Chapter 1

Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been developed as a way to
control pests without relying solely on pesticides. IPM is a systematic plan
which brings together different pest control tactics into one program. This
Chapter defines IPM, the various pest control methods used in IPM, and
how to set up an IPM program, and provides information to help pesticide
applicators manage insects, plant diseases, weeds, and vertebrate pests.

Integrated Pest Management

provides farmers with choices
about how to manage pests
safely and effectively.
Photo: NRCS

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

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 Notes Page

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Section 1: What Is Integrated
Pest Management?
With IPM, a farmer uses pesticides as one tool in an overall pest-control
program. Let’s look at what each of the words in the term Integrated Pest
Management means:

w Integrated: a focus on interactions of pests, crops, the environ-

ment, and various control methods. This approach considers all
available tactics and how these tactics fit with other agricultural
practices used.
Integrated Pest
w Pest: an organism that conflicts with our profit, health, or con- Management, or
venience. If a species does not exist in numbers that seriously affect IPM, is managing
these factors, it is not considered a pest. crops using many
tactics to keep
w Management: a way to keep pests below the levels where they can pest levels below
cause economic damage. Management does not mean eradicating an economic
pests. It means finding tactics that are effective and economical, and threshold.
that keep environmental damage to a minimum.

This Section describes the development of IPM and the cultural, biological,
mechanical, physical, chemical, and legal control methods used in IPM.

Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the difference among the Economic Damage, Economic
Injury Level, and Economic Threshold.
2. Identify the three elements of a successful IPM program.
3. Provide two reasons why pest management has shifted from
routine pesticide application to IPM.

Terms to Know:
w Economic damage (ED)
w Economic injury level (EIL)
w Economic threshold (ET)
w Host
w Integrated pest management (IPM)
w Pest
w Pest signs
w Pest symptoms

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 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Almost all farmers do at least some IPM through normal crop production
practices. Integrated pest management is a balanced, tactical approach
to pest control. It involves taking action to anticipate pest outbreaks and
to prevent potential damage. IPM utilizes a wide range of pest control
strategies or tactics. The goal of this strategy is to prevent pests from
reaching economically or aesthetically damaging levels with the least risk
to the environment.

IPM programs are very site-specific. IPM is based on the identification of

pests, accurate measurement of pest populations, assessment of damage
levels, and knowledge of available pest management strategies or tactics
that enable the specialist to make intelligent decisions about control.
IPM offers the possibility of improving the effectiveness of pest control
programs while reducing some of the negative effects. Many successful
IPM programs have reduced pesticide use and increased protection of the
environment.

Pesticide use is and will continue to be significant in food and fiber

production, forestry, turf and landscape maintenance, and public health.
Pest management has shifted from relying heavily on pesticides to using
an integrated approach based on pest assessment, decision making, and
evaluation.

Why Practice IPM?

Why have pest managers shifted to IPM when chemical pesticides so
often succeed at controlling pests? There are many reasons to broaden pest
management beyond the use of chemicals.
w IPM helps to keep a balanced ecosystem. Every ecosystem, made
up of living things and their non-living environment, has a balance;
the actions of one kind of organism in the ecosystem usually
affect other species. Introducing chemicals into the ecosystem
can change this balance, destroying certain species and allowing
other species (sometimes pests themselves) to dominate. Pesticides
can kill beneficial insects that consume pests, leaving few natural
mechanisms of pest control.
w Pesticides can be ineffective. Chemical pesticides are not always
effective. Pests can become resistant to pesticides. In fact, some
600 cases of pests developing pesticide resistance have been
documented to date, including many common weeds, insects, and
disease-causing fungi. Furthermore, pests may survive in situations
where the chemical does not reach pests, is washed off, is applied at
an improper rate, or is applied at an improper life stage of the pest.

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 w IPM can save money. IPM can avoid crop loss caused by pests
and prevent unnecessary pesticide expense. Applicators can save
on pesticide costs because the need for control, rather than routine
application triggered by the calendar, is the basis for applying
pesticides.

w IPM promotes a healthy environment­. We have much to learn

about the persistence of chemicals in the environment and their
effect on living creatures. Cases of contaminated groundwater
appear each year, and disposal of containers and unused pesticides
still pose challenges for applicators. Make sure that environmental
impacts are considered in any pest management decisions. Using
IPM strategies helps keep adverse effects to a minimum.

w IPM maintains a good public image. IPM is now demanded by

many sectors of our society. IPM has been implemented to grow our
food, to manage turf and ornamentals, to protect home and business
structures, to manage school grounds, and to protect humans, pets,
and livestock health.

Components of an Integrated Pest Management Scouting is the

Program Key Feature
of IPM
Planning is at the heart of an IPM program. Every crop has pests that need
to be considered. If you wait until problems arise during a growing season,
you’ll end up relying on pesticides more and more.
Pest monitoring by using a
sweep net.
A good Integrated Pest Management program has three components: Photo: National Pesticide
Applicator Certification
1) identifying and monitoring pest problems; Core Manual, NASDARF

2) selecting the best pest management tactics;

3) recordkeeping and evaluating the program.

By considering each of these components, applicators can set

up an IPM program for insects, plant diseases, weeds, and
vertebrate pests.

Identify and Monitor Pests

You have to know what’s happening in your fields before
you can make good management decisions. Never classify
an organism as a pest or treat it as a pest until it is clearly
determined to be one. You should scout your crops often and
on a regular basis to identify and monitor pest populations
and/or the resulting damage or losses, track crop growth and
field conditions, and find other problems. Scouting is, in fact,
the key feature of any IPM program.

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

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 By scouting, you will be able to detect potential problems early. The earlier
you discover a problem, the better your chances are of avoiding economic
losses. The procedures for monitoring vary with the pest and the situation.
Weather and temperature data are particularly helpful in following a pest’s
life cycle or in predicting how long it takes a certain pest to develop.
Models have been developed for a number of insects and plant diseases to
predict the need for and timing of pesticide applications.

To scout effectively, you have to:

w Know the crop’s growth characteristics to recognize abnormal or
damaged plants.
w Identify the cause of the problem to know what kind of pest you
are dealing with. If you encounter something you cannot identify,
contact your county Extension educator.
w Determine the stage of growth of the pest and the crop. This is
essential for proper timing of control methods.
w Decide whether the infestation is increasing or decreasing.
w Assess the condition of the crop.
w Map problem areas. It may be possible to limit the area that needs
treatment.
w Use the right scouting method for the specific pest.

Identification is important
whether you are The Four Main Groups
dealing with an insect, of Pests
weed, plant disease, or
vertebrate. Be certain w Weeds – undesirable plants.
any injury or observed w Invertebrates – insects, mites,
damage is actually due ticks, spiders, snails, and slugs.
to the identified pest and w Disease agents or pathogens –
not some other cause. bacteria, viruses, fungi,
Misidentification and nematodes mycoplasmas, and
lack of information about other microorganisms.
a pest could cause you
w Vertebrates – birds, reptiles,
to choose the wrong amphibians, fish, and rodents and
control method or apply other mammals.
the control at the wrong
time—these are the most
frequent causes of pest-
control failure. Keep in
mind that plants may be
damaged by non-living
agents, such as weather
extremes, air pollutants,
road salt, and inadequate
or excessive fertilization.
Sometimes this damage
Photo: National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core
is mistaken for that Manual, NASDARF
caused by living pests.

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Once you have identified the pest and confirmed that it is causing damage,
become familiar with its life cycle, growth, and reproductive habits.
Because IPM focuses not just on the pest, but also on underlying causes
that increase pest numbers, look at such factors temperature, cultural
practices, and soil moisture that may affect a pest’s life cycle, behavior, or
ability to reproduce. The more you know about a pest, the easier and more
successful pest management becomes.

