) @2) id Pa(i +a) Case 8 dac=-AOro @3) Solution (i) Deffection due to a force of 6631.5 N [Fig. Given 6,,.= 1mm £=207000N/mm? StepI Deflection at Gear -B The deflection at gears B ot C (Fig. 9.6) is calculated by the principle of superimposition. Consider the deflection at B. Vertical plane (i) Deflection due to a force of 1609 N [Fig. 9.41(a), Eq. (27) of Table 9.4]: Pax(x? +6? -P) sh = SETI _ (1609) (1800) (900) (9007 + 18007 - 27007) ~ 6E (2700) n ~~ 2d mm @ 200. +1800 r jes a 3 c D a) Cpe A 3 c 2 © 9.47(b), Eq. (27) of Table 9.4): Gp, = PGB PY 6EIT (6631.5) (900) (900) (900 +900" — 2700) ~ 6E 1(2700) 18.8x10" =e Gi) The vertical deflection at B denoted by (5,), is given by the principle of superimposition. (6p). = Oe + Oe)2 _ 5.2131 x10 + 8.8 x10! ~ El EI n = 13.5860x10" EI po “— A 8 @ 6631.5 ° ) ea a 8 foes 67 2 @ Fig. 9.47aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Shufis, Keys and Couplings _383 PP 6; | 2 32EI The deflection at B is given by, PP PP _ PP °°" 32EI 96EF 48E] © 5p = 83 9.28 GRAPHICALINTEGRATION METHOD In some cases, the forces acting on the shaft and its geometry are such that it is not possible to use classical methods, such as the principle of superimposition or Castigliano’s theorem, to find out the deflection, Hence, here the graphical integration method is used. The main drawback of this method is its limited accuracy. The principle of this method is illustrated in Fig. 9.50. Let us consider a function, J=SO) in such a way that, = 200 units ford. a) Pa(!— x(x? +a” —2ix) Ss)4= ie ETI (By = $28335105002250—1750)(1750" + 750% oe GEI(2250) —4.05(10)' . = =e , Gi)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Shafts, Keys and Couplings 391 (27.15 mm) 9.12 Assume the data of the intermediate shaft illustrated in Example 9.11. The permissible angle of twist for the shaft is 0.25° per metre length and the modulus of rigidity is 79 300 N/mm?, Determine the shaft diameter on the basis of torsional rigidity. [45.3 mm] Consider the forces acting on the intermediate shaft illustrated in Example 9.11. The maximum permissible radial defiection at any gear is limited to (0.01 m), where m is the module. The module of the two spur gears is 10 mm and the modulus of elasticity of the shaft material is 207 000 N/mm?, The shaft is simply supported at the bearings. Determine the radial deflections at gears A and B and find out the shaft diameter on the basis of lateral rigidity. 25.42 x 108 31.23 x108 a’ &F 9.13 and 41.87 om 9.14 A transmission shaft, supporting two pulleys A and B and mounted between two bearings C, and C, is shown in Fig. 9.57. Power is transmitted from the pulley A to B. The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 (S,, = 600 and 5,, = 380 N/mm”). The pulleys are keyed to the shaft. Determine the shaft diameter using the ASME code if, 915 9.46 947 Fig. 9.57 ky=15 and = 1.0 Also, determine the shaft diameter on the basis of torsional rigidity, if the permissible angle of twist between the two pulleys is 0.5° and the modulus of rigidity is 79 300 Nimm? [25.35 and 25.78 mm] The cross-section of a flat key for a 40 mm diameter shaft is 22 x 14 mm. The power transmitted by the shaft to the hub is 25 kW at 300 rpm The key is made of steel (S,. = S,, = 300 N/mm?) and the factor of safety is 2.8. Determine the length of the key. Assume (S,, = 0.577 S,,) [53.05 mm] It is required to design a square key for fixing a pulley on the shaft, which is 50 mm in diameter. The pulley transmits 10 kW power at 200 rpm to the shaft. The key is made of steel 45C8 (5,, = 5,, = 380 N/mm?) and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of the key. Assume (S,, = 0.5775,) [/2.5 x 12.5 X25 mm} A fiat key is used to connect a pulley to a 45 mm diameter shaft. The standard cross section of the key is 14 x 9 mm. The key is made of commercial steel (5, = S,. = 230 Nimm®) and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the length of the key on the basis of shear and compression considerations, if 15 kW power at 360 rpm is transmitted through the keyed joint.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.leaf, called the master leaf, is bent at the two ends to form spring eyes. The leaves of multi-leaf spring are subjected to bending stresses. Multi-leaf springs are widely used in automobile and railroad suspensions. In addition to the above mentioned types of springs, there are other springs such as helical springs of rectangular cross-section, spiral torsion springs, disk or belleville springs and volute springs. The discussion in this chapter is mainly restricted to helical springs and leaf springs. 10.3 TERMINOLOGY OF HELICAL SPRINGS The main dimensions of a helical spring subjected to compressive force are shown in Fig. 10.4. They are as follows: wire diameter of spring (mm) inside diameter of spring coil (mm) D, = outside diameter of spring coil (mm) D = mean coil diameter (mm) Therefore, D, +d, pacts 0.1) 2 bes Fig. 104 Dimensions of Spring There is an important parameter in spring design called spring index. It is denoted by the letter C. The spring index is defined as the ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter. Or, oo2 10.2) dq (10.2) Springs 395 In the design of helical springs, the designer should use good judgement in assuming the value of the spring index C. The spring index indicates the relative sharpness of the curvature of the coil. A low spring index means high sharpness of curvature. When the spring index is low (C < 3), the actual stresses in the wire are excessive duc to curvature effect. Such a spring is difficult to manufacture and special care in coiling is required to avoid cracking in some wires. When the spring index is high (C > 15), it results in large variation in the coil diameter, Such a spring is prone to buckling and also tangles easily during handling. A spring index from 4 to 12 is considered best from manufacturing ‘considerations, Therefore, in practical applications, the spring index usually varies from 4 to 12. However, a spring index in the range of 6 to 9 is still preferred particularly for close tolerance springs and those subjected to cyclic loading. ‘There are three terms—free length, compressed fength and solid length, which are illustrated in Fig. 10.5. These terms ere related to helical ‘compression spring. These lengths are determined by the following way: (Solid Length Solid length is defined as the axial length of the spring which is so compressed that the adjacent coils touch each other: In this case, the spring is completely compressed and no further compression is possible. The solid length is given by, Solid length =, d where, NN, = total number of coils (ii) Compressed Length Compressed length is defined as the axial length of the spring, which is subjected to maximum compressive force. In this case, the spring is subjected to maximum deflection &. When the spring is subjected to maximum force, there should be some gap or clearance between the adjacent coils. The gap is essential to prevent clashing of the coils, The clashing allowance or the total axial gap is usually taken as 15% of the maximum deflection. Sometimes, an arbitrary decision is taken and it is assumed that there is a gap of 1 or 2 mm between adjacent coils under maximum load condition. In this case, the total axial gap is given by, Total gap = (W,— 1) x Gap between adjacent coilsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Springs 399 4c-1 a 0.615 k= 4e-4*¢e where C is the spring index. The Wahl factor provides a simple method to find out resultant stresses in the spring. As shown in Fig. 10.9(c), the resultant shear stress is maximum at the inside radius of the coil. In normal applications, the spring is designed by using the Wahl factor. When the spring is subjected to fluctuating stresses, two factors X, and K, are separately used. ‘The angle of twist (@) for the equivalent bar, illustrated in Fig. 10.8(b), is given by, (10.7) w M, = torsional moment (PD/2) 1= length of bar (RDN) J= polar moment of inertia of bar (nd/32) G= modulus of rigidity Substituting values in Eq. (f), = EDI ADN) (xd*/32)G 16PD?>N or o- GA ® As shown in Fig. 10.10, the axial defiection ‘5? of the spring, for small values of @, is given by, x (length of bracket) x(DI2) (h) = a) He P P Fig. 10.10 Deflection of Spring Substituting value of @ from Eq. (g) in Eq. (h), 8PD'N Gd" o= (10.8) The above equation is called the load-deflection equation. The rate of spring () is given by, P “6 Substituting Eq, (10.8) in the above expression, p= 10 ~ 3pN (in) When a helical spring is cut into two parts, the parameters G, d and D remain same and NV becomes (N12). Iris observed from Eq. (10.9), that the stiffness (2) will be double when N becomes (N/2). It is observed from Eq. (10.8) that for a given spring, baP or Ped ‘The load is linearly proportional to the deflection of the spring. The load-deflection curve for helical spring is shown in Fig. 10.11. The area below the load-deflection line gives the strain energy stored in the spring. Assuming that the load is gradually applied, the energy stored in the spring is given by, E= area below load-deflection line = area of triangle O4B = 8 Fig. 10.11 Load-deflection Diagram or, E (10.10) where, E = strain energy stored in spring (N-mm) 10.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS There are two types of spring connections—series and parallel. The objectives of series and parallel combinations are as follows:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Springs 403 or expansion that occurs after coiling. Springs made of small diameter wires are wound cold. However, helical springs mede of 6 mm diameter bar or larger are usually hot wound to avoid the high residual stresses that are induced by cold forming, There are non-ferrous materials, such as spring brass, phosphor bronze, silicon-bronze, monel and beryllium-copper, which are also used in spring wires. The discussion in this chapter is restricted to springs made of steel wires. 108 DESIGN OF HELICAL SPRINGS There are three objectives for the design of the helical spring. They are as follows: (i) It should possess sufficient strength to withstand the external load. (ii) It should have the required load-deflection characteristic. (ii) It should not buckle under the external toad. It is possible to design a number of springs for a given application by changing the three basic parameters, viz., wire diameter, mean coil diameter and the number of active turns. However, there are practical limitations on these parameters. In certain applications, there are space limitations, e.g., the spring is to fit in a hole of certain diameter, where the outside coil diameter (D,) is restricted. In some applications, the spring is to fit over a rod, where the minimum inside diameter (D,) of the coil is specified. Before proceeding to design calculations, the designer should specify the limits on these diameters. The main dimensions to be calculated in the spring design are wire diameter, mean coil diameter and the number of active coils. The first two are calculated by the load-stress equation, while the third is calculated by the load-deflection equation. It is convenient to use the load-stress equation, which contains spring index as a parameter. From Eq. (10.6), Substituting r=4(5) (10.13) nd? Factor of Safety The factor of safety in the design of springs is usually 1.5 or Jess. The use of a relatively low factor of safety is justified on the following grounds: (@ In most of the applications, springs operate with well defined deflections. Therefore, the forcesacting on the spring and corresponding stresses can be precisely calculated, It is not necessary to take higher factor of safety to account for uncertainty in external forces acting on the spring. (ii) In case of helical compression springs, an overload will simply close up the gaps between coils without a dangerous increase in deflection and stresses. (iii) In case of helical extension springs, usually overload stops are provided to prevent excessive deflection and stresses. (iv) The spring material is carefully controlled at all stages of manufacturing. The thin and uniform wire cross-section permits uniform heat treatment and cold working of the entire spring. Therefore, the factor of safety based on torsional yield strength (S,,) is taken as 1.5 for the springs that are subjected to static force. (a) 5 0.75S,,and S,, Expression (a) is written as, .S77S.4 (0.577)0.75)S.e 15 or 1203S, (10.14) The permissible shear stress is, therefore, 30% of the ultimate tensile strength of the spring wire. ‘The Indian Standard 44541981 has recommended a much higher value for the permissible shear stress. According to this standard, 05S, (10.15) This is due to higher tensile yield strengths exhibited by the spring wires. In design of helicalaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The line DC is parallel to the line BA. Any point on the line CD, such as X, represents a stress situation with the same factor of safety. Line CD is called the design line because it is used to find out permissible stresses with a particular factor of safety. ‘The line GH is called load line, It is drawn from the point G on the abscissa at a distance 7, from the origin. The torsional shear stress due to initial pre-load on the spring (P;) is 1. The line GH is constructed in such a way that its slope @ is given by, tan @= 2 Tn The point of intersection between design line DC and load line GH is X. The co-ordinates of the point KX are (Ty, 7). Considering imilar triangles XFD and AEB, wz or (10.22) wo The above equation is used in the design of springs subjected to fluctusting stresses. Examples based on Simple Analysis Example 10.1 it is required to design a helical compression spring subjected to a maximum force of 1250 N. The deflection of the spring corresponding 10 the maximum force should be approximately 30 mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire. The ultimate tensile strength and modulus of rigidity of the spring material are 1090 and 81 370 N/mm? respectively. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring and calculate: (i) wire diameter; (ii) mean coil diameter; (iil) mumber of active coils; (ix) total number of coils; Springs _407 (v) free length of the spring; and (vi) pitch of the coil Draw « neat skeich of the spring showing various dimensions. Sol Given P=1250N 6=30mm C=6 Sy = 1090 N/mm? G= 81 370 Nimm? 1205 Sy Step Wire diameter The permissible shear stress is given by, T= 0.5 S,,=0.5(1090) = 545 N/mm? From Eq. (10.7), 4c-1 =o + 4c-4° From Eq, (10.13), t= «(&) or 545= (25s) M2520} 0.615 A()=1 , 0615 4(6)-4" 6 K = 1.2525 ad d= 6.630r7 mm @ Step II Mean coil diameter D=Cd=6(7)=42 mm (ii) Step TIL Number of active coils From Eq. (10.8), 8PD'N ie 8(1250)(42)° NV Gd‘ (81 370X7)" =7.91 or 8 coils Gii) StepIV Total number of coils It is assumed that the spring has square and ground ends. The number of inactive coils is 2. Therefore, N,=N+2=8+2= 10coils (iv) Step V_ Free length of spring ‘The actual deflection of the spring is given by, SPD? N _ 8(1250)42)°(8) Gd* (81370)(7)* solid length of spring = WN, d= 10(7) = 70mm It is assumed that there will be a gap of 1 mm between consecutive coils when the spring is subjected to the maximum force. The total number of coils is 10. The total axial gap between the coils will be (10-1) x 1 =9 mm. = 30.34 mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3 3 je 8PD" au _ 8G00)(24) © <1i'Sinm Ga* (81 370K4) The total gap between the adjecent coils is given by, Gap = 15% of = 0.15 (11.15) = 1.67 mm Solid length = N, d= 9(4) = 36 mm Free length = solid length + total axial gap +6 6 + 1.67 + 11.15 8.82 or 30 mm w) Step VI Pitch of coils freelength 50 i it = OS TenB _ "6.25 i Pitch ofeoil= “= B= mm (vi) Example 10.5 4 helical tension spring is used in the spring balance to measure the weighis. One end of the spring is attached to the rigid support while the other end, which is free, carries the weights to be measured. The maximum weight attached to the spring balance is 1500 N and the length of the seale should be approximately 100 mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of oil-hardened and. tempered steel wire with ultimate tensile strength of 1360 Nimm? and modulus of rigidity of 81 370 Nimm?. The permissible shear stress in the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring and calculate @ wire diameter; (ii) mean coil diameter; (iii) number of active coi (iv) required spring rate: and (¥) actual spring rate. Solution Given P=1500N C=6 S,,= 1360 Ninm? G=81 370 N/mm? 0.5 S,, Step 1 Wire Diameter The working principle of the spring balance is illustrated in Fig. 10.18. As the load acting on the spring varies from 0 to 1500 N, the pointer attached to the free end of the spring moves over a scale between highest and lowest positions. The length of the scale between these two positions of the pointer is 100 mm. In other words, the spring deflection is 100 min wien the force is 1500 N. Springs 411 e We 1500 N Fig. 10.18 Mechanism of Spring Balance The permissible shear stress for spring wire is given by, 5 Sy = 0.5 (1360) = 680 N/mm? 0.615 28” 21.25; a ae ad r= 4x6-1 ACA, 0615 4C-4° From Eq. (10.13), f 1500 6 125254 ad ) or 680 d= 65 or7 mm @ Step I Mean coil diameter D=Cd=6(7)=42 mm (i) Step ILL Number of active coils From Eq. (10.8), SPN 8(1500)(42)' NV Gd* (81 370)(7)* N= 21.97 or 22 coils Gi) StepIV Required spring mte P_ 1500 = =15Nh : 5 100 a ow) Step V- Actual spring rate pa Gat _ 813700" 8D°N — 8(42)°(22) 4.98N/mm (vy)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Springs 415 Example 10.9 A safety valve, 50 mm in diameter, is to blow off at a pressure of 1.5 MPa. It is held on its seat by means of a helical compression spring, with an initial compression of 25 mm. The maximum lift of the valve is 10 mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire with ultimate tensile strength of 1500 N/mm? and modulus of rigidity of 81 370 Nimm?. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 30% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the spring and calculate: () wire diameter; Gi) mean coil diameter; (iii) number of active turns; (iv) total number of turns; (0) solid length; (vi) free length; and (vit) pitch of the coil. Solution Gi =6 5y= 1500 Nimm? G=81370N/mm? 7= 03S, Step 1 Wire diameter Let P, and 6, denote the initial spring force and deflection respectively when the valve just begins toblow off. R= ; (50)?(1.5) = 2945.24 N 6,= 25mm Let P, and 6 denote the spring force and deflection respectively when the valve is open. 5,= 5,+ valve lift = 25 + 10= 35 mm Also, Pod Therefore, Bee ett R 4 (2945.24) 25 P,= 4123.34 N (maximum force) The permissible shear stress for the spring wire | isgiven by, T= 0.3 S,,= 0.3 (1500) = 450 Nimm? Ka 4CH1 0.615 = A6)-1 , 0.615 c¢. «6-4 6 From Eq. (10.13), t= «() or 450 = 1.2525 [eee rd ad? d=13.240r 14mm @ Step IT Mean coil diameter D=Cd=6(14) =84 mm Gi) Step I Number of active turns From Eq. (10.8), 8PD'N Gd* Substituting values of P, and &,, - 8(2945.24)(84)° N (81370)(14)4 N=5.6 or6 tums Giiy Step IV. Total number of turns It is assumed that the spring has square and ground ends. The number of inactive coils is 2. Therefore, N,=N+2=6+2=8 tums wv) Step V_ Solid length of spring Solid length N,d-8(14)~ 112mm (¥) Step VI Eree length of spring The maximum deflection of the spring under the force of 4123.34 N is given by, b= 8PD°N . 8(4123.34)(84)°(6) es + St = 37.53 mm, Ga (81370\114) It is assumed that there will be a gap of 2 mm between the adjacent turns, when the spring is subjected to the maximum compression. This gap is essential to avoid clashing of the coils. The total number of tums is 8. Therefore, the total axial gap will be (8 — 1) x 2= 14 mm. Free length = solid length + total axial gap + 6 = 112+ 14 +37.53 = 163.53 mm or free length = 165 mm wi) Step VII Pitch of coils Pitch of coil =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Springs 419 From Table 10.2, S,= 1570 Nim? 5 Sq = 0.5(1570) = 785 N/mm? Therefore, t< 1 The design is satisfactory and the wire diameter should be 2.5 mm. Step II Mean coil diameter D=Cd=6(2.5)=15 mm StepIV Number of active coils i ___ Length of scale length of each division = S08) SS = 100 am 50 Each division indicates 0.5 kg. Therefore, k 8 0508), = 2.4525 Nimm From Eq, as 9), Gd* __81370(2.5)' “gpk 805)'(2.4525) Step V_ Tolal number of coils For helical tension spring, all coils are active coils. Therefore, N=N=48 Solid length of the spring = N, d = 48(2.5) = 120 mm Step VI Spring specifications @ material ~ oil-hardened and tempered steel wire of Grade-SW (ii) wire diameter = 2.5 mm. ii) mean coil diameter = 15 mm (iv) total number of coils = 48 (v) solid length = 120 mm (vi) style of ends = extended-hook Spring Design for Fluctuating Stresses Example 10.13 4 helical compression spring of ‘a. cam-mechanism is subjected to an initial preload of 50 .N. The maximum operating force during the load cycle is 150 N. The wire diameter is 3 mm, while the mean coil diameter is 18 mm. The spring is made of oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire of Grade-VW (S,, = 1430 Nimm?). Determine the factor of safety used in the design on the basis of fluctuating stresses. = ISON Ppig,=50N d=3mm D=18mm" "Sy = 1430 N/mm? Step Mean and amplitude shear stresses D_WB Ca => =6 a3 From Eq, (10.7) and (10.5), _4C=1,, 0615 _ 46)-1 , 0.615 4C-4 C 4@-4" 6 + Prin y= 4.0s0+50)~ 100 N 2 P, = 5 Pa = Pain.) + (150-50)= SON From Eq, (10.18) and (10.19), 8P,D 8 (100)(18) =K, 1.0833) rank (SP)=¢ oe zo = 183.91 Nimm? - a( 2) = (1.2525) jee 2) xd 23) = 106.32 N/mm? Step 11 Factor of safety From. Eq. (10.21), the relationships for oil-hardened and tempered stee! wires are as follows: 22(1430) = 314.6 N/mm? S,y = 0.45 S,,= 0.45(1430) = 643.5 N/mm? From Eq. (10.22), 1 > 314.6 36 ) 643.5 — ; (314.6)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.426 Design of Machine Elements Adjacent springs having opposite hands, prevent the locking of coils, in the event of axial misalignment or buckling of springs. Concentric spring has the following advantages: (i) Since there are two springs, the load carrying capacity is increased and heavy load can be transmitted in a restricted space. (ii) In concentric spring, the operation of the mechanism continues even if one of thesprings breaks. This results in ‘fail safe’ system. (iii) In concentric spring, the spring vibrations called ‘surge’, are eliminated. Fig. 10.24 Concentric Springs Concentric springs are used as valve springs in heavy duty diesel engines, aircraft engines and railroad suspensions. In some applications, concentric spring is used to obtain a spring force, which is not directly proportional to its deffection. Such a variable force- deflection characteristic is obtained by nesting two springs, one inside the other, having different free lengths. This type of concentric spring is shown in Fig. 10.25(a). The shorter spring begins to act only after the longer spring has been compressed to a certain amount of deflection, As shown in Fig, 10.25(b), the force-deffection characteristics of this type of concentric spring are as follows: Force deflection characteristic of longer spring Force deflection characteristic of shorter spring -cd Force_deflection characteristic of composite spring = agh It is observed that agh is not a straight line. Initially, the concentric spring follows the straight line ag, and at g, there is a sudden change in the load-deflection relationship and then it follows the straight line gh. This results in variable force- , y | i Solid length b bh Force sS ) 5 fa) Fig. 10.25 This type of concentric spring is used in the governor of variable speed engines to take care of variable centrifugal force. The design analysis of concentric spring shown in Fig. 10.24, is based on the following assumptions: (i) The springs are made of the same material. (i) The maximum torsional shear stresses induced in outer and inner springs are equal. (iii) They have the same free length (iv) Both springs are deflected by the sameamount and therefore, have same solid length. The following notations are used in the analysis: ire diameter of outer spring wire diameter of inner spring mean coil diameter of outer spring mean coil diameter of inner spring P, = axial force transmitted by outer spring Py = axial force transmitted by inner spring P = total axial force 6, = deflection of outer spring leflection of inner springaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.430 _ Design of Machine Elements Stiffness of springs From Eg. (10.9), 4 7 Gay. BISONS)" «99.43 Nima BDIN, — 8(30)°(8) _ Gd _ (813706) _ 8D3N, — 8(36)°(10) This type of spring is shown in Fig. 10.25. The free length of the outer spring is 15 mm greater than the inner spring. Therefore, the inner spring will not transmit any force till the outer spring is compressed. by 15 mm. Suppose P is the axial force on the outer spring corresponding to this compression. P= k, 5= 28.25 (15) = 423.75 N After this load, both springs are active and each will transmit the force. Remaining load shared by two springs = 1000 ~ 423.75 = $76.25 N Concentric springs are parallel springs. From Eq. (10.12), k= 28.25 N/mm. 57.68 N/mm of the composite spring. Suppose x is the further compression of two springs. Remaining load= Ax or 576.25 =57.68x x= 9.99 mm Compression of outer spring = 6, = 15 + 9.99 99mm (i) ‘Compression of inner spring = 5,=9.99 mm (i) Step II Force transmitted by each spring Force transmitted by outer spring P,,= k,8, = 2825(24.99)=705.97N (ii) Force transmitted by inner spring P,= k,6,= 29.43(9.99) = 294.01 N ii) Step IIT Maximum shear stress D, _36 oF, 376 From Eq, (10.7), 4C-1 0615 _ 4(6)-1 Cc 46-4 Outer spring From Eq, (10.6), 1.2525) [eare m6)" = 375.28 Nimm? Gi) Inner spring (1.2525) [eee | (sy = 225.06 Nimm* ii) 10.12 OPTIMUM DESIGN OF HELICAL SPRING In certain applications, springs are designed with @ specific objective, such as minimum weight, minimum volume or maximum energy storage capacity. In such analysis, only one objective is considered at a time for a given application. In this section, we shall discuss the optimum design of a valve spring. The operating mechanism of the exhaust vaive of a disse! engine is shown in Fig. 10.22. The valve-spring is required to meet the following two conditions: (i) The force acting on the spring at the most extended position should have a certain minimum value (Puig). This force is required to keep the valve closed and can be considered as pre-compression, i) When the spring is subjected to maximum compression and the valve is completely open, the stress in the spring wire (mx) should not exceed the permissible torsional shear stress, For the purpose of analysis, the effect of inactive coils is neglected and the spring is designed on the basis of minimum weight. " ae Cross-sectional area of wire = Length of one coil = 2D Length of all active coils = xD Volume of spring wire = (24) (xDN)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.434 Design of Machine Elements Fig. 10.28 Angular Deflection of Spring ‘The strain energy stored in the spring is given by Mh, y =f Ud & v=) Se ©) ‘The integration is to be carried over the entire length of the wire, ic., from 0 to (DA). Therefore, © The deflection in the direction of the force P is approximately (rd ). Using Castigtiano’s theorem, aU _ Pr°(@DN) oP EL Substituting (/ = md'/64), we have ro= gn St PON (10.30) Ed* The stiffness of the helical torsion spring is defined os the bending moment required to produce unit angular displacement. Therefore, galt @ __kd* or = GDW (10.31) Helical torsion springs are cold-wound and residual stresses are set up due to cold working. The direction of the external force acting on the spring should be such that it tends to wind up the spring, In this case, the resulting stresses are opposite to the residual stresses. On the other hand, when the extemal force tends to unwind the spring, stress- relieving treatment is required. The design of the helical torsion spring is based on the torgue-stress and the torque-deflection ‘equations. The spring index is gonerally kept from 5 to 15. When itis less than 5, the strain on the coiling arbor of the torsion winder causes excessive tool breakage. When it is more than 15, the control over the spring pitch is lost. Example 10.21 /t is required to design a helical torsion spring for a window shade. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire of Grade-4, The yield strength of the material is 60% of the ultimate tensile strengih and the factor of safety is 2. From space considerations, the mean coil diameter is kept as 18 mm, The maximum bending moment acting on the spring is 250 N-mm, The modulus of elasticity of the spring material is 207 000 Nimnr?. The stiffness of the spring shonld be 3 N-mmirad. Determine the wire diameter and the number of active coils. Solution Given S,=065S, fs)=2 D= 18mm M,~250N-mm £= 207000 N/mm? k=3N-mmrad Step1 Wire diameter ‘The wire diameter is calculated by the trial and error method. Trial! d= 14mm From Table 10.1, Sy = 2290 Nimm? The permissible stress (G, ) is given by, Sy _ 0.605, _ 0.60 (2290) 4, ot = ES = 687 Ni () B) @ ™ o, 857) 4c(c -1) (12.857) (12.85 = 1.0616 32M, 32(250, =K, 2th) 1.0616) % ( ad) " may = 985.18 Nimm?