This document is Aparna Singh's biology project on pollination for her 12th standard examination. It includes an introduction on pollination, definitions of pollinators and the different types of pollinators such as bees, butterflies, bats and birds. It also discusses the different types of pollination including self-pollination methods like autogamy and geitonogamy. Cross-pollination methods like anemophily and hydrophily are explained. The project provides details on the process and importance of pollination for plant reproduction.
This document is Aparna Singh's biology project on pollination for her 12th standard examination. It includes an introduction on pollination, definitions of pollinators and the different types of pollinators such as bees, butterflies, bats and birds. It also discusses the different types of pollination including self-pollination methods like autogamy and geitonogamy. Cross-pollination methods like anemophily and hydrophily are explained. The project provides details on the process and importance of pollination for plant reproduction.
This document is Aparna Singh's biology project on pollination for her 12th standard examination. It includes an introduction on pollination, definitions of pollinators and the different types of pollinators such as bees, butterflies, bats and birds. It also discusses the different types of pollination including self-pollination methods like autogamy and geitonogamy. Cross-pollination methods like anemophily and hydrophily are explained. The project provides details on the process and importance of pollination for plant reproduction.
This document is Aparna Singh's biology project on pollination for her 12th standard examination. It includes an introduction on pollination, definitions of pollinators and the different types of pollinators such as bees, butterflies, bats and birds. It also discusses the different types of pollination including self-pollination methods like autogamy and geitonogamy. Cross-pollination methods like anemophily and hydrophily are explained. The project provides details on the process and importance of pollination for plant reproduction.
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BIOLOGY PROJECT
TOPIC - POLLINATION
BY APARNA SINGH XII-P Certificate this is to certify that aparna Singh of standard XII has completed the biology project in partial fulfillment of the curriculum of all India senior secondary certificate examination (aissce). This project was carried out at r.n. podar school laboratory during the academic year 2019-20
external examiner internal examiner
School stamp principal signature
PAGE 1 Acknowledgements
I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to
the principal, Mrs. Avnita Bir, Podar School for her encouragement and the facilities that she provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate the magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall be indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to Ms. Padmavathi, Biology teacher, H.O.D of Biology department who guided me to the successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for her invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comment, sympathetic attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work.
PAGE 1 INDEX 1. Pollination
2. What are pollinators?
3. Different types of pollinators
i) honey bee ii) lepidopterans iii) vertebrates 4. Different types of pollination
5. Self-pollination a) autogamy b) geitonogamy 6. Cross pollination a) Anemophily b) hydrophily c) zoophily 7. bibliography
PAGE 2 Pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, later enabling fertilization and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create offspring for the next generation. One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by making seeds. Seeds contain the genetic information to produce a new plant. These seeds are produced by the process of pollination
Pollinating agents are animals such as insects, birds, and bats;
water; wind; and even plants themselves, when self-pollination occurs within a closed flower. Pollinating agents are also known as vectors.
PAGE 3 What are pollinators?
A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther
of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insect pollinators include bees, (honey bees, solitary species, bumblebees); pollen wasps ; ants; flies including bee flies, hoverflies and mosquitoes; lepidopterans, both butterflies and moths; and flower beetles. Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals (monkeys, lemurs, possums, rodents) and some lizards pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are hummingbirds, honeyeaters and sunbirds with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. The most recognized pollinators are the various species of bees, which are plainly adapted to pollination.
PAGE 4 Different types of pollinators
1. Honey bees Honey bee with pollen adhering: Bees are the most effective insect pollinators. Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to honey), and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee nutrition; pollen provides the protein.
PAGE 5 2. Lepidopterans Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) also pollinate plants to various degrees. They are not major pollinators of food crops, but various moths are important pollinators of other commercial crops such as tobacco.
3. Vertebrates Bats are important pollinators of some tropical flowers, visiting to take nectar. Birds, particularly hummingbirds, honeyeaters and sunbirds also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers. Other vertebrates, such as kinkajous, monkeys, lemurs, possums, rodents and lizards have been recorded pollinating some plants.
PAGE 6 What are the different types of pollination? a) Self-pollination The transfer of pollen grain from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower of the same plant is called self-pollination. The first process is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of the same flower is called autogamy, while the second process involving the transfer of pollen grain from the anther of one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower belonging to the same plant is called geitonogamy. Autogamy - Autogamy, or self-fertilization, refers to the fusion of two gametes that come from one individual. Autogamy is predominantly observed in the form of self-pollination, a reproductive mechanism employed by many flowering plants. i) Autogamy
Homogamy Cleistogamy Homogamy- Inbreeding can be referred to as homogamy. Cleistogamy - Cleistogamy is a type of automatic self-pollination of certain plants that can propagate by using non-opening, self- pollinating flowers. Especially well known in peanuts, peas.