Pests may leave signs of their

presence or symptoms of
characteristic damage on hosts and
can help you in pest identification.
Pest symptoms include such
things as insect feeding indicators,
discoloration from diseases,
or reduced plant growth due
to competition with weeds for
nutrients. Pest signs are parts of the
pest itself or other evidence of their
presence.

The cabbage looper looks much different

Rodents and some other mammals
here, in its mature larval stage, than in its
immature or pupal stages. dig distinctive burrows in the
Photo: Iowa State Extension ground and often leave identifying
gnaw marks on tree trunks or other
objects. Insect and rodent droppings also are distinctive and important
identification aids. Fruiting bodies of some fungi are easily seen. Weeds
may have unique flowers, seeds, fruits, or growth habits. Fungi and other
pathogens often cause specific types of damage, deformation, or color
changes in host tissues.

Identification books, Extension bulletins, field guides, and reference

materials are available that contain pictures and biological information Note:
For plant diseases,
on pests and pest identification. Another option is to have pests examined
submit undamaged
and identified by pest-management consultants or specialists. specimens,
such as healthy
When having pests identified, always collect several specimens. Have foliage, along
plastic bags, vials, or other suitable containers available when collecting with the damaged
foliage. For more
samples in the field. Be sure to include the location and date of the
information
collection. Often the pest’s host (the animal or plant on which an organism about submitting
lives) and location are important to making a positive identification. plant disease
Information on the environmental conditions at the collection site and the samples, contact
season of collection provides additional clues to the pest’s identity. the University of
Minnesota Plant
Disease Clinic:
Kill insects first and send them to the specialist in a manner that will not http://pdc.umn.
damage body parts that aid in identification. The small size of certain edu/
insects and most mites, nematodes, and plant pathogens poses a difficulty
in identifying them in the field. Accurate identification often requires use
of a hand lens or microscope, special tests, or careful analysis of damage.
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management
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 Pest species may have different physical forms depending on their life
cycles or the time of year. Weed seedlings, for example, often do not
resemble the mature plant. Many insect species undergo changes in
appearance as they develop from eggs through immature stages (nymph,
larva, and pupa) to the adult form.

Select the Best Management Tactics

Your goal in selecting pest management tactics is to use methods that are
effective, practical, economical, and environmentally sound. To select the
best control tactics, you have to:

w Understand the life cycle and habits of the pest. Some control
methods will work only if they are used at the right time.
w Decide whether the infestation is serious in terms of
economic loss.
w Compare the costs and benefits of various control methods.
w Make plans for the future. Not every part of an IPM program
can be put into effect immediately. Some tactics, such as planting
resistant varieties or rotating crops, require long-range planning.

The presence of a pest does not always cause a loss in quality or quantity
of an agricultural product. To justify the cost of control, pest populations
must be large enough to cause significant damage. Using IPM can help
agricultural producers to determine if the benefits of pesticides and other
pest-management tactics exceed the costs of control. If benefits don’t exceed
costs, time and money are wasted. A number of economic concepts are
helpful in determining the point at which it pays to use pesticides or other
treatment:

w Economic damage (ED) occurs when the cost of preventable

crop damage exceeds the cost of control. For example, if corn is
worth $2.00 a bushel and an insecticide costs $14.00 an acre, then
economic damage occurs when insect damage causes a yield loss of
seven or more bushels an acre (ED = cost of treatment/crop value =
$14/A/$2/bushel = 7 bushel).
w Economic injury level (EIL) is the lowest pest population that
will cause economic damage. For many pests it is important to use
control measures before this level is reached.
w Economic threshold (ET) is the pest population level at which a
control tactic should be started to keep the pest population from
reaching the EIL. (The ET is also called the action threshold.)
Economic thresholds have been established for a number of crop/
pest systems, in particular those involving insects. This information
is available from the University of Minnesota Extension. Research
is being done to develop ETs for weeds and diseases.

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Economic thresholds are available
for many pests and crops. Several
factors can influence an economic
threshold. These factors include
the current value of the agricultural
or ornamental product, its stage
of development, the degree of
damage caused under various
environmental conditions, the
cost and effectiveness of control
measures, and the anticipated
yield. For example, even slight
damage may reduce the value of
certain fruits and vegetables, so
the economic threshold must be set To make a control practice profitable, or at least break even, it is nec-
low. essary to set the economic threshold (ET) below the economic injury
level (EIL). Graphic: National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core
Manual, NASDARF

Record and Evaluate Results

It is very important to record and evaluate the results of your control
efforts. Keeping crop and pest records is easier than ever with the many
factsheets, booklets, and software programs now available. Some control
methods, especially non-chemical procedures, are slow to yield measurable
results. Other methods may be ineffective or even damaging to the target
crop, animal, treated surface, or natural predators and parasites. Consider
how well your IPM strategies work and their impact on the environment
before implementing them again.

Evaluation means deciding how effective a program is and whether any

changes are needed. To evaluate an IPM program, you should:

w Monitor your fields and keep records. Each time you visit your
fields, make a note of crop and
pest conditions—record crop
yields and quality, and record any
counts on pest populations.
w Record control measures.
Records should include dates,
weather conditions, pest levels,
application rates and timing, and At the end of each growing
costs. Good records are a guide season, evaluate how well
if the same problem occurs. They your IPM program worked.
Photo: NRCS
are also a good legal safeguard.
w Compare effectiveness. Whatever control tactics are chosen, use
a different method on some strips. That way you can compare
methods: which worked better, taking into account costs and
environmental impacts?

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

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 Section 2: Pest Management
Methods
The goal of most IPM programs is to maintain pest damage at
economically acceptable levels while protecting the environment and
human health. Prevention and suppression techniques are often combined
in an effective IPM program. In rare instances, pest eradication may be
needed. The strategy for a sound IPM program is to coordinate the use
of multiple tactics into a single integrated system. Pesticides are just
one method for controlling pests, and this Section describes the various
options. Non-chemical methods may provide longer and more permanent
control of a pest and should always be considered when developing a pest
management strategy. Evaluate the costs, benefits, and liabilities of each
control tactic.

Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the differences between natural and applied controls.
2. Give an example of each method of pest control: biological,
mechanical, cultural, genetic, chemical, and regulatory.
3. Explain how government may stop the spread of pests.
4. Identify the stage in the life cycle of an annual, biennial, and
perennial plant when it is most susceptible to pesticide use.

Terms to Know:
w Contact pesticide w Residual pesticide
w Mode of action w Selective pesticide
w Pesticide w Systemic pesticide
w Pesticide resistance

Pest Control Goals

There are many tactics that are effective in controlling pests, and each
one (or combinations) will give pesticide applicators the best strategy for a
specific goal.

Prevention
Prevention, suppression, and eradication are three approaches to maintain
pest damage below economic levels. Prevention includes such things as
planting weed- and disease-free seed and growing varieties of plants
resistant to diseases or insects, sanitation, using cultural controls to prevent
weedy plants from seeding, and choosing planting or harvesting times that
minimize pest problems. Pesticides are sometimes used for pest prevention
as well.

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Suppression
Suppressive pest-control methods are used to reduce pest population levels.
The methods chosen usually do not eliminate all pests, but reduce their
populations to a tolerable level or to a point below an economic injury level;
additional suppressive measures may be required if the first attempt does
not achieve the management goal.

Eradication
Eradication is the total elimination of a pest from a designated area. Over
larger areas eradication may be very expensive and often has limited
success. Large eradication programs are usually directed at exotic or
introduced pests posing an immediate area-wide public health or economic
threat.