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.438 _Design of Machine Elements that the individual leaves are separated and the master leaf placed at the centre. Then the second leaf is cut longitudinally into two halves, each of width (6/2) and placed on each side of the master leaf, A similar procedure is repeated for the other leaves. The resultant shape is approximately a triangular plate of thickness 1 and a maximum width at the support as (n, 6). The bending stress in the plate at the support is given by, M, (PAL) (t/ 2). One == Ho >| (1), = @ of ie = Se a ee Fig.10.32 Graduated-lengih Leaves as Triangular Plate It can be proved that the deflection (6,) at the load point of the triangular plate is given by, PL PL oe FE 1 max, 2d (gb) | 3 or, 5 oe () Engbt Similarly, the extra full-length leaves can be treated as a rectangular plate of thickness ¢ and uniform width (n, 6), as shown in Fig. 10.33. The bending stress at the support is given by, My (P,E\t/2) p)y = ; [z yore} _ Pb or (p= abe ©) ’, Fi, 3 7 (a) | aor tt br 1 nb if © Liye Fig. 10.33 Extra full-length leaves as rectangular plate The deflection at the load point is given by, 341 1 3z| 5(0/ax)| 3 or see @ En,bt Since the deflection of full-length leaves is equal to the deflection of graduated- length leaves, = 4 4P,D En,bt* 2n, te or any © also, P.+P,=P. Oo From Eqs (¢) and (1), ® 2n,P oe )aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.442 _Design of Machine Elements (i) It is simple in construction and easy to manufacture. (ii) The Belleville spring is a compact spring unit. It is especially useful where very large force is desired for small deflection of the spring. It provides a wide range of spring constants making it versatile. (v) It can provide any linear or non-linear load- deflection characteristic. (vi) The individual coned disks of a particular size and thickness can be stacked in series, parallel or series-parallel combinations as shown in Fig. 10.37, These combinations provide a variety of spring constants without changing the design. When two Belleville springs are arranged in series, double deflection is obtained for the same force. On the other hand, when two Belleville springs are in parallel, almost double force is obtained for a given defection. 53 es Fig.10.37 Nesting of Belleville Springs: (a) Series Combination (b) Parallel Combination (c) Parallel Series Combination (iii) (iv) ©) Belleville springs are used in plate clutches and brakes, gun recoil mechanisms, relief valves and a wide variety of bolted connections. ‘The analysis of the Belleville spring is exceedingly complex, and mathematical treatment is beyond the scope of this book. The load-deffection andload-stress equations of the Belleville spring are as follows: ES P= [(h- 6/2) (h- St d= Hy M(d,/2y ‘ Mes Orr] (10.42) ES =—, 1G (h- 8/2) + C, 4: © agra i 82+ Cael (1048) where, P = axial force (N) eflection of spring (m) thickness of washer (m) free height minus thickness (m) modulus of elasticity (N/m?) tress at the inside circumference (N/m?) outer diameter of washer (m) inner diameter of washer (m) oisson’s ratio ( 0.3 for steel) 6 [eddy ~ qlog.(d,id,)| (d,/d,) (08) 6 [cess ' saSqmean ae | (10.45) log.(d,/d,) | log.(d,/d;) —§__ [i4)=!_) (10.46) F log. (d,/4,) 2 Example 10.26 4 Belleville spring is made of Silicon steel. The spring is compressed completely flat when it is subjected to an axial force of 4500 N. The corresponding maximum stress is (1375 x 108) N/m? Assume, fo 21.75 and Caleulate (i) thickness of the washer; (ii) free height of the washer minus thickness (h): (iii) outer diameter of the washer; and (iv) inner diameter of the washer fois t fen P=4500N Oya, = 1375 x 105 Nim? Step Thickness of washer When the spring is compressed completely flat. 6=h From Eqs (10.44), (10.45) and (10.46), w.—# [e—] mlog,(d,/d,) (d,fdj) 2 ee Sy = 0.6268 mlog..73) | 1.75aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.445 _Design of Mactine Elements wire diameter and mean coil diameter of the outer spring are 10 and 80 mm respectively. The number of active coils in inner and outer springs are 10 and 15 respectively. Assume same material for two springs and the modulus of rigidity of spring material is 81370 N/mm?, Calculate (i) the stiffness of spring when the deflection is from 0 to 25 mm (Gi) the stiffness of spring when the deflection is more than 25 mm. [(i) 13.24 Nimm (ii) 29.13 Nimm] 10.11 A flat spiral spring is required to provide a Inlet maximum torque of 1000 N-mm. It is made Fig. 10.38 Spring Loaded Relief Valve of steel strip (E = 207000 Nimm?) and the ‘maximum bending stress in the strip should ‘The diameter of the plunger is 25 mm and the not exceed 750 Nimm2. The ratio of width outer diameter ofthe spring should notexceed 20mm to thickness of the strip is 10. The arbor because of space limitations. The normal working tums through 2.5 revolutions with respect pressure is 0.25 N/mm? and the valve should open to the retaining drum to provide the required ata pressure of | N/mm?, with a valve-lift of 6 mm torque, from the normal position. The spring is made of oil- Calculate the thickness, width and length of hardened and tempered valve spring wire of Grade- strip. VW (G = 81370 Nimm?). The permissible shear [U.2 mm, 12 mm and 5.62 m] stress in the wire can be taken as 50% of theultimate 10.12 A semi-clliptic leaf spring consists of two tensile strength. Design the spring and determine: extra full-length leaves and six graduated- (i) the wire diameter; length leaves, including the master leaf. Each (ii) the mean coil diameter; leaf is 7.5 mm thick and 50 mm wide, The (iii) the stiffness of the spring; and centre-to-centre distance between the) two (iv) the number of active coils. eyes ite] cm: The leaves are:pre: stressed [Ci 3.6 mm (ii) 15 mm (iii) 61.36 N/mm (iv) 9} such a way that when the load is maximum, stresses induced in all the leaves are equal to 350 Nimm?. Determine the maximum force that the spring can withstand, 10.9 A helical compression spring of a mechanism is subjected to an initial pre-load of 50 N and the maximum force during the load eyele is 300 N. The wire diameter is 5 mm, while the spring index is 5. The spring is made of oi!- hardened and tempered steel wire of Grade- SW (5,,= 1440 Nemm?). Determine the factor of safety against fluctuating stresses. [5250.N] 10.13 A semi-elliptic leaf spring consists of two extra full-length leaves and eight graduated- length leaves, including the master leaf, The centre-to-centre distance between the two , eyes of the spring is 1 m, The maximum force . | [1.82] acting on the spring is 10 KN and the width 10.10 A concentric spring consists of two helical of each leaf is 50 mm. The spring is initially compression springs, one inside the other. pre-loaded in such a way that when the load The free length of the outer spring is 25 is maximum, the stresses induced in all the mm greater than the inner spring. The wire leaves are equal to 350 Nimm?, The modulus diameter and mean coil diameter of the inner of elasticity of the leaf material is 207 000 springare 8 and 64 mm respectively. Also, the N/mm, Determineaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.450 _Design of Machine Elements _ The main advantages of friction clutch are as follows (i). The engagement is smooth. (ii) Slip occurs only during engaging operation and once the clutch is engaged, there is no slip between the contacting surfaces. Therefore, power loss and consequent heat generation do not create problems, unless the operation requires frequent starts and stops. In certain cases, the friction clutch serves as a safety device. It slips when the torque transmitted through it exceeds a safe value. This prevents the breakage of parts in the transmission chain. Depending upon the number of friction surfaces, the friction clutches are classified as single-plate or multi-plate clutches. Depending upon the shape of the friction material, the clutches are classified as disk clutches, cone clutches or expanding shoe clutches. The following factors should be considered while designing friction clutches: ( Selection of a proper type of clutch that is suitable for the given application (ii) Selection of suitable friction material at the contacting surfaces (iii) Designing the clutch for sufficient torque capacity (iv) Engagement and disengagement should be without shock or jerk (¥) Provision for holding the contacting surfaces together by the clutch itself and without any extemal assistance (vi) Low weight for rotating parts to reduce inertia forces, particularly in high-speed applications (vii) Provision for taking or compensating wear of rubbing surfaces (viii) Provision for carrying away the generated at the rubbing surfaces heat 11.2. TORQUE TRANSMITTING CAPACITY A fiction disk of a single plete clutch is shown in Fig. 11.3. The following notations are used in the derivation: outer diameter of friction disk (mm) inner diameter of friction disk (mm) intensity of pressure at radius 7 (N/mm?) ‘otal operating force (N) orque transmitted by the clutch (N-mm) 2 Ch Fig.11.3 Friction Disk The intensity of pressure p at radius r may be constant or may be variable. Consider an elemental ring of radius r and radial thickness dr as shown in Fig. 11.4. For this ring, elemental area = (27 dr) elemental axial force = p(2nr dr) 2alpr dr) (a) elemental friction foree = up(2mr dr) elemental friction torque = pip(2nr dr) r = 2m (pred) b) Fig. 11.4 Friction Force on Elemental Ring Integrating the expression (a), P=[2n(prdr) pe or P=2nf pro quay dia Integrating the expression (b), [2m (pr? dr’) bp or M, = 2m J pr dh (1.2) apaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.454 Design of Machine Elements Example 11.2 Assume the data given in Example 11.1 and calculate the power transmitting capacity of the clutch using uniform pressure theory. Solution =200mm d= 100mm p=02 P,=1Nimm? n=750 1pm Step 1 Operating force From Eq, (11.3), =e (D?-#)= 0) (200? - 100?) P me =23561.95N Step HW Power transmitting capacity From Eq. (11.5), = HP (DS =d°) ‘3 (D?-d?) = 28(750)(366 519.22) 60x10 28.79 Example11.3 An plate clutch is of two pairs of contacting surfaces with an asbestos friction lining. The torque transmitting capacity of the clutch is 550 N-m. The coefficient of friction is 0.25 and the permissible intensity of pressure is 0.5 N/mm. Due to space limitations, the outer diameter of the friction disk is fixed as 250 mm. Using uniform wear theory, calculate (i) the inner diameter of the friction disk; and (ii) the spring force required to keep the clutch in an engaged position. automotive cons Solution =550N-m D=250mm p=0.25 5 Nimm? number of pairs of contacting surfaces = 2 Step I Inner diameter of friction disk ‘The friction disk of the automotive clutch is fixed between the flywheel on one side and the pressure plate on the other. The friction lining is provided on both sides of the friction disk. There are two pairs of contacting surfaces—one between the flywheel and the friction disk and the other between the friction disk and the pressure plate, Therefore, the torque transmitted by one pair of contacting surfaces is (550/2) or 275 N-m. From Eq, (11.7), (275x 10%) = % Rearranging the terms, we have d(250°— dP) = 5 602 254 The above equation is solved by trial and error method. It is a cubie equation, with the following three roots: (i) d= 174.16 mm Gi) d= 112.29 mm (ii) d=-286.46 mm Mathematically, all the three answers are correct. ‘The inner diameter cannot be negative. As a design engineer, one should select the inner diameter as 174.16 mm, which results in a minimum area of friction lining compared with 112.29 mm. For minimum cost of friction lining, d= 174mm @ Step II Required spring force From Eq, (11.6), P Bhd (pay =AO 30 59174) =10386.11N Gi) Example114 A single plate clutch consists of one pair of contacting surfaces. Because of space limitations, the outer diameter of the friction disk is fixed as D. The permissible intensity of pressure is p, and the coefficient of friction, p. Assuming uniform wear theory, plot the variation of the torque transmitting capacity against the ratio of diameters (AD). Show that the torque transmitting capacity of the clutch is maximum, when (d/D) is equal to 0.577. Solution Step I Variation of torque capacity against the ratio @) Sex @aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.()) the required force to engage the clutch; and (ii) power transmitting capaclty at 750 rpm. Solution Given D=150mm d=75mm p=0.1 a=750rpm_ = p,=0.3 N/mm? Number of steel plate: Number of bronze plates = 4 Step 1 Required operating force From Eq. (11.6), - FO) 59-75) =2650.72N (i) Step I Power transmitting capacity There are five steel plates and four bronze plates. The total number of plates is 9. Number of disks ~2+1~9 apd P=“ O-d) or z=8 From Eq. (11.10), M, = FE +a) = MONRO 150475 = 119 282.4 N-mm Therefore, _ 2mnM, _ 2 (750)(119 2824) _ 9 1. eae ee 60106 An oil immersed multi-disk clutch, ‘asbestos on one side and steel disks on the other, is used in an application. The torque transmitted by the clutch is 75 N-m. The coefficient of friction between the ashestos lining and the steel plate in the wet condition is 0.1. The permissible intensity of pressure on the asbestos lining is 500 kPa, The outer diameter of the friction lining is kept as 100 mm due to space limitation. Assuming uniform wear theory, calculate the inside diameter of the disks, the required number of disks and the clamping force. Solution Given 75N-m D=100mm p=0.1 Pa= 500 kPa Step I Inside diameter of disks M,=75 N-m= 75 000 N-mm_ Pq = 500 kPa = 500 x 10-3 MPa = 0.5 N /mm? From Eq. (11.10), Pz M= = (D+d) It is observed from the above expression that there are two unknowns d and z, and one equation. It cannot be solved unless we make some assumption. We will assume that the clutch is wansmitiing maximum torque. As explained in Example 11.4, the condition for this objective is written as, d prO577 or d= 0571 D=0.577(100) = 57.7 or 58mm Step IT Clamping force For Eq. (11.6), 2A oy 103) 68) agp 5) = 1913.23N Step I Required number of disks From Eq. (11.10) 4M, 4(75 000) UP(D+d) — (0.1)(1913.23)(100+ 58) .92 oF 10 Number of disks =z +1=10+1=11 We will use 6 plane stecl disks and 5 steel disks with attached asbestos lining 114 FRICTION MATERIALS For light loads and low speeds, wood, cork and leather are used as friction materials, The present trend for high speeds and heavy loads has given a stimulus to the development of new friction materials, which are capable of withstanding severe service conditions. The desirable properties of a good friction material are as follows: (It should have high coefficient of friction. (ii) The coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire range of tempera- tures encountered in applications. (iii) It should have good thermal conductivity. (iv) It should remain unaffected by environmental conditions like moisture, or dirt particles.