature of the concept of Social Leadership, its major roles at institutional/organizational level will have to be multiple in nature. Julian Stodd (2014), who has done quite extensive work on the concept of Social Leadership, suggests the following model regarding the role of a Social Leader in an institution: wi Fach dimension has three core skills: for example, within ‘Narrative’ we explore ‘curation’ skills (knowledge management and sense making), ‘storytelling* (communication skills and storytelling culture) and ‘sharing* (adding value and building reputation). 167© Julian Stodd www-jullanstodd wordpress.com As it is very clear from the Stodd’s NET (Narrative, Engagement and Technology) Model of Social Leadership”, the social leader can play his roles under three broad headings: 7.3.1 Functions about Narrative Aspect Under the heading ‘Narrative’, the social leader proceeds, explores and provides leadership to his employees as mentioned below: i. ‘Curation’ skills: they pertain to endeavors of the Social Leader involved in assembling, managing and presenting some type of collection. In this way, the social leader proceeds ahead ‘with knowledge management and sense making’ about the issue at hand regarding institutional management. ii, Story telling skills: they pertain to communication skills and storytelling culture, which helps in clarifying things go employees and building an environment of ‘mutual exchange of ideas and concerns. Sharing skills: they pertain to adding value and building reputation through sharing, with others. This helps in building an atmosphere of sharing of not only mutual information but also feelings and concerns. 1687.3.2 Funetions about Engagement Aspect ‘The next heading under Stodd’s NET Model is Engagement. Engagement carries a significant connotation in the NET Model. It refers not only to engage with vocal few, rather it deals with connecting to the silent majority of employees in an institution and. proceeds as mentioned below: i. Community: The context of activities of social leaders has invariably to be the communities, both Community is about understanding why people engage in communities and how we can both form and sustain them effectively. With reference to an educational organization, the leader will have to build up a community of all concerned, ii, Reputation: Moving beyond the formal hierarchical structure of power and authority, the leadership role is about entering the reputation phase, which forms the engine of our effectiveness. If our reputation is weak, even if our stories are strong, we will struggle to get them heard or amplified. Reputation is forged in communities, founded on the quality of our stories and effectiveness of our sharing. iii, Authority: Stodd holds that authority is born from reputation. Authority in the social age is fluid, not fixed in bricks and mortar, and may be contextual. This component of social leadership is about recognising when authority is exercised and how, about becoming magnetic. 7.3.3 Funetions about Technology Aspect Functions related to Technology, as a part of the NET Model pertains to the following: i, Co-creation: It is the process by which the social leader creates meaning within communities and the way in which culture changes over time. It means that the social leader, while performing his functions views at the institution as a ‘community of employees and proceeds in such a manner that the institution grows as community; it no longer remains a group of people having just formal relations and no sharing of mutual human concerns. On the contrary, it emerges as a different institution. ii, Social Capital: The social leader has to display his ability to survive and thrive in these spaces. It goes without saying that effective social leaders must have high social capital and they have to develop the same in others in others also. This role of social leaders gocs a long way in reinforces reputation and authority iii. Collaboration: This is the last aspect of Stodd’s NET Model of the functions of a social leader. It pertains to “coming together and creating meaning, beyond that which we can do alone.” That is why Social Leaders are supposed to collaborate widely. Therefore, they have to engage themselves in relationships with their employees “without an expectation of immediate reciprocity. In time, all things balance out.” 7.3.4 Bridging the Gap between Formal and Informal Settings While describing the role of social leadership, Stodd also points out another very aspect, which pertains to the formal and/or non-formal settings in an educational institution. It is ‘an admitted fact that the by virtue of his role, the Social Leader must strive to bridge the «gap between the formal set-up and the informal set-up in the context of his educational 169institution, His concern about the formal discipline in the educational institution gives it a formal touch, whereas the nature of his roles and responsibilities of being personally considerate towards his employees, coupled with his value laden behavior ete. go a long. way in giving an informal touch to his formal position. In this way, the Social Leader ‘comes to occupy a position in-between the two. This position of the Social leader goes a long way in making the atmosphere more congenial, but at the same time he also follows the achievement of institutional objectives by following the laid down rules and procedures as per policy of the institution. ‘As viewed by Stodd (2014), the Social Leader performs different functions in formal and informal settings as under: Formal sotings Informa sotings Plans arent actwies as a Rader o achieve instutonl objectives. He ensures the vabilly ofthese acts in the overlln the on-going as wel as possble futuro activites ofthe inituton. Fasliales the implemenlaton of tasks gen lo workers, Here the leader ais a fend and coworker. This ‘exercises a healthy impact oftheir performance. Delivers tothe eriployees what ey expec fom fim as 3 leader. He removes any misunderstanding about ferent things and gives the employees go-ahead signal aboul whalbiey ate supposed to proceed vith Connects himself fo employees on personal bases so as {o remain fuly informed of ther feeings, reservation, ditfculis ec. This approach develops an atmosphere of ual confidence, Colaboraias with others for the achovomant of objectives. For tis purpose, he may even go to the extent of offering and revising his pe-occupations wih instuton, ‘Shares fis coneams, ean and infrmaton wi ther ‘employees. Ths bridges the gap between the leader and the employees and helps in achievement of objectives trough enhancement of employees’ performance. ‘Uses data about the task at hand to procoed Turr. For this purpose, he has to undertake acral preview ofthe data from all possible angls and then proceods further forusing the dala, Firs th dala and th infermaton based thereon. This approach isin the best interest of the employees and instution when communicating to each ether 170Activity Visit your local school and interview available teachers to find out as to how the head of that school carries on his social leadership activities. Biro’ suggests several roles of social leadership, a brief of which may be described as under 7.3.5 Recognizing Non-Verbal Cues ‘One of the basic social leadership skills pertains to recognizing non-verbal cues. Aa a matter of fact, a skilled social leader believes in multiple forms of communication, not jjust one form, He keeps himself open and is accessible to all through verbal, written, non- verbal, viral and so on. However, being receptive to non-verbal cues is relatively a difficult thing. To be able to interpret non-verbal cues effectively, the Social Leader must, develop in himself the ability to recognize how his personal perception about different things filters the input. He must develop in himself the ability to clear his head from all unnecessary things so as to be able to attentively appreciate the non-verbal cues. In thus way, the social leadership can foresee the institutional problem long long before they actually come to the surface and jeopardize the institutional programmes. 7.3.6 Interaction on Regular Sases Significance of the interaction of Social Leader for institutional effectiveness cannot be ‘over-emphasised. Nothing better if the leader knows the names of individual employees, but it may require quite sometime. It does not mean that the Social Leader will not and should not go for interaction with employees? No, this would be an absolutely wrong and extremely damaging approach, which must have a negative impact on the institutional functioning. The Social Leader cannot afford to wait tll that. Therefore, he must chalk out a programme of regular interaction even if he does not know them by names. One doesn’t have to know everyone's name for interaction with them. In that case, the Social Leader, while planning for future, will have to engage them proactively — even through digital forms of communication. He does not “need to tweet or send email round-the- clock”, but he “must be comfortable connecting in person and on social channel 7.3.7 Openly Discussing Values and Purpose It is a well-known fact that people seek employment in different institutions and ‘organization for many different reasons, but the phenomenon needs to be explored as to why they continue their stay. There is @ possibility of their staying in the organization if “they feel a sense of shared values, purpose, mission and vision.” In case the leader doesn’t take and give feedback on regular bases for reinforcing the institutional values and purpose, he should be prepared to go for several other counter-steps. Other-wise, he ‘would surely be losing lose more talent than he would actually foresce or like. 7.3.8 Encourage a Community Presence ‘One may be prepared for it or not, nobody can deny the role of social media among the employees working in an organization. It has been observed that “Paternalistic managers and top-down leaders sometimes have trouble with this skill, but there is no escape and it 7is not an option any more. It may organizations, institutions or companies, they don’t ‘operate in a closed atmosphere like a bubble, Experience of the world-wide organizations proves this fact that they operate and proceed in a social set-up, which goes a long way in shaping and designing institutional/organizational reputation, good or bad, through online ‘communication. This type of communication turns all of such people into @ community, which may not necessarily consist of the beneficiaries of the enterprise. It would be better if the Social Leader himself proceeds ahead proactively and takes suitable steps to encourage the creation of a community of stake-holders 7.3.9 Demonstrate Authentic Interest in Employees and Others It is highly imperative for the social Leader that he himself leans ‘some skills and fake others, but it’s tough to fake sincerity.” As a matter of fact, sincerity draws the line of