Pest Management Methods

The pest control strategy or tactics you choose depends on the nature of the
pest, the environment of the pest, and economic or tolerance considerations.
The combination of prevention and suppression techniques usually
enhances a pest-management program. When implementing the IPM
program, try to select the methods that are the most effective and the least
harmful to people and the environment. Use several methods whenever
possible, and be sure to use them correctly. It is also important to observe
all state and federal regulations regarding the methods chosen or combined
in an IPM program.

Natural controls are the measures that check or destroy pests without
depending on humans for their continuance or success. Natural controls
include climatic factors such as wind, temperature, sunshine, and rain.
Topographic features such as rivers, lakes, and mountains can influence
pest movement. Naturally occurring predators, parasites, and pathogens can
regulate pest populations.

When natural controls have not held pests in check, humans must intervene
and apply pest-management controls. Maintaining populations of natural
enemies by avoiding damaging cultural practices or the indiscriminate
use of pesticides can be one of the most economical means of control. If
pesticides are part of your control program, select types that are known
to be less toxic to natural enemies or, if recommended, apply pesticides at
lower-than-label rates to avoid harming natural enemies. Sometimes it is
possible to modify certain parts of the environment, such as by planting
crops or ground covers, to maintain or enhance natural enemies.

Biological Control
Most pests have natural enemies that control or suppress them effectively
in some situations. Natural enemies, including pathogens and insects, are
being used successfully as biological control agents to manage certain

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

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 insect, mite, fungus, animal, and weed pests. Biological control is often
directed against pests that are not native to a geographical area. Introduced
pests often cause problems in their new locations because they lack natural
enemies to help control them. Laws have been enacted that strictly control
the importation of all organisms, including biological control agents, into
the United States, to prevent these organisms from also becoming pests.

Biological control also involves the mass release of large numbers of

natural enemies into fields, orchards, greenhouses, or other locations to
control specific pests. This method usually does not have long-term results,
so these natural enemies must be released periodically. Several natural
enemies are reared or cultured commercially. Predatory mites are used to
control plant-feeding spider mites. Parasitic wasps and lacewings are used
to control various insect pests. Nematodes and fungi are being studied
as biological control agents for certain weeds and some insects. General
predators, such as praying mantids and lady beetles, are sold with claims
made for biological control. In many cases, however, their effectiveness has
not been established.

Mechanical Control
Mechanical control involves the use of devices, machines, and other
physical methods to control pests or alter their environment. Traps, screens,
barriers, fences, and nets are examples of devices used to prevent pest
activity or remove pests from an area.

Cultivation
Cultivation is one of the most important methods of controlling weeds. It is
also used for some insects and other soil-inhabiting pests. Devices such as
plows, disks, mowers, cultivators, and bed conditioners physically destroy
weeds or control their growth and disrupt soil conditions suitable for the
survival of some microorganisms and insects.

Exclusion
Exclusion is a mechanical
control technique that
consists of using barriers to
prevent pests from getting
into an area. Window
screens, for example,
exclude flies, mosquitoes,
and other flying insects.
Patching or sealing cracks, Bird netting is used to protect fruits and other crops from
crevices, and other small bird damage. Photo: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
openings in buildings can
exclude insects, rodents, bats, birds, or other pests. Fences and ditches
make effective barriers against many vertebrate pests. Wire or cloth mesh
excludes birds from fruit trees. Sticky material painted onto tree trunks,
posts, wires, and other objects prevents crawling insects from crossing.

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Trapping
Traps physically catch pests within an area or building. Several types of
traps are commonly used. Some kill animals that come in contact with the
trap; others snare animals so they can then be relocated or destroyed. Traps
are either mechanical devices or sticky surfaces.

Cultural Control
The goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of
the host, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. It
disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes
the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce. Cultural practices and
sanitation are two examples of cultural control.

Cultural Practices
Many cultural practices influence the survival of pests. In agricultural
crops, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting,
irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce
populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests.
Weeds also can be managed by mulching (with plastic, straw, shredded
bark, or wood chips) and by using cover crops.

Sanitation
Sanitation, or source reduction, involves eliminating food, water,
shelter, or other necessities important to the pest’s survival. In crop
production, sanitation includes such practices as removing weeds that
harbor pest insects or rodents, eliminating weed plants before they produce
seed, destroying diseased plant material or crop residues, and keeping field
borders or surrounding areas free of pests and pest breeding sites. Animal
manure management is an effective sanitation practice used for preventing
or reducing fly problems in poultry and livestock operations.

Host Resistance or Genetic Control

Sometimes plants and animals can be bred or selected to resist specific pest
problems. For example, particular livestock breeds are selected for physical
characteristics that prevent attack by some pests or provide physiological
resistance to disease or parasitic organisms. Resistance also is enhanced
by maintaining the host’s health and providing for its nutritional needs.
Certain plant varieties are naturally resistant to insects, pathogens, or
nematodes. Many plants actually repel various types of pests, and some
contain toxic substances. Plant resistance to insect pests can sometimes be
achieved by transferring genetic material from certain insect-destroying
microorganisms to hybrid seed. Genetic control has been widely used in the
past and offers great promise for the future, especially when combined with
new gene-manipulation techniques.

Chemical Controls
Chemical controls are pesticides that are either naturally derived or
synthesized. Pesticides often play a key role in pest management programs

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

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 and frequently may be the only control method available. Major benefits
associated with the use of pesticides are their effectiveness, the speed and
ease of controlling pests, and, in many instances, their reasonable cost
compared with other control options. Usually pest damage stops or pests
are destroyed within a few hours (for insects) to a few days (for weeds) after
application of a pesticide. Using a fungicide may provide immediate, short-
term protection against microorganisms.
A pesticide is defined as any material that is applied to plants, the soil,
water, harvested crops, structures, clothing and furnishings, or animals to
kill, attract, repel, regulate or interrupt the growth and mating of pests, or
to regulate plant growth. Pesticides include a wide assortment of chemicals
with specialized names and functions. They are commonly grouped
according to the type of pest they control.
w Avicides control pest birds.
w Bactericides control bacteria.
w Disinfectants (antimicrobials) control microorganisms.
w Fungicides control fungi.
w Herbicides control weeds and other undesirable plants.
w Insecticides control insects and related arthropods.
w Miticides (acaricides) control mites.
w Molluscicides control snails and slugs.
w Nematicides control nematodes (roundworms).
w Predacides control predatory vertebrates.
w Piscicides control pest fish.
w Repellents repel insects, related invertebrates, birds, and mammals.
w Rodenticides control rodents.
w Defoliants cause leaves or foliage to drop from plants.
w Desiccants promote drying or loss of moisture from plant tissues.
w Growth regulators are substances (other than fertilizers or food)
that alter the growth or development of a plant or animal.

Each group of pesticide includes several classes or families. For example,

the classes of insecticides include, among others, the organophosphates,
organochlorines, carbamates, pyrethroids, botanicals, insecticidal soaps,
and microbials. The pesticides within a particular class have similar
chemical structures or properties or share a common mode of action. The
mode of action of a pesticide is how the pesticide works. In other words,
it is what specific system(s) in the pest are affected by the pesticide. The
various classes of chemicals work in different ways and present different
risks and problems.

Pesticides also vary in their selectivity. Fumigants, for example, are non-
selective, controlling a wide variety of pests—fungi, insects, weeds,
nematodes, etc. Some non-selective herbicides control any plant given a
sufficient dose. In contrast, selective pesticides control only certain species
of pests or affect only a certain stage of pest development. For example,
certain herbicides control broadleaf weeds while not harming grasses, and
ovicides kill only the eggs of certain insects, mites, and related pests.
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Pesticides may move in various ways after they come in contact with a
host. Systemic pesticides are absorbed through leaves or roots and then
transported within the treated plant. Similarly, systemic insecticides can
be eaten by or injected into livestock to control certain pests. By contrast,
contact pesticides are not absorbed by treated plants or animals. These
pesticides must directly touch the pest or a site the pest frequents to be
effective.