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Friction Clutches 463 we 28 O=2] ‘sina 2 aM, #) (1.17) Dividing Eq. (11.17) by (11.16), =P pra (1.18) 4sina The following observations are made: (H Its observed from the above equation, that the torque capacity is inversely proportional to sin @. The value of of should be as small as possible so that sin will be less and M, will be more. Therefore, the torque capacity of a cone clutch increases as the semi-cone angle decreases. However, when ois less than the angle of static friction (@), the clutch has a tendency to grab, resulting in self-engagement. This is not desirable because the clutch should engage or disengage at the will of the operstor, To avoid self-engagement and to facilitate disengagement, a> angle of static friction Taking the coefficient of friction as 0.2, a@>tan'g or o>tan' (0.2)or 11.3" Therefore, the semi-cone angle (a) is taken as 125°. (ii) Fora given torque, M, = constant From Eq. (11.18) — HP Mas ‘Therefore, a relatively small axial fore can transmit a given torque if the semi-cone angle is decreased. However, as the semi- cone angle decreases, there is more wedging action and the force required to disengage increases. Thus, a clutch with a small semi- cone angle requires a relatively small force to engage the clutch but a relatively large force to disengage the clutch. From Eq. (11.8), the torque transmitting capacity of single plate clutch is, + «sit qOrd o Pxsina P M= (D+) Dividing Eq. (11.18) by Eq. (11.8), (Micone 1d (MJpie Sina sin(12.5) Thus, for given dimensions, the torque transmitting capacity of cone clutch is higher than that of single plate clutch, Refer to Fig. 11.14. The face width of a friction lining (6) is given by, D-d 4.62 (ig) 2sinw Fig. 11.14 Example 1110 4 cone clutch with asbestos Jriction lining transmits 30 kW power at 500 rpm. The coefficient of friction is 0.2 and the permissible intensity of pressure is 0.35 N/mm?. The semi-cone angle a is 12.5°. The outer diameter is fired as 300 mm from space limitations. Assuming uniform wear theory, calculate: (i) the inner diameter; (ii) the face width of the friction lining: and (iii) the force required to engage the clutch Solution Given kW=30 »=500rpm y=02 P= 0.35 Nimm? a= 125° D=300mm StepI Inner diameter y= SOX LO(KW) _ 60 x 10°30) . 2an 2(500) =572 957.8 N-mm From Eq. (11.17), = Pod (pp _ 4) 8sinaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.47A_ Design of Machine Elements plane road. When the brakes are applied, the car decelerates at 0.5 g. There are brakes on all four wheels. Calculate: (i) the energy absorbed by each brake; and (ii) the torque capacity of each brake. Solution Given Forcar, m=1000kg v, = 100 km/h Deceleration = (0.52) For wheels, Skg-m? R=0.35m For engine and the transmission system, 1=2.5 kg-m? speed =5 (wheel speed) Step 1 Energy absorbed by each brake (KE of the car 100x10* vy, = 100 km/h = 6x60 =27.18 m/s and v,=0 wpe } c0003(27.787 = 385802.44 J (ii) KE of the wheels 79.37rad/s and @,=0 R035 1 2 KE of four wheels = alt Moy -0 = [2037937 | = 6298.81 J (ill) KE of the engine and transmission system @, = 5(79.37) = 396.83 rad/s and @,=0 KE= $M? -03)= $(2.5)096 837 = 196 837.97 J The energy absorbed by the four brakes consists of the kinetic energy of the car, the kinetic energy of the wheel and the kinetic energy of the engine and the transmission system. (385 802.44 + 6298.81 + 196 837.97) = 147 234.8) 3) Step If Torque capacity of brake The braking time fis given by “oy, 27.78-0 1 =05E 00 3 050.81) 1= 5.665 ‘The average velocity during the braking time is (@,+ ©,)/2 oF (@,/2). Therefore, o- (2): = (FZ )e56 = 224.6 md E_ 147234. aE ONS esa i 3 De 54.N-m Gi) Example 12.3 4 mass of 2500 kg is lowered at @ velocity of 1.5 m/s from the drum as shown in Fig. 12.1. The mass of the drum is 50 kg and its radius of gyration can be taken as 0.7 m. On applying the brake, the mass is brought to rest in a distance of 0.5 m. Calculate (the energy absorbed by the brake: and (ii) the torque capacity of the brake 2500 kg Fig. 121 Solution ven m=2500kg v=15 m/s For drum, R=0.75m m=50kg k=0.7m h=0.5m Step Energy absorbed by brake KE of the mass KE= Smo? eydyes $ 25000.) = 281251 KE of the drum 13. ¥ ot @ =—— = 2rad/s R078 KE= Smo -o FE50V0.770" 349) PE of the mass PE ~ mgh ~(2500)(9.81)(0.5) = 12 262.53 E=2812.5+49+12262.5=151243 (i)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.484 Design of Machine Elements e o+tsin2g or h =a — Risin g)8 =0 4Rsin6 = 26+sin26 (12.12) The elemental torque of frictional force (judN) about the axis of the brake drum is (udNR). Therefore, a M, = 2] udNR 3 Substituting the value of dV from Eq. (0), @ M, = 2UR2WPgay, e080 3 M4, = 2URWP pgs, Sin 8 (12.13) The reaction Ry can be determined by considering two components (dN cos @) and (id sin @) as shown in Fig.12.15(2). Due to symmetry, Juaw sing = 0 This is illustrated in Fig. 12.15(b), where two symmetrical elements in mirror image position with respect to the X-axis are considered. Therefore. 6 8 Ry = 2fancosp = 2RWP max, Joos? odo ° a = 28 Ppa ast 2 or Ry = ERP a (26+sin20) (12.14) The reaction Ry can be determined by considering two components (dN sin 9) and (udN cos ¢) as shown in Fig, 12.15(a). Due to symmetry, Javsing =0 This is illustrated in Fig. 12.15(c), where two symmetrical clements in mirror image position with respect to the X-axis are considered. Therefore, ° @ R= 2fuan 608 9 = 2LRWP ne, Joos? dg 0 ° 1 or (12.15) HRWP yyy, (20 +8120) Pivoted shoe brakes are mainly used in hoists and cranes. The applications of these brakes are limited because of the physical problem in locating a pivot so close to the drum surface. Example 12.7 4 pivoted double-block brake, ilar to that in Fig. 12.12, has two shoes, which subtend an angle (26) of 100°. The diameter of the brake drum is 500 mm and the width of the friction Tining is 100 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.2 and the maximum intensity of pressure between the lining and the brake drum is 0.5 N/mm. The pivot of each shoe is located in such a manner that the moment of the frictional force on the shoe is zero. Caleulate: (i) the distance of the pivot from the axis of the brake drum; (ii) the torque capacity of each shoe; and (iii) the reactions at the pivot. Solution Given D~ 500mm 00 mm = = 0.2 Prax, = 0.5 Nitam? 26= 100° Step 1 Distance of pivot from axis of drum From Eq. (12.12), , =—4Rsind____4(250)sin(50°) 26+sin26— (2222) sin 0% 180 = 280.59 mm @ Step Torque capacity ofeach shoe From Eq. (12.13), M, = 2UR?WPypay, Si. 0 = 2(0.2(250)?(100¥0.5) sin(50°) = 957 555 N-mm. Gi) Step UL Reactions at pivot From Eqs (12.14) and (12.15), Ry= FR Pq (29 +sin 26) = }(250)0100,0.5) (( wen sin (009 = 17063 N Ry= ; HRWPyqy, (20 + sin 28) = UR, = 0.2 (17 063) = 3412.6 N ii)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.490 Design of Machine Elements The total torque-absorbing capacity of the pair of shoes in the upper half of the brake drum is given by, (Mun = (p+ (4), = 686 315.98 + 404 926.43, = 1091 242.41 N-mm Since all four shoes are identical, the two pairs are also identical. Therefore, M,= (Mun + y= 2M) yp = 2(0.091 242.41) = 218248482 N-mm or, 1M, = 2182.48 N-n (i) 12.7 BAND BRAKES The construction of a simple band brake is shown in Fig.12.20. It consists of a flexible steel strip lined with friction material, which is pressed against the rotating brake drum. When one end of the steel band passes through the fulcrum of the actuating lever, the brake is called the simple band brake. ewok ed” | Fig. 1220. Simple Band Brake The working of the steel band is similar to that of a flat belt operating at zero velocity. The free-body diagram of forces acting on the band and the lever is shown in Fig. 12.21. The ratio of band tensions is given by, Rg Boe (12.24) , where, P= tension on the tight side of the band (N) tension on the loose side of the band (N) 11= coefficient of friction between the friction lining and the brake drum = angle of wrap (rad) The torque M, absorbed by the brake is given by. M,=(P,~P)R (12.25) where, jorque capacity of the brake (N-mm) radius of the brake drum (mm) €2) ZV ‘elt Fig 12.21 Free-body Diagram of Forces Considering the forces acting on the lever and taking moments about the pivot, Pyxa= Px! Ba or Pa (12.26) An element of the band subtending an angle (d¢) is shown in Fig. 12.22. The elemental area of the friction lining is (Rd@w), where w is the width of the lining parallel to the axis of the brake drum. In the figure, (P) and (P+ dP) are tensions in the band in the loose and tight sides respectively. Ifp is the intensity of pressure, the normal reaction (aN) is given by (P+ dP)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.500_Design of Machine Elements ‘The disadvantages of belt drives compared to other types of drives are as follows: (i) Belt drives have large dimensions and ‘occupy more space. Gi) The velocity ratio is not constant due to belt slip. (iii) They impose heavy loads on shafts and bearings. (iv) There is considerable loss of power resulting in low efficiency. (v) Belt drives have comparatively short service life. Belt drives are mainly used in electric motors, automobiles, machine tools and conveyors. Depending upon the shape of the cross-section, belts are classified as flat belts and V-belts. Flat belts have a narrow rectangular cross-section, while V-belts have a trapezoidal cross-section. Flat belts offer the following advantages over V-belts: (i) They are relatively cheap and easy to maintain. Their maintenance consists of periodic adjustment in the centre distance between two shafis in order to compensate for stretching and wear. They do not require precise alignment of shafts and pulleys. ‘When worm out, they are easy to replace. (ii) A flat belt drive can be used as a clutch by making a simple provision of shifting the belt from tight to loose pulley and vice versa. Gii) Different velocity ratios can be obtained by using a stepped pulley, where the belt is shifted from one step to another, having different diameters. (iv) They can be uscd in dusty and abrasive atmosphere and require no closed casing. (v) The design of fiat-belt drive is simple and inexpensive. (vi) They can be used for long centre distances, even up to 15 m. (vii) The efficiency of flat belt drive is more than ‘V-belt drive. The major disadvantage of flat belt drives over V-belt drives are as follow: (i) The power transmit drive is low. capacity of flat-belt (ji) The velocity ratio of fiat belt-drive is lower than V-belt drive. (iii) Flat-belt drives have large dimensions and ‘occupy more space compared to V-belt drives. (iv) Flat belts generate more noise than V-belts. (v) In general, fiat-belt drives are horizontal and not vertical. It is due to these reesons that flat belts are becoming less popular on the shop floor. Flat belts are used in belt conveyors, baking machinery, brick and clay machinery, crushers, saw mills, textile machinery, line shafts and bucket elevators. Compared with flat belts, V-belts offer the following advantages: (® The force of friction between the surfaces of the belt and V-grooved pulley is high due to wedge action. This wedging action permits a smaller arc of contact, increases the pulling capacity of the belt and consequently results in increase in the power transmitting capacity. (i) Woelts have short centre distance, which results in compact construction, (iii) They permit high specd-reduction even up to seven to one. (iv) Flat belts are hinged, while V-belts are endless which results in smooth and quiet ‘operation, even at high operating speeds. (¥) The drive is positive because the slip is negligible due to wedge action (vi) Welt drive can operate in any position, even when the belt is vertical. ‘The disadvantages of a V-belt drive over a flat- belt drive are as follows: (W The ratio of the cross-sectional height to the pulley diameter is large in case of the V- belt. This increases bending stresses in the belt cross-section and adversely affects the durabilit (ii) The efficiency of the V-belt is lower than that of the flat-belt and the creep is also higher. (iii) The construction of V-grooved pulleys is complicated and costlier compared with pulleys of the flat-belt drive.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.504 Design of Machine Elements Refer to Fig.13.5 again. The length of the belt (L) is given by, L= are (fab) + be + arc (cde) + a =D = = 7 la.) 40g +> (ats) + on = Sr 2p)+ Coop +2en+ 26) +Coosp mee or L= Ss BD-d)+2CcosB (a) For small val of B, and Substituting these values of f and cos B in Eq. (a), we get, L= er *\o- 4) af 2] 8c? 2 2 244) (Dd, p_ (=a 2 2c 4c a(D+d) | (D-dy =2¢+2D+a) , (D-a" 4 a2 8 (13.3) Acrossed belt drive is shown in Fig. 13.6. Construction Draw a line Og perpendicular to the line o;¢ The area ofeg is a rectangle. Fig. 13.6 Crossed Belt Drive From triangle ogo,, sin p= 28 90468 _ 0 of 00,00, 09, _ Di2+dj2_ Did ee eae D+d sin B= in B= 0, = %, = (180° + 2p) = 1804 2sin1( 222) (13.4) The procedure used for open belt drive can be used for crossed belt drive and it can be proved that a, the belt length L for a crossed belt drive is given by, m(D+d), (D+dy La2c+ Oe Z a 35) It should be noted that in the above expréssions, D and dare pitch diameters of pulleys while L is the pitch length of the belt, 13.4 ANALYSIS OF BELT TENSIONS ‘The forces acting on the element of a flat belt are shown in Fig. 13.7. The following notations are used in the derivations:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.808 _Design of Mechine Elements 13.6 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM POWER (ALTERNATIVE APPROACH) ‘When the belt passes over the pulley, the centrifugal force due to its own weight tends to lift the belt from the surface of the pulley. An element of belt subtending an angle (d9) at the centre of the pulley is shown in Fig, 13.9. Fig. 13.9 Length of belt element = r do Mass of element = mr do where m is the mass per unit length of the belt. The acceleration of the belt element rotating a about the axis of the pulley is | — 5 Centrifugal force on belt element = CF = mass x acceleration CF = mr do (5) mido (a) The centrifugal force CF induces belt tension P.. By symmetry, the centrifugal force induces equal tension on two sides of belt, Resolving the forces acting on the belt element in vertical direction, CF= sin{ 2) (b) From (a) and (b), méag=2r,sn( 2) {c) For small values, “e-#) From (c) and (d), mm? d= 2P, (4) P.