difference between a true social leader and a traditional task manager. If as a Social Leader you are not sincere, and are acting as traditional task-manager, there is every possibility that the actions you are taking, might be relevant from business point of view, bbut sooner or later they must backfire. In that case, the Leader and thus the institution will have to pay a fabulously heavy price for all that 7.4 General Leadership ‘As opposed to other leadership roles in well specified fields, the concept of general leadership is characterized by general abilities or personality traits, which set a stage for the emergence of the person as a leader. Broadly speaking, leadership refers to ones ability to develop a vision that motivates the employees or workers to move with a passion and commitment towards a common goal. In this way, leadership is a process by which a person is in a position to influence others to accomplish an objective, Thus, he directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. According to ‘Chemers" leadership is the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task”. In order to provide leadership and performing general leadership roles in an educational institution, it is essential that certain elements are there in ones leadership, King, Altman, and Lee" (2011) hold that basically, there are six elements which are essential to a leadership profile. They include the following: i. Leadership competencies: What do you bring to leadership? ii, Leadership roles: What roles do you like to play? ili, Learning styles: How do you leam? iv. Change styles: How do you respond to change? v. Developmental assignments, carecr history and life experiences: What experiences and lessons do you bring to leadership? vi, Derailment factors: What gets in your way? What have you failed to lear? According to Leithwood and his colleagues (2004), as quoted by McBeth general leadership performs three broad leadership functions in educational institution. Which 172may be described as follows: (i) Setting direction, (ii) Human development, and (ii) Organizational development. 7.4.1 Setting Direction This function of leadership includes actions and interactions aiming at the development ‘of mutually agreed upon goals for the organization. Such goals go a long way in inspiring, others and developing in them a sense of purpose and far-reaching vision for the times to ‘come. Thus, it pertains to setting and maintaining a high standard of expectations for teaching and student learning. These ideals may be summed up as under: i, Constructing, selling and sustaining a vision ii, Getting cooperative commitment for organizational goals iii, Setting and maintaining high expectations 7.4.2 Human Development Obviously human resources are always instrumental in getting the tasks doen in institution, ‘Therefore, an effective educational leader always ensures the essentially needed steps aiming at the development of human resources. Thus, he takes all necessary steps to enable them to excel within the professional expectations set upon them, ‘This function can be summed up in the form of following points: i, Monitoring instruction and progress ii, Developing teachers knowledge and skills, individually and collectively iii, Providing encouraging, recognition and support iv, Developing a sense of responsibility for performance 7.4.3 Developing the Organization An educational leader has to appreciate the dual status of a school or educational institution as a community as well as an organization. So, he has to perform his multiple roles and responsibilities aiming at ensuring healthy intemal processes as well as effective external relationships. While maintaining the right direction of the organization, the leader has also to simultaneously ensure a conducive work environment and also supportive atmosphere in the community at large. ‘This function can be summed up in the form of following points: i, Adopting and modifying operating procedures ii, Building a culture that deprivatizes classroom practice, supports collaboration among teachers iii, Procuring and distributing resources iv. Handling disturbances, creating and maintaining an orderly work environment 173Activities 1. Geta list of those principals and teachers who were awarded for their performance by the governments. Select at least one of them and analyze his personality and work, to find his leadership skills, and style 2, Analyze your supervisor's sources of power used for influence. Your supervisor is, your current immediate boss or even a senior officer, even one of your previous teachers can be taken as a supervisor. Please not the behavioral change caused by the power used. Take a school or any other social organization and identify the areas in which it needs effective leadership, Self-Assessment Questions 1, What ate the major difference between management and leadership? Discuss with suitable examples. 2. What are the different academic roles of a leader in an educational institution? Give ‘examples in support of your answer. 3. How can a leader ensure the financial stability of an educational institution? Discuss, any three of his functions in detail. 4, What is a Balance Sheet and how is it prepared? Also discuss its need and importance with reference to the resources of an educational institution, 5. What is the NET Model of social leadership as enunciated by Julian Stodd? Discuss its role under its main components as under: i, Narrative ii, Engagement ii, Technology 6. Describe the three broader roles played by general leadership in an educational education. Give examples in support of your answer. 174References Biro, Meghan M.https:/talenteulture,com/S-social-skills-business-leaders-must-master/ Cardno, Carol (2014) The functions, attributes and challenges of academic leadership in New Zealand polytechnics “International Journal of Educational Management, Vol, 28 Issue: 4, pp.352-364, Carlsson Hakan, Kettis, Asa, and Séderholm, Anders (2014). Research Quality and the Role of the University Leadership Commissioned by the Association of Swedish Higher Education (SUHFY Experts Committee on Quality (Page 10) Ikenberry, Stanley ©. (2013) Academie leadership and govemance of Higher education (Foreword), Stylus Publishing, LLC, 22883 Quick silver drive sterling, Virgina, King, Sara N., Altman, David and Lee, Robert J. (2011) P 98-99, Discovering the Leader in You: How to realize Your Leadership Potential, John Wiley and Sons, San Francisco, 2011 ‘McBeth, Mark E, The Distributed Leadership Toolbox: Essential Practices for Successful Schools, Page 41-43 Peters, Jeanne, and Schaffer, Blizabeth, Financial Leadership for Nonprofit Executives: Guiding Your Organization to Long-term Success, Amherst H. Wilder Foundation, 2008. Ramehandran, N and Kakani, Ram Kumar (2009) How (o read a Balance Sheet, Tata MeGraw Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi. Page 6. Stodd, Julian (2014) The Social Leadership Handbook, The Printing House, London, Chester, Page 5 Weikart, Lynne A., Chen, Greg G. and Sermier, Ed. (2013) Budgeting and Financial Management for Nonprofit Organizations, Sage CQ press, Washington, Page 93. hitps:fulianstodd, wordpress.comy/2013/08/19/the-net-model-for-social-leadership) hiips:/fulianstodd, wordpress.cony/201:/08/19/the-net-model-for-social-leadership) utps:!Avww slideshate.neVmithisood /presentation-on-leadership-9401617 hitps:tévww sheffield ac.uk/hr/guidance/academiestafTthodduties ntp:shvww.efoa orgirole-finance-director-capital-asset-management ups://doi.org/10,1108/JEM-11-2012-0131 bttp:/vww.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10,1108/IJEM-11-2012- 0131%journalCode=ijem 175176Unit-8 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND TECHNOLOGY Written by: Dr. Allah Rakha Saghir Reviewed by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool 17781 8.2 83 84 CONTENTS Technological Resources 180 Use of Technological Resources. 183 Operational Issues in Use of Technologies... 188 Legal Issues in Use of Technologies .... 189 178A Word to the Student ‘The modern-day world has witnessed an unprecedented sway of technology in all walks of life. Accordingly, as in all other walks of life, the concept of technology leadership has ‘come to occupy an immense significance in the management of educational institutions actoss the globe, The last few decades bear testimony to the fact that the practices relating to the management of educational institutions have undergone radical changes, few traditional manual practices on one side and the extremely modern electronic ‘methods and techniques and online practices on the other. With the onset of twenty-first century, educational institutions across the globe have started using quite a wide range of technology not only to manage their intemal affairs, but also to come in close contact with other institutions across the world, Since we are passing through an age of tough competition, we cannot afford to keep our prospective educational planners and managers ignorant of the latest developments in the field of educational technology. ‘Therefore, the unit in hand focuses on apprising them about different technological resources and their use . While developing this study unit, extensive use has been made of different sour mentioned in the bibliography. The same are gratefully acknowledged. This is the first launching of the course leaving much to be added to/deleted from the stuff for the improvement of the content and the format, which will be taken care of in due course of time during subsequent revisions of the course. Dr. Allah Rakha Saghir 179Objectives of the Unit Its expected that after the successful completion of this unit, you should be able to: 1, describe the meaning and nature of technological resources; 2. identify the different types of technological resourees used in educational institutions; 3. explain the different technological resources used by educational leader for planning and management purposes; 4, explain different possible uses of technological resources by faculty members; 5. _ identify different operational and legal issues faced by educational institutions 8.1 Technological Resources The modern-day world has witnessed an unprecedented onslaught of technology in all walks of life. One of the websites holds that technological resources make the hard core of technology and may be described as the systems and tools required to effectively produce or create a product or service. These resources include energy, information, people, tools, machines, capital and time. These types of resources are simply indispensable for undertaking any technological activity. They facilitate the production processes and service delivery methods in companies and organizations. Gone are the days when the use of just human resources was the maximum, along with that from raw material, of course, and somehow everything had to be accomplished with through ‘human input. In those olden days, there was a minimum