PAGE 7 ii) Geitonogamy - Geitonogamy is when pollen is exported using a vector (pollinator or wind) out of one flower but only to another flower on the same plant. It is a form of self-fertilization. Characteristics of self-pollination are as follows: i) They take place only in bisexual flowers. ii) They occur between flowers belonging to same geitotical constitution. iii) Usually the anther should be almost at similar height with the stigma iv) The anther and stigma should mature at the same time v) The flower may close on maturity.
PAGE 8 Methods of self - pollination There are three different methods of self-pollination. Those are:
i) Natural: The stigma is at a lower level from that of the anther
and on maturity, the anther dehisces and the pollen grains fall on the stigma instinctively, which is not helped by any agent.
ii) By wind: The pollen grains are carried by wind from one flower to another, both belonging to the same plant. They are granular and light weight in nature. In these flowers, the stigma is sticky in nature to trap the pollen grains.
iii) By insects: The flowers are colored, scented and provided
with nectarines. The insects enter the flower in search of nectar and in the process; pollen grains are elated to the sticky stigma of another flower of the same plant.
PAGE 9 b) Cross pollination The transfer of pollen grains form the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower belonging to the same species or closely allied species is called cross-pollination or Allogamy. When the pollination takes place between two flowers of the same species, it is called xenogamy, while if it occurs between two closely related species, it is called hybridism. What are the Characteristics of cross-pollination?
1. Cross-pollination usually occurs in plants having unisexual
flower. 2. It may also occur in flowers showing male sterile lines e.g. maize, Solanum. 3. Flowers showing different maturation times for stamens and carpels may also show cross-pollination, e.g. sunflower, Magnolia. 4. It may be in bisexual flowers with differential stamens and carpels, commonly known as heteromorphism e.g. Oxalis. 5. Some flowers, where a barrier is created between stamen and carpel also shows cross-pollination e.g. Iris. 6. The flowers showing different genetic makeup are also showing the process of cross-pollination.
PAGE 10 Methods of cross pollination – 1. Anemophily: When pollination is brought upon by wind, it is called anemophily and the flowers are called anemophilous, e.g. paddy, wheat, maize, grasses. Adaptations of wind-pollinated flowers : These types of flowers show the following characteristics: - i) The flowers are small and not easily seen. ii) The petals are not colored and they are not scented i.e., devoid of osmophores. iii) They are without nectaries. iv) The flowers are aggregated on a long peduncle above the vegetative parts, which makes the process of wind-pollination easy. v) The sepals and petals are small and not easily seen and sometimes, undifferentiated to form perianth. vi) The accessory whorls do not cover the sexual reproductive organs. vii) The stamens are provided with long filaments with versatile anthers, which are easily cut off by air current. viii) The pollen grains are small, granular, light weight, dry and shaped in huge quantity. ix) The style is also long and that helps in the protrusion of the stigma from the flower. x) The stigma is large, feathery and branched, which helps in easy trapping of the pollen grains.
PAGE 11 PAGE 12 2. Hydrophily When the cross-pollination in a flower takes place with the help of water, it is called hydrophilous and the phenomenon is termed as hydrophily. The water pollinated plants are of two types : i) Hypohydrogamous: The pollination taking place in completely submerge condition under water e.g. Ceratophyllum. ii) Epihydrogamous: The pollination taking place along the surface of the wateje.g. Vallisneria, Hydrilla. Adaptations for water-pollinated flowers The hydrophilous flowers show the following characteristics : i) The flowers are small, inconspicuous, light in weight, helping in floatation. ii) The flowers are not showy, without coloured petals, without any fragrance. iii) The floral parts are covered with waxy substance or cutin, which prevent them from getting damaged by water. iv) The accessory whorls, calyx and corolla are small, so the essential floral whorls or androecium and gynoecium are always exposed in water current. v) The dehiscence of anther is rapid and so the pollen grains are scattered in wider areas in a short time. vi) The pollen grains are small, light in weight, impervious to water and hence carried by water to long distances. vii) The female flowers usually have a short coiled stalk, that reach the water surface by uncoiling.
PAGE 13 viii) The stigma is provided with bristles, which can easily trap the pollen grains floating in water. ix) The coiled stalk of female flower may recoil again after pollination.
PAGE 14 3. Zoophily Cross pollination by bird When the pollination is brought about by animals, the pollination is called zoophily and the flowers are called zoophilous e.g. Calotropis. The zoophilous flowers in general shows the following characteristics : i) The flowers are brightly coloured, showy, sweet scented, i.e., with osmophores. ii) They may contain the nectaries. iii) The pollen grain are edible and palatable. iv) The exines of the pollen grains are rough and sticky, which easily get adhered to the body surface of animals. v) The stigma surface is usually sticky to trap the pollen grains after coming into its contact.