=m? (3.11, A belt can transmit maximum power when the following two conditions are simultaneously satisfied: (i) The tension on the belt reaches the maximum permissible value for the belt cross-section. (ii) The belt is on the point of slipping, ic., maximum frictional force is developed in the belt. Suppose, b= width of belt (mm) 1= thickness of belt (mm) = maximum permissible tensile stress for the belt material (N/mm?) ‘The maximum belt tension (P,,4.) is given by, Pg OS () Since there is tension due to centrifugal forece, Pi Pras. —P, © Also, i ge or aoe ® The power transmitted by the belt is given by, Power =(P\— P.) Power =P, v A= (Prag — PK = (Pru. — 7k Power = (Pray, ¥— mv) The power transmitted will be maximum when, a 2 powers 0 oF S (Pay v— mr) =0 av av or Pry, 3m = 0 (13.12) The optimum velocity of the belt for maximum power transmission is given by, ip. Van From Eqs (13.11) and (13.12), Pray ~3P.=0 Of Ppa =3P, (13.14) v (13.13) (13.15) From the expression (f),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.512 _Design of Machine Elements Example 13.2 The following data is given for a V-belt drive connecting a 20 kW motor to a compressor. ——— Motor-pulley —— Compressor- pulley | itch diameter 300 900 (mm) Speed (rom) 1440. 480 Coefficient of 0.2 02 friction The centre distance between pulleys is 1 m and the dimensions of the cross-section of the belt are given in Fig. 13.14(a). The density of the composite belt is 0.97 g/cc and the allowable tension per belt is 850 N. How many belts are required for this application? ‘| REESI RRS) SoRRBIN Rees ee BSISIIOY Fig. 13.14 Solution Given KW=20 D=900mm d=300mm C=1m p=097 g/cc P,=850N f=0.2 n= 1440 rpm = 40° StepI Ratio of belt tensions From Eq. (13.1), a, 180-2sin" (224) 2C a) 2x 1000 = 180—2sin’ ( 145.07" 180 elaisin(@2) — ¢10/20\2.53)/sinQ0") = 4 4 (‘S2)— =2.53 rad Step II Mass of belt per metre length Refer to Fig. 13.14(b). Draw ab L be From A abe, tan20° be = ba tan 20° = 14tan 20° The width by at the base is given by, by= 22 =2 be = 22 -2(14 tan 20°) = 11.81 mm 1 Area of cross-section = pli +22)(14) = 236.67 mm? = (236.67 x 10) cm? The length of a one metre belt is 100 cm. Therefore, the mass of the belt (m) per metre length is given by, mass = density x volume of belt = density x (area of cross-section x length) 97) x (236.67 x 10°2)(100) gna/m .97)(10"3)(236.67 x 10-2100) kg/m. .23 kg/m Step IIL KW rating per belt y= _tda__ 7(300)(1440) ~ 601000) 60(1000) mv? = (0.23)(22.62)? = 117.68 From Eq. (13.7), Ram? Py my R-117.68 SOS 4a P; -117.68 ® The allowable tension in the belt is given as 850N 22.62 m/s eft! sin60/2) 7 P,=850N (b) From Eqs (a) and (b), P= 284.11. N kW per ber = FP” _ (850 = 284.11)(22.62) 1000 1000 =128 Step1V_ Number of belts 20 ‘Number of belts = De 1.56 or 2 belts Example 13.3 The following data is given for an open-type V-belt drive: diameter of driving pulley ~ 150 mm diameter of driven pulley = 300 mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Belt Drives 517 Belt Specification 7.2 m length of 152 mm width and 5 plies HI-SPEED belting, 13.9 PULLEYS FOR FLAT BELTS Table 13.4 Recommended diameters of cast iron The pulleys for flat belts consist of three parts, viz., rim, hub and arms or web. The rim carries the belt. The hub connects the pulley to the shaft. The arms or web join the hub with the rim, There are two types of pulleys that are used for flat, belts, viz., cast iron pulleys and mild steel pulleys”. The pulley diameters are calculated in belt drive design. They should comply with standard values. The recommended values of minimum pulley diameters are given in Table 13.3. The minimum pulley diameter depends upon the following two factors: (i) The number of plies in the belt (ii) The belt speed Preferred values of pulley diameters are given in Table 13.4. There is a relationship between the width of the belt and the width of the pulley, or to be more specific, width of the rim of the pulley. The difference between the width of the rim and the widih of the belt is given in Table 13.5. Preferred values for width of cast iron and mild steel pulleys are given in Table 13.6. Table 13.3. Minimum pulley diameters for given belt speeds and bet plies (mm) No. of plies ‘Maximum belt speed (m/s) i ie ae 3 90 100 «112140180 4 140 160 180 200-250 5 200 224 «250315355 6 250 315 355-400-450 1 355 400 450-500 S60. 8 450 500 560 630710 9 560 630710 800-900 10 630710 800-900-1000 and mild steel flat pulleys ‘Nominal diameter (mm) Tolerance on diameter (nm) 40 405 45, 50 +06 56, 63 +08 71, 80 +10 90, 100, 112 +12 125, 140 16 160, 180, 200 +20 224, 250 £25 280, 315, 355 432 400, 450, 500 44.0 560, 630, 710 $5.0 800, 900, 1000 +63 1120, 1250, 1400 +80 1600, 1800, £1 Table 13.5 Relationship between belt and pulley widths Belt width (mm) Pulley to be wider than the belt swith by (mm) Upto and including | 13 From 125 up to and including 250 25 From 250 up to and including 375 38 From 375 up to and including 500 50 Table 13.6 Recommended widths of cast iron anu mild steel flat pulleys Wii (mm) Tolerance (nm) 20, 25, 32, 40, $0, 63, 71 £10 80,90, 100, 112, 125, 140 +15 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280, 315 £20 400, 450, 500, 560, 630 £3.0 ‘There is a specific term, “crowning” of pulley in flat belt drive. The thickness of the rim is slightly ? 15 1691-1980: Specifications for cast iron and mild steel flat pulleys.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Table 13.12 Dimensions of standard cross-sections Pitch Belt Nomi- Nomi Recom- Permis- sec- width nal top nal mended sible tion Wy width Height Mini---Mininvum (mm) Wimm) T(mm) mum pitch | pitch diameter | diamerer of pulley | ofpulley (nm) aj (mm) Z 3a 6% 30 A es! 125 S96 B 4 W 200 125 £ 19 14 315 200 D2 19 500335 E32 2363 500 5000 _. 3000 & 2000 = S £ % 1000 5 3 & 500 3 £0 200 100) 1 2.345 10 20 30 50 100 200 Belt Drives 523, The selection of the cross-section depends upon two factors, namely, the power to be transmitted and speed of the faster shaft. Figure 13.24 shows the range of speed and power for various cross- sections of the belt. Depending upon the power and speed of the faster pulley, a point can be plotted on this diagram and the corresponding cross- section selected. In borderline cases, alternative design calculations are made to determine the best solution. 500 800 Design power (kW) Fig. 13.24 Selection of Cross-section of V belt The calculations of V-belts are based on preferred pitch diameters of pulleys and pitch lengths, The series of preferred values for pitch diameters and pitch lengths (in mm) are given in Tables 13.13 and 13.14 respectively. The number of belts required for a given appli- cation is calculated by the following relationship: Number of belts (transmitted power in kW) x (F,) ~ (KW rating of single V-belt) x (F.) x (Fy) PXE, “BXEXhy (13.18) where, P = drive power to be transmitted (kW) F,=correction factor for industrial service (Table 13.15) P, = power rating of single V-belt (from Table 13.16 to Table 13.20) &, rection factor for belt length (Table 13.21) F,=correction factor for are of contact (Table 13.22) An extensive data regarding the correction factors, kW ratings of belts and other details is given in the standard as well as in manufacturer’s catalogues. However, the discussion in this article is restricted to the selection procedure of general purpose belts.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.528 Design of Machine Elements ©o so -is0. Gro 70 | 0 00 org BF 0 a0 wo SO 9FO leo 0 00 859 ca ooze 90 60 0 wre veo 0 00 9 er oz 0 90 Gro cro sco 10 000 19 Ire oon 0 +0 Leo wo 00 000 or sor iso 10 ro 0 000 06s t5e ost 0 sro cro #0 80 oes ove 041 Iso. sro 6e0 co £10 ars tr sve ost aro cro LED 1zo 910 tes wwe ore 0st tro 60 SED oo sro 86 see WE 01 wo Leo eo 810 ey € SVE seo FO Fo a0 ore id seo ico cco 9 utr az zo avo so wwe lez a5 @o sco zz see ose wr Let 0 00 Ore HE we 9 cour vo 090 ere 067 ort Pet ro sto x00 ovo HT + $8t el wt vro ro Loo 000 vez ote oot BFL iro 010. ono 000 961 18 sel ert oo 800 Loo 100 oo 1 at x01 60 970 900 soo £00 000 801 O01 10 670 oo eo zoo 100 ovo 60 $60 sro seo. 160 180 1L0 wo 000 aL BOL S55 S60 PPT (86 v0 ro 9c0 oo 000 | os oss 6s we OE COL Ww oo sz0 #70 reo 0 | ser sve see we OFZ Fee wo oro 810 ovo ovo | sre Lez ZI 6L'I a AY a ay A ay [ae a a at AY po Got IST FEL FEL SE UL 8OT tet taste eet tt OE HLT HET NST E OTT LETT O160T SVT HLT 0c Ost StL! Ot Stee Se 1 pands sof 1.39 42 fo naumip yond kay sys ms sano poods Faqind sojjous uo y20;u00 fo-240 og] wpm apy mu £1 SHPG-A HOHDS-G 40) (4d) Mii sBunvs womeg LVL AEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.534_Design of Machine Elements Table 13.21 Correction factors for belt pitch length (F,) Table 13.22 Correction factor for arc of contact (E,) Correction Belt pitch length (mm) Factor Belt cross section Z A B c Dd E 0.80 630 0.81 930 | 0.82 700 1560 2740 0.83 1000 0.84 790 1760 0.85 1100 0.86 | 40s 890 3130 0.87 1210 1950 3330 0.88 990 0.89 090 | 475 1100 1370 2190 3730 4660 0.91 2340 092 | 530 1560 2490 4080 5040 0.93 1250 0.94 2720 4620. $420 0.95 625 1760 2800 0.96 1430 3080 6100 097 1950 $400 0.98 700 1550 3310 0.99 1640 2180 3520 6850 1.00 780 1750 2300 6100 1.02 1940 2500 4060 7650 | 1.03 6840 1.94 | 920 2080 2700 1.05 2200 2850 4600 7620 9150 1.06 2300 1.07 1080 8410 9950. 1.08 2480 3200. 5380 1.09 2570 9140. 10710 L10 27003600 La 6100 1.12 2910 10700. 12230 113 3080 4060 114 3290 6860 13750 Las 4430 116 3540 4820. 7600 12200 117 5000 13700 15280 118 5370 119 6070 15200 16800 1.20 9100 1.21 10700. Are of contadion— Corréction D-a os smaller pulley Factor Fy ¢ Gin degrees) 0.00 180 1.00 0.05 177 0.99 0.10 174 0.99 01s 171 0.98 0.20 169 0.97 0.25 166 0.97 0.30 163 0.96 035 160 0.95 0.40 157 0.94 0.45 154 0.93 0.50 151 0.93 13.12. SELECTION OF V-BELTS. In practice, the designer has to select a V-belt from the catalogue of the manufacturer. The following information is required for the selection: (i) Type of driving unit (ii) Type of driven machine (iii) Operational hours per day (iv) Power to be transmitted (v) Input and output speeds (vi) Approximate centre distance upon the availability of space The basic procedure for the selection of V-belts consists of the following steps: (i) Determine the correction factor according to service (F,) from Table 13.15. It depends upon the type of driving unit, the type of driven machine and the operational hours per day. (ii) Calculate the design power by the following relationship: depending Design power = F, (transmitted power)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Belt Drives 539 Example 13.10 11 is required to select a V-belt ‘drive from 5 RW normal torque motor, which runs at 1440 rpm to a light duty compressor running at 970 rpm. The compressor runs for 24 hours per day. Space is available for a centre distance of about 500 mm. Assume that the pitch diameter of the driving pulley ix 150 mm. Solution Given kW=5 = 14401pm_ n= 970 pm C=500mm service = 24 hours per day d~-150mm StepI Correction factor according to service (F,) In this application, a normal torque motor is driving a compressor of 5-kW capacity. From Table 13.15, the correction factor according to service (F,) is 12, Step Design power Design power = F, (transmitted power) 2(5)= 6 kW Step IIL Type of cross-section for belt Plot a point with co-ordinates of 6 kW and 1440 apm speed in Fig. 13.24. It is observed that the point is located in the region of the B-section belt. Therefore, for this application the cross-section of the V-belt is B. StepIV Pitch diameter of smaller and bigger pulleys The pitch diameter for the smaller pulley is given as 150 mm, 1440 fio = —— = 1.485 Speed ratio= 5-5 d=150mm and D=1.485(150)= 222.68 mm It is observed from Table 13.13 that standard diameter for bigger pulley is 224 mm. D=224mm Step V_ Pitch length of belt From Eq. (13.3), n(D+d) Ora 4c (224 +150) , (224 — 150)? 2 4(500) b=2C+ = 2(500)+ = 1590.22 mm Step VI Preferred pitch length From Table 13.14, the preferred pitch length for B-section belt is 1560 or 1690 mm. It is assumed that the pitch length of the belt is 1560 mm. Step VII Correct centre distance Substituting this value of pitch length in Eq. (13.3), n(D+d)_(D-dy 2 4c (224 +150) | (224~ 150)? 2 4c Simplifying the above expression, C2 486.26C + 684.5=0 486.26 + 486.267 ~ 4(684. C= = 484.85 mm 2 The correct centre distance is 484.85 mm. Step VEIL Correction factor for belt pitch length (F.) From Table 13.21 (B-section and 1560 mm pitch length), L=2C+ 1560 = 2C + F,=092 Step IX Correction factor for arc of contact (F,) From Eq. (13.1), = s0-2sir'( 24) 2c 224-150 2x 484.85 =180-2sin“( )=17125° ori From Table 13.22, Fy= 0.98 StepX Power rating of single V-beit From Table 13.17, (1440 mpm, 150 mm pulley, B-section) (speed ratio = 1.485) P, = 3.83 +0.36=4.19 kW Step XI Numter of belis From Eq. (13.18), PxE, FLXELX Fy ___5(1.20) ~ 4.19(0.92)(0.98) 1.59 or 2 belts Number of belts ~aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chain Drives. « A Chapter 14 14.1 CHAIN DRIVES direction by means of the chain from a single ; driving sprocket A chain drive consists of an endless chain wrapped around two sprockets as shown in Driven wheels 2S Fig. 14.1. 