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General Studies &
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Authors:
Faculty of Vani Institute, Hyderabad

Preface
Dear Students,
It’s a proud moment for all of us.
When Engineering is playing pivotal role in deciding the future of our development plans, we have
set an ambitious plan to augment your study material with exceptionally well written material to help you
learn better.
First and foremost let me discuss about Indian Engineering Services abbreviated as IES are the
civil services that meet the technical and managerial functions of the Government of India. Like most
countries, the Government of India recruits its civil servants and officials on the basis of merit, the middle
management positions in the bureaucracy are filled through competitive exams. Large number of
candidates takes these exams, competing for limited posts. IES officers are selected by the union
government on the recommendations made by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC).
So, now the question is how to succeed in the above exam? For this exam one need to prepare
according to syllabus provided in notification. In this exams, primarily examiners test your fundamental
concepts in each and every subject according to their priority. So, one needs to know clearly how to
prepare to secure good rank, focussing on this very issue, Vani Institute is providing solutions in this
book.
We have decoded to bring out a well crafted gem in the form of this book for enhancing your
learning abilities.
Therefore, sincerely hope that this book will help you achieve even greater heights in your
career and engineering.
We have developed this book according to the best knowledge, in case any errors which might
have occurred out of sight, please feel free to inform us your valuable suggestions.
I wish you all very best for your future endeavours.
Director,
VANI INSTITUTE
General Studies & Engineering Aptitude
ESE Syllabus
1. Current issues of national and international importance relating to social, economic

and industrial development
2. Engineering Aptitude covering Logical reasoning and Analytical ability
3. Engineering Mathematics and Numerical Analysis
4. General Principles of Design, Drawing, Importance of Safety
5. Standards and Quality practices in production, construction, maintenance and
services
6. Basics of Energy and Environment : Conservation, environmental pollution and
degradation, Climate Change, Environmental impact assessment
7. Basics of Project Management
8. Basics of Material Science and Engineering
9. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) based tools and their
applications in Engineering such as networking, e-governance and technology
based education.
10. Ethics and values in Engineering profession
COACHING OFFERED
Classroom Course
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 Two Years Integrated Program
Postal Course
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General Studies and
Engineering Aptitude
Index
S. No Chapter Name Page No.
Introduction 02 – 07
Current issues of National & International
1 relating to Social, Economic & Industrial 08 – 86
development
2 Basics of Energy & Environment 87 – 430
3 Engineering Drawing, Design and Safety 431 – 618
4 Standards and Quality Practices 619 – 713
Information & Communication Technologies

5 714 – 743
(ICT)
6 Ethics & Values in Engineering Profession 744 – 761
7 Basics of Project Management 762 – 779
8 Basics of Material Science & Engineering 780 – 828
9 ESE Previous Question Papers 829 – 872

Introduction
VANI Institutions Hyderabad | Bangalore | Pune | Kochi | Chennai | Kolkata | Bhubaneswar 2

VANI Publications General Studies
In this twentieth century when science and technology have gained unquestionable supremacy, the
level of the' industrial development of a country has become the yardstick to be applied to judge its
actual development. All other progress has become meaningless; if a country is technologically
backward, it is backward irrespective of any other excellence it might have acquired.
It is a well-known fact that British Government never intended to develop the industries in our
country during pre-independence period. After independence the people of this country entertained
high hopes from the government for the betterment of their life it is the industrial development
which provides basic infrastructure necessary for the development of the economy as a whole.
Industrial Policy, 1948 and the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 gave an idea of
the attitude of the Government with regard to the development of industries. But, it was only the
adoption of planning in 1951 which created a favorable atmosphere for the development of
industries.
The history of organized industry in India may be traced to 1854 when the real beginning of the
cotton mill industry was made in Bombay. The foundations of jute industry were laid near Calcutta
in 1855; Coal-mining also progressed about this time. There were the only major industries which
had developed substantially before the First World War. During and after World War I and II, a
somewhat more liberal policy was adopted by the authorities, such as, a discriminating protection
policy, which gave impetus to industrial development. Several industries developed and a number of
new industries came up but their production was neither adequate nor diversified in character.
The development of the economy can be measured with the help of different criteria, such as the
growth rate in industrial output, industry's contribution to national income, and industry's
contribution to employment. A close application of these criteria divides the planned period into two
distinct phases, the first lasting till 1965-66 and the second following there from. The economy took
rapid strides daring the first three Five-year Plans but slowed down later. The Seventh Plan
envisages a growth rate of 8 percent with some segments of industry registering a higher growth
rate, but only time can unfold the future achievement. Since industry's contribution to national
income and its capacity to generate employment have displayed similar trends, we cannot describe
our industrial development as spectacular though there has been a spurt of new industrial complexes
all over the country.
The pattern of our industrial growth was determined by the state of economy in which the British
left us. The British had used India as a source of cheap raw material and a lucrative market for
finished products and they had not made any effort to develop the infrastructure. After getting
VANI Publications Introduction
independence, India immediately felt the need of capital goods and it was decided to promote the
rapid growth of capital goods industries. Almost till the end of the Third Five-Year-Plan, India had
to import a variety of capital goods including iron and steel, transport equipment and various kinds
of machinery. But the situation has radically changed now. India is now in a position to export these
capital goods even to the technologically advanced countries of Western Europe, America, Soviet
Union etc.
A significant feature of our industrial development has been the phenomenal growth of the public
sector. This sector comprises public utility services like the railways, road transport, post and
telegraph, power and irrigation projects, departmental undertakings of the Central and State
Governments including the defense production establishments, and a number of other industrial
undertakings which are wholly supported by the Central Government. The public sector now
contributes about one-fifth of the share of industrial sector in the national income and the surpluses
earned by it form an important source of non-tax revenue of the Government. It also offers job
opportunities to a large number of people.
If we aim at an accurate assessment of our achievement, we should either compare our industrial
growth with the growth in other countries during the corresponding period or, we should measure
our achievement in terms of our targets. Another yardstick can be to compare our achievement with
our needs. This kind of assessment can be quite revealing. In 1947, Japan was in no better a position
than India. If India had been ruthlessly exploited by the British and fiercely rocked by communal
hatred; violence and bloodshed in the wake of partition, Japan was laid waste by atom bombs during
the Second World War. But today, Japan is technologically one of the most advanced countries of
the world. Our achievement has also fallen short of the targets laid down in the Five-year Plans. If
we compare our performance with our needs and targets it is obvious that what we have achieved is
too inadequate to meet them.
Industrialization in India suffers from a few obvious drawbacks. Though the aim of
industrialization has been to bring amelioration to the miserably poor millions, somehow economic
power and wealth have been concentrating in a few hands and the masses have, by and large, been
left un-benefited. The industrial licensing policy which is only an adjunct to the industrial policy has
given rise to many evils, economic, social and political. This breeds unrest among the poor, and the
laborers employed in big industrial houses often resort to strikes and lock-outs, giving a serious blow
to the productivity of the system. Finally, regional disparities and imbalances that should have been

eliminated by now still persist. There exists m India a few pockets that have registered rapid
economic development while a few areas find themselves utterly neglected.
Almost every plan has revealed that industrial production fell short of the target by a wide margin
but, then, there are some inherent shortcomings in our planning system. It need not be emphasized
that planning has widened the horizon of industrial sector and opened new vistas of industrial
growth.
What Engineering is, what Engineers do

Engineering
While meanings change, the concept of engineering derives from the dawn of human history as
our ancestors developed and designed tools that were essential for their survival. Indeed, human
beings are defined by their tool-making, designing and engineering skills, and the socialization and
communication that facilitated the invention, innovation and transfer of technology such as the axe,
hammer, lever, wedge, pulley, wheel and so on. Although based on trial and error, this activity is
similar to the modern idea of engineering where trial and error is still an important part of
innovation.
Engineering is the field or discipline, practice, profession and art that relates to the development,
acquisition and application of technical, scientific and mathematical knowledge about the
understanding, design, development, invention, innovation and use of materials, machines,
structures, systems and processes for specific purposes. There are of course many definitions.
The term ‘engineering’ derives from the word ‘engineer’ used in the 1300s for a person who
operated a military engine or machine – such as a catapult or, later, a cannon. The word ‘engine’ in
turn derives from the Latin ingenium for ingenuity or cleverness and invention. The terms ‘art’ and
‘technical’ are important because engineering also arranges elements in a way that may, or may not,
appeal to human senses or emotions, and relates also to the Greek techniques relating to art, craft,
skill and practical knowledge and language regarding a mechanical or scientific subject. Prior to the
development of the different fields of engineering, engineering and ‘technical’ were originally
closely connected, The military connotation declined giving way to civil engineering, mechanical,
chemical, electrical and electronic and later, fields that continue to develop with the development of
knowledge (apart from some curious exceptions such as the Army Corps of Engineers in the USA).
While meanings change, the fact that engineering in the modern sense also relates to art, even
though engineering may not commonly be regarded as artistic, can be appreciated in the creativity
and elegance of many engineered objects and structures (witness the increasing appearance of such
objects and structures as art exhibitions in galleries). As noted elsewhere in this Report, humans live
in engineered economies, societies and techno cultures. Almost every area of human interest,
activity and endeavor has a branch of engineering associated with it.
Engineering also connects to the natural sciences, and to the social and human sciences. Science,
from the Latin scientia for knowledge, relates broadly to a systematic approach to the observation of
phenomena and the development of hypothesis, experimentation and theory regarding these
phenomena, and the production of knowledge upon which predictions or predictable outcome may
be based, i.e. the scientific method, dating from the early 1600s and largely accredited to Francis
Bacon (who died of pneumonia after testing the hypothesis that it may be possible to preserve a
chicken by stuffing it with snow). In this broad sense, science includes engineering as a highly
skilled technique or practice, and also includes much of what many scientists also do today. In a
narrower, contemporary sense, science is differentiated into the basic and applied sciences,
following the linear model of innovation – that research in the basic sciences leads through applied
research and development in engineering to technological application, innovation and diffusion. As
discussed elsewhere, while this model endures with scientists and policy-makers on grounds of
simplicity and funding success, many observers regard neither the ‘linear model’ as descriptively
inaccurate and normatively undesirable partly because many innovations were neither based on nor
the result of basic science research. The social and human sciences emulate the natural sciences in
the use of empirical scientific methods. Technological change and innovation is one of the major
drivers of economic, social and human change, so engineering and technology and the social
sciences are more closely connected.

Engineers
People who are qualified in or practice engineering are described as engineers, and may be
licensed and formally designated as professional, chartered or incorporated engineers.
As noted above, the broad discipline of engineering includes a range of specialized disciplines or
fields of application and particular areas of technology. Engineering itself is also differentiated into
engineering science and different areas of professional practice and levels of activity. The
engineering profession, as with other professions, is a vocation or occupation based upon specialized
education and training, as providers of professional advice and services. Other features that define
occupations as professions are the establishment of training and university schools and departments,
national and international organizations, accreditation and licensing, ethics and codes of professional
practice. Surveying is closely professionally connected to engineering, especially civil engineering,
and it is interesting to note that George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln were
all surveyors before going into politics.
Apart from a degree or related qualification in one of the engineering disciplines and associated
skill sets, which includes design and drawing skills – now usually in computer-aided design (CAD)
and continued professional development ( CPD)

Unit
1 Current Issues
MAY-2018
GENERAL DATA PROTECTION GUIDELINES (GDPR)
Why in news?
The GDPR became applicable to all the European Union member states from May 2018.
What is GDPR?
• It is comprehensive privacy and data security legislation by the EU, to protect personal data of its
people (residents and citizens, called as data subjects, in the Regulation) and to help them control
how this data is collected, processed, shared and stored.
• It mandates companies (called as data controllers and processors) to take “freely given, specific,
informed and unambiguous” consent from the data subjects, regarding movement and use of this
data. Thus, GDPR also regulates exportation of this data outside the EU.
• Further, ‘record’ of consent is required to be maintained under the new regime.
• Personal data: any data that can be directly or indirectly associated with a living individual or
his/her professional, personal and public life. This covers information such as name, photo, address
– email or postal, bank details, social media posts, medical information, biometric data, IP address,
political opinions, sexual orientation and so on.
• Data controller i.e. who owns the data: It defines how and for what purposes the personal data is
processed. It is also responsible for making sure that outside contractors comply.
• Data processor i.e. who helps manage the data: These may include the internal groups that maintain
and process personal data records or any outsourcing firm that performs all or part of those activities
e.g. cloud providers.
• Data breach: breach of security leading to accidental or unlawful destruction, alteration,
unauthorised disclosure of, or access to, personal data.
• Pseudonymisation: masking method to substitute identifiable data with a reversible, consistent
value, where additional information is required to re-identify the original data.
• Anonymisation: encryption method that converts clear text data into nonhuman comprehendible
and irreversible form and destroys the original identifiable data.

VANI Publications General Awareness
• Forced consent is when the users have to choose between consenting to their data gathering, or they
giving up the use of service. This is not in accordance with GDPR.
KISHENGANGA PROJECT
Why in news?
PM recently inaugurated the state run NHPC Ltd’s Kishanganga hydro power project in Jammu and
Kashmir.
More about the news
• It is a 330 megawatt Run of the River Hydroelectric power project located in Gurez valley of
Bandipora district in north Kashmir.
• It envisages diversion of water from the Kishenganga River to a power plant in the Jhelum River
basin through an underground tunnel and the discharge of the water into the Wular lake.
• The project began in 2009 but in 2010 Pakistan appealed to Hague’s Permanent Court of
Arbitration complaining that the project violated the Indus River Treaty and deprived Pakistan the
water share to its power project which is under construction at Neelam valley in PoK, as the
Kishanganga river flows into Pakistan.
• Pakistan is constructing its own 1,000 megawatts Neelum-Jhelum hydropower project with the
assistance of China on its side of the river.
• Court of Arbitration ordered India to submit technical data of the project and allowed India to go
ahead with the construction of the dam while maintaining minimum 9 cubic metres of flow of water
across border.
• 12 per cent of the power generated from Kishanganga project will be given to the J&K as “royalty”,
apart from an extra 1 per cent for “local development”, while the rest will go into the national grid.
Indus Water Treaty

• The treaty was signed in 1960 by India and Pakistan
• As per the treaty, control over three eastern rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej was given to India. While
control over three western rivers Indus, Jhelum and Chenab was given to Pakistan.
• It allows India to use only 20% of the water of Indus River, for irrigation, power generation and
transport.

VANI Publications Current Issues
IRAN NUCLEAR DEAL
Why in news?
USA has decided to withdraw from 2015 Nuclear Agreement with Iran and reinstate sanctions upon
it.
Background
• The Iran deal, also known as Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), is an agreement
reached in 2015 between Iran and six world countries - US, China, Russia, Britain, France and
Germany, plus the EU (i.e. P5+Germany+EU).
• Under the agreement Iran agreed to completely eliminate its stock of medium enriched uranium,
reduce the stock of low enriched uranium by 98% and reduce almost by 2/3rd its gas centrifuges for
13 years.
• It further sets out rigorous mechanisms for monitoring restrictions placed on Iran’s nuclear
programme.
• Until 2031, Iran will have to comply with any IAEA access request. If it refuses, the commission can
decide on punitive steps, including the re-imposition of sanctions through a majority vote.
• The reason sighted by the USA for withdrawal is that the deal does not target- Iran’s ballistic missile
• programme, its nuclear activities beyond 2025 and its role in conflicts in Yemen and Syria.
• In current scenario, the nuclear deal itself won’t be scrapped as long as Iran and the other signatories
remain committed to it.
CHINA- BURKINA FASO SIGN DEAL

Why in news?
China and Burkina Faso signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations after the West African
nation cut ties with Taiwan.
Background
• Burkina Faso followed suit of Sao Tome, Panama and Dominican Republic of severing diplomatic
ties with Taiwan to keep up with evolution of the world and the socio-economic challenges of their
country and region.
• Taiwan now has only one diplomatic ally left in Africa — the kingdom of Swaziland — and has
official relations with just 18 countries worldwide, many of them poor nations in Central America
and the Pacific.
• The move is yet another victory for Beijing in its campaign to isolate the island.
COLOMBIA TO JOIN NATO
Why in news?
• Colombia will be the next country to formally join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO). It has also been approved as a member by OECD.
More about the news
• Colombia has become the only Latin American nation in the NATO alliance.
• It will be given the status of “Partner across the globe” in the group.
• Being a global partner Colombia need not necessarily have to take part in military action and yet
will be fully accredited as a member in NATO.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• It is also called as the North Atlantic Alliance, an intergovernmental military alliance between
three United Nations Security Council (United States, France and United Kingdom)
permanent members and 26 other North American and European countries.
• The alliance was established by the North Atlantic Treaty 1949.
• It constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual
defence in response to an attack by any external party.
• Its Headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

• It aims to promote policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of people around
the world.
• It has 35 members which include many of the world’s most advanced countries but also emerging
countries like Mexico, Chile and Turkey.
• India is not a member of this.
GREEN REVOLUTION - KRISHONNATI YOJANA

Why in news?
The CCEA has given its approval for Green Revolution - Krishonnati Yojana in agriculture sector
beyond 12th Five Year Plan for the period from 2017-18 to 2019-20.
Details about Krishonnati Yojana
• The scheme has been continued as part of its objective to double farmers' income by 2022.
It is an umbrella of 11 schemes/missions under Ministry of Agriculture:

 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): to improve nutritional security
and income support to farm Households.
 National Food Security Mission (NFSM), including National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil
Palm (NMOOP): to increase production of rice, wheat, pulses, coarse cereals and commercial
crops and to augment the availability of vegetable oils to reduce its import.
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): promotes sustainable agriculture
practices best suitable to the specific agro-ecology focusing on integrated farming, appropriate
soil health management and synergizing resource conservation technology.
 Submission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE): to strengthen the ongoing extension
mechanism of State Governments, local bodies, to forge effective linkages and synergy amongst
various stake-holders, to support HRD interventions, to promote pervasive and innovative use of
electronic / print media, inter-personal communication and ICT tools, etc.
 Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material (SMSP) to increase production of certified /
quality seed, to increase SRR, to promote new technologies in seed production, infrastructure,
etc.
 Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM): to increase the reach of farm
mechanization to small and marginal farmers, to promote ‘Custom Hiring Centres’, to create
hubs for hi-tech and high value farm equipment, to create awareness among stakeholders
through demonstration and capacity building activities, and to ensure performance testing and
certification at designated testing centers located all over the country.
 Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plan Quarantine (SMPPQ): to minimize loss to quality
and yield of agricultural crops from the ravages of insect pests, diseases, weeds, nematodes,
rodents, etc. and to shield our agricultural bio-security from the incursions and spread of alien
species, to facilitate exports of Indian agricultural commodities to global markets, and to
promote good agricultural practices, particularly with respect to plant protection strategies and
strategies.
 Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics and Statistics (ISACES): to
undertake the agriculture census, study of the cost of cultivation of principal crops, to undertake
research studies on agro-economic problems of the country, to improve agricultural statistics
methodology and to create a hierarchical information system on crop condition and crop
production from sowing to harvest.

 Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation (ISAC): to provide financial assistance for
improving the economic conditions of cooperatives, remove regional imbalances and to speed
up - cooperative development in agricultural marketing, processing, storage, computerization
and weaker section programmes.
 Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM): to provide infrastructure facilities for
grading, standardization and quality certification of agricultural produce; to establish a
nationwide marketing information network; and to integrate markets through a common online
market platform to facilitate pan-India trade in agricultural commodities
 National e-Governance Plan (NeGP-A): to improve access of farmers to information &
services throughout crop-cycle and to build upon, enhance & integrate the existing ICT
initiatives of Centre and States.
CORPUS FOR MICRO IRRIGATION FUND

Why in News?
A dedicated Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF) with National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD) under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) has been set
up.
Status of Micro -Irrigation in India
• According to a study the average penetration level of Micro-irrigation in India is 5.5%. Only few
states like Haryana, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu have penetration level greater than national average.
• Micro-irrigation in India is largely being promoted in arid and semi-arid regions where
groundwater is the primary source of water.
• • The task force on micro irrigation had estimated a potential of 69.5 million hectare under micro
irrigation, whereas the area covered so far is only about 10 million hectares.
Micro-irrigation
• It is the slow application of water above, or below the soil by surface drip, subsurface drip, bubbler
and micro-sprinkler systems, thereby increases the yield and productivity of crops.
• Due to recurring droughts in years 2012, 2015 and 2016, micro-irrigation has become a policy
priority in India in form of Per Drop More Crop Component of PMKSY.

NABARD
• It was established under the NABARD Act of 1981 with an objective of providing and regulating
credit and other facilities for the promotion and development of Agriculture, Small-scale industries,
Cottage and village industries, Handicrafts and other allied economic activities in rural areas.
• It refinances the financial institutions like state co-operative agriculture and rural development
banks (SCARDBs), state co-operative banks (SCBs), regional rural banks (RRBs), commercial
banks (CBs) which finances the rural sector.
• It promotes SHG-Bank linkage programme for mainstreaming of the microfinance innovation and
encourages other banks to lend to SHGs.
• Long Term Irrigation Fund (LTIF) has been established in NABARD during Budget 2016-17, as
a part of PMKSY with an initial corpus of 20,000 Crore Rupees and it has been doubled to 40,000
crores in Budget 2017-18.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichayee Yojana

 It aims to extend the coverage of irrigation ‘Har Khet ko pani’ and improving water use
efficiency ‘More crop per drop' in a focused manner with end to end solution on source creation,
distribution, management, field application and extension activities.
 It will be supervised and monitored by Inter-Ministerial National Steering Committee (NSC)
under PM with Union Ministers of all concerned Ministries. A National Executive Committee
(NEC) is to be constituted under the Chairmanship of the Vice Chairman, NITI Aayog to
oversee programme implementation
 PMKSY has been formulated amalgamating ongoing schemes viz. Accelerated Irrigation
Benefit Programme (AIBP); Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP); and On
Farm Water Management (OFWM) component of National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA).
 Water budgeting is done for all sectors namely, household, agriculture and industries.
PRECISION AGRICULTURE USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Why in news?
A Statement of Intent has been signed between NITI Ayog and IBM to develop Precision
Agriculture using Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Aspirational Districts.
Details

• It is first of a kind project leveraging AI in agriculture across 10 Aspirational Districts in India
across the States of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh in its Phase I. The project will aim at improving yields of small landholders.
• IBM will be using AI to provide all the relevant data and platform for developing technological
models for improving agricultural output and productivity for various crops and soil types, for the
identified districts.
• NITI Aayog, on its part, will facilitate the inclusion of more stakeholders on the ground for effective
last mile utilisation and extension, using the insights generated through these models.
• The scope of this project is to introduce and make available climate-aware cognitive farming
techniques and identifying systems of crop monitoring, early warning on pest/disease outbreak based
on advanced AI innovations.
• It also includes deployment of weather advisory, rich satellite and enhanced weather forecast
information along with IT & mobile applications with a focus on improving the crop yield and cost
savings through better farm management.
WIDENING OF INDIA’S TAX BASE

Why in news?
India’s tax base has been widening over last few years but some issues still remain.
Major trends
• Country’s total taxpayer base increased to 6.41 crore in 2016-17 from 4.38 crore in AY 2011-12
which shows a rise of over 46 per cent over five years with individual tax payers registering a faster
growth rate than total tax payers.
• The surge in the numbers is partly attributable to the tax department’s focus on increasing
compliance on the direct tax front, especially after demonetisation (Operation Clean Money).
• Even within the class of individual taxpayers, there is a skew in the tax pay out trend wherein
average tax payment by a salaried individual is more than average individual business taxpayer.
REPORT OF TASK FORCE ON SHELL COMPANIES

Why in news?
Recently ‘Task Force on Shell Companies’ has submitted its report to government.

Background
• The Task Force was constituted in 2017 under the co-chairmanship of the revenue secretary and the
corporate affairs secretary for effectively tackling the malpractices by shell companies in a
comprehensive manner.
• In India Shell companies are not defined under Companies Act, 2013 or any other legislation.
However some laws can help curbing illegal activities such as money laundering and can indirectly
be used to target shell companies — Benami Transaction (Prohibition) Amendment Act 2016; The
Prevention of Money Laundering Act 2002 and The Companies Act, 2013 etc.
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRADE REMEDIES

Why in News?
A unified Directorate General of Trade Remedies (DGTR) has been formed for providing
comprehensive and swift trade defence mechanism in India.
About Directorate General of Trade Remedies
• It would subsume the Directorate General of Anti-dumping and Allied duties, Directorate General of
Safeguards and some functions of the Directorate General of Foreign Trade.
• It will be the apex national authority for all trade remedial measures including anti-dumping,
countervailing duties and safeguard measures.
• It will have all expertise, including legal skills, people dealing with accounting, trade experts and
revenue people, under one roof and it will function as an attached office of Department of
Commerce.
• The recommendation of DGTR for imposition of anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard duties
would be considered by the Department of Revenue.
Additional Information
Anti-Dumping Duties
• These are special import duties imposed when a firm, following an enquiry, is assessed as having
sold a product in the importing market-
• At a price below the one it charges in the home market or
• Below the cost of production or at less than fair value; and
• It damages the producers in the importing country.
Countervailing Duty

• If the exporting nation is found to offer export subsidies to their exports, then CVD is imposed by
the Importing Nation on imports.
Safeguard Duty
• The safeguard duty as a temporary measure is used when imports of a product, due to tariff
concessions or other WTO obligations, increase unexpectedly to a point that they cause or threaten
to cause serious injury to domestic producers.
CABOTAGE LAW
Why in News?
Recently, Ministry of Shipping relaxed Cabotage restrictions on the movement of foreign ships.
About the move
• It will allow movement of foreign ships engaged in transporting containers laden with goods for
export or import as well as empty containers between and among Indian ports along the country’s
coastline.
About Cabotage?
• Cabotage refers to shipping along coastal routes between foreign sea ports, and also to the restriction
on the operation of vessels between sea ports within a particular country.
• It is governed by the Merchant Shipping Act (MSA) of 1958.
• It aims to protect domestic shipping industry from foreign competition as well as for the purpose of
national security.
• Presently, foreign-flagged ships can transport cargo within the country, in the non-availability of
India Ships, after obtaining a licence.
PRIVATE PARTICIPATION IN NATIONAL APPRENTICESHIP PROMOTION SCHEME

Why in News?
Government has decided to execute the National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) in
the public-private partnership mode.
National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS)
• Its objective is to promote apprenticeship training and incentivize employers who wish to engage
apprentices.
• It reimburses 25% of prescribed stipend subject to a maximum of Rs. 1500/- per month per
apprentice and targets 15 lakh apprentices in 2018-2019 & 20 lakh apprentices in 2019-20.

• It covers all apprentices except the Graduate, Technician and Technician (Vocational) apprentices
which are covered by the scheme administered by MHRD.
• It also promotes dual-learning Mode of training in which theoretical instructions are given in the
ITI’s while practical training is given in the industry, thus improves the connect between industry
and ITI’s
• NSDC (National Skill Development Corporation) • It was established in 2009 as a Public Private
Partnership Company with an objective to bridge the emerging skill gaps in the Indian economy and
also addresses the worldwide skill shortages.
• Government of India through Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE) holds
49% of the present equity base, while the private sector has rest 51%.
• It is also aligned to re-skilling and upskilling those who are already a part of the formal human
resource.
• Sector Skill Councils (SSCs) • They are set up under NSDC as autonomous industry-led bodies
for steering skill development and training by identifying Skill gaps, conducting Train the Trainer
Programs, providing the real time information about the labour market and developing a robust
training delivery mechanism.
• Sharada Prasad Committee (2016), recommended scrapping of the existing Councils due to their
overlapping roles and also highlighted the conflict of interest in these.
RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES IN A TIME OF TRANSITION

Why in news
Recently, Renewable Energy Policies In A Time Of Transition report is released in a collaborative
effort of International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the International Energy Agency
(IEA), and the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).
Background
• Since 2012, renewable energy has accounted for more than half of capacity additions in the
global power sector.
• Increasing investment in renewable: In 2017, investments in new renewable power capacity
outstripped the amount invested in fossil-based generating capacity, with most of the installation of
new renewable energy capacity currently occurring in developing and emerging countries.
• Reaching to hinterland: Nearly 146 million people are now served by off-grid renewable power,
and many small island developing states are advancing rapidly towards targets of 100% renewables.

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
• It is an intergovernmental organization, principal platform for international co-operation, a centre of
excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable
energy.
• Promotes the widespread adoption of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal,
hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy.
• India is a member country of IRENA.
International Energy Agency (IEA)

• It is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of
the 1973 oil crisis.
• It works to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 29 member countries and beyond. Its
mission is guided by four main areas of focus: energy security, economic development,
environmental awareness and engagement worldwide.
• Only the OECD member states can become members of the IEA. Except for Chile, Iceland, Israel,
Mexico, and Slovenia, all OECD member states are members of the IEA. In 2014, Estonia joined the
IEA and became its 29th member.
• China, India, Indonesia, Morocco, Singapore and Thailand are the associate members of IEA.
• With India as a member, it now formally covers 70% of the world's energy consumption.
Important publications of IEA: o World Energy Outlook 2016
World Energy Investment 2016
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century

• It is the global renewable energy policy multi-stakeholder network with the goal of facilitating
knowledge exchange, policy development and joint action towards a rapid global transition to
renewable energy.
• It brings together governments, non-governmental organisations, research and academic institutions,
international organisations and industry to learn from one another.
• India is a member.

PATRATU SUPER THERMAL POWER PROJECT
Why in news?
Recently, Prime Minister laid foundation stone for the first phase of Patratu Super Thermal Power
Plant.
About Patratu Super Thermal Power Project (STPP)
• It is a joint venture (74:26) between Government of Jharkhand and Patratu Vidyut Utpadan
Nigam Ltd. (PVUN), a subsidiary company of NTPC.
• The project will also ensure 24X7 power supply to household under Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli
Har Ghar Yojana.
• Salient Features of the project include – o Dry ash disposal system – It is presently being used in
NTPC Dadri Thermal Power Plant.
 Zero liquid discharge system - Under this the waste water from the plant which contains salts
and other impurities is evaporated and clean water is collected. The solid residue is further used
for landfill purposes.
 Air cooled condenser technology – This technology ensures that there is less water
consumption and allows the exhaust steam to directly condense from steam turbine.
 Rail loading facility for transportation of ash
 Project is also complaint with the new emission norms with high efficiency Electrostatic
Precipitator, Flue-Gas desulphurization (FGD) and Nox control emission.
Super Thermal Power Station

• These are a series of thermal power plants with a capacity of 1000MW and above.
• Government is currently developing STPSs which will add about 100,000 Megawatt. E.g. Patratu
Super Thermal Power Plant, Talcher Super Thermal Power Plant etc.
Ultra-Megawatt Power Projects

• These power projects have the capacity of 4000MW or more.
STRATEGIC OIL RESERVE

Why in news?
Recently India received a consignment of 2 million barrels of crude oil from United Arab Emirates
(UAE) for India’s strategic petroleum reserve at Mangalore.

Details
• India at present stores – including private and public firms – crude oil, petroleum products
• and gas to last for 63 days
• India is building around 39 million barrels of strategic crude oil storage facility of which the 5.86
million barrels supplied by state-run Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC)—the only one to
partner with India on its crude oil reserve programme till date
• Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas had also invited Saudi Arabia and Oman early this year to
participate in the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve Programme.
Strategic Oil Reserve

• It is storage of crude oil which would act as a cushion during any external supply disruptions or
supply-demand mismatch shock.
• The crude oil storages are constructed in underground rock caverns.
• They are maintained by Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (a SPV of the Oil Industry
Development Board under Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
• Presently, strategic reserves are situated at Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Mangalore
(Karnataka), and Padur (Karnataka).
• Moreover, project of three additional reserves is in pipeline-at Chandikhol (Orrisa), Bikaner
(Rajasthan) and Rajkot (Gujrat).
FREIGHT CORRIDORS TO BE OPERATIONAL SOON

Why in news?
The first phase of the dedicated rail freight corridors project is likely to be completed by year end.
About Dedicated Freight Corridor project
• The dedicated freight corridor (DFC) project is being implemented by Ministry of Railways. The
project involves the construction of six freight corridors traversing the entire country.
• Initially the construction of Eastern and Western DFCs is being undertaken.
• The other four corridors North-South (Delhi-Tamil Nadu), East-West (West Bengal-Maharashtra),
East-South (West Bengal-Andhra Pradesh) and South-South (Tamil Nadu-Goa) are in planning
stage.
• Once operational, the western and eastern corridors will increase the railway’s freight carrying
capacity to around 2,300 million tonnes, up from 1,200 million tonnes at present, and help reduce
cost of freight transportation.
• The construction of the western corridor is being fully funded by the Japanese International
Cooperation Agency, which has provided around Rs 33,000 crore as soft loan. The eastern corridor
is being partially funded by the World Bank.
NABH (NEXTGEN AIRPORTS FOR BHARAT) NIRMAN INITIATIVE

Why in News?
The Government has decided for capacity augmentation of the airports, as a part of NABH
Nirman initiative.
Background
• Capacity Constraint has come to such a point that airports like Delhi and Mumbai are unable to
provide further slots for new services.
• According to some government documents, at least 25 of the 50 busiest airports in India are
already operating beyond their capacity, while almost all the others will reach optimal capacity in
2018-19 with the aviation industry growing at an unanticipated 18-20% every year.
PROJECT “NETWORK FOR SPECTRUM”

Why in news?
• The Cabinet Committee on Infrastructure approved substantial hike in the budget for the Network
for Spectrum (NFS) project.
About Project Network for Spectrum (NFS)

• It was launched to establish the alternative communication network for exclusive use by defence
services to boost the communication capabilities of defence forces.
• The project is result of an agreement reached in 2010 between Defence ministry and Dept. of
Telecom (DoT) in which DoT agreed to vacate 25 MHz of 3G spectrum and 20 MHz of 2G
spectrum in phases solely for defence communication purpose
• The project is being implemented by state-run Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL).
PINAKA ROCKET
Why in news?
An upgraded version of Pinaka rocket was recently successfully test-fired from Chandipur in
Odisha.

About the rocket
• The upgraded Pinaka system, Pinaka mark-II, is a guided one unlike the earlier version and has
navigation, guidance and control kit.
• The range of new version is more than 70 kilometre which was earlier only 40km.
• It is a multi-barrel rocket launcher which can fire a salvo of 12 rockets in 44 seconds.
MILITARY EXERCISES
• Recently, 13th edition of the Joint Military Exercise SURYA KIRAN between India and Nepal
was held. It is a biannual event which is conducted alternatively in Nepal and India.
• Recently, Indian Army and Air Force conducted exercise 'Vijay Prahar' to finetune Joint manship to
maximize the impact of Joint Operations.
ENVIRONMENT
COMMUNITY FOREST RESOURCE
Why in news?
Recently, People’s Forests Report was released by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) on
Community Forest Resource (CFR) management.
Background
• National Forest Policy, 1988, had paved the way for semi-decentralization of forest governance in
the country, leading to the emergence of joint forest management (JFM). It led to increased
availability of non-timber forest produce (NTFPs) and fuelwood and improved forest protection.
• In 2006, The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act or the Forest Rights Act (FRA) was passed which provides for recognition of forest
lands as community forest resources (CFR).
• As of 2016, a little over 1.1 million hectares (ha) of forestland had been brought under CFR
management. However, as per an estimate by Community Forest Resource-Learning and
Advocacy, 45 % of India’s total forest area, should be recognised as CFR.
• Forest Right Act 2006: It provides for a rights-based, democratic and decentralized governance of
forests. Rights recognized under FRA. • Individual forest rights (IFR) to legally hold forestlands
that the forest dwelling communities have been residing on and cultivating prior to 13 December
2005.