of technological input, as a result of which, there used to be an extremely slow and modest pace of output, But, with the passage of time now the pendulum has swung to the other side, for which a beginning ‘was made with the advent of industrial revolution in the western world. With the invention of electricity, the pace of development became all the more greater and greater. Resultantly, the dawn of 20® century happened to witness unprecedented developments in all walks of life, especially in that of commerce and production, The advent of wireless, computer and then satellites, one after the other, proved to be instrumental in accelerating the miracles in technology which human beings could never think of. AS a result of that there happened to emerge what is commonly known as information communication technology (ICT) or technological resources. The term by its very nature happens to cover the whole lot of all machines and tools, gadgets and devices operated by power. To be more exact, we today have calculators, computers, cell phones, intemet ete. working not only with electricity, but also with solar power. Let us have look at different viewpoints about the nature of technological resources. Regarding the nature of technological resources, Rabahi (2017)' observes. that “Technological resources are intangibles resources such as intellectual” properties, accumulated skills and experience, software license and patent. Materials are intangible resources that is used to produce a specific product like clothes or bags.” AS for the management of technological resources, Rabahi” further states that it is the 180‘optmization using of all technological resources which are including systems and tools required to effectively produce or create a product or service. These include also energy, formation, people, tools, machines, capital and time, taking into consideration that, ‘Technological Resources", are in fact, the main production processes and scrvice delivery in the organizations. One of the websites describes technological resources as “Technological resources are systems and tools required to effectively produce or create a product or service. These include energy, information, people, tools, machines, capital and time, Technological resources aid production processes and service delivery in companies and organizations.” Technological resources play an extremely effective role in enhancing the quality of the activities and output of an organization, They are not limited only to computer equipment, hardware, modems and other gadgets. These things may be called the physical resources. On the contrary, technological resources also include things like software, text, intellectual property, accumulated experience, good will, skill, sofware licensing, patents and copyright. However, their ownership and management has also to be taken care of exactly in the same way as we are supposed to take care of our physical yurees. An example of a technological resource is in the case of operating machinery, it can cut down a lot of workload. Advancements in technology are helping improve the performance as new software programs are being introduced- outlook. Staff have access to these which makes it much easier for them to complete tasks, As it is quite obvious, with the pace of development taking place in the recent era, the sphere of technological resources is going to expand larger and larger with the passage of time. The use of all these types of resources is playing an effective role in the ‘management of multiple types of organizational affairs and thus going a long way in enhancing output. Foreseeing the swaying impact of technology, Nickerson and Zodhiates (1988) “ were ‘quite justified in in giving their observation: “Considering how technology has moved since the arrival of the digital computer about 35 years ago, it would scem foolhardy to attempt to look in any detail at what the world will be like much beyond that date. Even ‘on that time scale there is little reason to believe that we can predict much with great accuracy. Perhaps we can, however, develop some plausible scenarios. And to attempt to do at least that much is imperative, if we hope to impact intelligently the course the future takes.” The observation came to be true and during the intervening period, did witness an aggressive onslaught of technology and resultantly there has been a sort of non-stop and fan unending series of a tremendous increase in gadgets of technology from the “predominance of stand-alone computers to a blend of computer, media, ‘communications, and other forms of technology dominated by the ubiquitous Internet and World Wide Web.” As it can easily be conceived from the above projection, the sector of education, like all other sectors, stands out to be the one which has gone unimaginable ‘miraculous changes right from planning through evaluation of education policies, plans and projects. 1811 Major Types of Technological Resources ‘he major types of technological resources may be briefly described as under: i, People Nobody can deny the hard fact that the most important of all types of resources of technology is the people. They are the first and the last of such resources. Without them, no product would be formed, and no service would ever be planned, finalized and delivered. People develop tools and machines, which are used in production such as software and hardware. Innovative instruments and tools developed by people go a long way in augmenting the convenience of ultimate benefi end user's convenience. ii, Energy Energy is another extremely important technological resources, in no way less important than people. As a technological resource, energy provides the soul and blood to the arteries of the system and thus keeps it alive, Almost all forms of technology are constrained to bank upon the resource of energy for power to make the mare go. Obviously, all types of heavy and light machines and gadgets are invariably driven by energy are an essential and invaluable resource in industrial sector which is characterized by continuous production at massive scale, Not only that, energy is also used in households and businesses organization to supply power to various appliances which go a long way in meeting the necessities of life bringing conveniences and comforts to human life. iii, Information Information which forms the content or substance of technology is still an important technological resource. That is what is actually carried or transmitted among users. That is why the emergence of latest technological devices has miraculously led to unprecedented increased information sharing among different types of stakeholders across the globe. iv. Machines and Gadgets Machines and tools also constitute another important technological resource, Barta, Gev and Telem rightly maintain that the term Information Technology or technological resources has now come to include in itself three main components: hardware, software - mainly management information systems (MIS) decision support systems (DSS) and human factors. That is why we have different types of machines and devices and software such as cellphones, computers. Twitter, facebook etc, some latest addition to all that. These devices provide a quick, safe, accessible and economical way of storing the information for institution, organizations and individuals. Introduction of robots and their wonderful role in car ‘manufacturing and assembly lines is still another addition to all that. v. Time Another technology resource is time which is invariably there in all types of enterprises. The quantity and quality of other types of resources held constant, the amount of time consumed in different technological processes and the outputs directly determines the quantity as well as quality of their production. Even at the 182post production phase, the efficient utilization of time resource helps an organization or company in their safe delivery efficiently and effectively. Activity 1. Put your study material aside and jot down the salient points which come to your mind regarding the meaning and nature of technological resources. 2, Visit the nearby local educational or business organizations and identify the presence of different types of technological resources in them. 8.2. Use of Technological Recourses The use of technological resources has become indispensable for an educational leader ‘who wants to compete with others in this rapidly changing world. That is why it can be easily anticipated the educational institutions whose leaders and managers are promoting the use of technological resources today will be moving forward differently in the times to come. An unprecedented and massive adoption of technological resources in educational institutions is resulting in the development of instantly accessible school databases pertaining to multi-dimensional profiles of students as well as teaching and non-teaching staff, physical facilities, classrooms, grade levels, curricular details, student assessment systems, financial management, medical facilities, transportation arrangements, parental involvement and other relevant aspects. ‘One of the important functions of educational leadership is to promote the cause of education through promoting the use of technology. The educational leader has got at least a dual role to play in this regard. Firstly, he can himself use these resources for discharging his own functions and secondly, he can motivate the teaching and non- teaching staff for enhancing their efficiency level through an effective use of technology. 8.2.1 Use of Technological Resources by Educational Leader Fducational leader may use technological resources at his own level for several purposes such as data management, data analysis, word processing, and communication. Ramey (2012)" mentions about the use of technological resources by educational leader which may cover such as the following: 1, Management ‘The Key to any successful business or organization is good management. Resultantly, most of the organizations and businesses companies have started using technology for managing specific tasks on daily basis. Different functions of management, whether in an educational organization or any other one, generally include planning, organizing, actuating and controlling the organizational activities: 2. Planning Technological resources can be used in the planning process. Planning process includes setting short-term and long term goals for the organization or different parts/department of it. The process of planning also involves setting @ course of 1833 4, 6. 