4 chain can be defined as a series of 2 links connected by pin joints. The sprocket is 2 toothed wheel with a special profile for the teeth. The chain drive is intermediate between belt and gear drives. It has some features of belt Driving wheel : + Fig. 14.2 Driving Driven a pan ag wl sprocket sprockst (iii) Chain drives have small overall dimensions | ; than belt drives, resulting in compact unit. Fig 141 Clin Drives (iv) A chain does not slip and to that extent, z thain drive is a positive drive. drives and some of gear drives. The advantages of . asta ha chain drives compared with belt and gear drives are GG) "The eftieisary, oF chaid cirives/is Righs’Rok as follows: properly lubricated chain, the efficiency of (Chain drives can be used for long as well as chain’ drive ix font 9696 1 98%, short centre distmces, They are particularly (©!) Chain does not require intial tension. suitable for medium centre distance, where La the forces acting on shafts are gear drives will require additional idler * Guanes 7 ‘i gears, Thus, chain drives can be used over a (ii) Chains are easy to replace. (viii) Atmospheric conditions and temperatures do wide range of centre distances As shown in Fig. 14.2, a number of shafts can be driven in the same or opposite not affect the performance of chain drives. They do not present any fire hazard,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.552 _ Design of Machine Elements high speed applications, the recommended surface hardness is 300 to 500 BH. The teeth are hardened cither by carburising in case of low carbon stee! or by quenching and tempering in case of high carbon steel. Lh Y SSS NB] Sw © Fig.14.9 Construction of Sprocket Wheels (@) (a) (b) ‘The difference between the gear and the sprocket is as follows: (i) A gear meshes with another gear. A sprocket meshes with an ‘intermediate’ link, namely chain, which in tum meshes with another sprocket. The face width of gear is usually more with respect to its diameter, The sprockets are comparatively thin so as to fit between inner link plates of the chain. The teeth of gears have involute profile, while circular ares are used for the profile of sprocket teeth. There are standard profiles for the teeth of a di) (iii) Table 146 Proportions of the sprocket wheel (Figs 14.10.and 14.11) sprocket wheel, as illustrated in Figs 14.10 and 14.11. The principal dimensions of the tooth profile are given in Table 14.6, be =| bn bn) bn ee FT IZ Dr Ds) | i | [ee Fig. 14.11 Rim Profile of Sprocket _ imension _ Notation 1. Chain giteh P (able 14.1) ech ek p 2. Pitch circle diameter D 5) 2 | 3. Roller diameter a (Table 14.1) 4, Width between inner plates 4, (Table 14.1) 5, Transverse pitch Pi (Table 14.1) 6. Top diameter D, (Dynwx = D+ 1.25p ~ a doin = D+? ( 7. Root diameter D, D-2r, (Contd)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.562 Design of Machine Elements and 40p = 40(12.7) = 508 mm Refer to Fig.14.15(a). a, 6 and c are the centres of circles 4, B and C respectively. Construct a line ad perpendicular to the line be. sinp= 24-202 95 2. p~30° ab 40p Referring to Fig. 14.15(a), Dy-D, _[137.64-69.12 sino, = 28 —Pa_ | 137.68— 09.12 2a 2(508) or @=3.87° ¥ De-Dz 206.3 ~ 137.64 sin ory as 2a 2(508) or a =3.87° The forves acting on the shaft of the sprocket B are shown in Fig.14.15(b). Considering equilibrium of vertical and horizontal forces, III sin (30 + ay) + $55.5 cos a 111 sin (30 + 3.87) + 555.5 cos (3.87) = 1173.41 N 111 cos (30 + of) - 555.5 sin a 111 cos (30 + 3.87) ~ $55.5 sin (3.87) = 884.98 N The resultant reaction Ris given by R 14.9 SILENT CHAIN The silent or inverted-tooth chain as shown in Fig. 14.16 consists of a series of links formed from laminated steel plates. Each plate has two teeth with a space between them to accommodate the mating tooth of the sprocket. The sprocket teeth have a trapezoidal profile. Depending upon the type of joint between links, the silent chains are divided into two groups—Reynold chain and Morse chain. In the Reynold chain, the links are connected by pins resulting in sliding friction. Rocker joints are used in Morse chain. Fig 14.16 Silent chain Compared with roller chains, the silent chains can be used for high speed applications. They operate more smoothly and almost noiselessly. Their reliability is more due to laminated construction, They are, however, more heavier, more difficult to manufacture and more expensive than roller chains. Their applications are limited due to these reasons. Short-Answer Questions 14.1 What are the advantages of chain drives? 14.2 What are the disadvantages of chain drives? 14.3 What are the applications of chain drives? 14.4 What are the advantages of link chains? 14,5 What are the disadvantages of link chains? 14.6 What are the applications of link chains? 14.7 What are the five parts of roller chain? 14.8. How will you designate roller chain’ 14.9 What are simple and duplex roller chai 14.10 What is the offset link of roller chain? 14.11 What is the polygonal action in rolle: chain? How will you reduce it? 14.12 In chain drives, the sprocket has odd number of tecth and the chain has even number of links. Why? 14.13. What are the types of failure in roller chains? 14.14 What are the advantages of silent chains? 14.15 What are the disadvantages of silent chains? 14.16 What are the applications of silent chains?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.366 Design of Machine Elements the radius of the ball is slightly less than the radii of curvature of the grooves in the races. Kinematically, this gives a point contact between the balls and the races. Therefore, the balls and the races may roll freely without any sliding, Deep groove ball bearing has the following advantages: (a) Due to relatively large size of the balls, deep groove ball bearing has high load carrying capacity. {b) Deep groove ball bearing takes loads in the radial as well as axial direction. (c) Due to point contact between the balls and races, frictional loss and the resultant temperature rise is less in this bearing. The maximum permissible speed of the shaft depends upon the temperature rise of the bearing. Therefore, deep groove ball bearing gives excellent performance, especially in high speed applications. (4) Deep groove ball bearing generates less noise due to point contact. (e) Deep groove ball bearings are available with bore diameters from a few millimetres to 400 millimetres. ‘The disadvantages of deep groove ball bearings are as follows: (a) Deep groove ball bearing is not self- aligning. Accurate alignment between axes of the shaft and the housing bore is required. (b) Deep groove ball bearing has poor rigidity compared with roller bearing. This is due to the point contact compared with the ine contact in case of roller bearing, It is unsuitable for machine tool spindles where rigidity is important consideration, (ii) Cylindrical Roller Bearing When maximum load carrying capacity is required ina given space, the point contact in ball bearing is replaced by the line contact of roller bearing. A cylindrical roller bearing consists of relatively short rollers that are positioned and guided by the cage. Cylindrical roller bearing offers the following advantages: (a) Due to line contact between rollers and races, the radial load carrying capacity of the cylindrical roller bearing is very high. (b) Cylindrical roller bearing is more rigid than ball bearing. (©) The coefficientof frictions low and frictional Joss is less in high-speed applications, The disadvantages of cylindrical roller bearing are as follows: (a) In general, cylindrical roller bearing cannot take thrust load. (b) Cylindrical roller bearingiis not self-aligning It cannot tolerate misalignment. It needs precise alignment between axes of the shaft and the bore of the housing. (©) Cylindrical roller bearing generates more noise. (ii) Angular Contact Bearing In angular contact bearing, the grooves in inner and outer races are so shaped that the line of reaction at the comact between balls and races makes an angle with the axis of the bearing. This reaction has two components— radial and axial. Therefore, angular contact bearing can take radial and thrust loads. Angular contact bearings are often used in pairs, either side by side or at the opposite ends of the shaft, in order to take the thrust load in both directions. These bearings are assembled with a specific magnitude of pre- load, Angular contact bearings offer the following advantages: (a) Angular contact bearing can take both radial and thrust loads. (b) In angular contact bearing, one side of the groove in the outer race is cut away to pemnit the insertion of larger number of balls than that of deep groove ball bearing. This permits the bearing to carry relatively large axial and radial loads. Therefore, the load carrying capacity of angular contact bearing is more than that of deep groove ball bearing. The disadvantages of angular contact bearings are as follows: (a) Two bearings are required to take thnust load in both directions. (b) The angular contact bearing must be mounted without axial play. (©) The angular contact bearing requires initial, pre-loadingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.572 _Design of Machine Elements of Vis 1 when the inner race rotates while the outer race is held stationary in the housing, The value of V is 1.2 when the outer race rotates with respect to the load, while the inner race remains stationary. In most of the applications, the inner race rotates and the outer race is fixed in the housing. Assuming V as unity, the general equation for equivalent dynamic load is given by, P=XF,+YF, - (153) In this chapter, we will use the above equation for calculating equivalent dynamic load. The effect of F should be considered in special cases, where the outer race rotates and the inner race is stationary. When the bearing is subjected to pure radial load F,, P=F, (15.4) When the bearing is subjected to pure thrust load F,, P=F, (15.5) 15.9 LOAD-LIFE RELATIONSHIP The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the equivalent dynamic load, and the bearing life is given by, (18.6) » bo = (§) rated bearing life (in million revolutions) iynamic load capacity (N), and p=3 (for ball bearings) 0/3 (for roller bearings) Rearranging Eq. (15.6), C=PC Ly)? For all types of ball bearings, C=P( Ly)" For all types of roller bearings, CHP (Ly) (15.8) The relationship between life in million revolutions and life in working hours is given by (15.7) 60n 107 on (15.9) 10 where, 1 jon = rated bearing life (hours) peed of rotation (rpm) Example 15.1 In a particular application, the radial load acting on a ball bearing is 5 kN and the expected life for 90% of the bearings is 8000 h. Calculate the dynamic load carrying capacity of the bearing, when the shaft rotates at 1450 rpm. Solution Given F,=5KN Lio, = 8000h Step I Bearing life (Ly) Iyq = Sotleon . $0(14508000) ° 10° 10° = 696 million rev. n= 1450 1pm. Step IT Dynamic toad capacity Since the bearing is subjected to purely radial load, P=F,=5000N From Eq. (15.7), C= P(Ljo)'3 = (5000)(696)" = 44 310.48 N Example 15.2 4 taper roller bearing has a dynamic load capacity of 26 KN. The desired life for 90% of the bearings is 8000 h and the speed is 300 rpm. Calculate the equivalent radial load that the bearing can carry. Solution Given C=26KN Ly9,=8000h n= 300 1pm Step I Bearing life (Ly) OnLy _ 60(300)(8000) fo = To 10 = 144 million rev. Step I Equivatent radial load From Eq. (15.8), C=P(Lyo)°3 C___ 26000 Go 044 Since the bearing is subjected to purely radial load, = 5854.16N F, =5854.16N 15.10 SELECTION OF BEARING LIFE While selecting the proper size of bearing, it is necessary to specify the expected life of the bearing for the given application. The information regarding the life expectancy is generally vague and valuesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Rolling Contact Bearings 585 Table 15.6 (Contd) d D B Cc Designation e Y 90 160 325 183.000 30218 043 14 160 42.5 238000 32218 0.43 14 190 465 308000 30318 035 7 190 46. 251000 3318 0.83 0.72 190 675 429.000 32318 035 17 100 145 24 119000 T4CB100 0.48 1.25 150 32 161000 32020.X 0.46 13 150 39 212000 33020 0.28 21 165 47 292000 T2EE100 O31 19 180 37 233000 30220 0.43 14 180 ” 297000 32220 0.43 la 180 63 402000 33220 0.40 1s 215 SLS 380000 30320 0.35 7 215 56.5 352000 31320. 0.83 0.72 215 as 539000 32320 0.35 7 150 225 48 347000 32030.X 0.46 13 270 49 402000 30230 043 14 270 7 682000 32230 043 14 320 nR 765000 30330 035 7 320 2 837000 31330. 0.83 o72 200 280 51 446000 32940 0.40 is 310 7 704000 32040. 0.43 14 360 64 737000 30240 043 14 360 104 1140000 32240 0.40 1s 300 420 76. 990.000 32960, 0.40 1s. Example 15.8 4 transmission shaft, ransmitting Solution 8 KW of power at 400 rpm from a bevel gear G; 10 a helical gear G, and mounted on two taper roller bearings B, and B, is shown in Fig. 15.12(a). The gear tooth forces on the helical gear act at a pitch circle radius of 55 mm, while those on the bevel gear can be assumed to act at the large end of the tooth ai a radius of 50 mm. The diameter of the journal at the bearings B, and B, is 40 mm, The load factor is 1.2 and the expected life for 90% of bearings is 10 000 h. Bearings B, and By are identical. The thrust force due to bevel and helical gears is taken by the bearing B., Select suitable taper roller bearings Jor this application. ven kW=8 n=400pm d= 40mm load factor = 1.2 Lig, = 10000 h Step 1 Radial and axial forces on benrings The forces acting on the shaft in the vertical and horizontal planes are shown in Fig. 15.12(b). Considering forces in the vertical plane and taking moments about the bearing B,, 3473 (150) + 439 (100) — 1319(50) — Ry (300) = 0 e Ryg= 1663N Considering equilibrium of vertical forces, 3473 — Ry, — 1663-439 =0 ti Ry = BIN Considering forces in the horizontal plane and taking moments about the bearing 8),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.604 Design of Machine Elements and stick to the surface in a particular fashion. The clusters of polar molecules, cohering to one another and adhering to the surface, form a compact film which prevents metal to metal contact as is seen in the region B. This results in partial lubrication. There is also a zone (region 4) where metal to metal contact takes place, junctions are formed at high spots and shearing takes place due to relative motion. The performance of bearing under boundary lubrication depends upon two factors, namely, the chemical composition of the lubricating oil, such as polar molecules (at the region B), and surface roughness (at region 4). The hydrodynamic bearing also operates under the boundary lubrication when the speed is very low or when the load is excessive. There is a particular mode of lubrication known as elastohydrodynamic lubrication. When the fluid film pressure is high and the surfaces to be separated are not sufficiently rigid, there is elastic deformation of the contacting surfaces. This elastic deflection is useful in the formation of the fluid film in certain cases. Since the hydrodynamic film is developed due to elastic deflection of the parts, this mode of lubrication is called elastohydrodynamic lubrication. This type of lubrication occurs in gears, cams and rolling contact bearings. 