• Community rights (CRs) of ownership, use and disposal of ‘minor forest produce’, also known as
non-timber forest produce (NTFP). CRs include rights of grazing, collection of firewood, fish and
other such products from water bodies, as well as rights to biodiversity and intellectual property,
including those related to traditional knowledge.
• Community forest resource (CFR) rights under Section 3(1)(i) to protect, regenerate, conserve or
manage forest resources for sustainable use, providing for community governance of forests.
• About CFR • CFR rights is the most empowering provision of the Act because it restores gram
sabha’s [village council] control over governance of forests from the forest department, thereby
democratising the country’s colonial forest governance as a whole.
• CFR management committees (CFRMCs) are created by Gram Sabha, which are expected to
prepare a conservation and management plan for community forest resources in order to sustainably
and equitably manage CFR areas.
NATIONAL POLICY ON BIOFUELS-2018

Why in news?
The Union Cabinet recently approved National Policy on Biofuels – 2018 to encourage the
generation and use of biofuels.
Background
• The government has also formulated National Policy on Biofuels earlier in 2009. The policy
included features like:
 An indicative target of 20% blending of biofuels both for biodiesel and bioethanol by 2017
 Biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds on waste, degraded and marginal lands to be
encouraged.
 MSP for non-edible oilseeds to ensure fair price to farmers.
 Minimum Purchase Price (MPP) for purchase of bio-ethanol and bio-diesel.
 Major thrust on R&D with focus on plantations, processing and production of bio-fuels,
including Second Generation Bio-fuels.
 Financial incentives for second generation bio-fuels.
 National Biofuel Coordination Committee, headed by the PM to provide policy guidance and
coordination.
 A Biofuel Steering Committee, chaired by Cabinet Secretary to oversee implementation of the
Policy.
 However, the Biofuels programme in India has been largely impacted due to the sustained and
quantum non-availability of domestic feedstock for biofuel production.
 In India, industrial-scale availability of ethanol so far has been only from sugar factories, which
were free to divert it to other users such as alcohol producers, who would pay more.
 The National Policy on biofuels-2018 tries to address these supply-side issues by encouraging
alternative feedstocks with an aim to reduce the cost of producing biofuels and improve
affordability for consumers as well as developing biofuel production into a vibrant Rs 1 trillion
industry in the next six years.
Biofuel is any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from organic matter in a short period of time. This
is in contrast with fossil fuels, which take millions of years to form. Biofuels are considered
renewable form of energy as it emits less than fossil fuels. Different generation biofuels:
• First Generation Biofuels: It uses the food crops like wheat and sugar for making ethanol and oil
seeds for bio diesel by conventional method of fermentation.
• Second Generation Biofuels: It uses non-food crops and feedstock such as Wood, grass, seed
crops, organic waste are used in fuel preparation.
• Third Generation Biofuels: It uses specially engineered Algae whose biomass is used to convert
into biofuels. The greenhouse gas emission here will be low in comparison to others.
• Fourth Generation biofuel: It aimed at not only producing sustainable energy but also a way of
capturing and storing CO2.
Different types of Bio Fuels:

Bio ethanol: It is an alcohol produced from fermentation of carbohydrate and cellulosic material of
crops and other plants and grasses. It is generally used as an additive to increase octane number of
fuel.
Bio Diesel: It is a methyl or methyl ester of fatty acids produced by trans esterification of oils and
fats obtained from plants and animals. It can be directly used as fuel.
Bio gas: Biogas is methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. It can
be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into
anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields.

SCHEME FOR BIOMASS BASED COGENERATION PROJECTS
Why in news?
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy recently approved the scheme namely “Scheme to support
promotion of biomass-based cogeneration in sugar mills and other industries in the country.”
More about the scheme

• It aims to support Biomass based Cogeneration Projects in Sugar mills and Other Industries for
power generation in the country.
• It will provide Central Financial assistance(CFA) for projects utilizing biomass like bagasse, agro-
based industrial residue, crop residues, wood produced through energy plantations, weeds, wood
waste produced in industrial operations, etc.
• Municipal Solid Waste is not covered under the programme.
• The assistance will be provided at the rate of Rs.25 Lakh/MW (for bagasse cogeneration projects)
and Rs.50 Lakh/MW (Non-bagasse Cogeneration projects) after successful commissioning and
commencement of commercial generation and performance testing of the plant.
• Registered Companies, Partnership Firms, Proprietorship Firms, Cooperatives, Public Sector
Companies, Government owned Firms are eligible for financial support available under the scheme.
• Biomass based cogeneration projects which intend to add capacity to the existing plants will also be
considered for grant of CFA.
Cogeneration
• Cogeneration – ‘generating together’ – refers to the process wherein we obtain both heat and
electricity from the same fuel at the same time.
• A variety of fuels can be used for cogeneration including bagasse, natural gas, coal, and biomass.
• Its advantages include: lowering the cost of energy generation, low capital investment, higher
profitability of plant due to substantial reduction in cost of production, less consumption of costly
and scarce fuels like diesel oil etc.
• The potential for cogeneration projects is estimated at 3500 MW of additional power generation
from the country’s existing functional sugar mills.

DUST STORM
Why in news?
• A violent storm led to deaths of more than 100 people in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal and Delhi-NCR.
What is a Dust storm?

• A dust storm, or sandstorm, is a phenomenon common in hot and dry climates.
• Dust storms are also known as Haboob, which is Arabic for violent wind.
• The strong storms can develop in many parts of the world and can travel for thousands of miles or
even across oceans.
• A dust storm requires a large availability of dust, and enough sustained wind to lift the particles.
• Dust storms also commonly occur with thunderstorms before it is about to rain.
• The rain water does not manage to reach the ground as it is evaporated by the heat.
• This causes the air to cool down, meaning there is an area of cold air sitting above the warm air
on the ground.
• The cold air comes down in a down-burst which splashes against the surface which kicks the dust
upwards.
SUVA EXPERT DIALOGUE ON LOSS AND DAMAGE

Why in news?
Recently Suva Expert Dialogue on loss and damage was held at Bonn to furthering collective
understanding of approaches to address loss and damage, associated finance needs, and sources of
support.
Loss and damage in UNFCC
• 1991: Proposed by Vanuatu on behalf of Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) for the
international community to provide “assurance” that climate change would not endanger their
survival;
• 2010: Establishment of the Subsidiary Body of Implementation (SBI) Work Program on loss and
damage in Cancun (COP 16);
• 2013: Establishment of the Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM) under the Cancun
Adaptation Framework;

Suva expert Dialogue
• It is an expert dialogue decided at COP23 in Bonn due to demands of developing nations for a
separate agenda item on loss and damage.
• The dialogue aims for facilitating the mobilization and securing of expertise, and enhancement of
support, including finance, technology and capacity-building, for addressing loss and damage
associated with the adverse effects of climate change.
Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage

• It was established in COP 19 under UNFCCC in 2013
• It deals with Climate Change Impacts (Loss and Damage Mechanism), including extreme events and
slow onset events, in vulnerable developing countries through-
 Enhancing knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk management approaches to
address L&D;
 Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies among relevant stakeholders;
 Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity-building.
• It is also anchored in the Article 8 of the 2015 Paris agreement which emphasizes the “importance of
averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate
change”.
TOXICITY IN INDIAN RIVERS

Why in news?
A recent report titled Status of trace and toxic metals in Indian rivers 2018 by Central Water
Commission.
More about the news
• The report has highlighted that 42 rivers in India have at least two toxic heavy metals in quantities
beyond the permissible limit.
• Ganga, the national river, was found to be polluted with five heavy metals—chromium, copper,
nickel, lead and iron.
• It is an issue because a majority of Indians still use water directly from rivers for their domestic
use. With an increase in population, the pressure on these rivers will only increase.
• According to the report, mining, milling, plating and surface finishing industries are the main
sources of heavy metal pollution and the concentration of such toxic metals has increased rapidly
over the past few decades.
GHG EMISSION FROM SHIPPING INDUSTRY
Why in news?
Members of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) have reached an agreement on reducing
their greenhouse gas emissions from shipping by at least 50% of 2008 levels by 2050.
Background
 International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) found that if treated as a country,
international shipping would be the sixth largest emitter of carbon dioxide in the world -
roughly the same as Germany. It accounts for around 2.2% of global CO2 emissions and they are
projected to grow between 50 and 250% by 2050 if no action is taken.
 IMO was tasked with limiting and reducing emissions from shipping under the Kyoto Protocol in
1997.
 Despite its major role in polluting the planet, shipping was not accounted for in the Paris
agreement on climate change.
 The world’s shipping industry has now, for the first time, defined its commitment to tackle
climate change, bringing it closer in-line with the Paris agreement.
 The agreement took place in the historic London session of Marine Environment Protection
Committee (MEPC) of IMO.
 The ultimate goal for shipping industry is to reduce greenhouse gas emission to zero by the
middle of the century, with most newly built ships running without fossil fuels by the 2030s.
 The agreement was opposed by Brazil, Saudi Arabia and the US.
INDIA BIODIVERSITY AWARDS, 2018

Why in news
Recently, India Biodiversity Award 2018 was conferred by the National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA).
Background
• In 2012, the Government of India, in partnership with UNDP India, initiated the India
Biodiversity Awards
• Aim: To recognize and honour outstanding models of biodiversity conservation, sustainable use and
• governance at the grassroots level.
• Awards is presented in different categories:
 Conservation of Wild and Domesticated Species
 Sustainable Use of Biological Resources
 Replicable Mechanisms for Access and Benefit Sharing
 Best Biodiversity Management Committees
SOUTH ASIA WILDLIFE ENFORCEMENT NETWORK (SAWEN)

Why in news?
Recently the first meeting of SAWEN was held in India to curb wildlife crime in the South Asian
region.
About SAWEN
• It is an inter-governmental wildlife law enforcement support body of South Asian countries
namely- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
• It was officially launched in January, 2011 in Paro Bhutan.
• In 2016 the Union Cabinet gave permission to adopt the statute of SAWEN.
• SAWEN operates its activities from the Secretariat based in Kathmandu, Nepal.
• It focuses on policy harmonization, institutional capacity strengthening through knowledge and
intelligence sharing; and collaboration with regional and international partners to enhance wildlife
law enforcement in the member countries.
INDUS DOLPHINS (BHULAN)

Why in news?
The Punjab government along with WWF-India are conducting the first organised census on
population of Indus Dolphin.
About Indus Dolphin (Bhulan)
• They are endangered, freshwater, and functionally blind species of dolphins which rely on
echolocation to navigate, communicate and hunt prey including prawns, catfish and carp.
• Except for a tiny, isolated population of about 30 in India’s Beas River (185 km stretch between
Talwara and Harike), Indus river dolphins live exclusively in the Indus river in Pakistan.
• In 2017, a survey was done by WWF-Pakistan which showed an increase in their population. Similar
survey is being conducted in India now with the help of WWF-India.
Other River Dolphins in the world

Apart from the 3 river dolphins in India, there are 4 other important species viz-

• Amazon River Dolphin (the pink river dolphin or Boto) are found only in freshwater and are
Vulnerable.
• Tucuxi (Data Deficient Category), found in Amazon and its tributaries, can live in both salt- and
freshwater.
• Yangtze river dolphin (Baiji) of China has been declared "functionally extinct" in 2006.
• Yangtze/Finless Porpoise (only porpoise species that can live in freshwater) is Endangered and is
found in the Yangtze River and its adjacent lake systems.
BLACK PANTHER
Why in News?
Recently, Forest and Environment Department of Odisha recorded the presence of black panthers in
a forest in Sundargarh district.
About Black Panther
• It is the same species as a normal-coloured panther with a high amount of pigment (melanin
caused by agouti gene) causing the animal to appear black.
• Other habitats of Black Panther;
 Kerala (Periyar Tiger Reserve),
 Karnataka (Bhadra Tiger Reserve, Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve and Kabini Wildlife Sanctuary),
 Chhattisgarh (Achanakmar Tiger Reserve, Udanti-Sitanadi tiger reserve),
 Maharashtra (Satara),
 Goa (Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary),
 Tamil Nadu (Mudumalai Tiger Reserve),
 Assam
 Arunachal Pradesh.
Related information
• Odisha is the only state in the country to have melanistic tigers, white tigers and black panthers.
• Conservation Status of Black Panther
 Vulnerable: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature).
 Schedule I: Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
 Appendix I: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora).
Phenomenon of Melanism

• Melanism is the undue development of dark-coloured pigment in the skin which gives black skin
in many animals, birds and even fish.
• Melanism is hereditary- but it is not necessarily passed on directly to the next generation.
• A normal-coloured leopard can carry the recessive melanistic gene. Moreover, if both parents are
black, the leopard cubs are always black.
• A closer look at a panther’s coat will reveal the characteristic spots of the leopard hiding under a
cloak of excess melanin which is called 'ghost striping'.
GAJ YATRA
Why in news?
• Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and the Wildlife Trust of India
(WTI) rolled out the ‘Gaj Yatra’ from Tura in Garo Hills, Meghalaya.
About Gaj Yatra

• ’Gaj Yatra’ aims at securing 100 elephant corridors across India.
• It is a mega-campaign by Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) and the International Fund for Animal
Welfare (IFAW) to raise awareness about the shrinking space for India's wild elephants
• It was launched on World Elephant Day, August 12, 2017.
• It was organized in the Garo Hills in recognition of the people’s initiative of community forests for
human-elephant harmony and conservation of animals such as hoolock gibbon.
Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is an NGO to conserve wildlife and its habitat and to work for the
welfare of individual wild animals, in partnership with communities and governments.
IFAW is an NGO working on conservation measures towards animal welfare.
5.14. NATIONAL WATER INFORMATICS CENTRE

Why in News?
The government has set up National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC) to maintain a
comprehensive water resources data.
About NWIC
• It would be a repository of nation-wide water resources data and would work as a Subordinate
Office under the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation which
is to be headed by a Joint Secretary level officer.

• It will provide latest and reliable water data (other than classified data) through web-based India
Water Resources Information System (India-WRIS) on a GIS platform in Public Domain.
• It will also collaborate with leading national and international research institutes to provide
technical support to central and state organisations dealing with water emergency response of
hydrological extremes.
• It is a component of National Hydrology Project and also in consonance with the National Water
Mission which has an objective of “conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its
more equitable distribution through integrated water resources development and management”.
National Hydrology Project

• It is a central sector scheme. Under this, the Hydro-meteorological data will be stored and analyzed
in real time basis and can be seamlessly accessed by any user at State, District and Village level.
• Its components include-
 In Situ Hydromet Monitoring System and Hydromet Data Acquisition System.
 Setting up of National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC).
 Water Resources Operation and Management System
 Water Resources Institutions and Capacity Building
Water Resource Information System

• It is a joint venture of the Central Water Commission (CWC), Ministry of Water Resources and
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Department of Space.
• India-WRIS provides 'Single Window solution' for all water resources data & information in a
national GIS framework.
India-WRIS Wiki
• It is a collaborative knowledge sharing web application developed for sharing updated information.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

TRANS FAT
Why in News?
World Health Organization has urged developing nations to eliminate man-made trans fatty acids
from their food supplies.

About Trans-Fat
Also known as Trans Fatty Acids (TFA), they are of 2 types- o Natural Trans-Fat- Occur naturally
in the dairy and some meat products.
Artificial Trans-Fat- They are created when the oil goes through hydrogenation, which involves
adding hydrogen to the liquid oil to make it more solid.
They help to increase the shelf life of oils and foods and stabilise their flavours.
In India, Vanaspati, desi ghee, butter and margarine are the main sources of trans fat. Vanaspati is
favoured by the industry as it prolongs a food product’s shelf life and is cheap.
“REPLACE” by WHO
• WHO has released a step by step guide for the industry to eliminate trans fats from the food by 2023.
• The guide, called REPLACE, has six actions, which include
 A review of dietary sources of trans fats,
 Promoting replacement with healthier fats,
 Setting up a regulatory framework,
 Assessing and monitoring trans fats content in food,
 Creating awareness and
 Enforcing regulation.
DIGITAL VILLAGE PROGRAMME

Why in news?
Recently, it has been decided to expand Common Service Centres (CSC) to 2.50 lakh gram
panchayats and to establish 700 Digital Villages by the end of this year.
More on news
• The CSC model has adopted six villages in the country in the pilot phase to be developed as Digital
Villages.
• DigiGaon or Digital Village is conceptualized as a connected place in a rural and remote part of the
country where citizens can avail various e-Services of the Central Government, state Governments
and private players.
• The idea behind this project is to turn these villages into self-sustaining units. It aims at promoting
rural entrepreneurship and building rural capacities and livelihoods through community participation
and collective action.
• The digital villages have been equipped with solar lighting facility in their community center, LED
assembly unit, sanitary napkin unit (with active participation on Asha and Anganwadi workers) and
Wi-fi choupal.
Common Service Centres • Common Service Centres (CSC) scheme is one of the mission mode
projects under the Digital India Programme.
• CSCs are the access points for delivery of essential public utility services, social welfare
schemes, healthcare, financial, education and agriculture services, apart from host of B2C
services to citizens in rural and remote areas of the country.
GRAVITYRAT MALWARE
Why in news?
Maharashtra Cybercrime department has reported the malware “GravityRAT”.
Background
• The ‘RAT’ in the name stands for Remote Access Trojan, which is a program capable of being
controlled remotely and thus difficult to trace.
• It was first detected by Indian Computer Emergency Response Team, CERT-In in 2017.
• Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user. It includes
computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and spyware.
• These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions, including stealing, encrypting or
deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing functions and monitoring users'
computer activity without their permission.
CERT-In
• It is the national nodal agency for responding to computer security incidents as and when they
occur, operational since January 2004.
• In the IT Amendment Act 2008, it has been designated to serve following functions-
 Collection, analysis and dissemination of information on cyber incidents.
 Forecast and alerts of cyber security incidents.
 Emergency measures for handling cyber security incidents.
 Coordination of cyber incident response activities.
 Issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes and whitepapers relating to information security
practices, procedures, prevention, response and reporting of cyber incidents.
 Such other functions relating to cyber security as may be prescribed.

