CHAPTER 6

Dalit Identity: Aesthetics of Dalit Literature

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Chapter 6

Dalit Identity: Aesthetics of Dalit Literature

The mainstream writer’s thousands of books present the life and culture to which they

familiar and belong. They have presented imagination, romances, mysticism, beauty of

nature, philosophy and so on. So they have established criteria to evaluate their literature on

the basis of pleasure and beauty. The mainstream literature is following Sanskrit and English

aesthetics of beauty and pleasure. Therefore, upper caste writings present ‘Satyam (truth),

Shivam (goodness) and Sundaram (beauty)’ (Trivedi. Literature. 6) and ‘Art for Art’s sake’

in their writings. Their writings move around art and beauty. Thus, mainstream writers

evaluate literature on the basis of beauty and pleasure. Under the impression of these

aesthetics, the upper caste writers have depicted reality which is dominated by imagination.

Dalit writers have presented faithfully Dalit life, Dalit milieu, and Dalit culture in

their writings. Human being and humanity is the base of Dalit literature. The Dalit writings

are dominated by realism. Society and surroundings come first then individual in Dalit

writings. So, Dalit writers and critics have presented rational and sociological aesthetics for

Dalit literature. It is because the foundation of Dalit literature is entirely different from the

mainstream literature. Because of this reason the mainstream writers cannot judge genuinely

the Dalit literature and Dalit aesthetics.

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Dalit literature and aesthetics are unique. They have different taste than that of

mainstream literature. So, aesthetics of mainstream literature cannot apply to the Dalit

literature; just as Dalit aesthetics cannot apply to the mainstream literature. This is the chief

reason that Sharankumar Limbale, Arjun Dangle, Omvedt Gail, Om Prakash Valmiki, Harish

Mangalam, and other Dalit writers, critics and scholars have rejected the aesthetics of the

mainstream literature. These Dalit literati elites have presented new rational and socio-

cultural based aesthetics for Dalit literature. The Dalit writers and critics have depicted their

rational facts to justify Dalit aesthetics. According to Sharankumar Limbale, the scholar Dalit

writer and critic:

Equality, freedom, justice and love are the basic sentiments of people and

society. They are many times more important than pleasure and beauty.

There has never been a revolution in the world for the sake of pleasure

and beauty. Many governments have been overturned for equality, freedom

and justice. This is history. . . The literature that promotes equality, freedom

and justice is revolutionary, and emphasizes the centrality of the human being

and society. (Towards 119)

Dalit writers and critics firmly and strongly deny Dalit literature to be evaluated by

the aesthetics criteria of the mainstream literature. Sharankumar Limbale has rationally

presented his viewpoint for denial of aesthetics of mainstream literature for evaluation of

Dalit literature:
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Dalit literature is a new literary stream of the post-independent period. Not

only it is new, its form and purpose too are different from those of savarna

Marathi literature. Therefore, it cannot be appraised using traditional

aesthetics. (Towards 115)

Sharankumar Limbale has presented aesthetics of Dalit writings in his critical work

Towards an Aesthetics of Dalit Literature: History, Controversies, and Considerations. They

are: Materialistic Aesthetics: ‘Dalit literature rejects spiritualism and abstraction, its

aesthetics is materialist rather than spiritualist.’ (Towards 116) And Ambedkarite Thought:

‘Values of equality, freedom, justice and solidarity are inherent to this [Dalit] literature.’

(Towards 120)

It is absolutely right that Dalit literature has its own features which are quite different

than that of the mainstream literature. Similarly, Dalit aesthetics also differs from the

mainstream literature. Sharatchandra Muktibodh has presented the unique characteristics of

Dalit literature and aesthetics in his essay What is Dalit Literature? He has carefully

explained the distinctive elements of Dalit aesthetics and Dalit literature in it:

Dalit literature is the literature produced by the Dalit consciousness.

Human freedom is the inspiration behind it. . . As Dalit sensibility seeks to

bring about compatible changes in the social consciousness, it is rebellious as

well as fundamentally optimistic and revolutionary.

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The nature of Dalit consciousness is obviously not subjective. . . .the

sufferings of the Dalits are common and are attributable to common reasons.

Hence their content is essentially social.

. . . The Dalit sensibility show . . . an outstanding work of Dalit

literature would be born only when Dalit life would present itself from the

Dalit point of view. (Muktibodh 267)

Arjun Dangle, a well-known Marathi Dalit writer, has remarked about features of Dalit

aesthetics in his Poisoned Bread, an edited work of Marathi Dalit literature. In it he has

presented the elements of Dalit literature. The writer has presented his viewpoint regarding

the writings of Dalit and non-Dalit writers. Further, he has tried to explain how Dalit

literature and its aesthetics are different from the mainstream literature:

Dalit is not a caste but a realization . . . . It matures with a sociological point of

view and is related to the principles of negativity, rebellion and loyalty to

science, thus finally ending as revolutionary.

As a result of this realization, experiences are not simply stated but

their meaning is also explained. . . .

The difference between the two kinds of writers (Dalit and non-Dalit

writers) is not just because of their castes but also due to differing experiences

and their ways of interpreting them. (Dangle 264-65)

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The orthodox Hindus have looked upon Dalits with disgust and hatred. So they do not

over come of their superior complex being upper castes. As a result they cannot consider

literature written by Dalits as worthy for reading. According to shallow-minded upper castes,

Dalit literature does not fulfil the aesthetics criteria of mainstream literature. The basic

difference one can notice in the literature of the non-Dalit writers and the Dalit writers is that

the first presents the romantic view of the life and the later realistic view of the life. Arjun

Dangle in his article Dalit Literature: Past, Present and Future, has noted that ‘this literature

of the Dalits is intimately related to social reality and is not imaginary or entertainment-

oriented.’ (Dangle 255) Similarly, in an interview Harish Mangalam, a Dalit writer and a

critic remarks:

Non-Dalit writers describe the beloved’s cheeks by comparing them with

roses and liken the beloved’s lips to rose petals. (Trivedi Tongues 161)

Further he said that unlike the non-Dalit writers’ imaginative concept of beauty, the Dalit

writers present it with realistic approach:

The beloved’s cheeks were like hardened lumps of jaggery and her lips were

like wrinkled black clay. (Trivedi Tongues 161-62)

The non-Dalit writers use imagination to present beauty of beloved. Unlike, the mainstream

writers, the Dalit writers use reality to present beauty of beloved. Daya Pawar, a famous
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Marathi Dalit writer has criticised the indifferent mentality of the non-Dalits. Remark of

Pawar is quoted by Sharankumar Limbale in his critical work:

Our entire society is not on the same cultural level. Due to the mentality

formed by different cultural categories, caste system and customs in society,

social life and world-views were divided. Because of the pressure of false

morality, even the process of tasting a literary creation did not remain

uncontaminated. (Towards 100)

The indifferent attitudes of the upper caste writers are because of their superiority complex.

They cannot bring themselves to the level of Dalit writers because to be inferior is alien to

them. Further, to bring themselves to the low level is below their dignity. Hence, they

observe and judge Dalit writings with a viewpoint of upper caste mentality. As a result, they

cannot justify Dalit literature and Dalit aesthetics.

Since ancient time to the second half of the 20th century the history of mainstream

Indian literature has not presented any thing serious about Dalits’ issues or Dalits’ world.

Thus, the mainstream literature is the literature of non-Dalits. It presents everything about the

non-Dalits; and from the view point of the non-Dalits. A few glimpses are found superficially

when the upper caste literary writers have presented Dalits in their literary works. In an

interview, Bama, a well-known Dalit writer has said, ‘. . . other writers have always looked

down upon us. They have written about us as good for nothing . . .’ (Sankaranarayanan, S. An
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Interview With Bama 267) So the mainstream writers’ presentation of Dalits and their issues

in their literary works are good for nothing:

Indian literary history and theory, as well as the teaching of the Indian

literatures, are spectacularly silent about Dalit literature. Yet, Dalit cultural

and critical productions make a significant critical intervention in the thinking

and writing about Indian society, history, culture and literature. (Mukherjee A.