16.2 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the internal frictional resistance offered by a fluid to change its shape or relative motion of its paris. An oil film placed between two parallel plates is shown in Fig. 16.7. The lower plate is stationary while the upper plate is moved with a velocity U by means of a force P. Area—-A LLL Stationary plate Fig. 16.7 Newton's Law of Viscosity ‘The molecules of oil are visualised as small balls, which roll in layers between two plates. The oil will stick to both the surfaces, and therefore the layer of molecules in contact with the stationary plate has zero velocity. Similarly, the layer of molecules in contact with the upper plate will move with a velocity U. The intermediate layers will move with velocities which are proportional to their distance from the stationary plate. Therefore, u_U,_U; hh hy This type of orderly movement is called streamline, laminar or viscous flow. The tangential force per unit area, i.e.,(P/A), is shear stress, while the ratio (U/h) is the rate of shear. According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear at any point in the fluid. Therefore, (6) ron When the velocity distribution is non-linear with respect to, the term (L/h) in the above equation is replaced by (dU/dt) and the equation is rewritten as au i sal dh } The constant of proportionality jz in the above equations is called the absolute viscosity. The unit of absolute viscosity is given by or (16.1) (16.2) = N-s/imm? or MPa-s The popular unit of viscosity is the Poise, which gives absolute viscosity in dyne-s/cm*. Poise is a large unit and viscosities of most of the lubricating oils are given in terms of centi-Poise (cP), which is one-hundredth of a Poise. Therefore, following two separate notations are used for viscosity: = viscosity in units of (N-s/mm?) or (MPa-s) cosity in units of (cP)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sliding-Contect Bearings 619 or o=201990°%)(— ]eossauot u H=0.145(10°) N-s/mm? = 0.145 cP 16. REYNOLD’S EQUATION The theory of hydrodynamic lubrication is based on a differential equation derived by Osborne Reynold. This equation is based on the following assumptions: @ The lubricant obeys Newton’s viscosity. ii) The lubricant is incompressible. (iii) The inertia forces in the oil filmare negligible. (iv) The viscosity of the lubricant is constant. (¥) The effect of curvature of the film with respect to film thickness is neglected. It is assumed that the film is so thin that the pressure is constant across the film thickness. (vi) The shaft and the bearing are rigid. (vii) There isa continuous supply of lubricant. An clement having dimensions ds, dy and d: is considered in this analysis, and is shown in Figs 16.20 and 16.21. X is the axis in the direction of motion, ¥ is the axis in the radial plane and Z is the axis parallel to the axis of the journal. u, v and w are velocities in X, ¥, Z directions respectively. 1, and 7, are shear stresses along X and Z directions, while p is the fluid film pressure. law of Fig.16.20 Fluid Element in X-Y Plane [— Oil groove Bearing—>f 7 f d Lae WILE eI Fluid element Fig. 20.21 Fluid Element in Y-Z Plane The forces acting on the element in X direction are shown in Fig. 16.22. Considering equilibrium of forces, (Za aey -(Zaloe) © | (ed) Fig. 16.22 Equilibrium of Forces in X Direction The product (dr dy dz) indicates the volume of the clement. Since the element has positive volume, (de dy de) #0 Therefore, Eq. (a) is written as, BQ» According to Newton's law of viscosity [Eq. (16.2), =H © From (b) and (©), Integrating twice,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Machine Elements (iii) Start-up Load The unit bearing pressure for starting conditions should not exceed 2 Nimm?. The start-up load is the static load when the shaft is stationary. It mainly consists of the dead weight of the shaft and its attachments. The start- up load can be used to determine the minimum length of the bearing on the basis of starting conditions, (i) Radial Clearance The radial clearance should be small to provide the necessary velocity gradient. However, this requires costly finishing operations, rigid mountings of the bearing assembly and clean lubricating oil without any foreign particles. This increases the initial and maintenance costs. The practical value of radial clearance is 0.001 mm per mm of the journal radius. Or, c=(0.001)r The practical values of radial clearances for commonly used bearing materials are given in Table 16.3. Table 16.3 Radial clearance Material Babbins Radial clearance (0.001) r to (0.00167) r ad (0.001) r to (0.01) r (0.002) r to (0.0025) r Copp’ Aluminium-alloy (v) Minimum Oil Film Thickness The surface finish of the journal and the bearing is governed by the value of the minimum oil film thickness selected by the designer and vice versa. There is a lower limit for the minimum oil film thickness, below which metal to metal contact occurs and the hydrodynamic film breaks. This lower limit is given by, hy = (0.0002)r (i) Maximum Oil Film Temperature The lubricating oil tends to oxidise when the operating temperature exceeds 120%. Also, the surface of babbitt bearing tends to soften at 125°C (for bearing pressure of 7 N/mm?) and at 190°C (for bearing pressure of 1.4 N/mm?), Therefore, the operating temperature should be kept within these limits. In general, the limiting temperature is 90°C for bearings made of bebbits. Bearings can be designed for two different conditions—bearings for maximum load carrying capacity and bearings for minimum. frictional fh, loss. The optimum values of (%) for full journal bearing for these conditions are as follows: (5) ratio (4) or (*) for | ‘maximum load minimum fiction | = 0.66 0.60 1 033 030 os 0.43 0.12 025 027 0.03 The designer can use the above values for design of bearings under optimum conditions. Example 16.9 The following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing: radial load = 3.2 kN Journal speed = 1490 rpm Journal diameter = 50 mm bearing length = 50mm radial clearance = 0.05 mm viscosity of lubricant = 25 cP Assuming that the total heat generated in the bearing is carried by the total oil fiow in the bearing, calculate (i) coefficient of friction; (ii) power lost in friction; (iii) minimum oil film thickness; (iv) flow requirement in litres/min; and (y) temperature rise. Solution Given .2KN 2 =1490 rpm 1=50mm c¢=0.05mm z= 25cP Step Performance parameters W _ 32,0100 P= 1a (60)(50) s-(2) (ais) (Sa) = 0.121 = 1,28 N/mm?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sliding-Contact Bearings 645 and the flow requirement is given by, Phe o= Eh 6u log, (2) 165 A 360° hydrodynamic bearing operates under the following conditions: radial load = 50 kN joumal diameter = 150 mm bearing length = 150 mm radial clearance = 0.15 mm minimum film thickness = 0.03 mm viscosity of lubricant = 8 cP What is the minimum speed of operation for the joumal to work under hydrodynamic conditions? [2973 rpm} 16.6 The following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing: joumal diameter = 100 mm bearing length = 100 mm radial load = 50 KN joumal speed = 1440 rpm radial clearance = 0.12 mm viscosity of lubricant = 16 cP Calculate (i minimum film thickness; (i) coefficient of friction; and ii) power lost in friction. [(@ 0.0087 mum (ii) 2.016 x 10° (iii) 0.76 kW) 16.7 The following data is given for a full hydrodynamic bearing: radial load = 25 KN joumal speed = 900 rpm unit bearing pressure = 2.5 MPa (Ud) ratio = 1 viscosity of lubricant = 20 cP class of fit = H7e7 Caleulate i) dimensions of the bearing , ‘minimum film thickness, and requirement of oil flow. [@) 100 x 100 mm (ii) 0.0191 mm (iii) 1.057 litre/min| 168 The following data is given for a 360° journal diameter bearing length journal speed = 1440 rpm radial load = 8 kN viscosity of lubricant = 12 cP The bearing is machined on the lathe from bronze casting, while the steel journal is hardened and ground. The surface roughness (cla) values for turning and grinding are 0.8 and 0.4 microns respectively. For thick film hydrodynamic lubrication, the minimum film thickness should be five times the sum of surface roughness values for the journal and bearing. Calculate (®) the permissible minimum film thickness; (ii) the actual film thickness under operating conditions; and (iii) power lost in friction. [(@ 6 microns (ii) 6.07 microns (iii) 0.069 kW)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Spur Gears 649 For high speed reduction, two-stage or three-stage constructions are used. The normal velocity ratio for a pair of bovel gears is 1 : 1, which can be increased to 3: 1 under certain circumstances. For high speed reduction, worm gears offer the best choice. The velocity ratio in their case is 60 : 1, which can be increased to 100: 1. They are widely used in material handling equipment duc to this advantage. Spur gears generate noise in high speed applications, due to sudden contact over the entire face width between two meshing teeth. In helical gears, the contact between the two meshing texth begins with a point and gradually extends along the tooth, resulting in quiet operations. Helical gears are, therefore, preferred for high speed power transmission, Fromcostconsiderations, spurgearsare the cheapest. They are not only easy to manufacture but there exist a number of methods to manufacture them, The manufacturing of helical, bevel and worm gears is a specialized and costly operation. 17.5 LAW OF GEARING The fundamental law of gearing states ‘The common normal to the tooth profile at the point of contact should always pass through a fixed point, called the pitch point, in order to obtain a constant velocity ratio’. Referring to Fig. 17.6, O, end O; Fig. 17.6 Law of Gearing are centres of the two gears rotating with angular velocities @, and w, respectively. C is the point of contact between the teeth of the two gears and NN is the common normal at the point of contact. GA is the velocity of the point C, when it is considered on the gear 1, while GB is the velocity of the point C, when it is considered on the gear 2. Also, CAL O,C and CR1LO,C _The projections of the two vectors CA and CB, ie., GB, along the common normal NN must be equal, otherwise the teeth will not remain in contact and there will be a slip. C= 0 « O,C CB= ox 0,C AC, CA ‘ @, OC *CB ® Since AO,CG and ACAD are similar, hence ) Similarly, AO,FC and ACDB are similar, and thus OG OF "CB CD 2) From (b) and (©), CA_ OC OF "ae" ae 0c * From (a) and (d), OF @, OG © Similarly, AO,FP and AQ,GP are similar, therefore, GE OP ao" OP o From (¢) and (f), @ _ OP o, OP () Also, O,P + O,P = 0,0; = constant () Therefore, for 2 constant velocity ratio («@,/0,), P should be a fixed point. This point P is called the pitch point.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Spur Gears 663 (9) Components of tooth force between gears E and F (i) Components of tooth force between gears B and C. Solution Given KW=5 n=250pm a= 20° 2,=65 zp=20 z=80 2¢=35 m=Smm Step Free-body diagrant of forces ‘The centre distance between two pins, which are fixed to the drum, is denoted by a. dy+dy 3254175 a 2 The output torque on the mixing drum is given by, = 250mm 60x10%(kW) _ 60 10°(5) 2nn 2(250) = 190 985.93 N-mm (@) Refer to Fig. 17.27 for the flow of power. B is the input pinion. Power is supplied from the pinion Bto the gear C and then from the gear E to the gear F. Therefore, between gears E and F, the gear £ is the driving gear and the gear F is the driven gear. The construction of a free-body diagram of forces is illustrated in Fig, 17.28. Let us denote F; and F’, as, upper and lower planetary gears F. Refer to Fig. 17.28(a): (i) Itis assumed that the gear £ is rotating in the clockwise direction. Therefore, gears F and F, will rotate in anti-clockwise direction. 4 isa fixed internal gear. (i) During working operation, the point 1 on the gear E and the point 2 on the gear F, will be in contact with cach other. Similarly, points 3 and 4, points 5 and 6, and points 7 and 8 will be in contact with each other. Refer to Fig. 17.28(b): (i) Gear F; is the driven gear as compared to the gear £. It is made to rotate in the anti- clockwise direction. Therefore, at the point 2, the tangential component (P;)gr will act ‘towards the right. For this component, there M, will be an equal and opposite reaction on the gear E at the point 1, Therefore, the tangential component (P,),,Will act towards left at the point 1 on gear E. ZZ “ZA « 8 8 Pick e (Pere? e- "ey ines , i ‘ her " 1 Jews (Pler | \ : : 6) CH i 4 Nemes i 44 4h ip) i 6 a (Phere iL V2(Pier "7 F< Pa 3 (a) Ahir g. (o) Fig. 17.28 Free Body Diagram of Forces (ii) Gear F, is also a driven gear as compared to the gear £. It is made to rotate in anti- clockwise direction. Therefore, at the point 4, the tangential component (P,)ep will act towards the left. For this component, there will be equal and opposite reaction on the gear £ at the point 3. Therefore, the tangential component (P,)-,- will act towards the right at the point 3 on the gear E. (iii) Gear A is fixed: in the housing and will resist the motion of planetary gears F; and F,, Therefore, in relative terms, gears F, and F, are driving gears with respect to the gear A. For the driving gear, the tangential component acts in opposite direction of the motion. Therefore, at the point 5 on the gear F,, (P) qq Will acttowards the right. Similarly,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Spur Gears 669 (£) Length of hub = length of key or width of gear (maximum value) (g) Width of web = 5, = (0.28) to (0.35) (h) Inner diameter of rim (d,—24,) (i) Outer diameter of rim = dedendum circle diameter = d, (i) Thickness of rim = ¢, = 2m to 3m (k) Diameter of holes in web = dy = (d,—4,)/4 (I) Pitch circle diameter ofholes=d,=(d,+d,)/2 (m) Width of rim = face width Whatever the computed dimensions, care should be taken to make the gear a ‘sound’ forging and modify the dimensions, if required. The guidelines for designing a forging are explained in Section 3.3 ‘on Design considerations of Forgings. These rules related to uniform thickness, minimum section thickness, fillet and comer radii and provision of draft must be applied to final drawing of gear blank. Gil) Gears with Large Diameter There are two varieties of large size gears—solid cast gears and rimmed gears. When the addendum circle diameter is up to 900 mm, a solid cast iron gear with one web is recommended. When the addendum circle diameter is more than 1000 mm, two webs are provided. A solid cast gear with two webs is shown in Fig. 17.35. Solid cast iron gears are extensively used due to low cost. Though cast iron gears are cheaper than steel ‘gears, their torque transmitting capacity is low. The dimensions of cast iron gears are determined by thumb rules and principles of casting design ae he a ‘The main dimensions of cast iron gear, illustrated in Fig. 17.35 are as follows: Fig. 17.35 Cast Iron Web Type Gear (a) Pitch circle diameter = d’ = mz () Addendum circle diameter = d,= m(z + 2) (c) Dedendum circle diameter = d, = m(z -2.5) (4) Shaft diameter =d, (©) Outer diameter of hub =d, = 2.04, (1) Length of hub = (1.25 d,) to (2.0 d,) length of key (g) Width of web = c = 0.5 to 0.6 of circular pitch (h) Inner diameter of rim = d, = (d, ~ 21,) (i) Outer diameter of rim = dedendum circle diameter = d, (Thickness of rim = 1, = 0.56 x circular pitch (k) Width of rim= face width = Whatever the computed values of dimensions, care