BIOSENSOR TECHNIQUE TO DETECT CHIKUNGUNYA VIRUS
Why in News?
Recently, Indian scientists have developed a biosensor technique to detect chikungunya virus.
Need
• There has been rapid increase (around 300-400 per cent) of Chikungunya cases in India during the
period of 2014 to 2016.
• Chikungunya is detected through RT-PCR (Real-time polymerase chain reaction) from serum
samples and by determination of serum anti-bodies which are time consuming and cumbersome.
About Chikungunya
• Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral disease spread by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus
mosquitoes (They transmit dengue and zika as well).
• There is no cure for the disease. Treatment is focused on relieving the symptoms.
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION (CMBR)

Why in news?
Scientists from the Raman Research Institute (RRI) in Bengaluru have conducted an experiment
for detection of Cosmic Microwave back ground radiation in a place called Timbaktu in Andhra
Pradesh.
More about news
• The experiment by RRI can profoundly change our understanding of the early universe, specifically
of events leading up to the formation of the first stars.
• Similar experiment conducted by Arizona State University (ASU) at a similarly quiet place in
Australia in February this year has observed unusual and unexplained shapes in the spectrum of
CMBR.
• Timbaktu is chosen as it is described as Radio Quiet — an area where there is virtually no
interference from signals produced by modern technology like mobile, TV etc. which makes it most
suitable place to detect even faint electromagnetic signals from the sky.
Important Scientific Inferences derived from CMBR: • Most cosmologists consider this radiation
to be the best evidence for the hot big bang model of the universe.
• The early universe was filled with hot, dense and extremely uniform gas, mostly hydrogen.

• The first stars were formed when these blobs of gas got together under the influence of gravity.
That is when visible light also made its first appearance in the universe. Scientists refer to this
phase as cosmic dawn.
INTERSTELLAR ASTEROID 2015 BZ509

Why in news?
Scientist found an asteroid known as 2015 BZ509 which is supposed to be the first interstellar body
to stay in our solar system.
More about news
• 2015 BZ509 was discovered in 2014, by Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid
Response System) in Hawaii but at that time it was thought of as part of our solar system and not
regarded as interstellar object.
• Now Researchers argue that It is supposed to be captured from other star system in the early
phase of formation of our solar system approximately 4.5 billion years ago.
• Its orbit is "retrograde," i.e. 2015 BZ509 moves around the sun in the opposite direction
(clockwise if seen from Sun’s imaginary North Pole) of Jupiter, Earth and most other bodies in
the solar system.
• The orbit of the asteroid almost coincides with the Jupiter.
QUEQIAO RELAY SATELLITE TO EXPLORE FAR SIDE OF MOON

Why in news?
China launched a relay satellite to be the first to land a spacecraft on the far side of the moon.
Details
• As a part of Mission Chang’e 4 under Phase II of Chinese Lunar Exploration Programme (CLEP),
China launched Queqiao (or “Magpie Bridge,”).
• It is now on its way to the Lagrange point-2 (L2) of Earth-Moon system and will function as a
communication relay satellite between the Earth and Chang’e 4 lander-rover spacecraft.
• Chang’e 4 spacecraft is scheduled to be launched in December 2018.
How much moon do we see from earth?

From Earth, 59% of the moon is visible over a period of time. This is explained by two phenomena:

• Tidal locking: Moon takes nearly same time i.e. 27 days, to come one orbit around the Earth and
also to rotate once on its own axis. Thus, same side of the moon is visible from Earth while the
farther remains dark
• Lunar vibrations: due to tidal locking, ideally 50% of the moon should be visible but we see 59%
because of north-south rocking and east-west wobbling of moon – rightly called as lunar vibrations
Lagrange point or L-point:

It a point where combined gravitational forces of two bodies, say Earth and sun or Earth and moon,
equal the centrifugal force felt by much smaller body. Such interaction of forces creates equilibrium
where spacecraft can be positioned to make observations.
NEW ELEMENT WITH MAGNETIC PROPERTIES DISCOVERED

Why in News?
Researchers at the University of Minnesota (US) have discovered magnetic properties in chemical
element ruthenium (Ru).
About Ruthenium (Ru)
• It belongs to the platinum group, has atomic number 44 and is mostly used in the electronics
industry for chip resistors and electrical contacts.
• It is the fourth element to have unique magnetic properties at room temperature.
• Other than this only three elements have been found to be ferromagnetic at room temperature - iron
(Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni).
• It is one of the rarest metals on the earth, resistant to oxidation, and additional theoretical
predictions claim it has a high thermal stability.
• Magnetic materials are of great importance to modern industry and are used in many everyday
applications such as sensors, electric motors, generators, hard drives and Spintronic storage.
Ferromagnetism
It is the property of material by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets or
are attracted to magnets.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS MASCOT

Why in news?
Recently, Ministry of Commerce and Industry launched Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Mascot -
IP Nani.

More from news
• Mascot IP Nani has been launched to create awareness among people specially children which will
fulfill the objective of National Intellectual Property Rights Policy i.e. IPR Awareness: Outreach
and Promotion.
• Mascot IP Nani is a tech-savy grandmother who helps the government and enforcement agencies
• in combating IP crimes.
• CIPAM (Cell for IPR Promotion and Management) had collaborated with the European Union
Intellectual Property Office (EU-IPO) to produce a series of animated videos on IPRs for children
with IP Nani as their central character.
• The character is also in line with the World Intellectual Property Organisation’s (WIPO)
campaign for the World IP Day.
World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)

• It is a specialised self-funding United Nations agency which acts as global forum for intellectual
property services, policy, information and cooperation.
• It was established under the WIPO Convention in 1967 and currently has 191 member states.
• India joined WIPO in 1975 and has established various IP laws and regulations.
• Mission - to lead the development of a balanced and effective international intellectual property (IP)
system that enables innovation and creativity for the benefit of all.
World IP Day
• It is celebrated every year on 26th April to celebrate the brilliance, ingenuity, curiosity and courage
of women and indeed everyone in their quest to bring their amazing ideas to market.
GREEN PROPELLANT
Why in news?
• ISRO has reported progress in the development of an environment-friendly propellant to power
satellites and spacecrafts.
Details
• Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) of ISRO is developing a green monopropellant based on
hydroxyl ammonium nitrate (HAN) to replace hydrazine.

• The HAN based green propellant also contains ammonium nitrate (AN), Methanol and Water.
Methanol reduces combustion instability and AN controls the burn rate and lowers the freezing point
of the propellant.
• The conventional hydrazine rocket fuel is a highly toxic and carcinogenic chemical.
• Green propellant is needed as almost any propellant that gives good performance is a very active
chemical; hence, most propellants are corrosive, flammable, or toxic, and are often all three.
PRADHAN MANTRI JAN VIKAS KARYAKARAM (PMJVK)

Why in news?
The Multi-sectoral Development Programme (MsDP) under Ministry of Minority Affairs has
been restructured and renamed as Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Karyakram (PMJVK).
PMJVK or Restructured MsDP:
• The criteria for identification of Minority Concentration Towns (MCTs) and Cluster of Villages
has been rationalised and is based on 2011 census:
 Earlier only those Towns which were found backward in terms of both in Basic Amenities and
Socio-economic parameters were taken up as MCTs. Now, the Towns which were found
backward in either or both of the criteria have been taken up as MCT.
 Now the population criteria for selection of cluster of villages has been lowered to 25%
population of minority community (which was earlier at least 50%).
PRADHAN MANTRI VAYA VANDAN YOJANA (PMVVY)

Why in news?
Investment Limit for Senior Citizens has been doubled under Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandan Yojana
(PMVVY). The time limit for subscription has also been increased from May 4, 2018 to March 31,
2020.
About PMVVY
• It has been launched by Ministry of Finance to provide an assured pension based on a guaranteed
rate of return of 8% to 8.3% per annum for ten years, with an option to opt for pension on a
monthly / quarterly / half yearly and annual basis.
• It will enable to provide a larger social security cover to the Senior citizens (aged 60 years and
above) and enable upto Rs.10,000 Pension per month for them.

• The investment limit (purchase price) was kept between Rs 1.5 lakh and 7.5 Lakh (now 15 Lakh) per
family. A loan facility is also available after completion of 3 policy years. The maximum loan that
can be granted shall be 75% of the Purchase Price.
• The deposits made in the scheme are exempt from income tax. However, the interest earned on the
deposit is not exempt from income tax.
• The scheme is implemented by LIC, and GoI compensates LIC through subsidy if return generated
is less than the guaranteed return.
PRADHAN MANTRI SWASTHYA SURAKSHA YOJANA (PMSSY)

Why in news?
Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of PMSSY beyond 12thFive Year Plan to 2019-20.
About PMMSY
It is a Central Sector Scheme under Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and was announced in
2003, with two components: o Setting up of AIIMS-like institutions; and
o Up-gradation of existing State Government Medical College (GMCs)
It aims to correct the imbalances in the availability of affordable tertiary healthcare facilities in
different parts of the country in general, and augmenting facilities for quality medical education in
the under-served States in particular.
SWACHH SURVEKSHAN 2018

Why in news?
The results of Swachh Survekshan 2018 were announced recently.
More about the news
• The Swachh Survekshan survey has been launched under Swachh Bharat Mission.
• The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs takes up the Swachh Survekshan in urban areas and the
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation in rural areas.
• The Quality Council of India (QCI) is responsible for carrying out the assessment.
• All 4041 cities were part of Swachh Survekshan-2018. 500 cities with populations more than 1 lakh
have been ranked on national level while 3,541 cities with less than 1 lakh population will have State
and Regional ranking.
• The three cleanest cities as per the Survekshan 2018 are Indore, Bhopal and Chandigarh
• Jharkhand was adjudged the best performing state, followed by Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.

• The 2018 survey captured the progress in following 6 broad parameters
 Collection and Transportation of Municipal Solid Waste
 Processing and Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste:
 Sanitation related progress
 IEC (Information, Education and Communication)
 Capacity Building
 Innovation and Best Practices (Used for the first time to learn how our cities have responded the
call for Make India Clean and ODF by October 2019).
• Negative marking was also introduced this year to ensure cities do not make false claims about
improvement in sanitation infrastructure.
71ST ASSEMBLY OF WHO

Why in news?
The World Health Organization’s 71st World Health Assembly was recently held.
Highlights of the assembly
• The meet’s primary focus this year is universal health coverage
• It has developed a new strategic plan for the next five years to help the world achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals – with a particular focus on SDG3- ensuring healthy lives and
promoting wellbeing for all at all ages by 2030.
• It sets three targets to ensure that by 2023-
 1 billion more people benefit from universal health coverage;
 1 billion more people are better protected from health emergencies; and
 1 billion more people enjoy better health and wellbeing.
• WHO estimates that achieving this “triple billion” target could save 29 million lives.
• Digital health resolution initiated by India was adopted as its first resolution on digital health.
• The Assembly also adopted a resolution to help countries tackle snake bites.
World Health Assembly • It is the decision-making body of WHO, attended by delegations from
all WHO Member States and focuses on a specific health agenda prepared by the Executive Board.
• The main functions of the World Health Assembly are to determine the policies of the
Organization, appoint the Director-General, supervise financial policies, and review and approve the
proposed programme budget.
• It is held annually in Geneva, Switzerland.

PROTOCOL UNDER WHO FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON TOBACCO
Why in News?
Cabinet has given approval for India to accede to the Protocol under WHO Framework convention
on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) to eliminate unlawful trade in tobacco products.
Background
• The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) is the first international
public health treaty negotiated under the auspices of the WHO.
• The objective of this Convention and its protocols is to protect present and future generations
from the devastating health, social, environmental and economic consequences of tobacco
consumption and exposure to tobacco smoke.
• India is a party to WHO FCTC.
JUNE-2018
US EXTRATERRITORIAL SANCTIONS
Why in News?
USA has recently imposed several extraterritorial sanctions targeting Russia and Iran which would
have direct ramifications for India.
Recent US extraterritorial Sanctions and their potential impacts on India:
USA’s withdrawal from Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)
• USA imposed unilateral sanctions on Iran after its withdrawal from Iran Nuclear Deal. This has
increased oil prices, foreign exchange outflows, weakened Rupee value and would affect India’s oil
trade with Iran which was its third biggest source of oil in 2017.
• It may also affect the progress of the International North South Transport Corridor and the
Chabahar port in Iran which India sees as a gateway to Afghanistan and Central Asia bypassing
Pakistan.
• India maintained that all the parties concerned should engage constructively to resolve the Iran issue
peacefully and that Iran’s right to peaceful use of nuclear energy must be ensured.
• In 2005 Tehran cancelled a long-term LNG deal favourable to India after it voted against Iran in the
International Atomic Energy Agency’s governing board, under US pressure.

• India was forced to significantly slash Iranian oil imports between 2012 and 2015 and paid Iran in
rupees or initiated barter trade. India might have to readopt those measures now.
About Extraterritorial/Secondary Sanctions:

These are the sanctions that are designed to restrict the economic activity of governments,
businesses, and nationals of third countries which are considered as a violation of their sovereignty
and international laws.
SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION

Why in news?
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) summit was held in Qingdao, China.
Key takeaways of the meet/ Qingdao declaration
• It reaffirmed the resolve to fight terrorism, separatism and extremism and called for a unified
global counter-terrorism front under the coordination of the U.N. It also endorsed the demand
for the UN Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism.
• The SCO leaders adopted a Joint Appeal to Youth to counter the radicalization from extremist
ideologies.
• It emphasized the importance of comprehensive measures to reach a peaceful settlement of
international and regional conflicts.
• India refused to endorse the ambitious Chinese Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Being the lone
dissenting voice against the project in the joint declaration it said that India welcomes connectivity
projects that respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of nations.
• India coined SECURE strategy for comprehensive security in the SCO region.
• The declaration also showed its support for the Iranian nuclear deal and stressed on to
consistently implement the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action on the Iranian nuclear
programme. Iran is presently an observer member of the SCO.
Shanghai Five • It was a multilateral forum founded by 5 countries China, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Kirghizia, and Tajikistan in Shanghai in 1996.
It emerged from a series of border demarcation and demilitarization talks between the four
former Soviet republics and China.

IBSA DECLARATION FOR SOUTH-SOUTH CO-OP
Why in news?
Recently, at a Ministerial meeting of IBSA in Pretoria, South Africa, Foreign Ministers of India,
Brazil and South Africa (IBSA) adopted a declaration to contribute to greater understanding of
development and South-South Cooperation (SSC).
Background About South-South Cooperation (SSC)
• South South Cooperation (SSC) is defined as the exchange and sharing of developmental
solutions among countries in the global south.
• The formation of SSC can be traced to the Asian–African Conference that took place in
Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955 which is also known as the Bandung Conference.
• INDIA-BRAZIL-SOUTH AFRICA (IBSA) DIALOGUE FORUM • IBSA Dialogue Forum is
an international tripartite grouping for promoting international cooperation of India, Brazil and
South Africa.
• IBSA was formally established by the Brasilia Declaration of 6 June 2003 by external affairs
ministers of India, Brazil and South Africa.
• It represents three important poles for galvanizing South-South cooperation and greater
understanding between three important continents of the developing world namely, Africa, Asia
and South America, facing similar challenges.
• IBSA Mechanism for Development Cooperation - IBSA Fund for the Alleviation of Poverty
and Hunger • It was set up with the objective of facilitating the execution of human development
projects to advance the fight against poverty and hunger in developing countries.
• Each member country contributes $1 Million annually to this fund.
• The IBSA Fund is managed by the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
(UNOSSC).
• With a cumulative contribution of $35mn, IBSA Fund has thus far partnered 19 countries from the
Global South for implementing 26 projects over the last decade. 62.4 percent of the IBSA Fund has
been devoted to Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
ORGANISATION FOR THE PROHIBITION OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS (OPCW)

Why in news?
OPCW has been granted new powers to assign blame for attacks using banned toxic materials.

More on news
• Until now OPCW had limited power to only send teams to places to collect samples and draw
conclusions whether the chemical weapons attack had happened or not.
• It did not have powers to identify the perpetrator (country or non-state actors) of the chemical
weapons’ attacks.
• The British-led motion was supported by the United States and European Union, but opposed by
Russia, Iran, Syria, and their allies.
• However, India voted against the decision because
 India asserts that the consultations conducted by the sponsor on the draft decision with far
reaching importance and implications were incomplete.
 The major concerns of India have not been addressed.
 India believes there is too much powers wielded in the hands of the Director General, leading to
the partisan use of the institute.
AIIB ANNUAL MEETING AT MUMBAI

Why in news?
Recently, third annual meeting of AIIB was held in Mumbai.
Highlights of the meeting
• The meeting was jointly held by The Department of Economic Affairs and the Asian Infrastructure
Investment Bank (AIIB).
• Theme of the meeting was “Mobilizing finance for Infrastructure: Innovation and Collaboration”
which recognises the vital role of private sector in bridging infrastructural gap.
• During the event Indian Infrastructure Expo 2018 was also held with an objective to offer
companies from public and private sector to showcase their latest solutions, technologies and
offerings in the realms of infrastructure project development and delivery.
• The next annual meeting of AIIB will be held in Luxembourg in 2019.
Asian Infrastructure Forum

• During the annual meeting of AIIB, Asian Infrastructure Fund was also launched.
• It will gather infrastructure practitioners in a practical and project driven discourse, focussed on
matching finance to critical infrastructural needs.
• The forum will focus on infrastructure funding w.r.t. fintech and green finance and also focus on
creating business development opportunities for participants.

• During the inaugural meeting of the forum workshops were held on transport, Energy, Connectivity,
Sustainable Cities etc.
SINGAPORE SUMMIT
Why in news?
US President Donald Trump and North Korea leader Kim Jong Un created history by coming
together at the US-North Korea summit held in Singapore, which resulted in the signing of a
“comprehensive document”.
Background
• North Korea has founded its regime’s stability on Byungjin policy, i.e. pursuing economic
development and nuclear weapons programme simultaneously.
• The recent thaw in relations had been aided by attempts by both North and South Korea to restore
normalcy on the divided peninsula, beginning with cordiality during the Winter Olympics and then a
meeting between the two Korean leaders.
• Suspension of the annual military exercises by USA and South Korea took place prior to the visit.
• For its part, the North has announced the release of three American prisoners.
• North Korea had also announced to destroy its Punggye-ri nuclear testing zone.
AMALGAMATION OF REGIONAL RURAL BANKS

Why in news?
Union government, in consultation with the NABARD, had decided to go ahead with phase III of
the amalgamation of regional rural banks (RRBs), bringing down the number of such entities to
38 from 56 now.
Background
• The first round was in 2005 in which RRBs of the same sponsor bank within a State were
consolidated.
• In the second phase of consolidation in 2012, RRBs, which were near each other (even if they
belonged to different sponsor banks), were brought together.
Regional Rural Banks (RRB)

• Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) are financial institutions which ensure adequate credit for agriculture
and other rural sectors.