Towards 1)

Arun Prabha Mukherjee, a critic and the translator of Om Prakash Valmiki’s Joothan: A

Dalit’s Life also presented her view that how the presentation of Dalit characters are passive

in the hands of upper caste writers and alive in the hands of the Dalit writers. She has

criticised Dalit’s meek presentation by the non-Dalits in ‘A Note by the Translator’ in the

autobiography Joothan:

My Hindi literature school textbook included a poem by Siaramsharan

Gupt. This poem, entitled ‘Achut ki Aah’ (The Sigh of an Untouchable),

narrated the sad story of an untouchable denied entry into a temple and how it

broke his heart. Such portrayals of Dalits as mute and pathetic characters,

unable to act or speak about their oppression, are characteristic of high caste

Indian writers. . . Booker prize winner Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small

Things or Rohinton Mistry’s A Fine Balance are also written in this

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appropriative voice, a voice that contains, rather than expresses, Dalit

experience. (ix)

As it is known fact that Dr. Ambedkar struggled till his last breaths for the unity,

equality, identity, fraternity, and liberty of all Indians including women and Dalits. To

acquire the identity of Dalits, he had studied India’s past which was written in the sacred

texts of the Hindus. Dr. Ambedkar through his critical assessment of Hindu religion, Hindu

mythology, classical and sacred literary texts of Hindus, and Indian history brought great

awareness among Dalits. As a result, Dalit literary writers have presented their own life,

culture, existence and struggle which are not presented before world yet. By presenting

firsthand experiences of being Dalit, the Dalit writers have jolted the non-Dalits on one hand

and presented the world a new literature called ‘Dalit Literature’, on the other. In the

introduction of Poisoned Bread, Arjun Dangle, the Marathi Dalit writer, editor, and activist

states:

It is no coincident that the Dalit literary movement began in

Maharashtra, the birthplace of Dr. Ambedkar’s movement. His revolutionary

ideas stirred into action all the Dalits of Maharashtra and gave them a new

self-respect. Dalit literature is noting but the literary expression of this

awareness. (xi)

The Dalit writers gave vivid self-experienced expressions of sufferings, humiliation,

pains, agonies, trauma, miseries, poverty, atrocities etc. into their own writings. At the same
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time, by their literary creations they wish to bring the total change in society i.e., equality in

social, political, and economic fields. More over the Dalit writers ask and dream for the

casteless egalitarian society in their writings. According to Arjun Dangle, Dalit literature is

different than that of the non-Dalits’. He, in the introduction of Poisoned Bread writes:

Dalit literature is marked by revolt and negativism, since it is closely

associated with the hopes for freedom of a group of people who, as

untouchables, are victims of social, economic and cultural inequality. (xi)

The gulf between the Dalits and non-Dalits, since the ancient time, has been widened

so long by the non-Dalits that it is almost impossible to present an authentic portrayal of the

Dalit world by the mainstream writers. Here, the selected examples are considered which

highlight how the Dalit aesthetics applied by Dalit writers.

Arjun Dangle’s poem Revolution presents the cruel attitudes of the orthodox Hindus

towards the Dalits. The poem presents inner anguish of the poet. It also shows that how

Dalits are pushed to periphery of social system. Thus, orthodox Hindus in general and

Brahmins in particular have committed a hideous sin against humanity. The poem begins

with the worst inhuman conditions of Dalits. As a matter of fact the worst than animal

conditions of Dalits were imposed on them by the orthodox Hindus. The pathetic conditions

of Dalits presented in the poem are a satire on orthodox Hindus in general and orthodox

Brahmins in particular:
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We used to be their friends

when, clay pots hung from our necks,

brooms tied to our rumps,

we made our rounds through the Upper Lane

calling “Ma-bap, Johar, Ma-bap” (1-5, Dangle 43)

In the poem, the poet has presented the sense of revolt towards the inhuman and irrational

practices of the orthodox Hindus. The shallow-minded Hindus do not prefer the revolt of

Dalits. Rather they try to prevent the revolt by every possible means. Thus, what the Dalit

poet has felt and presented can never be felt nor be written by the non-Dalit writers:

“Shout victory to the Revolution”

“Shout victory”

“Burn, burn those who strike at tradition.” (18-20, Dangle. Revolution, 43-44)

The poem undoubtedly presents the burning volcano inside the Dalits’ psyche. Dalits are

conscious enough of the meanness of the orthodox Hindus. Because of Dalits’ awareness,

shallow-minded upper castes are afraid of their tortures and atrocities. They are afraid

because time has come for them to pay back. At the same time, Dalits are ready for their

victorious attempts to teach the non-Dalits the values of humanity.

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The non-Dalit writers can present Dalits and Dalits’ world, but not as authentic as by

the Dalit writers. As a result, Dalits are not satisfied with the literature of the mainstream

writers. It is because the mainstream literature presents the picture of the non-Dalits’ world.

In the mainstream literature, the real world of the Dalits with their centuries old pains,

humiliations, agonies, traumas, miseries, atrocities, alienation, sufferings etc. have not ever

been justified. What the best the mainstream authors can do is to feel pity and sympathy.

Further, they can offer some minor changes within the existing unequal framework of Indian

caste-system. So, Dalits want representation of the real world of theirs in the literature. And it

is one of the desires which have given birth to the Dalit literature. In an interview Harish

Mangalam, a Gujarati Dalit writer has aptly defined the taste of the Dalit writings:

The exploited and oppressed community is at the centre of all Dalit literature.

. . . Dalit literature is expressive of the plight of the downtrodden. It is

therefore natural that a writer from a Dalit background will recreate his

experiences in his works. (Trivedi Tongues 160)

Dalit folks and life are not justified in mainstream literature. So Dalit writers have presented

themselves, their culture, community and life the way they are. As a result a new kind of

literature known as the “Dalit Literature” comes into existence. The aim of Dalit writers is to

expose the Dalit world which is neglected in mainstream society:

The view of life conveyed in Dalit literature is different from the world of

experience expressed hitherto. A new world, a new society and a new human
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being have been revealed in literature, for the first time. The reality of Dalit

literature is distinct, and so is the language of this reality. (Limbale Towards.

33)

Language is also distinctly used in the writings by the Dalit writers. The Dalit writers use

regional vernaculars to present Dalit life and Dalit world. Over all, the purpose of the Dalit

literature is to give voice to a culture that had been silenced for centuries.

The Dalit writers portray the real pictures of the milieu in which they live. Their own

language, culture, and life are fully narrated authentically by the Dalit writers. The realistic

depiction of the wrongs which are happening right before their eyes on them and on their

community gives it a touch of realism. The soul of Dalit literature is ‘Dalit life’. This very

concept is rightly observed by Ajit Thakor:

Dalit fiction differs from mainstream fiction from thematic point of view;

Dalit fiction gives voice to untouchability, rebellion, anger and anguish which

are characteristic of Dalit life. (Trivedi Tongues 182-83)

The above mentioned definitions and notions for the Dalit literature are seen in most

of all Dalit literary creation. One of the examples of it is presented in the form of Hindi Dalit

short story by Omprakash Valmiki, a scholar and versatile Hindi Dalit writer. A sense of

struggle and never to bow down at the cost of dignity and self respect are clearly mentioned
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in the short story Amma by Omprakash Valmiki. It is translated into English from Hindi by

R. K. Shukla.

The short story Amma presents the protest of the Dalit woman Amma against the

sexual advancement of the upper caste Vinod, a lover of Mrs. Chopra in whose house Amma

used to do house hold work. Vinod’s relationship with Mrs. Chopra is illicit. One day Amma,

just like routine, goes to Mrs. Chopra’s house for work. Vinod is sitting there in the bedroom

and Mrs. Chopra is washing her hair in bathroom. At that time, Vinod tries to harass sexually

Amma but she is strong enough to teach him a lesson of lifetime by beating him with broom.

This shows that Dalit woman is not an object or toy for sexual exploitation of the non-Dalits.

Besides, it also presents that if non-Dalits think of Dalit women as an instrument of sexual

enjoyment, they must think twice; because the Dalit women know how to answer of such

thinking and acts of the non-Dalits. It is presented thus in the story:

. . . . Vinod slipped his hand round her waist and pulled her to himself with a

jerk. . .She shouted: ‘What are you doing? . . . Let me go.’ And she tried to

wrest herself free from his grip.

. . . . she jerked herself free. . . She struck at his temple with full force.

. . Amma still kept on hitting him relentlessly. A stream of abuses burst forth

from her mouth.

‘Stop it . . . what are you doing? . . . stop it . . . don’t hit him. . . .’ Mrs.

Chopra tried to snatch the broom away from her hands. . . . she said: ‘Bhainji,

tell this bastard that not every woman is a slut.’ (Valmiki Amma 167-68)
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Misery of the working class Dalit woman is realistically depicted in the story. Her

family’s poor condition is also realistically presented. The central character Amma, a Dalit

woman has three children Shivcharan, Bisan and Kiran. Her experiences of life have made it

clear that if the Dalits want to live a respectful life then they must have education. And only

education can give them sound economic position. At the same time, it also gives strength to

fight back against the atrocities and humiliations. She always advises all of them to have

education so that they could live a better life and free themselves from the clutches of the

poverty and misery. Says, Amma:

‘I have got tired of telling you. . . Get a bit of education so that you may be a

peon in an office, if not a clerk. . . We’re up to the neck in debt. . . There is

never a spell of peace anywhere, either inside the house or outside: the same

miserable, harrowing routine everyday. That is how life goes–no one even lets

you sit near him as if they will catch a contagious disease.’ (Valmiki Amma

169)

By presenting the realistic picture of the Dalit sensibility and their inhuman

conditions which have been shaped for them since the ages by the non-Dalits, the Dalit

literature wants to add a new vision to the world literature. In his article Gujarati Dalit

Poetry Pathik Parmar has quoted the notion of Harish Mangalam. “The fragrance of

humanity is the root of the Dalit literature. It is the story of ordinary human beings. There is

the fresh air of natural world.” (Parmar P. 144-45)

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Reality is always at the centre of narration of the Dalit writers. Thus, authentic scenario of Dalit

life, community, and culture is found in Dalit writers’ works. The pain of being the Dalit is

common to the Dalit literature. Poverty is a marked characteristic of the Dalit literature. In the

poem Cinema Poster of Shibu C. M., a Malayalam Dalit poet this marked element of poverty

and pain of the Dalits are aptly, realistically, and authentically presented. A touch of mild satire

is adding the taste to the poem. The poem is translated into English form Malayalam by Dr.