should be taken to make the gear a ‘sound” casting and modify the dimensions, if required. The guidelines for designing a casting are expiained in Section 3.2 on Design considerations of Casting. ‘These rules related to uniform thickness, minimum section thickness, fillet and comer radii and avoiding concentration of metal at any junction must be applied to the final drawing of gear blank. ‘A rimmed gear consists of a steel rim fitted on the central casting with hub, arms or webs. The rim is forged from alloy steel. There are two varieties of rimmed gears, which are illustrated in Figs 17.36 (a) and (b). In the first case, the rim is press fitted on the casting and setscrews are used to prevent displacement of the rim with respect to casting, In the second type of construction, the rim is bolted to the central casting. Rimmed gears save costly high strength material, but they are more expensive to manufacture, The thickness of the rim from the inside diameter to the root circle diameter of tooth is usually taken as (7m) to (8m). ‘Steel rim Cast iron hub (a) ©) Fig. 17.36 Rimmed Gearsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Spur Gears_673 At the section XX, M,=P,Xh Is (a )ee 12 t yma The bending stresses are given by, t Pxh)| — ayy @(5) Rearranging the terms, . patos (§) Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the right-hand side by m, 2 R= mos | m Defining a factor ¥, ; ref 6hm the equation is rewritten as, P,=mbo,¥ (a) In the above equation, Y is called the Lewis form factor. Equation (a) gives the relationship between ‘the tangential foree (P) and the corresponding stress 6, When the tangential force is increased, the stress also increases. When the stress reaches the permissible magnitude of bending stresses, the corresponding force (P,) is called the beam strength. Therefore, the beam strength (Sy) is the maximum value of the tangential force that the tooth can transmit without bending failure. Replacing (P,) by (S,), Eq. (a) is modified in the following way: Sy=mbo,Y (17.16) O,= where, 5, = beam strength of gear tooth (N) 04 ~ permissible bending stress (Nimm”) Equation 17.16 is known as the Lewis Equation The values of the Lewis form factor Y for 20° full- depth involute system, are given in Table 17.3. In order to avoid the breakage of gear tooth due to bending, the beam strength should be more than the effective force between the meshing teeth. Therefore, S,2 Pee The method of calculating of Pz is discussed in Section 17.19. In the design of gears, it is required to decide the weaker between the pinion and gear. Revriting the Lewis equation, Sy=mbo,Y It is observed that m and b are same for pinion as well as for gear. When different materials are used, the product (o, x ¥) decides the weaker between pinion and gear. The Lewis form factor Y is always less fora pinion compared with gear. When the same ‘material is used for the pinion and gear, the pinion is always weaker than the gear. Table 17.3 Values of the Lewis form factor Y for 20° full-depth involute system z ¥ z ¥ z Y 150289 «27 «034855 OAIS. 16 0295 28 «0352, 600.421 17 0302-29 «0355 650.425 18 0308 30035870 (0.429 19 0314 32-0364 «750.433 20 0320 330367 «800.436 210326 «35037390 O.ad2 220330 «37 «0380 100 0.446 23° 0333. «39 «(0386 «150 0.438 24 0337 «40-0389 200 0.463 25 0340 «45 «0399 300 O.471 26 0344 50 -0.408__—Rack 0.484 | 1718 PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESS The tooth of the gear is subjected to fluctuating bending stress as it comes in contact with the meshing tooth. The stress-time diagrams for gear teeth are illustrated in Fig. 17.41. The following observations are made from the figure: (i) The teeth of the driving and driven gears are subjected to stress in one direction only asaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.678 _Design of Machine Elements Introducing a factor of safety, Sy= Pe (5) @ The recommended factor of safety is from 1.5 to 2. The tangential component is given by, 2M, 2M, 2 \@ wae mz | 2an P d mz mz From Eq. (17.24), Cy p _ 60108 { (KWIC, rrr { mznG, o From Eq. (17.16), b)(S, 5, =miayy =m2( 2)( Sey ©) From (a), (b) and (c), Ws 6 mn =| 010! (W)C) (1730) Oe m3 The above equation is used in the preliminary stages of gear design. 17.21 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when the contact stresses between two meshing teeth exceed the surface endurance strength of the material. Pitting is a surface fatigue failure, characterized by small pits on the surface of the gear tooth. In order to avoid this type of failure, the proportions of the gear tooth end surface properties, such as surface hardness, should be selected in such a way that the wear strength of the gear tooth is more than the effective load between the meshing teeth, The analysis of wear strength was done by Earle Buckingham, in his paper “The relation of load to wear of gear teeth’, which was submitted before the American Gear Manufacturing Association (AGMA) in 1926. Buckingham’s equation gives the wear strength of the gear tooth. Buckingham’s equation is based on Hertz theory of contact stresses. When two cylinders are pressed together as shown in Fig. 17.42(a), the contact stress is given by, 2P Tor fa) 2PQ-p? {¢ and + (b) it al| —+— 4 4, where, 0, = maximum value of the compressive stress (N/mm?) P= force pressing the two cylinders together (N) 6 = half width of deformation (mm) 1 = axial length of the cylinder (mm) dy, dy = diameters of the two cylinders (mm) E,, Ey = modulii of elasticity of two cylinder materials (N/mm?) = Poisson's ratio @) (b) ig. 17.42 Contact Stresses Due to deformation under the action of load P, a rectangular surface of width (26) and length () is formed between the two cylinders, The elliptical stress distribution across the width (2h) is shown in Fig. 17.42(b) and (c). Substituting Eq, (b) in Eq. (a) and squaring both sides, (©)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.686 Design of Machine Elements m=4mm =10m 04) = 40 mm Step III Beam strength From Table 17.3, the Lewis form factor for 25 teeth is 0.34. S, = mbo,Y = 440( 32 * oo. 34) = 12693.33N Step IV Dynamic toad by Buckingham’s equation For Grade 6, =8+063 6 For pinion, g=m+028 fd, =4+0.25 100 p= 8 + 0.63 @= 12,095 pm For gear, o=m+028 dz =4+0.25 S400 eg = 8 + 0.63 O= 13.67 pm = 6, + = 12.095 + 13.67 = 25.765 pm or (25.765 x 105) mm From Table 17.7, the value of deformation factor Cis 11400 N/mm’. Also, v=5.236m/s b=40mm P,= 143239N From Eq. (17.26), 2iv (Ceb+P) 2iv4 f(Ceb+ P) = _21(5.236)11 1400(25.765 x 107)(40) + 1432.39] 21(5.236) + yf 1400(25.765x 10°40) + 1432.39} = 6448.30N Step V_ Efective load Paay= (Cy P, + Pj) = 1.5(1432.39) + 6448.30 596.89 N Step VI Actual factor of sofety against bending failure Sp _ 12693.33 = Sh = 26853 148 (= B= 950689 P= The design is satisfactory and the module should be 4mm. Step VIE Surface hardness for gears 2000) 100+25 Pare lf) = bOdK BHN y =16 Pi (f)=S,. oF 8596.89 (1.48) = 40(1.6)(100)(0.16) BHN = 352.49 or 360 Step VII Dimensions of gears (i number of teeth on pinion = 25 ii) number of teeth on gear = 100 Gi) module = 4 mm (iv) face width = 40 mm (v) pitch circle diameter of pinion = 100 mm. (vi) pitch circle diameter of gear = 400 ram (vii) addendum (m) = 4 mm (viii) dedendum (1.25 m) =5 mm (ix) clearance (0.25 m) = | mm (x) tooth thickness (1.5708 m) = 6.2832 mm (xi) fillet radius (0.4 m)= 1.6mm — Example 17.12 it is required to design a 1wo- stage spur gear reduction unit with 20° full-depth involuie teeth. The input shaft rotates at 1440 rpm and receives 10 kW power through a flexible coupling. The speed of the output shaft should he approximately 180 rpin. The gears are made of plain carbon steel 43C8 (Sy = 700 Némni*) and heat- treated to a surface hardness of 340 BHN. The gears are to be machined to the requirement, of Gratle 6. The service factor can be taken as 1.5. (i) Assuming that the dynamic load, to be proportional to the pitch-line veloc estimate the required value of the module. The factor of safety is 1.5. (ii) Select the first preference value of the module and determine the correct value of factor of safety for bending, using Buckingham equation. Gi) Determine the factor of safety against pitling. (iv) Give a list of gear dimensions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Helical Gears 697 The gear rotates from left to right as indicated by the arrow. For this rotation, the point A, will be the first point to come in contact with its meshing tooth on the other gear. It is called the ‘leading’ edge of the tooth. Also, the point 4, will be the last point to come in contact with its meshing tooth on the other gear. It is called the ‘trailing’ edge of the tooth, In order that the contact on the face of the tooth shall always contain at least one point, the leading edge of the tooth should be advanced ahead of the trailing end by a distance greater than the circular pitch. Or, 2p (a) From the triangle 4d,C, 2 b x=btmy Substituting the above expression in Eq. (a) bran yep P tany or be From Eq. (18.3), p__ am _ mm, tany tany tanwcosw sinw Therefore, by ttn (18.14) siny This is the minimum face width. Example18.1 4 pair of parallel helical gears Consists of a 20 teeth pinion meshing with a 40 teeth gear. The helix angle is 25° and the normal pressure angle is 20°. The normal module is 3 mm. Calculate (i) the transverse module; (ii) the transverse pressure angle: Gi) the axial pitch; (iv) the pitch circle diameters of the pinion and the gear; (v) the centre distance: and (vi) the addendum and dedendwm circle diameters of the pinion. Solution Given z,=20 2,=40 m,=3mm yn 25° a= 20° Step 1 Transverse madule My 3 m= cosy c0s(25) =331 mm @ Step II Transverse pressure angle 2 tance = BRM — 02) ge aigs (ii) cosy cos(25) Step WI Axial pitch p___mm _ 7331) ‘tay tany — tan(25) Step IV Pitch circle diameters of pinion and gear Pa 223mm (iii) a Ze 208). 66.2 mim ? cosy — cos(25) Fatt. 498) 2132.4 mm (iv) cosy” cos(25) Step V_ Contre distance d,+ 2. alte SAM sum 9 Step VI Addendum and dedendum circle diameters of pinion d, =f = = cosy =3|—8_42|=72.2 mm c0x(25) 4, =m Z -25] cos y -25] =58.7mm (vi) 20 [33 185 FORCE ANALYSIS The resultant force P acting on the tooth of a helical gear is resolved into three components, P, P, and P,,as shown in Fig. 18.5(a), where P, = tangential component (N) P,= radial component (N) P,,= axial or thrust component (N)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.708 Design of Machine Elements sg, = Bedok cos” = 12674.83N Step V_ Factor of safety 13.04 wo 9172.28 12.674.83 # 9172.28 138 18.10 CROSSED HELICAL GEARS Helical gears, which are mounted on non-parallel shafts, are called crossed helical gears. In these gears, the axes of two shafts are neither parallel nor intersecting like worm gears. The pitch cylinders of a pair of crossed helical gears are illustrated in Fig. 18.12. Theaction of crossed helical gears differs fundamentally from that of parallel helical gears. There is a line contact between meshing teeth of parallel helical gears. it is observed from the figure, that kinematically, there is a point contact between the meshing teeth of crossed helical gears. Since the contact area of a point is very small, the contact Pitch cylinder of 2 Pitch cylinder of 1 Fig. 18.12 Pitch Cylinders of Crossed Helical Gears pressure is high and wear is comparatively rapid. Therefore, crossed helical gears have very low load carrying capacity, They are not recommended for high power transmission. They are particularly useful in light duty applications. They are used in small internal combustion engines to drive the speedometer cable and oil pump and distribution system. Their other applications include feed mechanisms on machine tools, water pumps and instruments. Figure 18.13(a) shows the contact between meshing teeth of crossed helical gears, mounted on two shafts—I and 2, The contact point lies between the lower surface of gear-2 and the upper surface of gear-1. The gears are rotating in the directions shown. At the point of contact, V, = pitch line velocity of contact point when considered on shaft-1. pitch line velocity of contact point when considered on shaft-2. Tooth of gear 1 Point: Teeth of gear 2 (b) Fig. 18.13 Crossed Helical Gears It should be noted that the velocity vector V, shown in the figure is on the lower side of gear~ 2. The vectors ¥; and ¥, act as tangents to their respective pitch cylinders at the point of contact. The velocity of sliding is the vector difference between V; and V;. The line ab indicates the vectoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Bevel Gears _ 717 amy Pinion (chiving) © Fig. 1910 Force Analysis In two-dimensional representation of forces, very often (+) and (x) are used to indicate forces perpendicular to the plane of the paper. (+) indicates a force that is perpendicular to the plane ‘of paper and which is towards the observer. (x) indicates a force that is perpendicular to the plane of the paper and which is away from the observer. In examples of bevel gear tooth forces, it is often required to find out the magnitude and direction of three components acting on the pinion and gear. Force Components on Pinion The magnitudes are determined by using the following five equations: 60x10°(kW) P,= P,tan asin y Note that the notations (P,), (P,) and (P,) are used for components of force on pinion only. The directions of tangential and radial components acting on the pinion and gear are decided by same method that is used for spur gears. ( Tangential Component (P;) (a) The direction of tangential component for the driving gear is opposite to the direction of rotation. (b) The direction of tangential component for the driven gear is same as the direction of rotation. (ii) Radial Component (P,) (a) The radial component on the pinion acts towards the centre of the pinion. (b) The radial component on the gear acts towards the centre of the gear. (i) Thrust Component (P,) The following guidelines can be used to determine the direction of the thrust component: (a) The thrust component on the pinion is equal and opposite of the radial component on the gear. (b) The thrust component on the gear is equal and ‘opposite of the radial component on the pinion. The tendency of thrust components is to separate the meshing teeth, This fact is useful in deciding their directions. Example 19.1 pair of bevel gears transmitting 7.5 KW at 300 rpm is shown in Fig. 19.11(a). The pressure angle is 20°. Determine the components of the resultant gear tooth force and draw a free-body diagram of forces acting on the pinion and the gear: 2000. 7.5 KN | 200 rpm i T (@) 1103.38 Gear (driven) Phnion (driving) 1103.38 (b) Fig. 19.11