• It was set up on the basis of the recommendations of the Narasimham Working Group (1975), and
after the legislations of the Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976.
• The equity of a regional rural bank is held by the Central Government, concerned State Government
and the Sponsor Bank in the proportion of 50:15:35
• The RRB’s have also been brought under the ambit of priority sector lending on par with the
commercial bank.
SEBI TO INTEGRATE DEPARTMENTS FOR EFFICIENCY

Why in news?
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is planning to integrate its surveillance and
investigation departments.
Rationale behind this decision
• SEBI lacks coordination between the two departments. The merged department could take over all
investigations, which will reduce overlapping and increase SEBI’s efficiency.
• Currently, it takes around three months to check if the matter deserves further probe. Merger will
reduce this time frame to 2 weeks.
• It will improve coordination and monitoring in a more efficient manner.
DRAFT OF NATIONAL VOLUNTARY GUIDELINES ON SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND

ECONOMIC RESPONSIBILITIES OF BUSINESS
Why in News?
Recently, Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) released the draft of updated National Voluntary
Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business (NVGs).
Background
• NVGs were first issued by MCA in July 2011 in order to make business socially responsible,
internationally relevant and partner in nation development through their expertise and efficiency.
• Based on these guidelines, SEBI mandates top 500 companies to furnish annual Business
Responsibility Report (BRR).
• Several National and International developments in the domains of sustainability and business
responsibility, for instance, adoption of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), debates on Climate
Change and Paris Agreement and enhanced role of Business in engendering Human Rights required
updating these NVGs.

• To be used by all businesses, irrespective of their ownership, size, sector, or location. All businesses
investing or operating in India, including foreign multi-national corporations (MNCs) will make
efforts to follow the Guidelines. Correspondingly, these also provide a useful framework for guiding
Indian MNCs in their overseas operations.
POWER ASSET REVIVAL THROUGH WAREHOUSING AND REHABILITATION

(PARIWARTAN)
Why in news?
The Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) has finalised a plan called Pariwartan to revitalise
stressed power sector assets.
More on news
• Power sector is under debt of Rs 11.7 trillion of which Rs 3.5 trillion is already under stress.
• Of these, banks have the largest at 53 per cent of the total loans, followed by non-banking finance
companies (NBFCs) at 35 per cent and the balance from the state.
• The power sector NPAs have been rising due to various factors such as:
 Paucity of funds due to lack of interest of promoters and state fiscal capacity
 Lack of power purchase agreements by DISCOMS have led to revenue instability among
power generators thereby adding to NPAs.
 Fuel shortages in form of shortage of coal and reduced nuclear power generation have added to
the problem.
 Lack of Demand due to solar and wind alternatives in addition to slower industrial growth has
led to NPA woes.
 Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses also referred to as Aggregate Technical &
Commercial (AT&C) losses are above 20% (2015-16).
• Under Insolvency and Bankruptcy code, stressed assets have drawn bids of Rs 1-2 crore which are
much less than Rs 5 crore which is the minimum requirement to build them. As promoters lost
interest, the value of these assets is deteriorating due to lack of operations and maintenance.
Rural Electrification Corporation

• It is a Navratna company under the administrative control of the Ministry of Power,
• It is the nodal agency by the Government of India for implementation of Saubhagya (Pradhanmantri
Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana) and DDUGJY (Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana).
• It is the coordinating agency for rolling out UDAY (Ujwal Discom Assurance Yojana).
STATUS OF POWER SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 2018
Why in news?
The International Energy Agency (IEA) published Status of power transformation 2018 report
Context
• The report presents the findings of the Advanced Power Plant Flexibility (APPF) Campaign, which
was supported by two Clean Energy Ministerial initiatives: the 21st Century Power Partnership
(21CPP) and the Multilateral Wind and Solar Working Group.
Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM)

• It is a high-level global forum to promote policies and programs that advance clean energy
technology, to share lessons learned and best practices, and to encourage the transition to a global
clean energy economy.
21st Century Power Partnership (21CPP)

• It is a multilateral effort of the Clean Energy Ministerial and serves as a platform for public-private
collaboration to advance integrated policy, regulatory, financial, and technical solutions for the
large-scale deployment of renewable energy in combination with deep energy efficiency and smart
grid solutions.
THREE YEAR ACTION PLAN: AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

Recently, the cabinet has approved the continuation of the Three-Year Action Plan (2017-2020) of
the scheme for Agricultural Education Division and ICAR Institutes.
About the Scheme
• The scheme aims to reduce academic inbreeding and addressing faculty shortage, promotes green
initiatives, international ranking, alumni involvement, promoting innovations, technology enabled
learning, post-doctoral fellowships, agriculture education portal, and scientific social responsibility.
• Moreover, it will facilitate research on gender issues in agriculture and allied fields, through policy
and programme.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

• It is the apex body for co-ordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture
including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country.
• Formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research established on 16 July 1929.

• Presently, it is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agricultural Research and
Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
• With 101 ICAR institutes and 71 agricultural universities spread across the country this is one of the
largest national agricultural systems in the world.
• The Agricultural Education Division, ICAR is involved in strengthening and streamlining of
higher agricultural education system to enhance the quality of human resources in agri-supply chain
to meet future challenges in agriculture sector in the country.
KRISHI KALYAN ABHIYAN

Why in news?
Recently Krishi Kalyan Abhiyan was launched by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare.
More about the Abhiyan
• It was launched with an aim to aid, assist and advice farmers to improve their farming techniques
and raise their income.
• It has been launched from 1st June 2018 till 31st July 2018 during which various activities to
promote best practices and enhance agriculture income will be undertaken in accordance with an
action plan formulated by including various departments of the Ministry such as Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW), Animal Husbandry Dairying & Fisheries
(DAHD&F) etc.
Various activities under the program are – o Distribution of soil health cards to all farmers
 100% coverage of bovine vaccination for Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in each village
 100% coverage of Sheep and Goat for eradication of Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR )
 Artificial insemination saturation
 Demonstration programmes on Micro- irrigation and integrated cropping practice etc.
 It will be undertaken in 25 villages with more than 1000 population each in Aspirational
District as identified in consultation with the Ministry of Rural Development in accordance with
the guidelines of NITI Aayog.
 If the number of villages in a district is less than 25 with more than 1000 population then all the
villages will be covered.
 The overall coordination and implementation will be done by Krishi Vigyan Kendra.

FIRST FREIGHT VILLAGE
Why in news?
India’s first freight village is being developed in Varanasi.
More on News
• The objective of the project is to support economic development in the hinterland of the
multimodal terminal at Varanasi and reduce logistics cost in the Eastern Transport Corridor and its
influence zone.
• The village is being funded by the World Bank and it is being implemented by the inland
waterways authority of India.
• The village will also have the Varanasi waterways terminal which is being developed under the Jal
Marg Vikas project.
• Varanasi being a strategic location provides the opportunity to facilitate the transhipment of about
30 million tonnes of domestic freight as well as another 9 million tonnes of export import freight.
• Apart from supporting logistics and warehousing segment of the supply chain it would also bring in
retailers, warehouse operators and logistics service providers supplying the regional FMCG market,
together.
What is Freight Village?

"A freight village is a defined area within which all activities relating to transport, logistics and the
distribution of goods, both for national and international transit, are carried out by various operators”
Jal Marg Vikas Project • The project envisages the development of waterway (for commercial
navigation) between Allahabad and Haldia on Ganga River that will cover a distance of 1620 km.
• The project covers Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
SECURITY
HAWALA TRANSACTIONS
Why in news?
Investigating agencies have unearthed huge transactions as part of a probe into an international
“hawala” syndicate.

What is Hawala system?
• The word "Hawala" means trust. It is an alternative or parallel remittance system, which works
outside the circle of banks and formal financial systems. It is also sometimes referred to as
“Underground Banking”.
• In a hawala transaction, no physical movement of cash is there.
• This network is being used extensively across the globe to circulate black money and to provide
funds for terrorism, drug trafficking and other illegal activities.
Enforcement Directorate (ED)

• It is a law enforcement agency and economic intelligence agency responsible for enforcing
economic laws and fighting economic crime in India.
• It is part of the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
• The ‘Enforcement Unit’ of Department of Economic Affairs was renamed as ED in 1957.
MORE FINANCIAL POWERS TO DRDO

Why in news?
The government has recently delegated greater financial powers to Defence Research and
Development Organization (DRDO).
Need for delegation
• India is currently faced with a strategically-vulnerable position of being the world’s largest arms
importer due to the abysmal performance of DRDO. It lacks effectiveness and efficiency due to
time and cost over runs.
• Further a major hinderance in its effectiveness is its lax attitude along with the lack of major
innovative technological solutions for the country.
• Its budget continues to hover around 5-6% of the overall defence budget while China spends around
20% of its defence outlay on R&D.
About DRDO
• It was formed in 1958 by the merger of the Technical Development Establishment and the
Directorate of Technical Development and Production with the Defence Science Organisation.
• It is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence.

• Charged with military R&D, it works for enhancing self-reliance in Defence Systems and
production of world class weapon systems and equipment in accordance with the expressed needs
and the qualitative requirements laid down by the three services
EXERCISE MALABAR 2018

Why in news?
Trilateral Naval Exercise Malabar 2018 was held off the coast of Guam in Philippine Sea.
About the exercise
• It is a trilateral exercise between India, Japan and USA.
• It was started as Indo-US bilateral naval war drill in 1992. Since then it is held annually. Malabar
2018 was the 22nd edition of the naval exercise.
• Japan joined the exercise as permanent participant in 2015, making it trilateral exercise.
• The primary aim of this multilateral exercise is to increase interoperability amongst navies of
three countries and develop common understanding of procedures for Maritime Security Operations
and deepen defence relations between them.
• Indian Navy participation in this year’s exercises included indigenous stealth frigate INS Sahyadri,
fleet tanker INS Shakti, anti-submarine corvevette INS Kamorta and P-8I long-range maritime patrol
aircraft.
ENVIRONMENT
COMPOSITE WATER MANAGEMENT INDEX
Why in News?
Recently, NITI Aayog released Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) to assess and
improve the performance in efficient management of water resources.
Background
• Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2014 warned that approximately 80%
of the world’s population suffers a severe threat to its water security.
• World Bank indicates that by 2030 India’s per capita water availability may shrink to half, which
will push the country into ‘water scarce’ category from the existing ‘water stress’ category.
• India is home 16% of World’s population however, it holds only about 4% of global freshwater.
• Water is a State subject and its optimal utilization and management lies predominantly within the
domain of the States.

• With nearly 70% of water being contaminated, India is placed at 120th amongst 122 countries in
the water quality index.
Water Stressed Condition: When annual per-capita water availability is less than 1700 cubic meters.
Water Scarcity Condition: When annual percapita water availability is less than 1000 cubic meters.
PLASTIC BAN
Why in News?
Recently, India committed to eliminate all single-use plastic in the country by 2022.
Background
• India was the global host of 2018 World Environment Day (June 5, 2018) with “Beat Plastic
Pollution” as the theme, reflecting world commitment to combat single-use plastic pollution.
• According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) if current pollution rates
continue, there will be more plastic in the sea than fish by 2050, as globally, only 14% of plastics is
recycled.
• Only 24 States and Union Territories have complied with the Centre’s Plastic Waste Management
(PWM) Rules, 2016, to regulate manufacture, sale, distribution and use of plastic carry bags
including those of compostable plastic, and plastic sheets for packaging or wrapping
applications.
• Single Use Plastic: It account for 50% of the plastic we use, with none states in India have plans in
place to tackle single use plastics.
Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016. • It defines the minimum thickness of
plastic carry bags i.e. 50 microns. This would increase the cost and the tendency to provide free
carry bags would come down.
• Responsibility of local bodies: Rural areas are brought under the rules since plastic has reached
rural areas as well. The gram sabhas have been given responsibility of implementation.
• Extended Producer Responsibility: Producers and brand owners have been made responsible for
collecting waste generated from their products.
• Producers are to keep a record of their vendors to whom they have supplied raw materials for
manufacturing. This is to curb manufacturing of these products in unorganised sector.
• Responsibility of waste generator: All institutional generators of plastic waste shall segregate and
store their waste as per Solid Waste Management Rules, and handover segregated wastes to
authorized waste disposal facilities.
• Responsibility of street vendors and retailers: Not to provide such carry bags or fine would be
imposed. Only the registered shopkeepers on payment of a registration fee to local bodies would be
allowed to give out plastic carry bags on charge.
• To promote the use of plastic for road construction or energy recovery.
NITROGEN EMISSION
Why in News?
Recently, Indian Nitrogen Assessment report highlighted the nitrogen emission scenario in Indian
Environment.
Highlights of the report
• In India nitrogen emissions grew at 69% from 2001 to 2011 and has replaced methane as the
second largest Greenhouse Gas (GHG) from Indian agriculture.
• Agricultural soils contributed to over 70% of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, followed by waste
water (12%) and residential and commercial activities (6%).
• As fertilizer, nitrogen is one of the main inputs for agriculture, but inefficiencies along the food
chain mean about 80% of nitrogen is wasted.
• Annual nitrogen emissions from coal, diesel and other fuel combustion sources are growing at 6.5%
a year currently while emission from poultry industry is growing at the rate of 6%.
DEAD-ZONE
Why in News?
Scientist have recently predicted that the dead zone in Gulf of Mexico will become larger.
About Dead Zones
• Dead zones (Hypoxic zones) are areas of the ocean (occasionally in lakes and even rivers) where
oxygen has fallen to such low levels that most marine life cannot survive.
• Dead zones are reversible if their causes are reduced or eliminated.
ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEE
Why in news?
Recently, World Refugee day was observed on 20th June, 2018, which indicates toward the glaring
discrimination being faced by the Environmental Refugee/ Climate Refugee.

Background
• Definition: According to International Organization for Migration, Environmental migrants
are persons or groups of persons
• who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive change in the environment that adversely
affects their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so,
either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad.
• According to Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, every year since 2008, an average of
26.4 million persons around the world have been forcibly displaced by floods, windstorms,
earthquakes or droughts.
• Vulnerable Countries: Disaster displacement occurs mostly in low and lower-middle income
countries, and is expected to increase in the future with the impacts of climate change and more
extreme weather.
• According to an UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) report, India has been ranked
as the world's most disaster-prone country for displacement of residents.
UN Refugee Convention (1951)

• It grants certain rights to people fleeing persecution because of race, religion, nationality, affiliation
to a particular social group, or political opinion.
• The rights they are entitled to follow the principles of non-discrimination, non-penalisation, and
nonrefoulement.
• Cross-border displaced who have migrated due to climate change are not recognised as refugees
under the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 protocol, and thus do not qualify for protection
under national or international legal frameworks for refugee protection.
FISCAL COSTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS

Why in news?
Recently, IMF released a report on “How To Manage The Fiscal Costs Of Natural Disasters”.
Background
• According to International Disaster Database annual global economic losses on account of
disasters are estimated at around $306 billion.
• Similarly, the cost of natural disasters in India since 2000 is estimated at Rs 4 lakh crore with over
75,000 deaths.

• According to World Meteorological Organisation, for Indian Subcontinent, 2017 was the most
expensive year on record for severe weather and climate events.
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction calls for reducing direct disaster economic loss in
relation to global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030.
NATIONAL DISASTER RISK INDEX

Why in news?
The Union ministry of home affairs with the support of United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) have prepared for the first time a national disaster risk index for India.
More about the Index
• The disaster risk index would map hazards and vulnerabilities including economic vulnerabilities
across 640 districts and all states including UTs.
• The index factors in exposure of population, agriculture and livestock, environmental risk and the
steps taken by the administration to mitigate the risks.
• Some states have made significant progress in disaster risk reduction (DRR) by building resilient
infrastructure and investing in early warning systems.
• Capacity building by Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura and Himachal Pradesh has lowered their
net risk to population and economic losses while States like UP, MP are considered high-risk states
despite facing lower natural hazard possibilities due to high vulnerability and low capacity-building.
• It will be used to prepare a composite disaster scorecard (DSC) to have a comprehensive assessment
of hazards, vulnerabilities and risks of disasters at different levels, prevention of new risks and
mitigation of existing risks, and mainstreaming DRR across different sectors of development.
• The index is in line with India’s commitment to the Sendai Framework, where it has to substantially
bring down disaster losses in terms of lives and properties.
OFF-SHORE WIND POWER

Why in news?
• The Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) recently invited Expressions of Interest (EoI)
for the country's first 1 GW offshore wind project in Gulf of Khambat.
Advantages of offshore wind power over the onshore wind power

• Greater area available for setting up large projects: one of the primary reasons for moving
towards off-shore projects is the lack of suitable wind turbine sites on land.

• Higher wind speed: Therefore, the offshore wind power’s electricity generation is higher per
amount of capacity installed.
• Consistent wind speed: the effective use of wind turbine generating capacity will be higher at sea
than on land.
• Less visual impact: As these sites are located far from land they have less visual impact which
helps with public acceptance issues.
• Close to load centres: The off-shore wind farms are usually located near to the cities and load
centres thus transmission losses are minimised.
• Environmental impact: low global warming potential per unit of electricity generated, comparable
to that of onshore wind farms.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Why in news?
Recently a panel, headed by Road Transport Secretary Y S Malik, has presented a 15 point plan to
aid car manufacturers to switch from Internal Combustion Engines (IECs) to Electric Vehicles
(EVs).
More on news
• According to panel, the fuel efficiency norms have to be lowered by 20-25 percent over FY 2017-18
data to have approximate induction of 3 to 5% EVs, as against total manufactured vehicles including
cars, three-wheeler, and two-wheeler.
• Earlier, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has mandated fuel efficiency norms that
require cars to be 30% more fuel efficient by 2022.
SAND IMPORTS
Why in News?
States are amending laws in recent months to facilitate sand imports to meet the rising demand.
More about the news
• Huge demand for the natural mineral:
 According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), sand, along with gravels,
are already the most extracted minerals—accounting for 69-85% of the minerals mined every
year. Demand of sand in India was around 700 million tonnes in FY-2017 and it is increasing at
the rate of 6-7% annually.