7. action to meet these goals. Educational leader may successfully use technological resources like computer, internet etc. for all these activities. Organizing Organizing includes activities like structuring of an organization or work force to start action for the achievement of predetermined goals. Organizing makes sure that people, materials and different types of equipment are secure and scheduled to meet the action plan, Use of technological resources can facilitate the task of educational leader regarding safe entry, secure storage and getting immediate access to the data about different aspects of organizing all that. Actuating The function of actuating pertains to taking initiating the requisite steps towards the implementation of action plan, Actuating causes plans to take form, With this fimetion, products and services are built, or services are provided. Use of technological resources for all these activities can tremendously facilitate the task of educational leader. Controlling This function involves the processes and steps for comparing the output results against the standards fixed or planned for this purpose. Obviously, an effective and, tight use of technological devises can help the leader a lot for this purpose Managing Information Obviously, educational leaders are required to use information while performing, functions like planning and organizing organizational activities, they do have to use technology to process, and manage the requisite information and access it as and when required by them. An on-time and effective use of technological systems like (MIS) management information systems, educational leaders and managers will be able to plan for and execute important decisions and actions required for the growth and development of the organization, Management and Updating of Contacts Management and updating of contacts of persons related to organizational affairs is an essential need of educational leaders and managers. They may include the people like customers, suppliers, or business partners. As an educational or business organization grows, there has to be a corresponding increase in the number of contacts for customers and suppliers and other types of people directly or indirectly related to different activities. The situation will necessitate the setting, up a technological system supported by different relevant gadgets and devices like computer and email and internet facilities. This can miraculously help the Icadership in immediately retrieving them as and when required. Technological resources will help him in preparing separate data-based directories of customers, suppliers or partners etc. ‘The educational leader can always update all these lists contacts. In this way, he can save a lot of his time which he can use in other important tasks in the organization. Human Resource Management Human resources are central to the existence and functioning of an educational organization or business concern, Having formulated viable plans, the educational 184leader does need to utilize the human resources for accomplishing the organizational goals. The educational manager can make effective use of technological tools like the internet to post jobs on online job portals. He can also use technological tools to explain tasks and responsibilities for each employee and, also use technology to monitor the performance of each one of them and also give online instruction to the employee towards the achievement of organizational goals. 9, Research and Development Technological resources can also be used effectively in organizational activities related to research and development. These resources can help in storage, processing and analysis of data from different angles. Instant access to results and production and editing of reports is another advantage of the sue of these types of 10. Marketing Technological resources may also be used for the purpose of monitoring the activities of employees pertaining to marketing. Educational manager can plan such, activities and transmit the same to them online who can be in touch with the employer and seek guidance from him regarding marketing, 8.2.2 Leadership Role in promoting use of Technological Resources in Employees Second aspect of the role of educational leadership pertains to the promotion of the use of technological resources among employees of the organization. For this purpose, he may plan to convince others about their use, Aldo et al (2007) rightly point out questions for the educational leadership about the use of technological resources by teachers such as: How to convince the mathematics teacher about the importance of the use of technological resources? How to convince the enthusiastic teacher who must make a rational use of technology? What problems of teaching and learning will have to confront future mathematics teachers in the use of technological resources? The use of such resources can render innumerable benefits to the organization In their article “why use educational technology”, Peck and Dorricott’ very rightly maintain that “Technological tools can foster students’ abilities, revolutionize the way they work and think, and give them new access to the world.” They further dilate upon the benefits of using technological resourees in schools. Facilitating Students Learning at Different Rates: Educational leader can promote the use of technological resources among teachers to encourage individualized instruction, Using computer networks called integrated learning, systems, depending on individual difference of students, the school can prescribe individual learning paths for them. They can successfully use technology to impart effective instruction to a larger number of students with “incredibly different backgrounds, interests, and motivation.” Due to the blessing of technology, through, a technology-based integrated learning system, students with different leaning, abilities can move at their own paces in a tension-free atmosphere in a nonthreatening manner. 185ig Students to Go Beyond Traditional Learning: A well-planned and effective use of educational technologies can motivate students to raise critical searching questions, increase their knowledge, participate in debates, reformulate their view-points, go for problem solving and positively contributing in the overall ‘onomic uplift of the community. Instantly available information through online facility, helps students in efficiently gathering and evaluating information, and then shating their thoughts and findings with others. This type of sharing of information may necessitate several activities on the part of students including reading, thinking, writing, creating, visuals, and other image. This may also require them to go for interpreting, editing, organizing and producing the information with the help of spreadsheets and databases. Quantitative Increase and Qualitative Refinement of Student Thinking and Writing: It has been rightly said that one of the best documented successes about the use of technology in education lies in developing students’ writing. Educationists would agree that many of the features of word processors have gone a long way in minimizing the students unsaid fears often associated with writing. Use of technological resources has made the process much easier and interesting for the students. The activities regarding editing and improvement may be undertaken and completed almost as quickly as one may think. At the end of all that, finished printed output from a “word processor may have a professional quality that ‘generates a sense of accomplishment.” Enabling Graduates to Solve Complex Academic Problems: It is an admitted fact that higher-level process skills cannot be imparted through traditional or non- innovative techniques. Due to their subtle nature they cannot be transmitted to students with the help of ordinary instructional strategies designed and based after traditional instructional aids. ‘Therefore, the inculcation of such abilities necessitates that the students must be encouraged to use technological gadgets for promoting these skills in themselves under the supervision of their teachers. Thus the use of technological resources can goa long way in developing such skills in them which can help them in the solution of their complex academic problems. Nurturing Artistic Expression: The thrill visible in moder technology-based art forms like (audio-video programmes, digital photography, computer-based animation, and several other things like them) have great attraction for the developer as well the users. Therefore, the direct involvement of students in them promotes a sense of artistic expression among the teachers as well as the students. Such instruments and gadgets based on technological resources tend to develop sense of artistic appreciation and communication in such students who have been used to work on traditional means of communication. As a result of this miraculous change resulting in the use of technological instructional learning aids can give a big boost to their artistic expression skills Promotion of Awareness in Students and Teachers about New Developments: Educational leader can use technological resources in a number of ways. In addition to encouraging teachers and students in the use of technological resources, he can pave the way for promoting awareness in them about the latest 186developments in communication technology at global level. This awareness can attract long-term benefits by (i) enabling the prospective technology experts from Pakistan to seek employment in multi-national organizations within country as well as out-of-country, and (ii) providing solid bases to Pakistan for promoting the use of Technological resources in institutions and successfully competing with other nations of the world in education sector. ‘As mentioned above, under the guidance of educational leadership, teachers can move forward with the use of technology in several ways. Ivers" () very rightly puts that teachers can apply technology to (i) facilitate a variety of effective assessment and evaluation strategies (ii) assess student learning of subject matter using a variety of assessment techniques (iii) collect and analyze data, interpret results, and (jv) ‘communicate findings to improve instructional practice and maximize student learning, (¥) apply multiple methods of evaluation to determine students’ performance. Barta, Gev and Telem (1995) very rightly pointed out more than two decades back that the “educational institutions in which administrators, managers and teachers will be working in the late 1990's will be far different from those of today.” Resultantly, the schools, which until recently were lagging behind in the use and implementation of information technology (IT) for administrative and managerial purposes, are now found struggling hard to close the gap by catching up the others who have been using it and now they are reaping the fruits of the use of technology in the day-to-day functioning, That is why we can now-a-days find a massive and rapid computerization process in schools, universities and research and development organizations. The dream of Barta, Gev and Telem has come to be true and now we can sce a computer not only on the desk of every educational manager, but even one the desks of lower level workers also. At the end of this section, we will not be wrong in saying that the equitable spread of education so as to reach the un-reached so far, in the times to come, depends upon as to hhow the educational leadership makes use of technology and data to perform many of its basic functions. For effective use of technology educational in realistic planning & implementation of educational policies and plans, educators and educational leaders must have multifarious considerations, both theoretical as well as practical ones to reap its fruits both in administrative and instructional domains. ‘We can sum up our above discussion with the views of Picciano (2011)"* who holds that there is all-the-more a greater need for educational leaders to harness themselves with technology due to their potential multiple roles as preservice and in-service educators, administrators, teachers, technology coordinators, and media specialists ete. ete. They are, therefore, required to build a strong foundation from which they may provide informed leadership and become agents for realizing the powerful potential of technology in their schools. 