Pesticides also vary in

their persistence, or how
long they remain active
to control pests. Some
residual pesticides control
pests for weeks, months, or
even years. Others provide
only short-term control,
sometimes lasting only a
few hours.

The production, sale, use,

storage, and disposal of all
pesticides are regulated at
both the federal and state
levels. The federal laws
and regulations governing
all aspects of pesticide use
Systemic and contact pesticides on treated plants. and handling are covered
Adapted from Penn. State Pesticide Education Manual. in Chapter 2.

Regulatory Pest Control

Some pest problems cannot be controlled successfully at a local level.
These problems involve pests that seriously endanger public health or are
likely to cause widespread damage to agricultural crops, animals, forests,
or ornamental plants. Government agencies are authorized to destroy weeds
and plants that cause fire hazards, harbor harmful pathogens or animals,
or are noxious to people or livestock in and around agricultural areas.
Similar authority applies to diseased or infected livestock or poultry and to
weeds and nuisance plants in residential, commercial, and industrial areas.
Mosquito abatement is an important pest-control function undertaken to
protect public health. Under the authority of mosquito abatement laws,
state agencies drain or treat standing water that provides breeding sites for
mosquitoes.

Quarantine or eradication programs directed by governmental agencies

according to federal and state laws are used to prevent the introduction and
spread of such pests.

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 Quarantine
Quarantine is a pest-control process designed to prevent entry of pests into
pest-free areas. Some states maintain inspection stations at all major entry
points to intercept pests or materials that might harbor pests. Regulatory
agencies monitor airports and ocean ports. Quarantine also prevents
movement of designated pests within a state. Produce and other identified
items being shipped from a quarantine area must be fumigated to destroy
pests before shipment. Nursery stock, plant cuttings, and budding and
grafting material are also regulated to prevent the spread of pests to non-
infested areas.

Eradication
Eradication is the total elimination of a pest from a designated area; often,
these pests are under quarantine restrictions. When eradication is required,
the geographical extent of pest infestation is determined and control
measures are taken to eliminate this pest from the defined area. Procedures
may include an area-wide spray program, releasing sterile insects, using
mechanical and cultural practices, and intensive monitoring for pests within
and around the borders of the infested area.

Effective Pest Management Programs

Sometimes a pesticide application fails to control a pest because the pest
was not identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was chosen. Other
applications fail because the pesticide was not applied at the correct time—
the pest may not have been in the area during the application, or it may
have been in a life-cycle stage or location where it was not susceptible to
the pesticide. Also, remember that the pests that are present may be part of
a new infestation that developed long after the chemical was applied.

Even non-chemical pest management tactics become ineffective if the pest

and the susceptible stage(s) of its life-cycle are not identified correctly.
Successful pest-management programs do not happen by accident—they
depend on careful observation, a thorough knowledge of the pest and the
damage it causes, an understanding of all available pest control options,
and a caring, professional attitude.

Pesticide Resistance
Pesticide resistance can be defined as the ability of an insect, fungus,
weed, rodent, or other pest to tolerate a pesticide that once controlled it.
Resistance develops because intensive pesticide use kills the susceptible
individuals in a population, leaving only the resistant ones to reproduce.
Initially, higher labeled rates and more frequent applications are needed to
control resistant pests. Eventually, however, the pesticide will have little or
no effect on the pest population.

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16
 If pesticides are applied frequently,
the pest population will soon consist
mostly of resistant individuals.

susceptible individual

Pesticide resistance develops over time as resistant individuals survive to reproduce.

Adapted from the University of California, The Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides

Resistance may develop to only a single insecticide, fungicide, herbicide,

or rodenticide. More often, however, pest populations become resistant to
all chemically related pesticides in a class of compounds. It is also possible
for a pest to develop resistance to pesticides in two or more classes of
compounds with unlike modes of action.

Continual use of pesticides from the same chemical class, such as all
organophosphate or all pyrethroid insecticides, increases the likelihood
that resistance will develop in pest populations. Frequent applications
and persistence of the chemical further increase the chances of resistance
occurring. Finally, the spread of resistance through a pest population can
occur much more rapidly in pests that have many generations per year and
many offspring per generation, such as insects, fungi, and rodents.

Several pest-management tactics help prevent or delay the occurrence of

pesticide resistance. One approach involves the use of new or reformulated
pesticides. Using new compounds with different modes of action will lessen
the likelihood of resistance developing in a population. Unfortunately, new
replacement products are often quite complex, difficult to synthesize, and
very costly to develop. They have very specific modes of action, which can
rapidly lead to the development of resistant pest populations even after very
limited use in the field.

Changing pesticide use patterns is an important step in preventing

resistance. When dosages are reduced, fewer pests are killed, so the
pressure to develop resistant pest populations is decreased. Applying
pesticides over limited areas reduces the proportion of the total pest
population exposed to the chemical, thereby maintaining a large pool of
individuals still susceptible to the pesticide. This tactic has a tendency
to delay the development of a resistant population because pesticide-
susceptible individuals in the population continue to interbreed with

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

17
 resistant ones, thus diluting the resistance in the population. Also, treating
alternate generations of pests with pesticides that have different modes of
action decreases the selection pressure for resistance.

Managing pesticide resistance is a very important aspect of integrated pest

management. Pesticide-resistant weeds and insects is a growing concern.
Monitor pest populations carefully and treat only when necessary, rather
than treating on a calendar basis. Good pesticide application records are
an important component of resistance management. Pesticides are more
effectively managed when treatment history is known. Resistance must
be detected when it is at a very low level and then controlled by using
all available pest management techniques to extend the useful life of our
current pesticides.

Managing Insects
There are more insects in the world than any other living creature. More
than one million species have been identified. Of these, fewer than 1
percent of insect species can be considered pests, and very few of them
are serious agricultural pests. Many insects are important as scavengers,
predators, parasites, and plant pollinators.

How Insects Grow and Reproduce

Before trying to control insect pests, understand how they grow and
reproduce. Knowing pest life cycles and development allows you to plan
when to scout fields and when to apply control measures.

Insects grow through a process of change called metamorphosis. Insects

have an external skeleton (exoskeleton) and can only grow in steps by
shedding the old exoskeleton and forming a new, larger one. This process
is called molting. Stages between molts are called instars.

Some insects, like grasshoppers and

leafhoppers, change gradually. Their
eggs hatch into nymphs, which look
like the adults except that they are
sexually immature and lack wings.
Other insects, like beetles, moths, and
butterflies, undergo a drastic change
in body form—from eggs to larvae to
the adult form. In different stages, the
insect’s habitat and food sources may
Private Pesticide Applicator Guide, Iowa change completely. For example, corn
State University, University Extension rootworm larvae feed on corn roots
in the soil, but the adults feed on corn
silks and the pollen of many plants.

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18
Temperature has a direct effect on the growth and development of insects.
Each species has a temperature range in which it develops. Within this
range, the higher the temperature, the faster the insect develops and grows.
But at very low or very high temperatures, insect development stops. The
insect may die, or may resume development when the temperature returns
to its normal range. Knowing the temperature ranges of an insect can help
you predict pest development, so you will know the best time to scout and
to use control measures.