 According to the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the construction sector has grown at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate of 6 per cent and because of rapid urbanization and
infrastructure growth and government initiatives like Housing for all, the demand for Sand is set
to rise.
DAM SAFETY BILL 2018

Why in news?
• The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal for introduction of Dam Safety Bill,2018 in the
Parliament
Significance of the bill:

• About 75 percent of the large dams in India are more than 25 years old and about 164 dams are more
than 100 years old. A badly maintained, unsafe dam can be a hazard to human life, flora and fauna,
even India has had 36 dam failures in the past.
• It address all issues concerning dam safety including regular inspection of dams, Emergency Action
Plan, comprehensive dam safety review, adequate repair and maintenance funds for dam safety,
Instrumentation and Safety Manuals.
• It lays onus of dam safety on the dam owner and provides for penal provisions for commission and
omission of certain acts.
National Dam Safety Authority

• It maintains liaison with the State Dam Safety Organizations and the owners of dams for
standardization of dam safety related data and practices;
• It shall provide the technical and managerial assistance to the States and State Dam Safety
Organizations;
• It maintains a national level data-base of all dams in the country and the records of major dam
failures;
• It shall examine the cause of any major dam failure;
• It shall accord recognition or accreditations to the organizations that can be entrusted with the works
of investigation, design or construction of new dams;

SOUTH ASIA’S HOTSPOTS: WORLD BANK REPORT
Why in News?
Recently the World Bank has released its report titled “South Asia’s Hotspots: The Impact of
Temperature and Precipitation changes on living standards”.
More about report
• It estimates how changes in temperature and monsoon patterns will affect GDP and living
standards in South Asian region.
• The report identifies “hotspots” as the states /districts where these changes will have a notable
effect on living standards.
• It observed six countries in South Asia Nepal, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri
Lanka for the study.
• The report looks at two scenarios: climate-sensitive and carbon-intensive. Both show rising
temperatures throughout the region in coming decades, with the carbon-intensive scenario
showing greater increases.
• It will be useful for designing social welfare programmes by accounting for local socio-economic
characteristics and climate-related risks and reorient strategies and policies targeted to hotspot
inhabitants, the hidden victims of climate change.
Climate-sensitive
• It represents a future in which some collective action is taken to limit greenhouse gas emissions
and global annual average temperatures increase to 2.4°C by 2100 relative to pre-industrial levels.
Carbon-intensive
• It represents a future in which no actions are taken to reduce emissions and global annual average
temperatures will increase 4.3°C by 2100 relative to pre-industrial levels.
ENSEMBLE PREDICTION SYSTEMS (EPS)

Why in News?
IMD recently launched the Ensemble Prediction Systems (EPS) to provide probabilistic weather
forecasts upto next 10 days.
About EPS
• It has been developed jointly by the IMD, National Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasting (NCMRWF) and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology

• The new system consisting of eight petaflops high-power computing systems shall improve upon
deterministic forecasts that are prone to high margins of error.
• Under this, the area of spatial resolution, which is 23 km presently, will reduce to 12 km,
enabling the meteorological department to give district-level warning.
• With this new model, India joins the US with a model that predicts with a 12 km resolution. Only
the 'European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecast' has a better 9km resolution.
• Better forecasting would lead to better management of agriculture and water resources and would
help to promote tourism, solar and wind energy.
India Meteorological Department

• IMD established in 1875, is a principal government agency in all matters related to meteorology,
seismology and allied subjects.
• Along with Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) and National Centre for Medium
Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), is under the administrative control of Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES).
GOOGLE FOR WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Why in News?
Recently, Central water commission (CWC) has entered into a Collaboration Agreement with
Google for better management of water resources and flood management.
About the move
• CWC and Google will share technical expertise in the fields of artificial intelligence, machine
learning, geospatial mapping and analysis of hydrological observation data to collaborate on
 Improving flood prediction systems, which will help provide location-targeted, actionable flood
warnings,
 High priority research project utilizing Google Earth Engine to help visualize and improve flood
management.
 A cultural project to build online exhibitions on the Rivers of India.
The information in the form of likely extent and depth of inundation would be disseminated with a
lead time of up to 3 days. For 2018, inundation forecasting would be done on trial basis and the
same would be up scaled in near future.
A similar programme launched previously by the government is the National Hydrology Project
which aims to streamline the hydro-metrological data system in country.
Central Ground Water Commission
It is an attached office of the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation ((MoWR, RD&GR).
Functions: Control, conservation and utilization of water resources throughout the country, for
purpose of Flood Control, Irrigation, Navigation, Drinking Water Supply and Water Power
Development.
National Hydrology Project
Wold bank assisted programme launched in 2016.
Objective: to improve the extent, quality, and accessibility of water resources information, decision
support system for floods.
• Setting up of a system for timely and reliable water resources data acquisition, storage, collation and
management.
It provides for establishment of National Water Informatics Centre (NWIC) as an independent
organization under the control of MoWR, RD&GR.
It assists in promoting ‘efficient and equitable’ use of water, especially groundwater, to the village
level and provide information on quality of water as well.
BLUE FLAG CERTIFICATION

Why in news?
13 Indian beaches have been shortlisted for the Blue flag certification.
More on news
• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change had started a pilot project under a Unified
Coastal Areas Management Programme to develop the Indian beaches according to the Blue Flag
standards in December 2017.
This project aims to o improve the aquatic habitat by cleaning the growing pollution and garbage in
the Indian beaches.
 develop ecological tourism with constant progress and development of tourist facilities.
Chandrabhaga beach of Odisha's Konark coast was the first to complete the tag certification
process will be the first in Asia to get the Blue Flag certification.
Apart from it, 12 other beaches across are also being developed by the Society for Integrated
Coastal Management (SICOM) as blue flag beaches which include Maharashtra's Chiwla and

Bhogave beaches and one beach each from Puducherry, Goa, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
An integrated coastal management scheme, referred as Beach Management Service (BeaMS) has
also been introduced by the ministry to reduce existing pollutants on beaches and achieve such high
international standards.
Society for Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM)

• It has been established under the aegis of Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate change,
Government of India.
• The main objectives of SICOM are as follows:
 To support implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) activities in India.
 To implement the World Bank assisted India ICZM Project
 To provide Research Development (R&D) and stakeholders participation in management of the
Coastal areas in India.
 To undertake any additional work or function as may be assigned by Ministry of Environment,
Forests and Climate Change from time to time in the area of Coastal Management and other
related activities.
RARE SPIDER REDISCOVERED

Why in news?
Recently, a rare spider (both a male and a female spider) was rediscovered from Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary in Western Ghats, Kerala.
More from news
• A team of researchers from Centre for Animal Taxonomy and Ecology (CATE) discovered the
spider named Chrysilla Vollupe after 150 years which was believed to be extinct.
• The rediscovery is significant for the fact that the female specimen was spotted for the first time and
it also points to the need to conduct more explanatory surveys of faunal diversity of India.
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

• Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary is an animal sanctuary in Wayanad, Kerala, India.
• It was established in 1973 and is a contiguous to protected area network of Nagarhole and
Bandipur of Karnataka on northeast and Madumalai of Tamil Nadu on southeast.
• It is part of the Niligiri Biosphere Reserve and is one of the Evergreen Forests in India with more
than 250mm rainfall.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR INCLUSIVE GROWTH
Why in News?
Recently NITI Aayog released a ‘national strategy for artificial intelligence’, to suggest ways to
promote adoption of machine learning in key areas of the economy.
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• It refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning,
problem solving and decision making.
• It enables computer system to carry out task on their own that otherwise requires human intelligence.
Machine Learning and Deep Learning

• Machine Learning, a term coined by Artur Samuel in 1959, based on the idea that systems can
learn from data, identify patterns and make decisions with minimal human intervention.
• Deep Learning is a technique for implementing Machine Learning. It is inspired by the structure
and function of the brain called artificial neural networks.
INDIA’S FIRST LITHIUM ION (LI-ION) BATTERY PROJECT

Why in News?
• Recently, Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI), under Council of Scientific &
Industrial Research (CSIR) and RAASI Solar Power Pvt Ltd have signed a Memorandum of
Agreement for transfer of technology for India’s first Lithium Ion (Li-ion) Battery project.
More on News
• Currently, Indian manufacturers source Lithium Ion Battery from China, Japan and South Korea
among some other countries.
• India is one of the largest importers and in 2017, it imported nearly 150 Million US Dollar worth Li-
Ion batteries.
About the Graphene Based Supercapacitors • It is being produced by the waste/discarded lithium
ion battery.
• Graphene oxide collected form lithium ion battery showed high specific capacity at low current
and it is novel energy storage system that combined high energy and power density.
• The process involves conversion of graphite into graphene oxide by oxidation and subsequent
exfoliation which is then further converted into reduced graphene oxide.

• Supercapacitor are now being used explicitly, in wind turbine pitch control, rail, automobile, heavy
industry, telecom system and memory backup.
QUADRIVALENT INFLUENZA VACCINE

Why in news?
WHO recently for the first time recommended the use of quadrivalent influenza vaccine.
More on news
• Sanofi Pasteur’s injectable influenza vaccine (FluQuadri) has been recommended for use in the
2018-2019 northern hemisphere influenza season.
• WHO till recently used to recommend trivalent vaccines as they were most produced ones.
• The quadrivalent vaccine will contain four influenza virus strains (two A subtypes and two B
subtypes — H1N1 and H3N2, and Victoria and Yamagata respectively).
• While a trivalent influenza vaccine contains both A subtype viruses, it has only one of the B subtype
virus, the quadrivalent vaccine offers greater breath of protection as it includes both B subtype
viruses.
• The viruses used in the vaccine are killed and this eliminates the possibility of the virus in the
vaccine itself causing infection.
• Quadrilateral vaccine was approved for active immunisation of adults of age 18 to 64 years in 2017
by the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI).
SCIENCE-BASED TARGETS
Why in news?
Sixteen Indian companies have recently committed to set science-based targets.
More on news
• The science-based targets initiative is a global team comprised of people from all partner
organisations – the United Nations Global Compact, CDP, WWF and World Resources Institute.
• Targets adopted by companies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are considered “science-
based” if they are in line with the level of decarbonization required to keep global temperature
increase below 2 degrees Celsius compared to pre- industrial temperatures.
• Unique to this initiative is the criterion that companies need to commit to setting supply chain or
‘scope 3’ targets. o That is, if more than 40 per cent of a company’s emissions occur in its supply
chain, then the company has to commit to reducing those emissions as well as its direct emissions.

• In March 2018, Mahindra Sanyo Steel became the first Indian company to set its science-based
target. Globally, it is also the first steel company to set a target.
• India has committed to generate at least 40 per cent of its electricity from non-fossil fuel sources
and decrease carbon emission intensity of GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030.
• Indian companies and multinationals operating in India will play a big role in achieving this target.
AUGMENTING WRITING SKILLS FOR ARTICULATING RESEARCH (AWSAR)

Why in news?
Recently, AWSAR was launched to reward PhD scholars and post-doctoral fellows.
About AWSAR
• The scheme has been initiated by National Council of Science and Technology Communication
(NCSTC), Department of Science & Technology (DST) to encourage, empower and endow popular
science writing through newspapers, magazines, blogs, social media etc. by young PhD scholars and
post-doctoral fellows during the course of their higher studies.
• Under the scheme best articles which would be selected would be provided monetary incentives.
DRY SORBENT INJECTION (DSI)

Why in News?
NTPC is opting for dry Sorbent Injection (DSI) system for controlling sulphur dioxide (SO2)
emissions.
More About the News
• CPCB has asked coal-fired thermal plants to comply with the environmental norms by December 31,
2019 and NTPC’s power plant in Dadri is the first in the India to opt for DSI System.
ARTIFICIAL LEAF TO REDUCE CARBON FOOTPRINT

Why in news?
Indian Institute of Sciences’ researchers has developed an artificial leaf recently.
About Artificial Leaf or Quantum Leaf
• It will help in reducing carbon footprint as it absorbs carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to generate
fuel and oxygen in the process, simulating the process of photosynthesis.
• While most plants convert less than one per cent of the available solar energy into chemical
energy, the leaf can convert about 20 per cent of the incident solar energy into chemical energy.

Also, it is 100 times more efficient than a natural leaf in absorbing carbon dioxide during the
process.
• It is composed of completely biocompatible, earth abundant, semiconductor nano crystals
called Quantum dots which act as catalyst to convert absorbed CO2 into bicarbonate and then
‘formate’ (derivative of formic acid) that can be used as bio fuel.
• It uses copper aluminium sulphate and zinc sulphide as semiconductors.
• It can act as a source of renewable energy, while significantly reducing the carbon footprint
from the atmosphere, releasing more oxygen in the process. Hence the development is being
viewed as one of potential solutions in tackling global warming and climate change.
• The bio fuel generated is not only 100% combustible but the carbon dioxide emitted in the
combustion of the fuel can be recycled by the quantum leaves too.
PLAN TO PREVENT ASTEROID ATTACK

Why in news?
NASA has released a document, titled "National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy and
Action Plan".
More on news
• It is a 10-year plan which will enhance NEO Detection, Tracking, and Characterization Capabilities
and develop Technologies for NEO Deflection and Disruption Missions.
• It also calls for increased international cooperation to prepare for potential global impact threats.
• It shall work to strengthen U.S. emergency procedures and protocols, familiarizing state and local
management personnel with the unusual nature of the threat.
• NASA’s catalogue contains over 18000 NEOs with 8000 NEOs as >140m wide, the size at which
mass casualties would occur. NASA has documented roughly 96% of the objects large enough to
cause a global catastrophe.
• An asteroid or comet collision is a “low probability but high consequence” event as larger objects
offer the world years of notice about when an orbit would intercept Earth. 40 m is about the average
size an object must be to make it through the atmosphere without burning up.
• Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission will be the most prominent demonstration of the
kinetic impact technique to change the motion of an asteroid in space. Its primary objective is to
demonstrate it on small binary near-Earth asteroid (65803) called Didymos

• NASA is a key member in both the International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) and the
asteroid Space Mission Planning and Advisory Group, endorsed by the UN Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS) as the combined response for all space-capable
nations to address the NEO impact hazard.
Related terms
• Comet is a small, icy object that orbits the sun and has a long "tail" of gas.
• Asteroids are rocks whose orbits lie mostly between Jupiter and Mars.
• Meteors are streak of light seen when a space rock enters earth's atmosphere and starts burning.
• Meteorites are those meteors which don't entirely burn and hence hit the earth.
• IAWN was established (2013) to create an international group of organizations involved in
detecting, tracking, and characterizing NEOs
• The UN-COPUOS was set up by the General Assembly in 1959 to govern the exploration and use
of space for the benefit of all humanity: for peace, security and development.
EXOPLANET DISCOVERED BY INDIA

Why in news?
Recently Indian scientists discovered a sub-Saturn or super-Neptune sized exoplanet.
More about the news
• The discovery was made by measuring the mass of the planet using the indigenously designed
PARAS (PRL Advance Radial-velocity Abu-Sky Search) spectrograph integrated with a 1.2m
telescope at Gurushikar Observatory in Mount Abu.
• The name of the host star is EPIC 211945201 or K2-236 and the planet will be known as EPIC
211945201b or K2-236b.
• It put India into a select league of countries which has discovered planets around stars.
• The discovery is of importance for understanding the formation of such super-Neptune or sub-Saturn
planets that are closer to the host star.
About Exoplanet
• An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside our solar system around a different host star
than sun.
• Since 1988 more than 3500 exoplanets have been discovered across 2600 planetary systems.
• Of the 3500, some are ice giants, some are gas giants and some are super Earths.

• Some of the exoplanetary system are Trappist-1 planetary system, kepler-11 planetary system, TrES-
4.
• Kepler 90 is the first star system to have as many planets as our solar system.
Spectrograph: It is an instrument that separates light into a frequency spectrum and records the
signal using a camera.
INDIA’S FIRST ROBOTIC TELESCOPE

Why in news?
Recently, India’s first robotic telescope – Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients
Happen (GROWTH)-India, began its operation at the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) in
Hanule in Ladakh.
GROWTH-India
• It is a fully robotic telescope which has been funded by the Science and Engineering Board (SERB)
of the Department of Science and Technology.
• It is a 70cm telescope and the primary objective of the project is the time domain astronomy.
• It is mostly an imaging telescope and the spectroscopy (analysis) will happen at
• Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT).
• It will be remotely operated from IIA’s Centre for Research and Education in Science and
Technology near Bangalore. The facility also houses the control room for remote operations of the
Himalayan Chandra Telescope and is the data hub of the telescope.
• The first targets for the telescope were chosen from the Messier catalogue (a catalogue of nearby,
bright astronomical sources accessible from the northern hemisphere) which allowed various image
quality tests.
What are transient events?

• These are short lived burst of energy in a system caused by a sudden change of state.
• The events are caused due to several factors such as relatively benign flares of stars, accretion of
matter on compact objects, stellar merger and explosions.
• All these result in a flash in the sky for a period and then slowly fade away.
• Through these electromagnetic signatures, astronomers try to gain an insight into the cosmic objects
as well as physical processes that govern their evolution.

What is Time Domain Astronomy?
It is the study of how astronomical objects change with time. Changes may be due to movement or
physical changes in the object itself. Examples include pulsar variability, and the variability of
accreting black holes, variable stars, and the Sun.
ROBINSECTS
Why in News?
Scientist has developed robots for pollination; called as Robinsects or Nova-Crafters, based on the
concept of ‘Biomimetics’.
More on News
• Colony collapse disorder and decreasing number of pollinators such as insects, birds, wasps etc. are
threatening world food security, and biodiversity.
Biomimetics: Biomimetics, also known as bionics, biognosis, or biomimicry, is the use and
implementation of concepts and principles from nature to creating new materials, devices and
systems.
INDECENT REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN (PROHIBITION) ACT (IRWA), 1986

Why in news?
Recently, Ministry of Women and Child Development has proposed amendments in IRWA.
Background
• Government enacted the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (IRWA), 1986 to
prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements, publications, writings,
paintings, figures or in any other manner, in response to the demand by the women’s movement
for a legislative action against the derogatory depiction of women in India.
• Under the Act, the term “indecent representation” has been defined in Section 2(c) as the
depiction in any manner of the figure of a woman, her form or body or any part thereof in such a
way as to have the effect of being indecent, or derogatory to, denigrating, women, or is likely to
deprave, corrupt or injure the public morality or morals.
• Since then, technological revolution has resulted in the development of new forms of
communication, such as internet, multi-media messaging, cable television, over-the-top (OTT)
services and applications e.g. Skype, Viber, WhatsApp, Chat On, Snapchat, Instagram etc.