187Activity 1. Contact the nearby local educational or business organizations and request their leadership for sparing some time for their interview on the use of technological resources. 2. Find out the practices of leaders regarding the use oft technological resources by them for the following: i, Managing the information ii, Managing the human resources iii, Managing the organizational finances 3. Interview the senior faculty members / teacher regarding the use of technological resources by them for instructional and research purposes. 1. Operational Issues in Use of Technological Recourses Regarding the need to avoid unnecessary implications pertaining to the use of technological resources, Whitehead, Jensen and Boschee (2003) rightly hold the opinion that “different educational leaders understand the social, legal, and ethical issues related to technology and model responsible decision making related to these issues.” Therefore, the educational leaders have to do the following: 1, Ensure equity of access to technology resources that enable and empower all leamers and educators; 2. Identify, communicate, model, and enforce social, legal, and ethical practices to promote responsible use of technology; 3. Promote and enforce privacy, security, and online safety related to the use of 8.3 Operational Issues in Use of Technologies ‘The growing use of technological resources has led to numerous ethical, technical, legal, and operational security and safety issues with serious implications for different categories of developers and end-users. It is an admitted fact that the fruits of technology can only be reaped if the technological resources are ensured to be fully operationalized. In case, the management is not regularly taking care of different aspects regarding the maintenance of these resources, there can be several operational issues in their use, which can, in tum, lead to tremendous losses to the organization, Some of the operational issues regarding the technological resources may be summed up as under: 1. In most of the cases, employees do not demonstrate their understanding of the use of technology for organizational purposes. This type of behavior on their part does create operational issues for the organization. Technical knowledge about the use of each type of technological resources is essential for related employees. 2, Sometimes, the employees do understand one particular type of technology but they do not fully appreciate the constraints and benefits of different technologies for different purposes. Hence, they tend to make use of different technologies for 188wrong purposes with wrong types of input. This action on theit part jeopardizes the whole scenario, Most of the educational organizations may fail to pay the desired attention to ensure the data backup in casc of some breakdown. This type of situation may result in stopping the operational aspect of the total institution. Therefore, enough ‘measured have to be ensured for that purpose. 4, Its also possible that many of the institutions go for ordering some latest hardware and or software applications without bothering as to what extent and how they can be fit into or integrated with the technological resources they are already using. Such actions on the part of organization may lead to sheer wastage of resour ‘Therefore; they must ensure the compatiblity of the devices ete. before they place the purchase order. 5. Frequent breakdown of power supply is still another extremely important operational issue especially faced in Pakistan, Therefore, educational leadership ‘must pay attention to this problem and ensure the installation of an adequate system, ‘of power supply to keep the technology in working condition. 6. In most of the cases, employees are not that much careful in ensuring strong password for their gadgets. Or they may also share it with more than one persons which again may lead to sever operational issues. Therefore, security of devices has to be ensured in a fault free manner by all concerned, 7. Unprecedented growth in the use of technology not only at the organizational, but at the individual levels also is creating operational problems for organizations. This ptoblem become still more grave if the employees are also using their private devices for communication purpose. That is likely to adversely affect the functionality of the organization technological resources. Therefore, the organization needs to have enough control over such practice through suitable policy measures 8. Lack of support to the deployment of technology is another frequent operational issue faced by many organizations using technological resources. Therefore, the leadership has to ensure an adequate corresponding input for avoiding any issue arising out of lack of such support It may be clarified here that this is not an exhaustive list of operational issues. As ‘organizations grow and happen to recruit different types of employees and adopt latest technologies, they are likely to have more and more of such problem. Therefore, the leadership will have to be vigilant to ensure their on-time solution in a befitting manner, 8.4. Legal Issues in Use of Technologies In spite of the fact that technological resources immensely contribute towards the enhancement of efficiency of employees in different areas, their use is subject to a ‘number of considerations. One of them happens to be the consideration that their use ‘must not involve any legal implications for anybody, may it be the employee of the organization or anybody else, the organizational itself or any other organization, national or international. Unless specified, most of these legal considerations, by virtue of their 189very nature, happen to hold good at international level. Their violation or non-compliance is likely to give birth to serious legal issues having far-reaching implications for one party or the other. One of the websites of the University of Minnesota deals with a number of legal issues, some of which are summed up as under: 8.4.1 Issues Related to Acceptable Use 1. Computers and other information technology resources have to be used and managed responsibly to ensure their integrity, confidentiality, and availability for appropriate research, education, outreach and administrative objectives ‘The authorized users of University information technology resources must follow University policies; federal, state and local laws; and contractual obligations. These, inter alia, also include matters pertaining to information security, data privacy, commercial use, copyright and licensing infringement, and unlawful intrusion and unethical conduct. 3. All types of technological resources are meant for oly for acceptable use as authorized by the institution. Their acceptable use “includes, but is not limited to respecting the rights of other users, avoiding actions that jeopardize the integrity and security of information technology resources, and complying with all pertinent licensing and legal requirements.” 4, Authorized users must comply with all applicable laws and regulations, contractual agreements, administrative policies, and licensing agreements. 5. Information technology resources can be used only in the manner and to the extent allowed by the institution. 6. Users are responsible for protecting their University-assigned accounts and authentication (e.g., password) from unauthorized use. 7. They have to abide by the security controls on all information technology resources used for University business. 8. They have to be accountable for the content of their personal communications and ‘may be held responsible for their own actions. 8.4.2 Issues Related to Unacceptable Use 1. Users are not allowed to share authentication details or provide access to the University accounts to anyone else 2. Users must not circumvent, attempt to circumvent, or assist anybody else in creating any problem related to the security controls in place. 3. Users are prohibited from indulging in activities that may disrupt network users, equipment or service; intentionally distribute viruses or other malicious code; or install software, application. 4, Users must not engage in inappropriate use, including but not limited to the following: (i) Activities that violate state or federal laws, regulations or University. policies, (ii) Harassment, (iii) Widespread dissemination of unsolicited and unauthorized electronic communications. 5. Users must avoid excessive use of system information technology leading to any trouble in smooth functioning of it at institutional level. 1908.4.3 Issues Related to Privacy and Security Measures 1. Users must not attempt to violate the privacy of other users. 2. Any activity on information technology resources may be monitored, logged and reviewed by University-approved personnel or may be discovered in legal proceedings. 