Some insects overwinter in Minnesota by suspending development and

entering a resting state called diapause. Insects can diapause in any
stage, but it is most common in egg and larval stages. Some insects
cannot overwinter in Minnesota. They migrate to the south and return to
Minnesota each spring and summer.

In the adult stage, insects have three main functions: to reproduce, to

spread to new areas, and to search out homes for their offspring.

w Reproduction. To find a mate, some insects use chemical cues released

from a prospective mate or from a host plant or animal. A chemical
released to attract a mate is called a pheromone. Insects have amazing
reproductive capacities. One female may lay anywhere from a few to
several thousand eggs in her lifetime. For example, the western corn
rootworm lays from 500 to 1,500 eggs. In addition, some species
produce two or more generations in one season.
w Spreading to new areas. Wings enable adult insects to move to new
habitats, an important ingredient in the survival of the species. The
distance each species can travel ranges from a few feet to thousands of
miles. For example, a female gypsy moth cannot fly at all, European
corn borer and corn rootworm beetles can fly several miles, and
monarch butterflies migrate from Minnesota to Mexico.
w Selecting a site for laying eggs is perhaps the most important
thing a female insect does. Young nymphs or larvae cannot move very
far, so where the female chooses to lay eggs determines whether the
offspring will survive. Female insects use all their senses—sight, smell,
taste, and touch—to pick the right spot.
w Limits on reproduction. Despite their amazing capacity to reproduce,
insect populations are usually kept in check by such limiting factors
as weather, natural enemies, and relative lack of food. Major pest
outbreaks occur when the balance between the limiting factors and
the insect’s reproductive capacity shifts in favor of the insect. One of
the ways this imbalance occurs is when humans create specialized
environments, such as farms and lawns. When we confine livestock
or plant large acreages of single crops, we create settings favorable to
some insects and, at the same time, reduce or eliminate those insects’
natural enemies.

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19
 When Is an Insect a Pest?
Insects are considered pests when they cause economic or aesthetic losses
or when they create inconvenience, annoyance, or health problems. Before
using control measures, you need to know whether the insect really is a
pest and whether the damage it causes is serious enough to justify control
tactics.

Unfortunately, people often try to control insects because the damage is

easy to see, not because of the economic impact. For example, insects that
feed on leaves, like the Colorado potato beetle, sunflower beetle, and green
cloverworm, are often unnecessarily treated with insecticide because the
damage is so visible.

Insects can cause injury to plants, animals, and humans in several ways.
Insects injure plants by reducing the yield or quality of crops, spread plant
diseases or harm the beauty and economic value of horticultural crops.
Common symptoms of insects on plants include:
w Chewing on leaves, fruits, seed, and roots.
w Tunneling in stems, leaves, or roots.
w Sucking plant juices from leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and flowers.
w Initiating galls or other plant malformations.

Even after plants are harvested, insects can cause further losses by:
w Feeding on stored products.
w Contaminating raw or processed agricultural commodities.

Important injury to livestock and pets occurs when insects:

w Chew skin, fur, or feathers.
w Suck blood.
w Invade body tissues.
w Annoy or irritate.
w Transmit diseases.

Finally, insects cause injury to humans by transmitting diseases, such as

Western equine encephalitis and West Nile disease (from mosquitos) and
Lyme disease (from deer ticks).

Identifying Insect Pests

An effective IPM program begins with identifying the problem. This means
knowing your crop or livestock pests and scouting fields.
w Know key pests. There’s no substitute for knowing the enemies that
crops and livestock face. Certain insect problems are predictable
for each crop and livestock species in your area. These insects are
called “key pests.” Learning about their life cycles, identifying
characteristics, injury symptoms, and management is the foundation
of your IPM program. This knowledge will also allow you to
recognize unusual situations that require further attention.
PRIVATE PESTICIDE APPLICATOR TRAINING MANUAL 19th Edition
20
 w Scout fields. Because insects can reproduce so rapidly, it is
essential to detect insect infestations promptly. Know which insect
problem you’re facing and how severe it is or may become. You can
only do this by scouting your fields on a regular basis. Some insects
can be monitored by using pheromones in traps, for example, black
cutworms.

Management of Insect Pests

Most of the tactics for managing insects require planning. The goal is to
avoid or minimize insect outbreaks. Unfortunately, even with planning,
some insect outbreaks may require short-term rescue tactics, such as early
harvest or insecticides. But these short-term tactics also require planning
because, with insects, timing is so important.

Cultural Control Methods

w Sanitation removes existing infestations or the resources needed for
a pest buildup. (Examples: cleaning grain bins and the surrounding
area of infested grain and grain debris; removing manure breeding
sites for filth flies; controlling weeds to minimize seed production
and dispersal).
w Tillage directly affects survival of insects that live in soil or crop
debris. Indirectly it influences how attractive and suitable the
environment is to insects. (Example: reduced tillage systems suffer
more frequent and severe damage from black cutworms).
w Resistant varieties are a low-cost, highly effective control that has
minimal impact on the environment. Some varieties may prevent
a pest from becoming established or may kill it (Example: young
corn contains a chemical that prohibits the European corn borer
from feeding). Some varieties may be less attractive than others to
insects (Example: slower-growing varieties suffer less damage from
first generation European corn borers if they are near faster-growing
varieties). Some varieties may tolerate injury and still yield well
(Example: differences among varieties in strength of corn stalks
or ear shanks can affect losses from second- and third-generation
European corn borers).
w Crop rotation makes it harder for a pest to know when or where a
crop will appear. This strategy is very effective against pests that
overwinter as eggs or larvae and against pests that have limited
ability to disperse (Example: crop rotation is extremely effective
against corn rootworms that overwinter as eggs). Crop rotation is
useless against insects that disperse readily during the growing
season, such as potato leafhoppers, armyworms, or European corn
borers.

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21
 Biological Control Methods
w Protect natural enemies of insect pests by avoiding unnecessary
insecticide use, targeting insecticides, and using selective
insecticides. Example: thiodicarb (Larvin) is effective against
various defoliating caterpillars of soybean but does not affect many
of the caterpillar’s natural enemies.
w Use natural enemies or their products the same way you would
use an insecticide. Example: the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis
produces a toxin which in one strain is effective only against
caterpillars, while another strain is effective only against
mosquitoes and black flies.
w Release natural enemies from other areas. This is a tactic that
is used by entomologists (scientists who study insects). Most of the
insect pests in this country were introduced from other areas, but
not always with their natural enemies. Entomologists search the
areas of origin for natural enemies that can be released successfully
in the U.S. and that can be controlled here. Example: natural
enemies have been introduced into Minnesota to help control alfalfa
weevil and European corn borer.

Mechanical and Physical Control Methods

These methods, which include cold or heat to kill insects or slow down
activity, screens to keep insects out, and bug zappers that attract and kill
insects, are not effective for crop pests; however they are widely used
against insect pests of livestock and stored grain and for nuisance pests
around the home.

Chemical Control Methods

Insecticides are the main type of chemical used in insect control. Other
chemical control measures include use of pheromones, insect growth
regulators, and sterilants. These are sometimes thought of as biological
controls, because they are related to the natural biology of the insect.

The advantages and disadvantages of insecticides were discussed in the

first part of this section on Integrated Pest Management. Despite their
drawbacks, insecticides are often the only option available when insect
outbreaks threaten economic losses. Remember, though, that scouting
and using economic thresholds will help avoid unnecessary yield loss and
unnecessary insecticide use.

Managing Plant Diseases

A plant disease is an abnormal condition that affects the structure
or function of a plant. A diseased plant may be shorter or have fewer
leaves than normal; it may not produce flowers or fruit; it may wilt and
die prematurely. Unlike an injury, which occurs instantly, a disease is
progresses over time. It is caused by a disease-producing agent and is

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22
harmful in some way, even though the harm may not always be detected
immediately.