• Hence, the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Amendment Bill, 2012 was
introduced in Rajya Sabha in December, 2012 which referred the Bill to Department related
Parliament Standing Committee for consideration.
GLOBAL ACTION PLAN ON PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 2018-2030

Why in News?
Recently, World Health Organisation released Global Action Plan on Physical Activities 2018-2030.
About the Action Plan
• It recommends a set of policy areas, for improving the environments and opportunities for people of
all ages and abilities to do more walking, cycling, sport, active recreation, dance and play.
• Plan target- 15% relative reduction in the global prevalence of physical inactivity in adults and in
adolescents by 2030.
• Increasing inactivity is linked to various Non-Communicable Diseases (such as heart disease, stroke,
diabetes, cancer and obesity) which in turn are responsible for a high number of premature deaths all
over the world. It is estimated that inactivity itself kills more than 5 million per year and is as
dangerous as smoking.
• This global action plan sets out four strategic objectives achievable through 20 policy actions that
are universally applicable to all countries viz, Creative active society, create active environment,
Create Active People, and Create active System.
• The framework consists of policy actions aimed at improving the social, cultural, economic,
environmental factors and enhance individual education and information respectively.
Physical Activity
• It is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure
(World Health Organisation).
• It includes exercise as well as other activities which involve bodily movement and are done as part
of playing, working, active transportation, house chores and recreational activities.
Related Sustainable Development Goals SGDs
Investing in policies to promote physical activities can contribute directly to achieving many of the
2030 SDGs as follows-
• SDG2: Ending all forms of malnutrition.
• SDG3: Good Health and well-being.
• SDG8: Descent work and economic growth

CULTURE
VAKATAKA DYNASTY
Why in news?
• A team of archaeologists have confirmed that the Vakataka dynasty ruled from its capital
Nandivardhan, or the present day Nagardhan
• It is a large village discovered near Ramtek taluka in Nagpur district.
About Vakataka Dynasty:

• The Vakataka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE.
• They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and
contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India.
• The Vakataka dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty. Little is known about Vindhyashakti, the founder
of the family.
• Territorial expansion began in the reign of his son Pravarasena I.
• The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature.
• The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were
built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.
SAINT KABIR
Why in news?
PM offered floral tributes at Sant Kabir Samadhi, on the occasion of the 500th death anniversary of
the great saint and poet, Kabir.
About Saint Kabir
• Kabir Das, a mystical poet and great Saint of India, was born in the year 1440 and died in the year
1518.
• He is the most important Nirguna Bhakti saint.
• Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, indeed vehement, rejection of the major religious
traditions and vouched for Nirguna form of Bhakti.
• His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical, Hinduism and
Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system.
• It is considered that he got all his spiritual training from his Guru named, Ramananda, in his early
childhood.

• Kabir Panth is the huge religious community which identifies the Kabir as the originator of the
Sant Mat sects.
• Kabir Das is the first Indian saint who has coordinated the Hinduism and Islam by giving a universal
path which could be followed by both Hindus and Muslims.
• According to him every life has relationship with two spiritual principles, Jivatma and Paramatma.
His view about the moksha that, it is the process of uniting these two divine principles.
• Some of the great writings of the Kabir Das are Bijak, Kabir Granthawali, Anurag Sagar, Sakhi
Granth etc.
Nirguna bhakti and Saguna bhakti

• The nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously as Rama,
Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and Nanak.
• The saguna bhaktas were devotees of god with attributes or in human form. Vishnu in its
incarnations as Rama, or Krishna, are most popular deities that were worshipped by Saguna Bhakti
saints.
• Thus, Saguna bhakti movement of North India was essentially vaishnavite in character as compared
to Southern Bhakti movement which had both Vashnav as well as Shaiv streams.
SEVA BHOJ SCHEME

Why in news?
Recently, Ministry of Culture launched a new scheme “Seva Bhoj Yojna”.
More about the scheme
• It is a central sector scheme to reduce financial burden of Charitable Religious Institutions.
• It envisages reimbursing the Central Government share of Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST)
and Integrated Goods and Service Tax (IGST) of such Charitable Religious Institutions who provide
Food/Prasad/Langar/Bhandara free of cost without any discrimination to Public/Devotees.
• It is applicable to all Charitable Religious Institutions such as Temples, Gurudwara, Mosque,
Church, Dharmik Ashram, Dargah, Matth, Monasteries etc. which follows following norms: o which
have been in existence for preceding five years before applying for financial assistance/grant.
 which have been distributing free food, langar and prasad to public for at least past three years
on the day of application.
 which serve free food to at least 5000 people in a month.

 which should not be blacklisted under provisions of FCRA or any other Act/Rules of the
Central/State Government.
• The ministry will register the eligible charitable religious institutions for a time period ending with
finance commission period and subsequently the registration may be renewed subject to the
performance evaluation of the institutions.
37TH UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE

Why in news?
India’s nomination of the architectures of "Victorian and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai” has
been included in UNESCO's World Heritage list.
More about news
• It has been included in the list under Criteria (ii) and (iv) of the UNESCO's Operational
Guidelines.
• India accepted the renaming of the ensemble as Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of
Mumbai as recommended by the World Heritage Committee.
• This is the third site from Mumbai after the Elephanta Caves and Chhatrapati Shivaji
Terminus railway station.
• Across India, there are now 37 world heritage sites. With five sites, Maharashtra has the
maximum number of sites in India.
• India stands second largest in number after China in ASPAC (Asia and Pacific) region. It is
overall sixth in the world.
World Heritage Committee • It is the executive body responsible for the implementation of the
World Heritage Convention.
• The Convention is an international agreement adopted in 1972 by the Member States of the
UNESCO.
• The primary mission of the Convention is to identify and protect the world's natural and
cultural heritage considered to be of Outstanding Universal Value
• Strategic Objectives Of the convention is based on the "Five Cs": Credibility, Conservation,
Capacity-building, Communication, Communities
• The Convention serves as a catalyst to raising awareness for heritage preservation.
• The World Heritage Fund, setup under convention, provides financial assistance to States Parties
in identifying, preserving and promoting World Heritage sites.
AMBUBACHI MELA
Why in News?
Ambubachi Mela, a four day annual fair was held recently at Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati,
Assam.
About the Fair
• It is celebrated to mark the annual menstruation of Goddess at Kamakhya temple.
• The fair takes place in June every year and this year it was held from 22 June to 26 June.
INDIA-VIETNAM MOU ON POSTAL STAMP

Why in news?
Recently, Union Cabinet has signed a MoU with Vietnam on postal stamp.
Background
• The Postal department of Vietnam and Indian had signed an agreement in December 2017 to issue a
joint stamp on “India-Vietnam: Joint Issue on the theme ‘Ancient Architecture’”.
• The Agreement has been approved now by the Cabinet.
• The Joint commemorative stamp depicts Sanchi Stupa and Pho Minh Pagoda of Vietnam which
was released on January 25.
What is the difference between a stupa and pagoda?

• In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia
while "pagoda" refers to temple or a sacred building in East Asia which can be entered, and which
may be secular in purpose.
• Stupa is a hemispherical dome shaped structure which contains relics of remains of Buddha or a
Bodhistava, whereas Pagodas have sets of multiple discs.
• Unlike the typical stupa, the pagoda actually has interior space, sometimes on several levels.
• Pagodas are found in Nepal, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Myanmar, Sri Lanka etc.

JULY-2018
India gets its 37th World Unesco World Heritage Site •

 India’s nomination of the "Victorian and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai " has been inscribed
on UNESCO's World Heritage list.
 The decision was taken at the 42nd session of the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO at
Manama in Bahrain.
Maharashtra govt announced 'Kanya Van Samruddhi Yojana'
 The Maharashtra government announced a new scheme called 'Kanya Van Samruddhi Yojana',
wherein farmers families where girl children are born will be given saplings for plantation.
 The scheme is aimed at empowering women and promoting tree plantation.
 A farmer family blessed with a girl child between April 1 and March 31 can make an application
with the gram panchayat after which they will get 10 saplings free of cost from the forest
department.
 It is expected that the income from these trees will be utilised for safeguarding the future of the
girls.
 The saplings will be of different varieties, including teakwood, mango, jackfruit, black plum and
tamarind. • The scheme will be applicable for the maximum of two girls.
PM meets members of Mission Shaurya Team
 The Prime Minister met a group of ten tribal students from Maharashtra.
 The students were a part of a team of the “Mission Shaurya” initiative of the Adivasi Vikas
Vibhag of the Maharashtra State Government
Suresh Prabhu launched Mobile App 'ReUnite'
• Union Minister Suresh Prabhu launched a mobile application called ReUnite which helps to
trackandtrace missing and abandoned children in India.
Four species added to recovery programme by Wildlife Board
 The National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) recently added four species- (a) The Northern River
Terrapin, (b) Clouded Leopard, (c) Arabian Sea Humpback Whale, (d) Red Panda to a Recovery
Programme for Critically Endangered Species on the recommendation of a Standing Committee.
 The programme is one of the three components of the centrally funded scheme, Integrated
Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH).
Himachal gets the national award for best performance under PMSMA'
 Himachal Pradesh has been adjudged first among states for its performance under the Pradhan
Mantri Surakshit Matritav Abhiyan (PMSMA) in the country.
 The Union government has conferred the award upon Himachal Pradesh for bringing the
maximum number of women for the ante-natal check-up to the PMSMA clinics.
UNESCO declares Colombia's Chiribiquete park world heritage site

 UNESCO has placed Colombia's Chiribiquete national park on its list of world heritage sites.
 It is also famous for its table-top rock formations known as tepuis, which rise out of the forest.
 It is the ninth site in Colombia to be given world heritage status.
Bengaluru to get India’s first ewaste plant
 The country’s first e-waste recycling unit will come up in Bengaluru.
 The unit to be set up by the ministry of chemicals and fertilisers.
An app “Nutrify India Now” to measure nutrition content of Indian food
 The Indian Council of Medical Research’s Hyderabad-based National Institute of Nutrition has
launched a mobile App “Nutrify India Now” that offers comprehensive nutrition related
information on a wide range of Indian food articles.
Indian scientists discovered exoplanet 600 light years away
 Indian scientists at Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, found a subSaturn or super-
Neptune size planet about 600 light years away from the Earth.
 The discovery was made by measuring the mass of the planet using the indigenously designed
"PRL Advance Radial-velocity Abu-sky Search" (PARAS) spectrograph.
Behdienkhlam" festival at Jowai, Meghalaya
 Most popular festival of the Jaintia tribe, Behdienkhlam is celebrated in the month of July for
good health, property and bumper harvest.
 Although Behdienkhlam is celebrated all over the Jaintia hills, the main spectacle happens in the
town of Jowai, about 64 km away from Shillong.
 The non-Christian ‘Pnar’ people who believe either in the traditional faith of ‘Niamtre’ or
Hinduism observe this festival.

MP govt launched power bill waiver scheme ‘Sambal’
 Madhya Pradesh government has launched an outstanding power bill waiver scheme and
subsidised power scheme ‘Sambal’ for labourers and poor families.
 Under the scheme, the Below Poverty Line (BPL) families would be provided electricity at a cost
of 200 rupees per month.
Uttarakhand HC order declared animals as legal entities
 The Uttarakhand High Court has declared that “all members of the animal kingdom including
birds and aquatic life have similar rights as humans”.
 It has also ordained that animals throughout Uttarakhand should be treated as “legal entities
having a distinct persona with corresponding rights, duties and liabilities of a living person.”
Bru tribals
 Recently, Home Ministry announced a “historic agreement” had been signed among the
governments of Mizoram and Tripura and the Mizoram Bru Displaced People’s Forum.
 The agreement brought to an end a 21-year wait for over 32,000 Bru tribals, who had been
displaced from Mizoram and were living in Tripura.
UNESCO to set up Gaming University in Andhra Pradesh
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) is going to set up a
'Design University for Gaming' in Visakhapatnam.
 They will develop edutech gaming in the state, with the target of providing 50,000 jobs in 10
years.
Uttar Pradesh grants 3 forest villages revenue status under FRA
 Three villages inhabited by the Tongia Scheduled Tribe in and around forests in Saharanpur
district, Uttar Pradesh will be given the status of revenue village under the Forest Rights Act,
2006, (FRA).
 Kaluwala, Sodhinagar and Bhagwatpur were given the revenue status, which means that the
village area will come under the revenue department instead of forest department.
 The FRA has a provision for turning forest villages into revenue villages so that civic facilities
reach these areas.
Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel appointed as chairman of National Green Tribunal
 Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel was appointed as the chairperson of National Green Tribunal.

 He is best remembered for passing the controversial judgment on diluting provisions of the SC/ST
Act.
 Justice Goel and his colleague UU Lalit’s decision allowing anticipatory bail for the accused in
certain cases registered under the SC/ST Act had led to widespread protests and violence by Dalit
groups across the nation and led to seven deaths.
 With the retirement of Goel, the strength of the Supreme Court goes down to 22 against a
maximum of 31 judges.
India to control Mattala airport
 India has agreed to form a joint venture with Sri Lanka to operate the loss-making Mattala
Rajapaksa International Airport in Hambantota, Sri Lanka.
 The $210 million facility, 241km south-east of Colombo, is dubbed the “world’s emptiest airport”
due to a lack of flights.
How Ethiopia and Kenya have put a world heritage site in danger
 Lake Turkana is the world’s largest desert lake- located in Kenya’s remote northern arid lands and
is the most saline of Africa’s great lakes.
 Its ecology supports a host of local and migratory bird and wildlife populations. • It’s also home to
unique fossil and archaeological discoveries
PM Modi inaugurated the world's largest mobile factory in Noida
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi and South Korean President Moon inaugurated the New Mobile
Manufacturing Plant of Samsung at Noida.
NASA Funding Project “RAMA” to Turn Asteroids into Spaceships
 NASA has announced it would give funds to a California-based 3D printing company for finding
ways to turn asteroids into giant, autonomous spacecraft, which could fly to outposts in space.
China successfully launched two remote-sensing satellites for Pakistan
 China successfully launched two remote sensing satellites for Pakistan, marking the first
international commercial launch for the Long March-2C rocket in about 19 years.
 The satellites (a) PRSS-1 and (b) PakTES-1A - were launched from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch
Centre in northwest China. • The PRSS-1 is China's first optical remote sensing satellite sold to
Pakistan.

Global Innovation Index ranks India the 57th most innovative nation
 The Global Innovation Index (GII) has ranked India as the 57th most innovative nation in the
world.
 The country has improved its ranking from 60th position last year.
Andhra Pradesh tops government's ease of doing business
 Andhra Pradesh has topped the ease of doing business rankings, while Telangana is in second and
Haryana is in third position.
India becomes world's sixth largest economy
 India has become the world's sixthbiggest economy, pushing France into seventh place, according
to updated World Bank figures for 2017.
 India's gross domestic product (GDP) amounted to $2.597 trillion at the end of last year, against
$2.582 trillion for France.
Pakistan’s Buddha of Swat smiles restored to original form
 The iconic Buddha of Swat, carved on a cliff in the 7th century, has been restored to its almost
original form with Italian assistance in northwestern Pakistan, nearly 11 years after it was
dynamited by Taliban.
 The holy figure depicted in a lotus position at the base of a granite cliff in northern Pakistan.
 The Buddha seated in a meditative posture considered one of the largest rock sculptures in South
Asia
Bihar to get world's cheapest clean drinking water with the launch of “'Sulabh Jal”
 Bihar will soon provide the cheapest drinking water in the world with the launch of cost-effective
innovative water project “Sulabh Jal”.
 The first of such a water project was launched in Bihar's Darbhanga district by Sulabh
International.
Google has partnered with UNEP for monitoring human activity on global ecosystem
 The UN has entered into a partnership with Google to monitor the impacts of human activity on
global ecosystems by using sophisticated online tools.
 Aim to develop a platform to enable governments, NGO's and the public to track specific
environment-related development targets with a userfriendly Google front-end.
 Its initial focus will be on freshwater ecosystems including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes

Chandrayaan-II Mission
 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is planning to deploy a rover on the lunar surface
through the Chandrayaan-2 mission.
 The instruments on Rover will conduct an in-situ analysis of elements such as Na, Mg, Al, Si, etc;
in the vicinity of the landing site.
Samagra Shiksha - an Integrated Scheme for School Education
 Under the Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource
Development as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, implemented with effect from 2018-19.
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (Second Amendment) Bill, 2017
 The Lok Sabha on Wednesday passed a Bill to amend the Right to Education (RTE) Act to abolish
the “nodetention” policy in schools. No student can be detained up to class 8, under current
provisions of the Act.
 The Bill amends this provision to state that a regular examination will be held in class 5 and class
8 at the end of every academic year.
 If a child fails the exam, he will be given additional instruction, and take a re-examination.
 If he fails in the re-examination, the relevant central or state government may decide to allow
schools to detain the child.
Israel Adopts Jewish Nation-State Law
 Israel’s parliament today adopted a law defining the country as the nation-state of the Jewish
people, provoking fears it could lead to blatant discrimination against Arab citizens
 Israel has no constitution. It has the certain Basic law which has some constitutional status.
 The nation-state law is the 14th such basic law.
AT Kearney FDI Confidence Index
 India has slipped by three notches to 11th position in the FDI Confidence Index 2018 of global
consultancy firm A T Kearney, down from 8 in 2017 and 9 in 2016
Parliament passes Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill
 The Lok Sabha passed the Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, 2018 that seeks to punish
bribe-givers and bribe-takers.
 The Bill provides for jail terms of three to seven years, besides fine, to those convicted of taking
or giving bribes to public officials.