3. The University assigns responsibility for protecting its resources and data to system administrators, and data custodians, who treat the contents of individual assigned accounts and personal communications as private and does not examine or disclose the content except: = as required for system maintenance including security measures; - when there exists reason to believe an individual is violating the law or University policy; and/oras permitted by applicable policy or law. 4, ‘The University reserves the right to employ sccurity measures. When it becomes aware of violations etc. the University has the responsibility to investigate into such, ‘matters as it may deem fit, 8.4.4 Issues Related to Enforcement 1, Individuals found violating University policy, law(s), contractual agreement(s), or violate an individual's rights, may be subject to limitation or termination of user privileges and appropriate disciplinary action, legal action, or both. 2. ‘The University reserves the right to temporarily deny access to information technology resources for protect the integrity, security, or continued operation of these resources of to protect itself from liability 8.4.5 Issues Related to Special Situations: 1. As and when needed different departments/units within the University have the right to define additional conditions of use for information technology resources or facilities under their control. This situation has to be regulated in an equitable manner without prejudicing the rights of different stakeholders. Grama very rightly holds the opinion that “Intellectual property is the area of law that protects @ person’s creative ideas, inventions and innovations. It protects peoples ownership rights in their creative ideas. It gives you the right to control the use of your creative ideas. It protects your ability to profit from your ideas. It also prevents other people from exploiting your creative ideas” 8.4.6 Challenges to Educational Leadership in the Use of Technological Recourses In order to be really effective, educational leader will have to understand and appreciate the tremendous speed at which changes are taking place in technological resources. Some of the challenges relating to technological resources, which the educational leadership is likely to face in the times to come are briefly summed up as under: 1. Some of the possible short-term future trends in technology are to see- at least in nonspecific ways and seem to be probable. 1912, The speed of the devices used for computing and for storing information will continue to increase, while their size, power requirements will continue to decrease. These trends have characterized technology for several decades and will probably continue for a long time in future. 3. Microprocessor-based computing power appliances, in hand tools, in games and toys, in clothing will be everywhere-in household likewise, software will be easily available for an increasingly extensive atray of different types of applications. Obviously lot of things from them will be useful and have potential for serving, educational purposes 4, Inthe near future, multimedia communication facilities will be easily available to facilitate the mixing of text, images, and speech. 5. User-oriented languages and devices will be available to people at large for use without technical training on their part. 6. Increasingly powerful tools to facilitate interacting with very large databases-both for directed searching and for browsing- will be developed. Activity Visit the local educational institutions and identify the following: i, Any operational issues faced by them in the use of technological resources ii, Remedial steps taken by them iii, Any legal issues faced by them in the use of technological resources iv. Remedial steps taken by them v. Any future challenges they are likely to face in the near future. 192References Barta, Ben-Zion, Gev, Y. and Telem, Gili () Information Technology in Educational Management Grama, Joanna Lyn (2015) Legal Issues in Information Security, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 5 Wall Street, Burlington, 2015, 2nd Edition. P.76 Ivers, Karen S. page 4, A Teacher's Guide to Using Technology in the Classroom Karehka Ramey (2012) Use of Technology In Management Retrieved from https:vww.uscoftechnology.com/technology-management/ Mathematics and Technology: A C.LE.A.EM. Sourcebook, edited by Gilles Aldon, Femando Hitt, Luciana Bazzini, Uwe Gellert. Nickerson, Raymond S. and Zodhiates, Philip P. (eds.) Technology in Education: Looking Toward 2020, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York, 1988. Peck, Kyle L. and Dorricott, Denise “Why Use Technology” retrieved — from: http://www.ased.org/publications/educational-leadership/apr94/vol5 I/num07/Why- Use-Technology%C2%A2.aspx Picciano, Anthony G. ( 2011) Educational Leadership and Planning for Technology / Edition 5. Rabahi , Nadjib (2017), What is the management of technological resources? What are its functions? Retrieved from https://www. bayt.com/en/specialties/q/358204/what-is- the-management-of-technological-resources-what-are-its-Functions! Rabahi, What is the management of technological resources? What are its functions? Retrieved from —_hitps://www. bayt.com/en/specialties/q/358204/what-is-the- ‘management-of-technological-resources-what-are-its-functions/ Whitehead, Bruce M., Jensen, Devon F.N. and , Boschee, Floyd (2003) Planning for Technology: A Guide for School Administrators, .. - Page 32, 123 hitps://www-reference.comitechnology/technological-resources-440eaceTe16ed708# https://www-slideshare.net/rachelfarnese/legal-cthical-and-social-issues-in-technology |https://www.networkdepot.com/most-common-technology-problems! ttps://www.ed.gov/oii-news/us fechnology- -aching-and-learning httpi//study.com/blog/overcoming-legal-issues-with-implementing-technology-in-the- classroom.htm! hitps://www-reference.com/technology/technological-resources-440eaceTe16ed708# 193194Unit-9 CHALLENGES OF INSTITUTIONAL EDUCATIONAL LEADERS Written by: Dr. Muhammad Latif Javed Reviewed by: Dr. Sarwat Maqbool 195CONTENTS Introduction. 197 9.1 Challenges for Educational Leaders 198 1199 202 203 205 9.2 Challenges of Educational Leaders of Different Level... 9.3. Challenges in Private and Public Sector Educational Institution... 9.4 Educational Leaders as a Change Agent.... 9.5 Knowledge and Skills Required for Educational Leaders... 196Introduction Educational leadership is usually the responsibility of school administrators and principals, who strive to create positive change in educational policy and processes. Educational leadership involves working with and guiding teachers toward improving educational processes in elementary, secondary, postsecondary and higher institutions, Educational leadership is the science of helping students achieves academic success through managing and improving educational programs. Educational leaders work with students of all ages and strive to help them reach their academic goals. Overall, competent and dedicated professionals are needed to provide excellent educational leadership in schools across the country. Those in educational leadership roles tend to go above and beyond just management and administrative tasks. However, they are trained to advance and improve educational systems and create and enact policies. Educational leaders usually are employed as school principals or administrators but can take on additional roles, such as department head or academic dean. Professionals working in educational leadership focus on improving educational programming. They hire and manage teachers and staff, prepare budgets, set curriculum standards and set school-wide policies. They might work on team building efforts or restructure the organization to affect necessary change. Many educational leaders are involved with policy development ‘or reform issues dealing with education on the local, provincial or national level. The central concept in educational leadership is influence rather than authority. Both are dimensions of power but the latter tends to reside in formal positions, such as the principal or head teacher, while the former could be exercised by anyone in the school or college. Leadership is independent of positional authority while management is linked directly to it, mandates and accountability (such as curriculum and/or priority programmes, high stakes testing, performance management; bureaucracy (especially excessive paper work, the increase in inter mediatory bodies and new approaches such as whole-of government); poor employeriprofessional educator relations; declining authority to act budget cuts; overcrowding; teacher shortages; and, teaching as a low- ceiling career. These influences result in the job of school leader being seen by potential candidates as too demanding, conflictual, stressful, deskilling, lonely, isolated, separated from teaching, lacking support, unrewarding, and only for particular groups in society. Although it is interesting to note that evidence suggests that the issue of rewards is seen differently by potential candidates and the school leaders themselves — with leaders believing it is a rewarding job. Clearly existing school leaders have not got this message of job fulfillment delivered to those who would follow them. Learning Outcomes In this unit of course of study you will leam about the challenges of educational institutions leaders at different levels of education system in our country. This is also being expected that the following part of this unit will help you to grasp knowledge regarding Educational Leaders and leadership by considering to: 197understand the concept of educational leaders, recognize and anticipate current and future challenges at education institutions acquired knowledge and skill to meet different challenges to educational Ieadership. 9.1 Challenges for Educational Leaders ‘As an Educational Leader in the 2stcentury the main challenge is to prepare students for the future and for teachers to understand how to do this. How as a leader one can make sure that teachers are capable of making students globally confident and competent? School leaders need to be aware of how to develop new skills, competencies or literacies that are required by students when entering the workforce of the future. Schools must ‘understand the importance of relevant, authentic learning that prepares a student for the future world, (Roebuck.G, 2011). ‘The following are the Challenges for an Educational Leader: a. Literacies at schools need to embrace personal skills including an appreciation of others cultures, communication skills (involving information technology) networking skills collaborative and analytical skills, b, Schools need to develop within their students the ability and confidence to pull together ideas from a range of sources to make intuitive instant judgments. 2ist century leadership must encourage entrepreneurial talents of all its future citizens. 4. Teachers must understand what it is to be an effective 21st century teacher with the abilities to develop the necessary skills. ©. Professional development of the teaching staff within this is critical for effective learning to occur and achievement, £ Schools successfully working in a true 21st century way where the leadership fostered and developed teachers and students to create their own learning by engaging in authentic problem solving leading them to where their passions lie. g. Anneed to identify talents within students and build personalized learning pathways so that it supports h. The need to have digital resources for the development of digital literacy is a fndamental part of an effective 21steentury school i, An essential piece within 2st century leadership is and is the importance of schools developing encouragement and the development of entrepreneurial talents of all its future citizens. j. Schools need to develop an awareness of globalization using the curriculum and contexts of studies that build awareness within the students learning. k, Learning another language such as mandarin is a valuable tool for students to enter the world where they will be working. Children within schools need to be connected to other communities. m, Understanding what it means to be a global citizen participating within a world. (Social Responsibility) 198n, At the last not the least the challenges of using an appropriate style of leadership to achieve the required outcomes. 