The three steps in managing plant diseases are: 1) detecting symptoms

of the disease, 2) identifying the cause of the disease, and 3) using
appropriate control measures.

Symptoms of Plant Diseases

The first step in controlling plant disease is to examine your crops for
symptoms of disease. There are five types of plant disease symptoms:
w Necrosis is the death of cells or entire portions of the plant.
Necrotic tissue is usually discolored, often appearing brown or
black. There may be extensive decay (Examples: dry rots, soft rots,
brown rots, and white rots) or only small areas may be affected
(Examples: leaf spots, fruit spots, blotches, scabs, stripes, and
streaks).
w Overdeveloped tissue includes galls, clubroot, leaf curls, and warts.
w Underdeveloped tissue includes stunting, dwarfing, and some
malformations.
w Discoloration of tissue is usually due to a lack of chlorophyll,
unless it is the discoloring that results from necrosis. The usual
symptom is yellowing (chlorosis) of normally green tissue, but
sometimes there may be a red discoloration. Chlorosis is an early
symptom of many diseases.
w Wilt is the loss of rigidity and drooping of plant parts. Wilt may be
due to low soil moisture, necrosis of the roots or stems, or a disease
agent plugging the plant’s water transport tissue.

Plant diseases are often classified according to the symptoms they produce,
for example: blights, mildews, rots, or mosaics.

Identifying Plant Diseases

The symptoms described above can be caused by several different diseases.
The next step is to identify the cause of the symptoms. There are two parts
to this process: 1) determining if the disease is parasitic or non-parasitic,
and 2) identifying the specific cause.

Parasitic and Abiotic Diseases

Generally there are two types of disease: parasitic diseases caused by
pathogens (disease-causing agents), such as viruses, and non-parasitic or
abiotic diseases caused by something in the environment, such as lack
of water. Ask the following questions to help decide whether your crop’s
disease is parasitic or non-parasitic:
w How is the disease distributed in your fields? Is there a pattern?
Are all of the plants in the field affected? Are the affected plants
distributed in spots or in a particular row or rows? Definite

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

23
 patterns, such as along the edges of a field, roadway, fence, or in
low spots, suggest that climate, soil factors, or toxic chemicals are
the cause, but pathogens (disease-causing organisms) should not
be ruled out. If most of the plants in a field are affected, consider
an environmental problem (for example, an excess or lack of
soil nutrients, adverse weather, toxic chemicals, or poor cultural
practices). If affected plants are limited to a particular row, this
might indicate errors in cultivating, fertilizing, or application of
pesticides.
w How did the disease develop? Parasitic diseases usually spread
slowly, rather than appear all at once. If a condition starts at one
point and then spreads slowly, it is probably due to a pathogen. If a
disease appears overnight, it is probably due to an environmental
factor, for example, hail or lightning.
w Is there a common disease problem for the crop or area? It’s
easier to identify a disease if you are familiar with the kinds of
problems that are likely to affect your crops.
w Have you thoroughly examined all symptoms? If you diagnose a
disease early, you will get the most benefit from a control treatment.
Be sure the plant is really diseased. Always compare a plant you
think is diseased with a normal one. Sometimes normal structures
and characteristics are mistaken for disease symptoms. The
symptoms should be well defined—don’t rely only on symptoms
that appear during the early stage of a disease. On the other hand,
don’t rely on a plant that has deteriorated so badly that characteristic
symptoms cannot be identified. Always examine the entire plant.
Some aboveground symptoms, especially chlorosis and wilting, are
often due to root damage. Always examine the roots of a diseased
plant if you are at all unsure of the cause. It can also be helpful
to cut into or through portions of diseased plants. For example,
vascular wilts may cause a browning inside the stem; you can often
see this discoloration if you cut through portions of the stem. A
small hand lens, a pocket knife, and a shovel are important tools for
plant disease diagnosis.
w Are there signs that indicate the cause? Such signs include:
fungus spores, nematodes or eggs, and bacterial ooze. Signs are
harder to see than symptoms. You may need a microscope or
magnifying glass to see them. More training is needed to find and
identify signs than to observe symptoms.

The Life Cycle of Parasites

Environmental conditions, especially temperature and moisture, greatly
influence the life cycle of parasites. These conditions also affect the plant’s
ability to fight off a disease.

The first step in a parasitic disease cycle occurs when a fungus spore,
nematode egg, bacterial cell, or virus particle (an inoculum) arrives at a
part of the plant where infection can occur. This step is called inoculation.
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24
If environmental conditions are favorable, the parasite will begin to
develop. This step is called incubation, and at this stage control is most
effective. The next stage occurs when the parasite gets into the plant; this
step is called infection. When the plant responds to the invasion of the
pathogen in some way, it is considered diseased.

Control Measures for Plant Diseases

The main goal is to prevent plant diseases from occurring. Once a plant
is infected, it is usually too late to prevent its death or to prevent serious
reductions in crop yields. When only part of a crop is diseased, eradication
may prevent further spread. Eradication can be done with cultural as well
as chemical methods. Always weigh the cost carefully before making
treatment decisions. Chemical treatment, such as with fungicides, should be
regarded as a last resort.

Cultural Control Methods

w Choose planting sites and dates of planting.
w Use resistant varieties.
w Use sanitation, crop rotation, and primordium tip-culture techniques
fallowing fields.
w Use proper soil, water, pH, and fertilizer applications to ensure
maximum plant vigor.
w Remove infected plants or plant parts.

Biological Control Methods

w Use organisms that are antagonistic to the disease,
such as hyperparasites or microorganisms.
w Use cross-protection techniques for viruses.

Mechanical and Physical Control Methods

w Treat soil or plant parts with heat.
w Use proper storage or curing methods for plants and
plant products.

Legal Control Methods

w Use certified disease-free seed and nursery stock.
w Obey quarantine regulations with inspections to prevent pathogens
from being introduced via plants or equipment into areas where
they do not already exist.

Chemical Control Methods

w Use chemicals to protect the host plant before it is infected.
w Use the correct chemical for the pest: fungicides for fungi;
antibiotics for bacteria; viricides for viruses; nematicides for
nematodes.

Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management

25
 The use of a pesticide to eradicate the pathogen after it has infected
the host plant is not common.

Managing Weeds
Weeds are plants that reduce crop yields and quality, result in less efficient
land use, and diminish enjoyment of turf, ornamental plants, and outdoor
recreation areas.

Certain plants have legally been declared noxious weeds. In Minnesota,

state regulations list marijuana, poison ivy, bull thistle, perennial sow
thistle, musk thistle, plumeless thistle, Canada thistle, field bindweed,
leafy spurge, and purple loosestrife as “noxious weeds.” Noxious weeds
must be cut or controlled so that they do not produce seeds. Some local
governments require control of additional weeds.

The weeds that are the most serious problems are those that resemble
the crop in physical characteristics, growth habits, and requirements for
soil, water, nutrients, and light. Broadleaf weeds are often most difficult
to control in broadleaf crops, and grass weeds in grass crops. Another
problem with controlling weeds is that some production methods,
especially cultivation, favor some weeds.