Manoj S.:

We just don’t care!

We have been living-

Amidst pointed fingers all the while.

This is the only blame-

Because there are no windows

We use you as a cover. (8-13, M. Shibu 345)

The main agenda of the Dalit literature is to reveal that they are not the ugly creature as have

been considered by the orthodox Hindus but the living human beings. At the same time, Dalit

writers present that Dalits are not merely satisfied with economic and political equality given

to them by the constitution as a reward of sufferings of ages but want religious, social,

economic and creative equality. It suggests that human being and humanity are more

important to the Dalit writings than anything else. The evaluation of the Dalit literature as
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interpreted by the Marathi Dalit writer Baburao Bagul has been quoted by Pathik Parmar in

the article Gujarati Dalit Poetry; the Marathi Dalit author has depicted:

Dalit literature is the enemy of untouchability and slavery. It has also the

enmity against the discrimination and pains. . . That is the genuine Dalit

literature, which establishes human being as god, more important than religion

and region, strongly condemns caste-Varna, and liberates human being and

honours him, dignifies him. (Parmar P. 162)

Non-Dalit writers have certainly presented Dalits but in a mild presentation i.e.

sympathetic and piteous. Thus, their concentration is on the wretched inhuman conditions of

the Dalits. They never presented Dalits with Ambedkarite ideology. In the hands of

mainstream writers, Dalits are noting but tragic lots.

The centuries old pains, traumas, and sufferings, cannot be presented realistically by

the non-Dalits in their literature because they are the viewers and doers and not the victims

and sufferers. In the short story Kalu Bhangi, Krishan Chander, the mainstream writer has

presented the central character in the form of Kalu Bhangi (Dalit). He always requests the

author to write a story about him. ‘Chhote Saheb, I am Kalu Bhangi, your faithful servant,

your old sweeper. Why can’t you write about me?’ (Chander Kalu 19) But the pity is that his

life is quite simple and routine in such a manner that there is nothing interesting the writer

finds to write about:

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Kalu Bhangi, how can I make a story out of such shoddy stuff? No, I’m sorry,

it’s beyond me. Go away. I beg of you with folded hands to get out of my

sight. (31)

Thus, no doubt the non-Dalit writer Krishan Chander has written a short story on the

life of Kalu Bhangi, the Dalit servant, but he cannot able to capture the essence of the

emotional world of the Dalit Kalu.

Likewise in Telugu literature there are two eminent social works that present scenario

of the Dalit world. They are Unnava Laxminarayana’s Malapalli and Ranga’s Harijana. The

upper caste writers have depicted in their writings untouchability with the pain and sufferings

of the Dalit milieu. They have also presented limited changes in the existed social caste-

system. But they do not want to banish such a rigid and irrational caste-system as a whole.

These very suggestions of the non-Dalit authors are good for nothing. Such suggested

changes by the mainstream authors, according to A. Satyanarayana are not a truly realistic

representation of the Dalits’ issues. In his research paper ‘Dalit Protest Literature in Telugu:

A Historical Perspective’, A. Satyanarayana writes:

In a sense, it was not a truly realistic representation of the dalit question.

Therefore, in the writings of the non-dalit scholars the problems of

untouchability and caste discrimination were not reflected as serious and

fundamental. They advocated minor reforms and adjustments, yet favoured

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continuation of the existing unequal social hierarchy. For them the dalit

masses became an object of pity and sympathy. (Satyanarayana 82)

Dalits are presented as tragic characters who suffer painfully by the mainstream

writers. Similar depiction is found in the novel ‘Outcast’ by Romen Basu, a lesser known

fiction writer who ‘set mainly in the Sixties and seventies during the United Front

Government’ (Ali 175) His novel ‘Outcast’ ‘is about the evils of caste system not only

Brahmins discriminating against the Sudras but the lower castes against one another.’ (Ali

175) Though Basu, in his novel, has presented the scenario of the Dalit community he cannot

able to capture the real essence of the Dalit world. Basu, of course, has given a faithful

picture of the non-Dalits’ inhuman attitudes towards the Dalits as he himself is belonging to

the upper caste. But as far as Dalits are concern he cannot able to reach the bottom of Dalits’

trauma, sufferings and Dalit sensibility.

In the novel, there is a Dalit character Mahanta, a Chandal (one of the Dalit Caste) by

caste has mistakenly climbs the temple steps which is forbidden for the Dalits. He is

mercilessly beaten and is handed over to the police. But Bibhuti, the orthodox non-Dalit

character wanted Mahanta to be beaten again in front of everyone by the police inspector.

This very cruel approach is realistically depicted by the words of Bibhuti by the non-Dalit

novelist; says, Bibhuti:

We want to see the law-enforcing authority punish the swine in our presence.

(Basu 2)
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Ignominy of the Dalits by the non-Dalits is truly portrayed by the upper caste novelist. This

distorted ancient behaviour of the orthodox upper caste towards the Dalits is represented

through the character of Bibhuti in the following word spoken by him:

If God cared for you, how could you be born a Chandal, an untouchable who

burns dead bodies, you son-of-a-bitch. (Basu 2)

To betray fellow Dalit is one of the drawbacks of Dalits. This fact of the Dalits is presented

in the novel. By protest and struggle against the orthodox upper caste, the Dalit hero Sambal

tries his best to establish the equal society. But his efforts are not realised because of his own

Dalit brothers. They betray Sambal and join the non-Dalit Zamindar (Landlord):

Sambal suffers because those who he was fighting for, betrayed him as they

all in the end join hands with the Zemindars pushing him out. He is thus left

where he started a Chandal. (Ali 180)

The novel presents gloom and desolation of the Dalit hero who wants to breathe the air of

freedom and equality not only for himself but for his Dalit community.

The upper caste mainstream writers have done a job to highlight the issues and

problems of the Dalits but could not arrive at the Dalit aesthetics. Writings of the Dalits life

with their problems of untouchability and caste-base discrimination, in the hands of the upper
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caste scholars are not reflected seriously and fundamentally. Besides, the non-Dalit writers

can merely offer slight reforms and adjustments in general but in particular advocate the

continuation of the existing irrational and unequal social system.

The job to give the heart felt pain words; the Dalit writers come forward and formed

the new term for their writings: “Dalit Literature”. Raman Vaghela, a Dalit poet, in his poem

Harsh Destiny gives the most authentic presentation of pain and humiliation:

A life full of pains we live,

They kick us putting aside shame,

Our bleeding wounds they not see.

Sprinkle salt of humiliation they,

Saying it is sweeter than honey. (6-10, Vaghela 44)

Dalit writers mainly focus on the oppression, untouchability and the Dalit sensibility in their

writings. Pathik Parmar in an article Gujarati Dalit Poetry, has depicted Maheshchandra

Pandya’s poem ‘Man Bites’ which originally is written in Gujarati, titled ‘Manasa Karade

Chhe’, reveals the pain of injustice that has been done to the Dalits since the ancient times.

To present such inhuman attitudes of the orthodox Hindus, the poet has given reference of

the ancient victims Ekalavya and Shambuka. The Dalit poet suggests his fellow beings to be

aware of these biting kinds of the non-Dalits:

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Beware, beware of the human race! Because

Man also bites

A man bites Ekalavya,

A man also bites Shambuka. (Pandya 154)

The ancient characters Ekalavya and Shambuka suffered though they had mastery in their

field of archery and knowledge of Vedas respectively by the hands of the orthodox Hindus.

The Dalit poet advices Dalits to be aware of such attitudes and practices of upper caste that

can damage Dalits on name of religion and teacher’s fee; thus deprive Dalits of their best

skills.

There is no exaggeration in saying that only who has suffered the pain can give the

faithful presentation of that pain. How the human identity of Dalit is erased by the upper

castes; and how they refuse to let retrieve the identity to the Dalits. Such is the pain felt by

the Dalits which, authentically can never be expressed by the mainstream authors. This

argument is aptly presented in the Dalit Bengali poet Anil Sarkar’s Poetry of the Outcast. It

is translated from Bengali into English by Bikach Choudhuri. The Dalit poet writes:

Pangs of birth grill through my whole body

Mother I shiver in pain.

Ever since my birth.