9.2 Challenges for Educational Leaders at Different Level In the world of knowledge explosion today, more than any other time in history, a school head is required to be a professional leader of learning and an active facilitator of change. The purpose of change in school is to produce the best possible leaming outcomes for students. The students’ leaming outcomes which must necessarily prepare students to be competent and confident in a complex world of today and tomorrow are so far not achieved yet. In order to be successful pursue, they will need to be resilient, flexible, curious, creative and able to make considered and ethical decisions. School leader who fail to appreciate that what students lean is less important than how (Inquiry and Collaboration) and why (Purpose, Authentic, Ethical) they leara, will fail their students A 2Ist century school head as a leader will understand and model this in their practice. Education is an important factor both in the day-to-day success of the child and in contributing to the personal, social, cultural and economic fulfillment of the future adult. The challenges faced by an educational leader in the present scenario are different at various levels of schooling up to some extant due to teaching/learning process, excepted ‘outcomes and composition of faculty ete, In Pakistan, Schooling generally comprises over three levels (Primary, Elementary and Secondary) and challenges of educational leader will be discussed with respect to these three levels as following: 9.2.1 Primary Level Primary Education in Pakistan aims to develop each child’s potential to full, encourage a love of learning and help children to develop their skills that they will use all their lives, The primary stage of education is of prime importance for the building of career. This, stage enables a child to raise a standard of his/her personality, Improving quality of education is just as important as increase access to it for Pakistan. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) programs are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy. Pakistan is also signatory to the MDG declaration. These goals form the basis for national development efforts for the increase of literacy level in Pakistan. Today’s school and district leaders face a host of “Challenges” many of them controversial that demand immediate and ongoing attention. Among the most significant are: ‘Transitioning to higher standards Use of Information Technology (IT) at primary level for teaching and leaning Out of school children Implementation of Education For All (EFA) Policy To pursue for Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Aligning new assessments method to the new standards Implementing teacher evaluation and assessment systems ‘Managing Non Salary Budgets(NSB) and spending with unprecedented restrictions 199 vVVVVVVVY9.2.2 Elementary Level In the view of Rashid (2004), that elementary education in any system of education ‘occupies the pivotal position. The individual is provided training of the basic knowledge, skills and attitudes. For offering training to students there is a need to solve problems, providing facilities and the psychological principals through experienced teachers to be kept in view for selecting the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be imparted to the students. Primary education should be according to the local needs. For this purpose the school head should behave like a leader. Majority of head teachers still tend to work as ‘managers’ rather than "leaders’. They incline to face numerous challenges that include: % — Imbalanced role of head teachers > — Lack of clarity and understanding of roles. > Deficiency of leadership qualities > Weak instructional supervision, > Inadequate learning material and of poor quality. > — Harsh teaching methods with uncongenial behaviour. > — Nonexistence of effective professional development programmes > Lack of professional autonomy, interference of political leaders in school matters > Dependency and boss culture > — Head teachers’ recruitment on seniority rather than merit basis, > Scarcity of understanding about schools as ‘learning schools’, and overly use of ‘top-down’ management model. These challenges have become major ‘stumbling blocks’ to affect effective leadership at elementary school level, 9.2.3 Secondary Level Secondary education holds pivotal position in education system of every country, for itis terminal stage for most of students and it also serves as a linkage stage between clementary stage and higher education. It provides input for higher education and thus ‘quality of higher education is dependent upon secondary education (Buffone, 2009). The stage of Secondary education is an important sub-sector of the entire educational system, On the one hand, it provides the middle level work force for the economy and on the other; it acts as a feeder for the higher levels of education. Higher education, which is expected to produce quality professionals in different fields, hinges on the quality of secondary education (Imran, 2008). This level of education, therefore, needs to be revamped in such a way that it prepares young men and women for the pursuit of higher education as well as prepares them to adjust to their practical lives meaningfully and productively, ‘Teachers are perhaps the most critical component of any system of education. How well they teach depends on motivation, qualification, experience, training, aptitude and a host of other factors, not the least of these being the environment, leadership role and ‘management structures within which they perform their duty. One of the most consistent findings from studies of effective school leadership is that authority to lead need not be 200located in the person as the leader but can be dispersed within the school between and among people. There is a growing understanding that leadership is embedded in various organizational contexts within school communities, not centrally vested in a person or an office. ‘The real challenge facing most schools is no longer how to improve but, more importantly, how to sustain improvement. Sustainability will depend upon the school’s intemal capacity to maintain and support developmental work and sustaining improvement requires the leadership capability of the many rather than the few. The secondary school leaders have to overcome the following challenges to run their institutions efficiently and effectively. (Milford. B, 2003), > There is a need to coordinate, collective teacher efficacy, leadership and teacher ‘work and then student outcomes. > Strengthen the recruitment, development and retention of teachers and lift student ‘outcomes respectively. > To live and survive in trusting and collaborative climate in schools > A shared and monitored mission to achieve desired outcomes of school as an institution > — Have to take initiatives and risks for new approaches through the use advance educational technology. > Bea part of compulsory Ongoing, relevant professional development of leaders, > — Top-down and bottom-up change; managerial and professional/instructional leadership demands, > Proclamation of a public right to know and honest self-evaluation > — Competition and collaboration with other schools. > Bifurcation of leadership and teacher role and assessment of performance > Individual Support — providing moral support, showing appreciation for the work of individual staff and taking account of their opinions > — Culture ~ promoting an atmosphere of care and trust among staff, setting the tone for respectful interaction with students, and demonstrating a willingness to change practices in the light of new understandings > — Structure — establishing a school structure that promotes participative decision making, supporting delegation and distributive leadership, and encouraging teacher decision-making autonomy. Vision and Goals - working towards whole-staff consensus on school priorities and communicating these to students and staff to establish a strong sense of overall purpose, > Performance Expectation ~ having high expectations for students and for teachers to be effective and innovative. Intellectual Stimulation ~ encouraging staff to reflect on what they ate trying to achieve with students and how they are doing it; facilitates opportunities for staff to lear from each other and models continual learning in his or her own practice. v 2019.3. Challenges in Private and Public Sector Educational Institutions Education plays a pivotal role in the rise and fall of the nation especially in the 21st century; importance of education influences much to meet the fast growing challenges It is mainly due to the emergence of global competition in education and technology. This competitive environment is the core need for progress of any country. All countries including Pakistan have different school systems but when we divide them we find two ‘major categories of school systems: private and public schools. In Pakistan, private schools are getting mass acceptance today to ensure sustained progress of the country. During 1990s and 2000s, private sector emerged as a key provider of education services in Pakistan both in absolute terms and relative to the public sector. The charming slogan ‘education for all’ is yet to be realized and if itis left on Government only it would never be realized. As current educational policy provides encouragement and incentives for private sector schools, colleges and universities but this encouragement is only seen at higher level of education whereas elementary and secondary education is still at the lower level of the priorities as it is only represented by educational authorities and other concemed departments not by the concemed people (Mushtaq & Tayyab, 2014), Different data indicate that that education system in Pakistan generally is not doing well, Tracing causative factors responsible for the present state is a critical need. These include defective curricula, dual medium of instruction, poor quality of teachers, cheating in the examinations and overcrowded classrooms. (Memon, 2007) The challenges in public and private sector educational institutions are quite different in nature and ways to resolve them but of the same scenario > Challenges in Private Sector Educational Institutions © Issue of Fee Structure © No concept of scholarships on need and merit base © Adapted Buildings How we can © Classroom Size difereniatefcompar © Studentiteacher ratio @ the qualities ofa © Lack of play