Most weeds have common names like cocklebur or crabgrass. The trouble
with common names is that people in different places may use different
names for the same plant. Herbicide labels and publications that give weed-
Summer Annuals:
control information generally use standardized common names. You need
- Crabgrass to know the standardized common name of a weed so you can choose the
- Foxtails proper control method.
- Cocklebur
- Pig weed
- Lambsquarter How Weeds Grow and Reproduce
- Kochia To control weeds, you need to know something about how they grow and
- Black nightshade
reproduce.
- Velvet leaf
- Common ragweed
- Wild oat Life Cycles
Winter Annuals:
Weeds can be classified as annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals
- Field pennycress
- Shepherd’s purse are plants with a one-year life cycle. They grow from seed, mature, and
- Annual bluegrass produce seed for the next generation in one year or less. Summer annuals
- Peppergrass are plants that result from seeds that germinate in the spring, produce seed,
Biennials: and die before winter each year. Winter annuals are plants that grow from
- Burdock
seeds that germinate in the fall, overwinter, produce seeds in the spring and
- Musk thistle
- Bull thistle die before summer each year.
Perennials:
- Quackgrass Biennials require two years to complete their life cycles. They grow from
- Canada thistle seed that germinates in the spring. They develop heavy roots and compact
- Field bindweed
rosettes or clusters of leaves the first summer. Biennials remain dormant
- Yellow nutsedge
- Sowthistle through the winter; in the second summer they mature, produce seed, and
die before winter.

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26
Perennials are plants that live more than two years—sometimes
indefinitely. They may grow from seed, but many produce tubers, bulbs,
rhizomes (belowground stems), and stolons (aboveground stems). The
aboveground parts of these plants may die back each winter, but the plants
develop new above-ground parts each spring. Simple perennials produce
seeds each year as their normal means of reproduction; in some instances,
following mechanical injury during cultivation, root pieces may produce
new plants (Examples: dandelions and plantain). Creeping perennials
produce seeds, but also produce rhizomes and stolons.

Seeds
One key to weed control is preventing the production of weed seeds. This
is true whether you are trying to control annuals, biennials, or perennials.
Weed seeds have certain characteristics which make them very difficult to
control:
w Large numbers. Weed species often produce enormous numbers
of seeds. For example, a single pigweed plant may produce 100,000
seeds.
w Tolerant of extreme conditions. Weed seeds are notably tolerant
of extremes in temperature, precipitation, and variations in oxygen
supply.
w Long-lived. Weed seeds may remain alive in the soil for a great
many years. Only a small percentage germinate in any single year;
the remaining seeds stay dormant and germinate in future years,
when temperature and oxygen conditions are more favorable.
w Easily spread. Weed seeds are effectively spread by wind, water,
animals (including humans), or machinery, and in crop seed, feed
grain, hay, straw, and manure.

Control Methods for Weeds

The most effective ways to control weeds are through cultural and chemical
means. Biological control methods, using natural enemies of weeds such as
insects or diseases, have not been highly successful thus far in Minnesota.
But this method offers some potential for the future. Researchers continue
to search for natural enemies and attempt to introduce them into areas
where a particular weed is prevalent.

A weed-control program should be planned well in advance of the grow-

ing season. Your plan should be based on a thorough knowledge of weed
problems, soil, soil characteristics, future cropping plans, and all available
methods of control. As crop production practices change—for example,
tillage—so do weed problems; a good weed-control program must be
flexible. Control of a particular weed should be just one part of a total
weed-control program.

Annuals and biennials depend exclusively on seed for reproduction and

survival. Therefore, an effective way to control them is by destroying
Chapter 1. Integrated Pest Management
27
 the top of the plant—by mowing, tillage, or herbicides. It is important to
destroy the growing point to prevent seed production. Perennials are more
difficult to control by simply destroying the top growth. It is more effective
to destroy the underground parts of the plant, either through tillage or with
herbicides. Perennials have specialized underground parts that help the
plant to survive and reproduce. Even simple perennials, such as dandelions
(which reproduce only by seeding), store energy for re-growth in the roots.
Destroying the top growth can only be effective if it is done repeatedly or
in conjunction with other control methods.

Cultural Control Methods

Cultural control of weeds—hand weeding, plowing, harrowing, etc.—has
been practiced for centuries. Many of the methods of weed control used
today have changed very little over the years. They include:
w Clean seed. It is often easier to prevent weeds from being intro-
duced than it is to control them. Use only tested and tagged seed;
certified seed ensures high-quality seed free of noxious weeds.
w Clean feed. Weed seeds in feed grains and forages survive and
germinate after passing through farm animals; manure spread on
fields may be spreading weed seeds. Screenings containing weed
seeds are sometimes used in mixed feeds; they must be finely
ground or heated or else the seeds will remain alive.
w Tillage. Burial of weeds can be effective for small annuals and
biennials, but will not control most perennials if it is done beyond
the seedling stage, unless it is done repeatedly. For perennials, it
is more effective to destroy underground parts, using sweeps,
knives, harrows, rotary hoes, and other shallow cultivation
equipment. This type of control is most effective in dry soils where
roots have little chance of becoming established.
One problem with tillage is that it brings weed seeds up near
the soil surface, resulting in germination of a new population of
weeds. These can be controlled, especially if they are annuals, by
cultivating a second time. Plant the crop immediately after the last
cultivation to allow sufficient growth before weeds again become a
problem.
w Mowing is effective only for tall-growing weeds. Certain tall
perennials can be mowed to the point where regrowth is no longer
possible, but this requires repeated and frequent mowing.
w Crop competition means growing your crops so well that they
crowd out the weeds. To make sure your crops compete effectively
with weeds, always select the best variety and use the best crop-
production methods.
w Rotating crops with different life histories or growth habits can
control weeds associated with a particular crop. For example, many

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28
 summer annual weeds associated with corn will not do well under
the cultural practices of fall-planted small grains.
w Fallowing fields, or allowing intervals for chemical treatment, may
partially solve some special weed problems.
w Companion crops, usually annuals that germinate quickly and
grow rapidly, can be planted with a perennial crop to compete
with weeds and allow the major crop to become established. The
companion (or nurse) crop is then removed to allow the perennial
crop to take over. Example: oats are used as a companion crop in
Minnesota to aid in establishing alfalfa.

Chemical Control
Chemical control through the use of herbicides is the most common method
of weed control in agriculture. Herbicides work in different ways. Here are
the most common types of herbicides:
w Selective herbicides are herbicides that are more toxic to some
kinds of plants than to others. Selectivity depends on such things as
plant age, rate of growth, and plant form.
w Non-selective herbicides are toxic to all plants. Some non-selective
herbicides can be made selective to certain plants by varying the
dosage, directing the spray to a specific site, or choosing spray
additives such as wetting agents. Selective herbicides can be made
non-selective by manipulating the same factors (for example, by
increasing the dosage to kill more types of plants).
w Translocated herbicides can be absorbed by leaves, stems,
or roots and moved throughout the plant. Root absorption and
translocation take place in water-conducting tissues; leaf or stem
absorption and translocation take place mainly in food-conducting
tissues.
w Contact herbicides are toxic to living cells upon contact. They do
not translocate in a plant. Contact herbicides destroy only
the above-ground parts of plants and are only effective against
annual weeds.
w Soil sterilant herbicides are non-selective herbicides that kill
all plants and prevent weeds from becoming reestablished for a
relatively long time.

Herbicides can also be classified according to when they are applied: before
planting (pre-plant), before seedlings appear (pre-emergence), and after
seedlings appear (post-emergence).

Factors affecting herbicides include:

Soil type
w Organic matter in soils limits herbicide activity. Soils with high
organic matter content require higher rates of herbicides. Most

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29
 herbicide labels have charts showing the rates to be used on soils
with varying levels of organic matter.
w Soil texture may also affect herbicide activity. Fine soils (silts
and clays) have more surface area than coarse soils and thus
need higher herbicide rates.
w Soil acidity can influence some herbicides. Chemicals such as
atrazine and metribuzin (Sencor or Lexone) are more active in soils
that have a higher pH.