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Yet you repeatedly make me feel

I am a price,

Happiness will be mine someday, (1-6, Sarkar 88)

Since ancient to present time Dalits have victimised and robbed off the status of being

human. So, the miseries, pains, sufferings, and wounds of the Dalits are centuries-old. Thus,

the ages old personal experiences of the Dalits can only be justified truthfully by the Dalit

writers. This perspective is aptly observed by Namdeo Dhasal in his collection of poem

‘Golpitha’, which is appropriately worded in Dalit Literature and Dalit Poetry: A Brief

Survey. ‘Dalit literature is flowing into the 21st Century mixed with blood, sweat and anger,

flowering into greatest poetry that this country is producing now.’ (Paul 63)

The history of pain and suffering is noted authentically in the writings of the Dalit authors.

The lyric Let Us Say Now is written by Balachandran Inchakkad, the Dalit Malayalam poet.

The poem also presents the broken silence of the Dalits for better, just, and equal ways of

living. It is translated in English by S. Sreenivasan:

But from the black people’s woeful songs

Form the throbbing of the earth they have

laboured on.

Let us prepare for the birth of the golden

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dawn. (3-7, Inchakkad 335)

The pain, suffering and misery of Dalits are common in the Dalit literature. Inchakkad has

also presented them in the poem. Writes, the poet:

Common ponds and wells, they say, have

been polluted

Like evil portents, the shadows have fallen

on the Brahmin’s body (19-22, Inchakkad 335)

Besides the sorrow, pain, suffering and misery, the poet has also stated that now Dalits are

aware of their dignity. And they do not live anymore like filthy beasts:

No one need waltz here boasting of caste

purity.

The bygone filthy days will not be reborn. (35-37, Inchakkad 335)

The Dalit poet has presented sufferings of the Dalits and cruelties committed by the non-

Dalits on one hand and on the other, the revolt of the Dalits not to tolerate insult and

atrocities. It is an Ambedkarite ideology. The sufferings of the Dalits are ancient-old. The
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Dalits are forced to accept the most inhuman, irrational, and the ugliest ways to live their

lives. Since ancient-old times the Dalits had meekly and silently suffered out of their

inhuman conditions. But this suffering of the past is not allowed by the present Dalits and

they are conscious enough of their dignity and rights given to them by the constitution of

India. And likewise they are ready to fight with all strength against any kind of humiliations

and atrocities.

Although the Dalit writers Valmiki and others were existed during the ancient time,

the Dalit literature has made its unavoidable, strong, and powerful appearance in the second

half of the twentieth century. “Dalit literature”, as described in Distinctive Voices of Distress

by D. Padmarani “was not so blatant till 1967, the impetus of it got from Karl Marx, the

revolutionary trends from Black literature and the ideas of prominent people like Dr.

Ambedkar.” (80)

Dalit literature is in nascent stage in comparison to the mainstream literature. But it

represents ancient-old trauma, centuries-old exploitation, ages-old pain, and saga of

sufferings of the Dalits. Besides, Dalit literature presents the unexplored world of the Dalits

community with their ground realities. Thus, authentic presentation of Dalit culture and Dalit

life are exhibited before world which had never been presented.

Historical fact is that the Dalits worked as manual scavengers, cleaning latrines and

sewers by hand and clearing away dead animals. So Dalits were commonly banned and

isolated from participation in non-Dalit social life. Dalits were forbidden to worship in
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temples or draw water from the same wells as non-Dalits. Further, they were forced to live as

segregated neighbourhoods outside the village:

The Untouchables have the culture of the Hindu community. They live on the

outskirts of a village and not in the midst of it. They are attached to the village

but are not a part of the village. An Untouchable must not own and cultivate

land and lead an independent life. An Untouchable should not take to such

services as would give him an authority and power over caste Hindus.

(Mandal 7)

The Dalits were worse than the worst sufferers throughout past centuries by the non-Dalits.

The orthodox Hindus, even, did not want to give the Dalits the status of human. But Dalits

are proud of being Dalit. Gujarati Dalit poet Shamat Parmar in his poem Self-Pride, presents

that why he is proud being a Dalit. He has exposed the upper castes in the poem:

If God...

Has made me a Brahmin

(according to the Varnashrama)

I would have deceived the people

By my appearance and

False chanting of shlokas,

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Frightened them in the name of religion (4-9, Parmar S. 73)

The poet is thankful to God that He has given birth as a Dalit. He has justified his birth as

Dalit in the poem. He would have committed sins and crimes if he would have taken birth in

different upper castes. But the poet is saved as he is given birth as a Dalit:

Thank... God...

That He made me a Shudra

And liberated me from all these sins.

This why I am proud of myself.... (30-33, Parmar S. 74)

The orthodox Hindu forced Dalit to live in wretched, inhuman, unhygienic, and filthy

conditions. When Dalits try to claim life with dignity and equality, they are denied by all

possible means. This very attitude of the upper castes, in his book Beyond Hindutva is aptly

exposed by S. L. Verma:

On the basis of law of karma, the varna system was translated into a caste

hierarchy wherein the majority of the lower strata were subjected to

inequality, exploitation and oppression. The metaphysics of Hindu religion

became the citadel of caste system which made millions of the lower caste

virtual serfs, slaves and sub-humans. (41)

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The inhuman practices of the orthodox Hindus since past centuries have been exposed

by the Dalit writers in their literary works. The centuries-old dehumanized conditions of the

Dalits are given voice by the Dalit and non-Dalit writers and at the same time they tried their

best to give Dalit identity in literature. But the Dalit writings by the mainstream writers

before 1975 were dominated by the ideology of Gandhi which shows sympathy and pity

towards the Dalits. The social reformation of the upper castes has a little modification in

existing irrational, unjust, and unequal social caste system. They did not want to forbid such

an inhuman social system of caste. They are willing to present the world of the Dalits with

pity and sympathy.

In to the Sun (1933), a social novel by Frieda H. Das is a fiction of ‘fight against all

forms of social injustice towards widows, untouchables or the poor.’(Mehta 116) In this

fiction nothing but the Gandhian influence is expressed by the novelist. On one hand

novelist has successfully presented Gandhian ideology but got utter failure in the presentation

of the Dalits’ world and Dalit sensibility.

The leading character of the novel Rama Devi, a widow, is a Brahmin who under the

influence of the spirit of nationalism, becomes the worker of Congress and works as a social

activist. She goes to the village Chowdwar where the untouchables live. The novelist has

given the exaggerated picture of the non-Dalit’s adaptation of an illegal child of an

untouchable widow Moti; who died after given the birth to the child, into the family of Rama

Devi. This view is rightly criticised by P. P. Mehta:

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Some of the incidents have been exaggerated. For example . . . , there is a

touch of exaggeration in the description of the poor conditions of the

untouchable village. The last incident of substituting the living untouchable

child for the dead Brahmin child is unrealistic. (Mehta 117)

However, a graphical picture of the Indian social milieu of the Dalits is faithfully captured by

the author. The novelist ‘has very graphically described the dirty and hopeless condition of

the untouchables, with their ignorance, with their superstitions, diseases and uncleanliness.’

(117)

In this way, the literature related to the world of the Dalits is presented only with a

sympathetic view and not in a realistic manner. So the literature before 1975 presents a

sympathetic touch to the Dalits’ life under the influence of Gandhian ideology. In a genuine

sense, this kind of works and their authors are utter failure in the presentation of the exact

reality of the Dalits’ world. So the mainstream upper caste writers do not considered as the

faithful writers of the Dalits’ world. Pathik Parmar in Gujarati Dalit Poetry, depicts the

criticism of Mohan Parmar. In following words these types of writers are criticised in his

article: Gujarati Dalit Literature of the 20th Century, by Mohan Parmar:

The literature produced before 1975 based on the Dalits’ life that was created

under the influence of Gandhian thoughts. In the code of conduct of Gandhiji,

Untouchability and its removal was one issue. The novelists who raised the
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issue in their works, it was the part of social evils. These all the writers were

not dedicated authors in genuine sense . . . . (141)

Thus, it is very true that though the non-Dalit writers have contributed to the Dalit literature,

they could never do the justice to the ages-old traumas, pains exploitations, atrocities,

sufferings, and alienation of the Dalits.

Krishan Chander, the upper caste writer in the short story Aunt Isari and Her Debt

has presented the realistic presentation of the orthodox attitude of aunt Isari, the non-Dalit

character. The writer could present the realistic irrational behaviour of the orthodox upper

caste because he himself belongs to the upper caste. When a non-Dalit aunt Isari mistakenly

touches and kisses the Dalit girl Savitri, the daughter of Dalit maid-servant. And for the sake

of her purification she takes bath from the sacred water of river Ganga:

Aunt Isari hugged the girl end [and] kissed her on both her cheeks. . .

Aunt Kartaro, . . .said . . . She’s Savitri, the maid-servant’s daughter.”

“Hai, I’m ruined!” Aunt Isari looked agitated. “This girl has polluted

me. I shall have to take a Ganga bath. I even kissed her.” Her breath came

sharp and short. (Chander Aunt 60)

The writer has presented the pain of the Dalit girl Savitri by showing her only shading tears.

The author could not give authentic presentation as he has no words to reveal the pain felt by

the Dalit Savitri. The writer writes, ‘Puzzled, she looked at Savitri, who on being thus
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reporved, had started crying.’ (60) Thus, the non-Dalit authors could not appropriately

present the pain, exploitation, trauma and sufferings of the Dalits.