grounds public and private © Insufficient library and non-availability of books sector schoo! © Lack of proper science and computer labs leaders at secondary © Untrained and less qualified faculty level in Pakistan? © Nomechanism for training of teachers © Lack of service structure of teacher/staff © Noconcept of EFA © Challenge of Students’ Attitudes and Behaviors © Use of Information Technology © Bullying © Parent Involvement © — Student Health © Funding 202v Challenges in Public Sector Educational Institutions ut of school children and dropout students Studentiteacher ratio Transfer policy Promotion Policy mechanism Education For All (EFA) policy Implementation Programme Budget allocation/Constraint Teacher attitude and behaviour towards job/duty Lack of proper accountability mechanism Frequent Changes in Policies and Plans More than one (many) agencies for Monitoring, Assessment and Evaluation Irrational Target Setting (Rural/Urban, Gender Base, Geographical) Non Availability of Resources 000000000000 9.4 Educational Leaders as a Change Agent Great principals are change agents, influencing all the conditions that determine whether schools and students (How an educational will thrive, Setting the right bar for who can lead a | leadorplays is role as an school is a high-impact strategy for state action, with | instucional and a the potential to strengthen school culture, clevate | transformational leader, to instruction, and ensure that all students graduate | develop a balance college- and career-ready personaly of students ° and help his subordinates Leaders have a deeper and more lasting influence on \_ a“hieve thei objectives? ‘organizations and provide more comprehensive leadership if their focus extends beyond maintaining high standards. The Cultural Change Principal must be attuned to the big picture, a sophisticated conceptual thinker who transforms the organization through people and teams (Fullan, 2001), Cultural Change Principals display palpable energy, enthusiasm, and hope. In addition, five essential components characterize leaders in the knowledge society: moral purpose, an understanding of the change process, the ability to improve relationships, knowledge creation and sharing, and coherence making, Moral purpose is social responsibility to others and the environment. School leaders with ‘moral purpose seek to make a difference in the lives of students. They are concerned about closing the gap between high performing and lower performing schools and raising the achievement of and closing the gap between high performing and lower performing. students, They act with the intention of making a positive difference in their own schools ‘as well as improving the environment in other neighboring schools through cordial and social relationship. ‘The single factor common to successfull change is that relationships improve, If relationships improve, schools get better. If relationships remain the same or get worse, ‘ground is Tost, Thus, leaders build relationships with diverse people and groups especially 203with people who think differently. In complex times, emotional intelligence is a must Emotionally intelligent leaders are able to build relationships because they are aware of their own emotional makeup and are sensitive and inspiring to others (Goleman, Boyatzis, & MeKec, 2002) Creating and sharing knowledge is central to effective leadership. Information, of which, we have a glut, only becomes knowledge through a social process. For this reason, relationships and professional leaming communities are essential. Organizations must foster knowledge giving as well as knowledge secking. We endorse continual learning when we say that individuals should constantly add to their knowledge base but there will be litte to add if people are not sharing. A norm of sharing one’s knowledge with others is the key to continual growth for all. The following are the basic components for educational leaders to act as a change agents ‘At national level, school leaders are an important link in synchronizing top-down and bottom-up processes and are key actors in promoting quality processes in schools also referred to the decisive role school leadership plays in school reform by bridging educational policy and practice (Fullan 2005). If central reform initiatives are to be coherently integrated into the lives of schools and classrooms (Stoll et al. 2002), a new approach to capacity building for professional school leadership had to be developed as a prerequisite to system-wide change. This can be done through the participation in the planning process of educational plans at provincial and national level. Change Agents lay out clear steps that can be taken by state to build a pipeline of well- prepared principals, including concrete recommendations for improving training, assessment and reforming accountability measures to strengthen evaluation of principal preparation programs. The acquaintance guide provides a framework and tools to help ‘country’s policymakers redesign their preparation, recruitment and selection systems, A school leader of the 21% Century possesses a vast array and network of skills, The effective leader has knowledge of and appreciation for the educational system, has a strong foundation and diverse repertoire of skills and strategies which are theoretically- based, and develops and maintains trusting, positive and supportive relationships. “Traits, skills, behaviors, and various situational factors interacting together, along with a ‘common vision and supportive learning community may ultimately determine a leader's effectiveness” (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004), In order to be an effective leader, all of these traits, skills, behaviors and situational factors are intricately woven together, like a puzzle, in order to understand and appreciate the big picture in terms of viewing the principal as an educational leader and change agent. 2049.5 Knowledge and Skill Required for Educational Leaders Effective head teachers provide a clear vision and sense of direction for the school. ‘They prioritize and focus the attention of staff on what is important and do not let them get diverted and sidetracked with initiatives that will have little impact on the work of the students. They know what is going on in their classrooms. They have a clear view of the strengths and weaknesses of their staff. They know how to build on the strengths and reduce the weaknesses. They can focus their Programme of staff development on the real needs of their staff and school. They gain this view through a systematic Programme of ‘monitoring and evaluation. Their clarity of thought, sense of purpose and knowledge of what is going on mean that effective head teachers can get the best out of their staff, which is the key to influencing work in the classroom and to raising the standards achieved by students. A set of standards for head teachers was established in 2004 by Matthews & Sammons (2004), which identified core professional leadership and management practices in six key areas. These apply to all phases and types of schools and are in turn subdivided into the knowledge, professional qualities (skills, dispositions and personal capabilities) and actions needed to achieve them. These include Shaping the Future: creating a shared vision and strategic plan for the school that ‘motivates staff and others in the community; Leading Learning and Teaching: head teachers taking responsibility for raising the quality of teaching and learning and for students’ achievement. This implies setting, high expectations and monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of learning outcomes. A successful learning culture will enable students to become effective, enthusiastic, independent leamers, committed to life-long learning; % Developing Self and Working with Others: building effective relationships and building a professional learning community through performance management and, effective professional development for staff; © Managing the Organization: improving organizational structures through self evaluation, organization and management of people and resources in order to build capacity across the workforce and deploy cost effective resources; 4 Securing Accountability: head teachers are accountable to students, parents, School Management Councils (SMCs) the local political authorities and the whole community to provide a high quality of education for promoting collective responsibility within the whole school community and for contributing to the education service more widely; 4 Strengthening Community: creating links and collaborating with other schools, parents, stakeholders and other agencies to share expertise and ensure children’s wellbeing. 205Conclusion Education provides the base for socio-economic development, An educational system of poor quality may be one of the most important reasons why that poor countries do not ‘grow. In Pakistan, the quality of education is on the decline in spite of the fact that the present government has initiated drastic measures in uplifting the quality and quantity of education. Quality of teachers, especially at primary level is still questionable. It is evident that without teachers’ transformation we cannot transform the education system for improving the quality of education. In this regard, a series of education reforms in the area of teacher education were introduced in the public sector but their vision seemed to bbe narrow, hence, they failed to make any substantial impact on the quality of teachers and teaching process. Eventually, it further affected the quality of education being offered in schools. Education system of Pakistan is facing new challenges. It has yet to be developed at par with other developing countries in the region. 206References Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Pocklington, K. and Weindling, D. (1993) Effective Management in Schools, London: HMSO. Bolam, R. (2004) ‘Reflections on the NCSL from a historical perspective’, Educaitonal ‘Management, Administration and Leadership, 32(3): 251-68. Bottery, M. (1998) Professionals and Policy, London: Cassell Bottery, M. (2007) 'New Labour policy and school leadership in England: room for maneuverer”, Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(2): 153-72. Bush, T. (2008a) ‘From management to leadership: semantic or meaningful change?” Educational Management, Administration and Leadership, 36(2): 271-88. Cuban, L. (1988) The Managerial Imperative and the Practice of Leadership in Schools, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Fullan, M. (1999). Change forces: The sequel. London: Taylor & Francis/Falmer. Fullan, M. (2005), Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership. Boston: Harvard School Press. ‘Matthews & Sammons (2004), National College for School Leadership, London Rashid K. (2004), Education, Lahore, Urdu Bazaar, Carvan book house 207Perna a eee PNUW AN Aol Amol RUA