Environmental conditions
w Soil moisture allows herbicides to work most effectively. If the soil
is too dry, the herbicide may evaporate. If it is too wet, the herbicide
may not make contact with soil particles. Warm, moist soil may
increase microbial and chemical activity, causing herbicides to
break down more rapidly. But dry soils may prevent chemical and
microbial activity, reducing degradation and causing the herbicide
to remain in the soil the following year.
w Rainfall, irrigation and flooding may cause soluble herbicides
to leach downward through the soil. This may be desirable with
relatively insoluble herbicides, but with more soluble herbicides,
leaching may cause crop injury. Heavy rainfall may result in poor
weed control or possible crop injury, depending on the solubility
of the herbicide. With pre-emergence herbicides, water is needed
to carry the chemical into the soil where the weed seeds are
germinating. Rain and irrigation also provides moisture to help
the weed seeds germinate so that they can absorb lethal amounts
of herbicide. With post-emergence applications, rainfall may wash
herbicides from leaf surfaces, resulting in poor weed control.
w Humidity affects post-emergence herbicide penetration and
absorption. High relative humidity indicates favorable soil moisture
conditions for rapid plant growth, a time when plants are very
susceptible to herbicides.
w Dew on the weeds or crop when post-emergence herbicides are
applied may increase or decrease the activity of some herbicides,
depending on how quickly the chemical is absorbed by plants
and how the chemical kills plants. The presence of dew can also
increase crop injury with some post-emergence herbicides.
w Temperature affects the rate of plant growth and plant suscep-
tibility to herbicides. Some herbicides evaporate quickly at high
temperatures.
w Sunlight may destroy some herbicides if they are left on the soil
surface for long periods.

Differences among weeds

w Perennials are controlled more effectively with translocated
herbicides, because these chemicals move into all parts of the
plants; contact herbicides kill only the above-ground parts.
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 w Type of weed. Some herbicides are strictly for use
with broadleaf (dicotyledon) weeds. Some are strictly for grass
(monocotyledon). A few herbicides can be used with both
broadleaves and grasses.
w Plant species may respond to some herbicides differently.
Moreover, within a single species there may be races of the weed
that respond differently.
w Growth rates. The age of the plant and the rate of growth also
affect how weeds respond to herbicides.
w Plant and leaf structure – waxy and hairy surfaces are
problematic.

Preventing herbicide carryover

Some herbicides remain in the soil a long time, causing injury in the
following year’s crop. Herbicide carryover is more likely to occur with
unusually low rainfall, because dry soils limit the chemical and microbial
activity needed to degrade herbicides. To keep herbicide carryover in soil to
a minimum, follow these guidelines:
w Apply the lowest rate practical.
w Apply uniformly.
w Avoid double coverage: shut off the applicator when turning.
w Select crop sequences that are tolerant to the herbicide used on the
previous crop.
w Rotate herbicides, whether the same crop is grown continuously or
different crops are grown in rotation.
w Spot treat when using high rates of herbicide.

More details on herbicides and other weed control methods can be found
in the University of Minnesota Extension Service Bulletin AG-BU-3157
Cultural and Chemical Weed Control in Field Crops. This bulletin can
help you plan an effective and economical weed-control program.

Managing Vertebrate Pests

All vertebrate animals have a jointed spinal column (vertebrae). These
“higher” animals include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

What may be a pest under some circumstances may be highly desirable

under others. Your first job in controlling vertebrate pests is to determine if
they are actually causing damage.
w Fish of certain species may be considered pests by some because
they are not useful for sport or for food or because they are harmful
to more desirable species. Some fish may be a human health hazard
because they serve as intermediate hosts for parasites of humans.

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31
 w Reptiles and amphibians include snakes, lizards, turtles, frogs,
toads, and salamanders. These animals cause more of a psycho-
logical problem than an economic one. But snakes and turtles
in fish hatcheries or waterfowl production areas can cause some
economic problems. Poisonous snakes may be a problem, too, but
there are only two poisonous species in Minnesota, both restricted
to the southeast corner of the state.
w Birds can cause various kinds of damage: structural damage by
woodpeckers; killing of fish, livestock, poultry, or game species;
and destruction of fruit, nut, grain, timber, and vegetable crops.
Birds can also be a health hazard to animals and humans because
they may be hosts for disease organisms.
w Mammals, such as pocket gophers, moles, and rats, can also
cause a variety of damage. Livestock may be killed by mammals.
Mammals also do significant damage to fruit, vegetable, nut, grain,
range, and tree crops. They may interfere with water-retaining
structures, causing flooding. They damage such things as lawns,
clothing, furniture, and buildings by gnawing and burrowing. They
Pigeon, USFW.
Photo: National Pesticide transmit many diseases to livestock and humans, including rabies,
Applicator Certification plague, typhus, food poisoning, leptospirosis, and tularemia.
Core Manual, NASDARF

As with other IPM programs, the first step in control is to detect and
identify the problem.

Recognize damage patterns and the species of animal responsible.

Look for the following evidence:
w Birds: peck marks, tracks, feathers, droppings, location of damage,
evidence that items have been carried away.
w Mammals: tracks, droppings, tooth marks, diggings, burrows, hair,
scent, type of damage.

Know the physical characteristics and life habits of most animal species
that may be present in a given situation.

Choose control measures that are effective, selective, humane, and cause
the least possible environmental damage, such as traps, sound,
or barriers.

Know the local, state, and federal regulations that apply. It is especially
important to know which animals are protected by the federal and
state government. See Chapter 5: Protecting the Environment for more
information on regulations protecting wildlife.

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Summary
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a systematic plan which brings
together different pest-control tactics into one program. It reduces the
emphasis on pesticides by including cultural, biological, genetic, physical,
regulatory, and mechanical controls. To carry out an IPM program, you
need to scout and monitor your fields, recognize abnormal conditions and
identify their causes, understand the different control methods available,
and determine the economic costs and benefits. A good IPM program
requires planning, monitoring and evaluation.

Managing Pocket Gophers

Pocket gopher numbers may be
reduced by mechanical controls, Pocket gophers can
such as traps, and natural move as much as 2¼
tons of soil to the
controls, including natural
surface in a year.
enemies, starvation, and disease.
In Minnesota, gophers are also
controled by theuse of strychnine
baits. Strychnine is toxic to all
animals and must be handled
and applied according to label
instructions. All applications
Photo: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service must be below-ground. Clean up
all spilled bait.
Except during breeding season, gophers live alone in a system of burrows.
One adult may build as many as 100 mounds a year, moving as much as
21/4 tons of soil to the surface. Feeding burrows may be only six inches
below the surface, while food storage and living chambers may be five-to-
six feet deep.
On small acreage (10 acres or less), hand application of poison bait during
the fall is usually effective. For added control, combine it with a fall
trapping program. Trapping in the spring following a fall baiting program
can also be effective. Special pocket gopher traps are available at most
nurseries, farm supply outlets, and large hardware stores.
On areas larger than 20 acres, the most practical means of control is
machine baiting with a burrow builder. Fall and spring applications give
the greatest control. The soil must be moist enough to let the torpedo tube
pass through easily and to hold a neat burrow shape when compressed. A
depth of about 10 inches is desirable, but the burrow depth is less important
than forming a neat tunnel. Completely enclose the field to be protected
by parallel rows of artificial burrows spaced 25 to 40 feet apart—wider
spacing in the spring, narrower in the fall. If bait is applied properly, you
should attain 85 to 90 percent control within three weeks. Reapplication
may be needed in two to four years. Some counties own burrow building
machines which are available to pesticide applicators. Check with your
county extension educator, Soil Conservation Service, or Soil and Water
Conservation District.

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