U. R. Anantha Murthy’s novel Samskara presents an orthodox non-Dalits’ society in

Karnataka of south India. The fiction faithfully presents the extreme orthodoxy of the

shallow-minded Brahmins. The novel presents the true picture of socio-religious structure of

south India:

This novel is about a village Durvasapura in Karnataka where the brahmin

community with its age-old beliefs and traditions exist as a closed society. . .

There is a blind adherence to the age-old beliefs and custom in Durvasapura. .

. The novel also provides a glimpse of the complex Indian socio-religious

system. (Sharma I. 133)

In the novel, there are two non-Dalit protagonists namely Naranappa and Praneshacharya.

Both are Madhva Brahmin by caste. Both the characters are living with two different

ideologies which clash with each other. Praneshacharya stands for a rigid and orthodox

socio-religious system and values. On the other hand, Naranappa is violating the orthodox

and rigid traditions. Chandri is a Dalit but very crucial character in the novel. Both the

protagonists have been put under the process of change by this Dalit female character. She is

by social status and profession a prostitute who is called by non-Dalit men and women as

“Mari”, the dark goddess of death, plague etc.

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Though Dalit Chandri provides a vital cause to change the existed age-old codes and

conducts of the socio-religious structure, her character is superficially presented by the

novelist. Thus, the non-Dalit writer has not given exposure to the world of the Dalit Chandri.

It is clear that the task of presenting the Dalit life as it is lived by the Dalits is not possible for

the mainstream upper caste writers. The novelist centres round the socio-religious structure

south India. He cannot justify the inner sentiments of the Dalit world.

Like other mainstream writers, Anantha Murthy has also presented the Gandhian

ideology i.e. to reform the society by a few modifications, as far as Dalits are concern; and

continue in irrational and inhuman caste system. On the whole, he has criticized the existed

socio-religious atmosphere and how it has made the good social and religious way of life into

a distorted one. ‘The novel Samskara also shows the futility of the centuries old caste-system

in India. The caste-system has eaten into the vitals of Indian society and it has weakened it to

the core.’ (137)

The character of Naranappa, a symbol of the changing times, is in favour of new

emerging ideas to abolish many social evils: untouchability, rigid casted barriers, spread

education. He believes in a materialistic pleasure. Till his death he has not only openly

flouted, mocked at and questioned the prescribed ideology and code of conduct for his caste

but also exposed the hypocritical and sinful living of the narrow-minded, selfish, greedy,

jealous fellow Brahmins:

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He lived with a shudra woman Chandri for ten years. He also ate flesh and

consumed liquor with his Muslim friends. . . Throughout his life, Naranappa

had been a potent threat to the brahmanism of Durvasapura. (131-32)

But, even Naranappa is not doing anything worthwhile in the novel to advocate the issues of

the Dalits and nor does he fight for them. Thus, in the hands of the upper caste writers the

presentation of the Dalit scenario is nothing but a superficial touch.

Arundhati Roy an upper caste writer won Booker prize for The God of Small

Things in 1997. The novel presents intense pain and suffering of the Dalits who have been

victimised since the ancient time by the orthodox Hindus on one hand and on the other

pathetic condition of women in India. Though prohibited in the constitution, untouchability,

even at the end of the 20th century it is practiced in India which is brought before the world

by the novelist. The hypocrisy of shallow-minded upper castes and Syrian Christina are

exposed in the novel. According to Dr. M. B. Gaijan:

Christianity is world wide known for universal “brotherhood and humanism”

but here, in this novel Arundhati has described intense cross caste conflict, . . .

its between Syrian Christian and Untouchable. It shows that untouchables are

not only suffering and torturing from Hindus but also other religious

communities in this democratic India. Thus untouchables are sandwiched

between the Hindu majority and other religious minority. (Dalits in 227)
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The novel represents the hypocrisy of equality through character of Velutha, a

sensitive, intelligent, and talented craftsman is a Paravan one of the Dalit castes. His skills

and intelligence are not appreciated just because he is a Dalit. He falls in love with a non-

Dalit divorcee Ammu, a mother of twins –Estha and Rahel. Velutha and Ammu are annoyed

and become victim of evil caste-system. Thus, the relationship of the Dalit with the non-Dalit

becomes the sole cause in the novel for the tragedy of the central characters. Velutha pays a

great price for falling in love with non-Dalit divorcee. He has been beaten wildly and very

brutally by the police that stands for law and order in society. But in the case of Dalit Velutha

the same protector of law and order in society plays a role of murderer and kills the Dalit.

Roy has depicted faithfully the atrocity because she is belonging to the upper caste. She is

one of the upper castes who are either doer or viewer of the atrocities on Dalits:

They realized that man was beaten, was Velutha. They heard the thud on

wood on flesh. Boot on bone. On teeth the muffled grunt when a stomach is

kicked in. The muted crunch of skull on cement. The gurgle of blood on a

man’s breath when his lung is turn the jagged end of a broken rib. (Roy 308)

The brutality and atrocity as well as the sham orthodoxy have been presented in the novel.

The intelligent and skilled craftsman, simple and lovable human is brutally beaten and killed

merely for loving an upper caste woman.

Even the upper caste novelist could not faithfully present the Dalit world. Same

sympathy and pity of Gandhian era are seen in the portrayal of Dalit Velutha. His character
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in the novel represents Gandhian ideology of pity and sympathy. Thus, in the hands of

mainstream writer the Dalit characters are nothing but tragic masses that have no identity. In

his critical work, Sharad Rajimwale has noted Nila Shah’s criticism on the sympathetic

mentality of the upper caste writer:

“Velutha is a skilled paravan embodies the state of untouchable in free India.

His plight is not much different from that of Anand’s Bhaka. In spite of his

inborn noble qualities and physique he is not empowered to strike back. . .

Velutha, a God of Small Things ‘left no foot prints in sand, no ripples in

water’”. (Rajimwale 60)

Thus, the mainstream upper caste writers failed in faithful presentation of the Dalit

world and Dalit sensibility.

On the whole, the upper caste mainstream writers have presented the Dalit life and

world with a limitation. The non-Dalit writers have presented Dalits as the meek sufferers,

having no voice of their own. The limitation of the upper caste writers resulted in

presentation of the Dalits as merely the tragic masses. That is not the fact based or true

presentation of the Dalits and Dalit sensibility.

Thus, the task of true and authentic presentation of the Dalits must be justified by the

Dalit writers. In comparison with the mainstream upper caste writings, Dalit writings are
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authentic in its presentation of Dalit life and Dalit sensibility. As Dalit literature is different

from the mainstream literature; so is the Dalit aesthetics. The differences are discussed in

detail by Sharankumar Limbale in his critical work Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature:

History, Controversies and Considerations.

In aesthetics Dalit literature is different from the existed mainstream literature of the

non-Dalits. Dalit writers wanted sociological perspective for the Dalit aesthetics whereas the

mainstream literature presents pleasure or beauty as its aesthetics. So, Dalit writers are

rejecting the aesthetics of mainstream literature on the sociological ground:

Dalit writers believe that their literature should be analyzed from a

sociological perspective focused on social values than on beauty. . . Rejecting

traditional aesthetics, they insist on the need for a new and distinct aesthetic

for their literature–an aesthetic that is life-affirming and realistic. In other

words, Dalit writers have demanded different yardsticks for the literary

appraisal of their works. It is the firm conviction of the Dalit writers and

critics that if yardsticks change, the concept of aesthetics will change too.

(Limbale Towards 19)

According to Darshana Trivedi in Literature of their Own: Dalit Literary Theory in Indian

Context, about the Dalit aesthetics the Dalit authors and critics have ‘rejected all role models,

traditional literature, Eastern and Western critical theories and decided to create a literature
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of their own, an identity of their own.’ (2) The Dalits reject the traditional literature and

appreciated the Dalit literature as it gives prime importance to the Dalit affairs and issues.

Dalit literature possesses essence of realistic aesthetics. ‘The universe of Dalit

characters and Dalit life created by the Dalit writers makes Dalit literature a literature of

commitment.’ (Trivedi Tongues 3) As it is earlier discussed, considering that criteria of the

Dalit aesthetics, Dalit writers remain faithful to their writings. Dalits and their sufferings are

the sole importance for the Dalit literature that is completely out of narration in the non-Dalit

writings. Community comes first for Dalit writers than the individual, because it is about

Dalit community from whom everything has been robbed, even human identity too.

Sharankumar Limbale has explained this view point systematically:

For thousands of years, Dalits have been kept deprived of power,

property, and position. It was propounded that ‘god created this hierarchy’ . . .

Thousands of generations of Dalits have continued to endure this injustice.

Dalit society . . . . It is not the pain of any one person, nor it is of just

one day–it is the anguish of many thousands of people, experienced over

thousands of years. Therefore, it is expressed collectively. The anguish of

Dalit literature is not that of an individual but of the entire outcast society. . .

(Towards 30-31)

Dalit’s experiences and feelings are one of the subjects for the mainstream literature which is

the only subject of the Dalit literature. In short, the world of the Dalits which is not
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authentically touched by the mainstream writings is touched faithfully by the Dalit writers. In

this regard the words of a well known Dalit short story writer Baburao Bagul are quoted in

her Literature of their Own: Dalit Literary Theory in Indian Context by Dr. Darshana

Trivedi:

Dalit Literature is not a Literature of Vengeance. Dalit Sahitya is not a

literature which spreads hatred. Dalit Sahitya-first promotes man’s greatness

and man’s freedom and for that reason it is an historic necessity. (3)

The Dalit Literature is, in the words of Harish Mangalam:

Any work of literature which seeks to express in words, the pulses of those

sections of humanity which are oppressed hand which are engaged in

struggles for their existence deserves to be called, in the broadest sense, Dalit

literature. (Trivedi Tongues 2)

According to Arjun Dangle, the Dalit literature is having its own peculiar identity as it is

revealing something new to the world literature. He states in his article Dalit Literature:

Past, Present and Future that the Dalit literature is a depiction of the Dalit world which is

forcefully made lost in the dark by the non-Dalits:

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Dalit Literature is not simply literature. It is associated with a movement to

bring about change. It represents the hopes and ambitions of a new society and

new people. (Dangle 266)

These different definitions justly state that Dalit Literature has a separate identity from the

mainstream Literature.

The themes one finds in the writings of the Dalit writers are: Ambedkarite ideology,

the ancient-old pain, sufferings and anger, the problem of the untouchability, issues of the

exploitation of the Dalits, the exploitation of the Dalit women by the non-Dalit men, the

better life of equality in all areas like politics, economics, social, and the like. But above all

rests the Dalit life and its culture. ‘Protest against injustice, exploitation of Dalits by

savarnas, untouchability, social discrimination, the struggle to make two ends meet are all

inevitable of Dalit literature.’ (Parmar M. 182) But even in the 21st century the concept of the

equality is nothing but a Utopia for the Dalits.

The basic difference one cannotice in the literature of the non-Dalit writers and the

Dalit writers is that the first presents the romantic view of the life and the later realistic view

of the life. In an interview Harish Mangalam remarks:

Non-Dalit writers describe the beloved’s cheeks by comparing them with

roses and liken the beloved’s lips to rose petals. Readers have had enough of
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such monotony in literature. The question that arises is that is it ever possible

that every beloved’s cheeks like roses and lips like rose petals? Isn’t it a fact

that we complain of a decline in the reading activity? How would a reader’s

interest be sustained if he were able to guess half-way . . .(Trivedi Tongues

161)

Further he said that unlike the non-Dalit writers’ imaginative concept of beauty, the Dalit

writers reveal it with realistic approach:

The Dalit writer depicts the bare reality stripped of all its deceits: he doesn’t

believe in building castles in the air, his feet are firmly planted on the ground

and rooted in actuality. . . “The beloved’s cheeks were like hardened lumps of

jiggery and her lips were like wrinkled black clay.” The creativity of the

writer is certainly at work and cannot be under-rated for all its concreteness.

(Trivedi Tongues 161-62)

The beauty for the Dalits’ is struggle in poverty, hunger and harshness of life. The Telugu

Dalit poet Bandi Styanarayana has presented why the beauty of Dalits are different than that

of the non-Dalits in his poem A Tender Leaf (Chiguraku). Besides, the poet has presented

poverty and wretched condition of the Dalits. It is translated in English by T. Bharathi:

Born in the poverty of darkness

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So you never had sufficient food

Only in dreams you had good sleep–

Then how will you have

Smooth cheeks and long black hair? (Styanarayana B. 178)

Anger is the protest against existing evil practices against Dalits by the orthodox upper

castes. In the Dalit poetry the poets do not adore the beauty but anger. The poetry of Daya

Pawar is translated by Vidya Dixit, Karve and Eleanor Zelliot. Daya Pawar’s poem

Siddhartha Nagar reveals the inhumanity and coldness of the non-Dalits. The poet also

depicts the anger towards the hypocritical nature of the non-Dalits:

O Siddhartha, did you know

a project is going on to Change the hearts

of the bandits in Chambal valley;

and here in the cultured world

white collar inhumanity has reached a peak. (24-28, Pawar 137)

Daya Pawar’s poem You Wrote from Los Angeles exposes the sense of awareness of the

injustices of the non-Dalits’ caste system on one hand and the burning desire of anger of the

Dalits is aptly presented on the other:

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Indians and curs are measured with the same yard-stick;

‘Niggers,’ ‘Blacks!’ --this the abuse they fling me,

and deep in my heart a thousand scorpions sting me.”

Reading all this, I felt so damn good!

Now you’ve had a taste of what we’ve suffered

In this country from generation to generation. (2-7, Pawar 133)

Mina Gajbhiye’s poem is translated in English by Jayant Karve and Eleanor Zelliot under the

title The Weeping Wound of Centuries. The poem states rebellious nature of the poet who

does not want to live like Dalits of the past centuries but instead of that the poet prefers to

die. The poet does not want to suffer meekly rather desires to rebel against existing unequal

society:

From now I’ll live to die

Let the village become a burning ground

along with me

I will not live like a dog, nowhere. (6-9, Gajbhiye 77)

Similar touch of anger, a sense of wrong done to the Dalits, and fire of revolt are found in

K.G. Satyamurthy’s poem Nadustunna Charitra which is quoted in D. Padmarani’s

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Distinctive Voices of Distress. In this poem the poet wants to deconstruct the myth of

Eklavya, Shambuka, and Bali. The poet writes:

With smile on his face,

Shambhooka is killing Rama.

Bali is trampling Vamana

With his small feet to hell.

Manu is piercing his eyes with needles,

Cut his tongue,

Pouring leads in his ears

Is tossing and turning in the cemeteries. (3-10, Satyamurthy 82)

Next characteristic of Dalit aesthetics is that it is free from western theories of

literature. “T. S. Eliot’s theory of objective,” Darshana Trivedi remarks, “correlative or

experimental use of the myth and allusions is not found in the Dalit Poetry.” (Literature 5)

The Dalit writers are using the same local language as used by them in their day to day life.

This view point is nicely stated by the Dalit writer Narendra Jadhav in his Outcaste: A

Memoir through the central character Damu. This protagonist does not prefer polite language

instead chooses to use his local native tongue; as he utters:

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Arre, call a spade a spade . . . language when spoken should come alive with

meaning. It should have flavour . . . your polite, bland language is as insipid as

boiled potatoes. (Jadav 216)

In this way, the central character does not prefer to use ornamental language nor does he

wish that his children should use such ornamental language which does not give the real test

of tongue of native. The Dalit writers are using the language of the Dalit communities with a

view to relive the reality of the Dalit lives. ‘The Dalits from different states speak different

languages.’ (Sivaprakasam 80)

Hindu religion, religious scriptures, and Hindu gods and goddesses are also criticised

by Dalit writers because they present inequality among the people. Anger of Dalit authors

burst on Hindu religion, Hindu gods, and religious scripture. Bitter tongue is used to satirise

and criticise them:

Dalit writers have reacted bitterly to Hindu religious literature. . . . Shudras

were prohibited from learning Sanskrit, since it was regarded as the language

of gods. (Because of this reason, Babasaheb was not able to study Sanskrit;

instead, he had to study Farsi.) ‘Rama, the killer of Shambuka, cannot be our

ideal. Gita and Mahabharata, which support the caste system, cannot be

honoured by us’: this is the perspective of Dalit writers. (Towards 34)

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Use of local dialect is visible in the first collection of Marathi poems of Namdeo Dhasal, a

poet and a writer under title Golpitha (1972). Namdeo has written prose and poems in which

he has presented authentic portrait of Dalit world, Dalit life and Dalit sensibility. The Dalit

author has become spokesmen of the Indian oppressed masses in his literary writings:

Moorkh Mhataryane, Itihasatil Apaphavya, Khel, Priya Darshin, Ambedkari Chalawal, Tuhi

Iyatta Kanchi, Negative Space and Hadki Hadawala. These literary creations of Dhasal

represent anger as well as voice of protest against caste-based discrimination of Dalits.

Namdeo Dhasal, like other Dalit writers, has inspired and frequently stated Dr.

Ambedkar, who is recognised as the father of Dalit literature. Poverty as my own

Independent Piece of Land is one of the poems from the collection Golpitha. It is translated

by Dilip Chitre. In this poem the red light area of Mumbai city is portrayed by the poet with

the vernacular used by the men and women of the red light area. The miserable conditions of

Dalits are presented in the poem:

I am squeezed: in my yearning

Feminine beauty flowers

The Mona Lisa painted by Leonardo da Vinci

In the service of A-B

Rain driving down in sheets, a dying cigarette,

A dehydrated dancing girl,

Contrasting colour harmony

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I too have poverty as my own independent piece of

land… (20-28, Dhasal 73-74)

The use of local dialect with the first hand experiences of being Dalit is presented effectively

in the Gujarati poem Jivli. It is written by Dr. Maheshchandra Pandya, a Gujarati Dalit poet.

It is translated in English by Rupalee Burke and Darshna Trivedi:

The five husbands of Draupadi

Who witnessed quietly while

The Kauravas robbed her honour

I want to shoot them repeatedly. (14-17, Pandya 63)

In the poem, Hindu gods and great Hindu knights were criticised for their heinous actions.

The poet wants to even murder them for their actions. Dalit writers are even not ready to give

up any one or any god who had/have robbed them of their dignity and identity. The use of

local vernacular enriches the Dalit writings.

Similarly use of bitter tongue is observed in Om Prakash Valmiki’s short story Amma.

Valmiki is well-known for his use of language. His use of simple and direct dialect

contributes to the authenticity of the writing. The story presents a strong Dalit woman who

struggles to overcome the odds of life. Though she is poor, she lives with pride and dignity.
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She is strong enough to teach lesson to the adulterous non-Dalit men like Vinod. The sexual

advancement of the upper caste Vinod is rewarded with the beating at the hands of Dalit

Amma. Further she tells the incident to other upper caste woman Hardei. She gets angry and

says to Amma:

After that you should’ve beaten the dog with the broom and taken him to

street. That would’ve completed the disgrace of the mother-fucker–seeing him

run with his ganpati swinging about. (Valmiki Amma 168)

Poetry of Siddhalingaiah, a Dalit Kannada poet, presents a realistic tongue. One of his

poems My People presents the use of direct and simple language. The use of simple language

is used to present entire Dalit community’s experiences –sufferings, agonies, traumas and

pains. This kind of heart felt pain could never be presented by the upper caste mainstream

writers. The poem is translated into English by K. Narasimha Murthy:

And get crushed for their pains under the debris

Who, fallen by the wayside, voiceless, weep

within themselves

These, these are my people. (16-19, Siddhalingaiah 249)

It is deeply rooted in the psyche of the Dalits that religion is used to deprive Dalits of

all equality: economic, social, political, and religious. Jotirao Phule, the pioneer of Dalit

uplift movement wrote radical literature that exposed the Hindu gods and Hindu religious

texts. He satirised very harshly Brahmins and their nonsense teaching of religious literature.
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In his play Slavery (Gulamgiri), he used very bitter tongue to criticise the orthodox Hindus

and their gods. His use of such bitter language is seen in the dialogue between Jotirao and

Dhondiba. In this work, Phule exposed the original creation of the Brahmin, Shudra and

others in Hindu social system. He wanted to enlighten the downtrodden masses. So his

writings are full of sharp, harsh and bitter-tongue.

To deprive and to push to the level of sub-human conditions, the orthodox Hindus

had used religion, gods and goddesses as their means. This mean scheme of the shallow-)

anything good for Dalits. If He had done anything then Dalits too have the dignified life of

human being.

In The Outcaste: Akkarmashi, the autobiography of Sharankumar Limbale, anger of

Parshya, one of the writer’s childhood friends furiously fell on Hindu God’s idol.

Autobiography writer has depicted the incident of his childhood realistically. Unlike the

author, his Dalit friend Parshya was having angry personality. His bitterness against the

orthodox Hindus was burst on the idol of the upper caste Hindus’ God. He pissed on the icon

of the Bhutalsidh temple:

Parshya was a very bitter boy. . . . That rascal had recklessly pissed on God.

(Limbale The Outcaste 4)

Even at the tender age, the anger is fused in the Dalits which sometimes come out in such

reaction. Ignominy and indifferent dealings towards the Dalits are the major factors that

Dalits are ruthlessly satirise Hindu religion and Hindu gods.

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Caste is one of the barriers for Dalits to progress. The social system like religion,

religious literature, and Hindu gods is used to deprive Dalits of their dignity and identity

being human. So, hatred for caste system is commonly presented in the literary creations of

the Dalit writers. It is because of the caste system the Dalits are sufferings. They are

humiliated every where they go also because of caste-based discrimination. As a result a

phobia has dominated the minds of the Dalits called ‘non-Dalit phobia’. In the short poem

Caste of Bharti, a Punjabi Dalit poet this ‘non-Dalit phobia’ is presented. It is translated into

English form Punjabi by Narinder Bhangu:

If you could do,

know my wretched position,

wash the stain of my low caste,

tagged with my name

life long. (12-16, Bharti 155)

The Dalit father is depressingly remarked to his son that in this world of the non-Dalits do

not ask him to raise him (son) to make him (son) a big man or legend. Because if he tries to

do it than his caste will become a hurdle. On the contrary, he suggests his son to write down

notes of the wretched conditions of him because of the caste-system of the non-Dalits.

Another poem Caste Meaning by Bharti shows the cruelty of non-Dalits’ caste-

system. The lyric is translated from Punjabi into English by Narinder Bhangu:
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It is tragic

to be of low caste

..........

its meaning is

of course, very complex

sharper than a sword

killer than a bullet

where in its eyes

rusty layers of hatred are seen

over the centuries; (1-2, 9-15, Bharti 155)

How caste system has restored all the benefits to the non-Dalits and no profit on the part of

the Dalits is presented in the poem. The reason according to the poet is the social system

which has been established by the non-Dalits.

The ‘non-Dalit phobia’ is profoundly rooted in Dalit psyche because of centuries’

caste-based discrimination. The ‘non-Dalit phobia’ is well exposed in the short poem Caste.

It is written by Omprakash Valmiki. It is translated into English by Naresh Jain:

I refuse

to enter

your swarga [heaven]

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after death.

There too

you will know me

only by my caste. (Valmiki 175)

Effect of ‘the non-Dalit phobia’ has so strong hold on Dalits that the Dalit poet even afraid of

the heaven because he feels that even in heaven inequality of caste would be prevailed. Life

on earth is quite miserable and the worst to live on for the Dalits so would be in heaven. As a

result, the Dalit poet is firmly rejecting the heaven to enter after death.

Dalit culture is a rich in its language, especially vernacular, in its customs, in its folk

traditions etc. In Dalit literary works the richness of Dalit culture is presented. In Joseph

Mackwan’s novel The Stepchild: Angaliyat, the Dalit novelist has presented rich culture of

Dalits. In the caste-system of the Hindus, Dalits are the on the bottom still Dalits are far more

advance in their customs. They accept changes easily. Mackwan has depicted it realistically.

The customs of Dalits are advanced regarding remarriage and widow marriage:

Like Valji, Bijal was also quite popular. And after all nothing new to this caste

which accepted remarriages–marriages between brothers and sisters-in-law

took place and widow remarriages also. (Macwan 68)

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Methi married to Chunthia. They have son Gokal by name. Chunthia is a drunkard. So, Methi

declares that she will live for Teeha. Further, she will spend her life in taking care of Teeha

whom she loves and respects. Without any oppose, the Dalit community has accepted the

declaration of Methi:

‘I have followed this one (Teeha) openly, putting aside my marital

status. . .now I must be in his service for the rest of my life. Since I came here

leaving behind a living husband, I cannot be considered a widow. But as long

as my previous husband is alive, I cannot start a family with him. . . .’(83)

Similarly, Bama, an eminent Dalit writer, in her novel Sangati: Events has presented

modernity of Dalit culture. Customs of Dalits are different than that of the upper castes

Hindus. Further, in terms of customs, Dalits are much advance than the upper castes. The

Dalits have advance tradition regarding marriage. For marriage, the non-Dalit bride has to

give dowry whereas the Dalit groom has to give cash gifts to the bride in order to marry:

We give girls what we can afford . . . . The groom’s family will see to all the

wedding expenses. We don’t have to give any money. It’s the groom who

gives a cash gift and takes away and marries her. (Bama 112)
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‘Widow Remarriage’ is common in the Dalit communities. ‘That's the custom in our

community.’ (Bama 113) The important facts regarding Dalits’ world are narrated by using

reality. Thus, realism is one of the bases on which foundation of Dalit literature laid.

Vemula Yellaiah, a well-known Telugu Dalit writer has presented authentic picture of

Madiga, one of the Dalit caste people of South India in his novel Kakka. Novelist has

depicted the rich culture of Dalits. Modern thinking of the Dalits is represented by the

character of Kakka. His mother was humiliated by his own community and they were

excommunicated from the village. His mother was widow. Kakka wanted her mother to be

happy. So he decided to get her remarry. When his Kalemma came to know this notion of

Kakka, she was worried about the society:

‘What’s this, Kakka? Whoever might have told you this? Does the

society spare us if one’s son gets one’s own mother married off? Arey, do you

advise me to get married again?’ (Ellaiah 298)

But Kakka was firm to do so. He searches proper person for his mother and finds Bolguri

Kondaiah from native village with the help of Potter-Magngaiah, who suggested the name of

Bolguri Kondaiah. Thus, Kakka finds husband for her mother’s remarriage:
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Kakka said, ‘Amma, I’ve gone to the village where you would live after your

remarriage. The man, Bolguri Kondaiah seemed a good man – the man who

would be my father. . . I’m fixing your re-marriage . . .

While sending off his mother with father . . . Kakka asked his mother to take

care of herself, and his mother in turn asked to the son to take care of himself.

‘Amma, let me take leave of you,’ as the son said, ‘Let me take leave of you,

my son,’ the mother said. They consoled each other. (298-99)

This incident became talk of the village but no body opposed the action of Kakka. The son

did not go with his mother at his step-father’s house to live, rather he decided to live alone it

his village. It shows that Dalit community is ready to accept new changes which let

understand the world that the Dalits are advance in their thinking and practical approaches:

‘This fellow is so great! Being a son, he got his mother marred off,’

the village folk felt it an unusual event. . . (299)

Thus, Dalit writers have spread unheard and unseen rich aroma of Dalit life, community and

culture over the world by presenting them faithfully and genuinely in their writings.

Dalit writers also reject the established standards of evaluating literature. They want

new standards for Dalit writings by which Dalit literature must be evaluated. It shows a

marked changed into literary aesthetics i.e., form a sophisticated perspective to a realistic

aesthetics sense. In D. Padmarani’s Distinctive Voices of Distress, she interprets the words of
 293

Sharankumar Limbale about the Dlait literature. In its form, purpose and function

Sharankumar Limbale describes the Dalit literature in his Dalit Literature and Aesthetics:

Dalit literature is written with the purpose of conveying the anguish and

suffering of the Dalits and demands an antidote for it. Its aim is not to teach or

preach. It derives its strength through the depiction of hard reality. So the

basis for aesthetics of Dalit literature is pain, agony and torture. (84)

The soul of the Dalit Literature is the human being and humanity. Thus, Man is even more

important than to God for the Dalit writers. Likewise, humanity is more important for Dalit

writers than spirituality. Similarly, love for human is more important for the Dalit writers

than religion. Thus, ‘Dalit Literature considers man as its centre and depicts trauma, pain,

exploitation and suppression of the community in a very creative and lucid expressive ways.’

(Sharma P. 7)

The chief difference between the two is that the Dalit literature is connected with the

naked reality of the life whereas the mainstream literature is based on their romanticism and

idealism. The Dalit literature presents–the writings of the Dalits which is closely interwoven

with Dalit life stories. Thus, the reality is the base of the Dalit literature. The untold and

unheard pains of the Dalits are very aptly presented in Manish Parmar’s poem Our Heritage.

The poem reveals the century old pains of Dalits:

An old water-pot, rags, torn mattress,

 294

A broken cot is our heritage.

Try if you can mend it with a needle,

A broken life-wish is our heritage. (Parmar M. 75)

The non-Dalits social and religious attitudes are very irrational and are based on inequality.

These social and religious attitudes of the non-Dalits are rightly observed by Dr. Ambedkar:

Hinduism is a denial of equality both social as well as religious, and it is also

a degradation of human personality. . . Hinduism denies freedom of a

vocation. . . It denies the common man the right to knowledge. Hinduism, far

from encouraging spread of knowledge, is a gospel of darkness. There is also

absence of fraternity. A spirit of hatred and contempt has actually pervaded

the Hindu society. The class war is a permanent phenomenon which is silently

but surely working its way. (Mandal 32)

This notion of inequality, realistic appearance of life, pain and trauma of the Dalits is aptly

presented in the poetry of the Dalit versifier Arvind Vegada. In his poem Hadaselo, quoted

by Pathik Parmar in his article Gujarati Dalit Poetry, the injustice felt by him cannot best

being presented by the non-Dalit writers:

He is a man,

We are not human beings

Because we have lifted up the dead bodies

 295

of our shadows on the shoulders and we

have not learnt to push the air aside. (Vegada 158)

The same opinion is shared by Sharankumar Limbale, the writer of Akkarmashi. In it he has

revealed the ugly and selfish lot of non-Dalits who like to drink liquor at the hands of the

Dalits but could not drink water given by them:

Mahalasha Kotwal, Chandu Pujari, Basu Ajjya, Bhallu, Sharanu the tobacco

dealer, Hatale Malesha, were some others who drank regularly. Thus the

streets of the Maharwada were always sprinkled with intoxication. These

boozers had no qualms about downing our liquor, but they would not touch

water offered by a Mahar. They could have a Mahar woman, but not food

prepared by her. (Bastard 120)

Besides, in the Dalit Literature there is a rejection of the Western and Indian theories.

“Dalit literature rejects” According to Darshana Trivedi “Western theories like Freud’s

Psychoanalysis, Barthe’s structuralism or Derrida’s deconstruction theory, it also rejects

Indian theories of rasa and Dhawni.” (Literature 6) In her Literature of their Own: Dalit

Literary Theory in Indian Context by Darshana Trivedi, she has translated C. B. Bharti’s

Hindi article, The Aesthetics of Dalit Literature in which he has stated about the Dalit

Literature:
 296

The aim of Dalit Literature is to protest against the established system which

is based on injustice and to expose to evil and hypocrisy of the higher castes.

There is an urgent need to create a separate aesthetics for Dalit literature, an

aesthetics based on the real experiences of life. (6)

The statement is quite right related to the Dalit literature, one cannot, for example, find the

beauty of the Dalit women in the physical beauty but is found on the face while she works in

the field.

Dalit literature in English and of regional languages of the present time has broken

the past boundaries made for Dalits by the non-Dalits. Dalit writers are carrying forward the

struggle of Mahatma Phule and Dr. Ambedkar through their literary creations. Dalit writers

present Dalit culture, Dalit milieu, Dalit life, Dalit sensibility and Dalit language as it is;

which are quite different than that of the non-Dalits’. So, Dalit literature is also different

from the mainstream literature. As a result, the aesthetics of Dalit literature is different than

that of the non-Dalits’ literature.

Therefore, until the rise of Dalit literature, the non-Dalit writers and critics have

evaluated literature from aesthetics of the mainstream literature. Emergence of Dalit

literature is out of cry for freedom, equality, justice and love. So it is different from the

mainstream literature. In Dalit literature imagination is replaced by reality, pleasure by pain

and suffering, beauty by struggle for identity and dignity, and love by quest for equality. Aim

of Dalit literature is quite different from the non-Dalits’ literature. Likewise, aesthetics of
 297

Dalit literature are different and unique from mainstream’s literature. Thus, the upper castes’

writers and critics cannot evaluate Dalit literature or Dalit aesthetics.

Thus, Dalit literature is emerged out of inequality, anger, pain, sufferings, and revolt

against Dalits’ social, political and economic discrimination. Therefore, unlike mainstream

writings, Dalit literature is based on realism. In an interview with Rupalee Burke and

Darshana Trivedi, Dr. Mohan Parmar, a Gujarati Dalit writer has defined characteristics of

Dalit literature:

Dalit literature portrays dreadful circumstances which engulf Dalits, with a

view to awakening social awareness. . . Thus, social commitment is at the root

of Dalit literature. Such characteristics make themselves felt when a definition

is attempted. One may consider these characteristics to be a wholly different

kind of content . . . (The Silver 83)

In the same interview Mohan Parmar has presented the characteristics of Dalit literature.

They are:

(1) Dalit existence or way of life.

(2) The portrayal of Dalit problems in the work of literature.

(3) Speech and behaviour patterns and customs of Dalit characters.

 298

(4) Dalit sensibility and the context of the work.

(5) Internal and external emotions arising from actions.

(6) Implications of realistic Dalit problems.

(7) The surfacing of Dalit consciousness in an unfamiliar reality. (The

Silver 83)

In a conversation with Alok Mukherjee, Sharankumar Limbale has presented rational

and logical argument to present Dalit aesthetics. He said:

Ambedkarite thought is the aesthetics of Dalit literature. . . I have written that

this literature cannot be evaluated on the basis of either Sanskrit aesthetics or

western aesthetics. The aesthetics of this literature can only be based on the

thinking of Ambedkar and Phule. (Towards 147-48)

The Dalit aesthetics are: 1) Materialistic Aesthetics: ‘Dalit literature rejects spiritualism

and abstraction, its aesthetics is materialist rather than spiritualist.’ (Towards 116)

Sharankumar Limbale has explained the Materialistic Aesthetics:

• Human beings are first and foremost human –this is satyam.

• The liberation of human beings is shivam.

• The humanity of human being is sundaram. (Towards 22)

 299

2) Ambedkarite Thought: ‘Values of equality, freedom, justice and solidarity are

inherent to this [Dalit] literature.’ (Towards 120)

Likewise, to evaluate Dalit literature, Limbale has presented following standards:

• Artists must be motivated by their experience.

• Artists must socialize their experiences.

• Artists’ experiences must have the strength to cross provincial

boundaries.

• Artists’ experiences must seem relevant to all time. (Towards 120)

Thus, Dalit writers have used effectively and passionately these features of Dalit

literature and aesthetics in their literary writings. Dalit literature began with the regional

languages effectively in the post-independent era in twentieth century. By the twenty first

century Dalit literature has emerged as a new identity of Indians; the Dalit identity.

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