Janani Suraksha Yojna (JSY)
 It was launched on 12 April 2005 by the Prime Minister of India.
Maternal Mortality Rate
 Maternal mortality Rate refers to the number of women who die as a result of pregnancy and
childbirth complications per 100,000 live births in a given year’
The first meeting of IndiaBangladesh Joint Committee on Border Haats.
 India and Bangladesh signed an agreement to set up six new border haats (markets) in the
northeastern states adjoining the international border with Bangladesh by March 2019.
Fugitive Economic Offenders Bill, 2018
 The bill, replacing the ordinance seeks to deter economic offenders from escaping the country and
lays down provisions for escaped offenders to return to India and submit themselves to the process
of law.
Scheme to compensate victims of sexual assaults should include children:
 The Supreme Court said that a scheme proposed by the National Legal Services Authority
(NALSA) for compensating victims of sexual assault and acid attack should be modified to "some
extent" to make it applicable to child victims of such assaults.
24 new sites join UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves
Khangchendzonga became the 11th Biosphere Reserve to be added to UNESCO’s World Network
Innovate India Platform
Atal Innovation Mission, NITI Aayog & MyGov launched “Innovate India Platform”. • The portal
will serve as the common point for all the innovation happening across the nation.
Mahila Shakti Kendra Scheme • From 2017-18 up to 2019-20.
 To empower rural women through community participation.
 The Scheme is implemented with the cost-sharing ratio of 60:40 between centre and states except
for North East and the Special Category States where the ratio is 90:10.
 The scheme is envisaged to work at various levels and at the national level (domain based
knowledge support) and state level (State Resource Centre for Women) technical support to the
respective governments on issues related to women is provided.
 These centres to serve as a link between the village, block and state level in facilitating women-
centric schemes and also give the foothold for Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) scheme at the
district level.

National Achievement Survey
 The National Achievement Survey (NAS) is the largest ever national assessment survey in the
country and is amongst the largest in the world.
 NAS is a representative sample of schools from all districts in India aimed at understanding the
health of the education system in government and government-aided schools.
 National Achievement Survey is conducted by National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) and supported by Ministry of Human Resource and Development.
India-UK Science & Innovation Council
 The 6th India-UK Science & Innovation Council (SIC) meeting held in New Delhi discussed a
range of issues on S&T cooperation between the two countries.
 Harsh Vardhan, Minister of Science & Technology, Earth Sciences & Environment, Forests and
Climate Change, India and Mr Sam Gyimah, Minister for Universities, Science, Research and
Innovation, UK led the Indian and UK delegations respectively.’
New Ebola species is reported for the first time in a decade
 The government of Sierra Leone has announced that a new species of Ebola, the sixth, has been
discovered there in bats. It has been called, provisionally, the Bombali virus, after a district in the
north of the country where it was found.
Inter-State Bridge on Ban Ganga in Madhya Pradesh.
 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways has accorded in principle approval for the inter-state
high-level bridge on the Banganga river.
UN E-Government Development Survey
 With an EGDI index score of 0.5669, India is just above the world average of 0.55.
 It scored a rank of 96 among 193 countries.
National Consultation for Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition
 National Consultation for Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition organised by the M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation was inaugurated by Vice President M. Venkaiah Naidu to
address the persistent problem of malnutrition in the country.
 Calorie deficiency, protein deficiency and micro-nutrient deficiency are the kinds of nutritional
deficiency observed in India which has adopted the National Nutrition Strategy in September 2017
to address malnutrition

Indian Railways launches Mission Satyanishtha on ethics in public governance for its employees
 In first of its kind event held by any government organisation, the Indian Railways organised a
programme on Ethics in Public Governance and launched “Mission Satyanishtha” held at National
Rail Museum, New Delhi.
India to give flash flood warning to Asian nations.
 India has been designated as a nodal centre for preparing flash-flood forecasts by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).
 That means India will have to develop a customised model that can issue an advance warning of
floods in Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand.
 IMD would be working to customise a weather model, developed by the United States and
donated to the WMO, to warn of flash floods at least six hours in advance.
 The proposed model would provide forecasts by computing the likelihood of rainfall and the soil
moisture levels to warn of possible floods, he said. Though Pakistan was among the list of
countries that would benefit from the forecast, it had refused to participate in the scheme.
Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill 2018.
 The Lok Sabha has passed the Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill 2018 which replaces the Criminal
Law (Amendment) Ordinance promulgated on April 21 this year.
 The bill stipulates stringent punishment for perpetrators of rape, particularly of girls below 12
years and the death sentence has been provided for rapists of girls under 12 years.
 In case of rape of a girl under 16 years, the minimum punishment has been increased from 10 to
20 years, extendable to life imprisonment.
 The punishment for the gangrape of a girl below 16 years will invariably be imprisonment for the
rest of life of the convict. The measure also provides for speedy investigations and trial. ]
 The time limit for the investigation of all cases of rape has been prescribed, which has to be
mandatorily completed within two months.
 The deadline for the completion of the trial in all rape cases will be two months.
 A six-month time limit for the disposal of appeals in rape cases has also been prescribed
 It has also been prescribed that a court has to give notice of 15 days to a public prosecutor and the
representative of the victim before deciding on bail applications in case of rape of a girl under 16
years of age.

Manipur People’s Protection Bill, 2018.
 The Manipur People’s Protection Bill, 2018 seeks to regulate the entry and exit of “outsiders” on
the lines of the British-era inner-line permit system prevalent in three other north-eastern states:
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland.
 The bill sets 1951 as the base year to identify locals and prevent an influx of outsiders.
 According to the bill, Manipur people include Meitis, the Pangal Muslims, scheduled tribes as
listed under the Constitution in terms of Manipur and all those citizens of India who have been
living in Manipur before 1951.
Government constitutes high level empowered committee to revive stressed thermal power plant
 The Government has decided to set up a high level empowered committee headed by cabinet
secretary P K Sinha and representation from the ministries of railways, finance, power, coal and
banks having major exposure to the power sector to revive stressed thermal power projects\
Arsenic contamination in paddy is rising in Bengal
 A recent publication by researchers at the School of Environmental Studies (SOES), Jadavpur
University, reveals not only rise in arsenic contamination of paddy plants from groundwater in
West Bengal but also that concentration of ‘arsenic accumulation’ depends on the variety of paddy
and its stage in the crop cycle.

Basics of Energy and
Environment
Index
S. No Chapter Name Page No.
1 Ecology 88 – 95
2 Functions of an Ecosystem 96 – 110
3 Environmental Impact Assessment 111 – 119
4 Climate Change 120 – 153
5 Degradation 154 – 163
6 Biodiversity 164 – 237
7 Pollution 238 – 290
8 Energy 291 – 358
9 Conservation 359 – 430

Unit
1 Ecology
Ecology is a scientific study of the the Vedic period such as the Vedas, the
reciprocal relationship between organisms Samhitas, the Brahamanas and the
(including microbes, plants, animals, man) Aranyaskas-Upanishads contain many
with their environment. It deals with the references to ecological concepts.
ways in which organisms are moulded by The Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-
their environment, how they make use of Samhita and the surgical text Susruta-
environmental resources including energy Samhita, show that people during this period
flow and mineral cycling. had a good understanding of plant and
The term ecology was coined only as late as animal ecology.
1868. It has been derived from two Greek These texts contain classification of animals
words namely, ‘Oikos’ meaning home or on the basis of habit and habitat, land in
place to live in and ‘logos’ meaning study. terms of nature of soil, climate and
Literally it is the study of the home of vegetation; and description of plants typical
nature. to various localities. Carak-Samhita contains
Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of information that air, land, water and seasons
the relationship of the living organism with were indispensable for life and that polluted
each other and with their environment. air and water were injurious to health.
HISTORY OF ECOLOGY ENVIRONMENT
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History, Everything that surrounds or affects an
which is as old as human civilization itself, organism during its life time is collectively
since early history, man has indulged in known as its environment. It comprises both
ecology in a practical sort of way, living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
knowingly and unknowingly. In primitive components.
societies every individual was required to All organisms (from virus to man) are
have an intimate knowledge of his obligatorily dependent on the environment
environment for their survival, i.e, about the for food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter and
forces of nature and of plants and animals for other needs.
around him/her. The environment is defined as the sum total
Our ancient Indian texts have references to of living, non-living components; influences
ecological principles. The classical texts of and events, surrounding an organism.
VANI Publications Ecology
Concept of environment oxygen, other gases and organic matter are
The relationship and interaction between dissolved.
organism and environment are highly  The biotic environment consists of
complex. No organism can live alone microscopic organisms called plankton as
without interacting with other organisms. So well as aquatic plants and animals and
each organism has other organisms as a part decomposers.
of its environment. Each and everything Internal environment of fish
with which we interact or which we need for  It is enclosed by the outer body surface.
our sustenance forms our environment.  The internal environment is relatively stable
The environment is not static. Both biotic as compared to the external environment.
and abiotic factors are in a flux and keeps  However, it is not absolutely constant.
changing continuously. Injury, illness or excessive stress upsets for
Components of Environment internal environment.
Abiotic Biotic  For example, if a marine fish is transferred
Energy Green plants to a fresh water environment, it will not be
Radiation Non-green able to survive.
Temperature and plants LEVELS OF ORGANISATIONS IN
heat flow Decomposers ECOLOGY
water Parasites The main levels of organization of ecology
Atmospheric gases Symbionts are six and are as follows.
and wind fire Animals
Gravity Man
Topography
Soil
Geologic
substratum
For instance: Let’s take the environment of a
flash in the pond. Individual
External environment of fish Organism is an individual living being that
 Its environment consists of abiotic has the ability to act or function
components such as light, temperature, independently. It may be plant, animal,
including the water in which nutrients, bacterium, fungi, etc. It is a body made up of
VANI Publications Basics of Energy and Environment
organs, organelles, or other parts that work pollination, seed dispersal, and soil
together to carry out on the various process microorganism to facilitate nutrient supply.
of life. Communities in most instances are named
Population after the dominant plant form (species).
Population is a group of organism usually of For example: A grassland community is
the same species, occupying a defined area dominated by grasses, through it may
during a specific time. contain herbs, shrubs, and trees, along with
Population growth rate is the percentage associated animals of different species.
variation between the number of individuals A community is not fixed or rigid;
in a population at two different times. communities may be large or small.
Therefore the population growth rate can be
Types of Community
positive or negative.
On the basis of size and degree of relative
The main factors that make population grow
independence communities may be divided
are birth and immigration. The main factors
into two types.
that make population decrease are death and
(a) Major Community
emigration.
Theses are large-sized, well organized and
The main limiting factors for the growth of a
relatively independent. They depend only on
population are abiotic and biotic
the sun’s energy from outside and are
components.
independent of the input and outputs from
Population density is the relation between
adjacent communities.
the number of individuals of a population
Eg. Tropical ever green forest in the North-
and the area they occupy.
East
Community
(b) Minor Communities
If we look around ourself, we will notice
These are dependent on neighbouring
that population of plants and animals seldom
communities and are often called
occur by themselves. The reason for this is
societies.They are secondary aggregations
quite obvious. In order to survive,
within a major community and are not
individuals of any one species depend on
therefore completely independent units as
individuals of different species with which
far as energy and nutrient dynamics are
they actively interact in several ways.
concerned. Eg. A mat of lichen on a cow
For eg: Animals require plants for food and
dung pad.
trees for shelter. Plants require animals for
Structure of a community reproducing themselves. Ecosystem can be
In a community the number of species and as small as a single tree or as large as entire
size of their pollution very greatly. A forest.
community may have one or several species. Difference between ecology, environment
The environmentic pattern of the community and ecosystem
is termed as structure which is reflected in Components of Ecosystem
the roles played by various population, their The componenets of the ecosystem is
range, the type of area they inhabit, the categorized into abiotic of non-living and
diversity of species in the community and biotic of living components. Both the
the spectrum of interactions between them. components of ecosystem and environment
Ecosystem are same.
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and 1. Abiotic Components
functional unit of biosphere consisting of Abiotic components are the inorganic and
community of living beings and the physical non-living parts of the world. The abiotic
environment, both interacting and part consists of soil, water, air, and light
exchanging materials between them. energy etc. It also involves a large number
An Ecosystem is a complex set of of chemicals like oxygen, nitrogen et and
relationship among the living resources, physical processes including volcanoes,
habitats, and residents of an area. It includes earthquakes, floods, forest fires, climates,
plants, trees, animals, fish, birds, micro- and weather conditions.
organisms, water, soil, and people. Abiotic factors are the most important
Ecosystems vary greatly insize and elements determinants of where and how well an
but each is a functioning unit of nature. organism exists in its environment. All
Everything that lives in an ecosystem is through these factors interact with each
dependent on the other species and elements other, one single factor can limit the range of
that are also part of that ecological an organism.
community. If one part of an ecosystem is (a) Energy
damaged or disappears, it has an impact on Energy from the sun is essential for
everything else. maintenance of life. In the case of plants, the
When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e sun directly supplies the necessary energy.
sustainable) it means that all the elements Since animals cannot use solar energy
live in balance and are capable of directly they obtain it indirectly by eating
plants or animals or both. Energy determines microbes live even in hot water vents under
the distribution of organisms in the the sea.
environment. (f) Materials:
(b) Rainfall (i) Organic compound such as proteins,
Water is essential for all living beings. carbohydrates, lipids, humic substances are
Majority of biochemical reactions take place formed from inorganic compound on
in an aqueous medium. Water helps to decomposition.
regulate body temperature. Further, water (ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon,
bodies from the habitat for many aquatic carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates,
plants and animals. phosphates, and ions of various metals are
(c) Temperature essential for organisms to survive.
Temperature is a critical factor of the (g) Latitude and altitude
environment which greatly influences Latitude has a strong influence on an area’s
survival of organism. Organisms can tolerate temperature, resulting in change of climates
only a certain range of temperature and such as polar, tropical, and temperate. These
humidity climates determine different natural biomes.
(d) Atmosphere From sea level to highest peaks, wild life is
The earth’s atmosphere is responsible for influenced by altitude. As the altitude
creating conditions suitable for the existence increases, the air becomes colder and drier,
of a healthy biosphere on this planet. It is affecting wild life accordingly.
made up of 21% oxgen, 78% nitrogen 2. Biotic Components
0.038% carbon dioxide, and other inert gases Biotic components include living organisms
(0.93% Argon, Neon etc). comprising plants, animals and microbes and
(e) Substratum are classified according to their functional
Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of attributes into producers and consumer.
microbes, protozoa, fungi and small animals (a) Primary producer – Autotrophs (self-
(invertebrates) thrive in it. Roots of plants nourishging)
pierce through the soil to tap water and  Primary producers are basically green
nutrients. Organisms can be terrestrial or plants ( and certain bacteria and algae).
aquatic. Terrestrial animals live on land.  They synthesise carbohydrate from simple
Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in inorganic raw materials like carbon
fresh water as well as in the sea. Some dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight by the process of photosynthesis  They are bacteria and fungi which obtain
for themselves, and supply indirectly to energy and nutrients by decomposing dead
other non-producers. organic substance (detritus) of plant and
 In terrestrial ecosystem, producers animals origin.
basically herbaceous and woody plants,  The products of decomposition such as
while in aquatic ecosystem producers are inorganic nutrients which are released in
various species of microscopic algae. the ecosystem are reused by producers and
(b) Consumers – Heterotrophs or thus recycled.
phagotrophs ( other nourishing)  Earthworm and certain soil organisms
 Consumers are incapable of producing (such as nematodes, and arthropods) are
their own food (photosynthesis). detritus feeders and help in the
 They depend on organic food derived from decomposition of organic matter and are
plants, animals or both called detrivores.
 Cosumers can be divided into two broad Classification of Eco-system:
groups namely micro and macro
Natural E cos ystem
consumers.
(i) Macro Consumers.
 They feed on plants or animals or both and
Terrestrail Aquatic
are categorized on the basis of their food
sources.  Fresh Waters
 Forests
 Herbivores are primary consumers which  Grasslands  Saline Waters
 Deserts  Marine Waters
feed mainly on plants e.g cow, rabbit.
 Secondary consumers feed on primary The detailed study of ecosystem will be
consumers e.g wolves. dealt in the subsequent chapters.
 Carnivores which feed on secondary Goods and Services provided by ecosystems
consumers are called tertiary consumers included:
e.g lions which can eat wolves.  Provision of food, fuel and fibre
 Omnivores are organisms which consume  Provision of shelter and building materials
both plants and animals e.g man, monkey.  Purification of air and water
(ii) Micro Consumers–Saprotrophs  Detoxification and decomposition of
(decomposers or osmotorphs) wastes

 Stabilization and moderation of the  It is linear as it shows progressive increase
Earth’s climate in species composition of one in coming
 Moderation of floods, droughts, community and a simultaneous decrease in
temperature extremes and the forces of species of the other out going adjoining
wind community.
 Generation and renewal of soil fertility,  A well developed ecotones contain some
including nutrient cycling organisms which are entirely different
 Pollination of plants, including many from that of the adjoining communites.
crops control of pests and diseases  Sometimes the number of species and the
 Maintenance of genetic resources as they population density of some of the species
inputs to crop varieties and livestock is much greater in this zone than either
breeds, medicines, and other products community. This is called edge effect.
 Cultural and aesthetic benefits The organism which occur primarily or most
abundantly in this zone are known as edge
Ecotone
species. In the terrestrial ecosystems edge
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or
effect is specially applicable to birds.
more diverse ecosystems. For e.g the
For example the density of birds is greater in
mangrove forests represent an ecotone
the mixed habitat of the ecotone between the
between marine and terrestrial
forest and the desert.
ecosystem.Other examples are – grassland,
Niche
estuary and river bank
A niche is the unique functional role or place
of a species in an ecosystem. It is a
description of all the biological, physical and
chemical factors that a species needs to
survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
A niche a unique for a species, which means
Characteristics of Ecotone no two species have exact identical niches.
 It may be very narrow or quite wide. Niche plays an important role in
 It has the conditions intermediate to the conservation of organisms.
adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of If we have no conserve species in its native
tension. habitat we should have knowledge about the

niche requirements of the species and should
ensure that all requirements of its niche are vegetation, animals life and general soil
fulfilled. type.
Types of Niche No two biomes are alike. The climate
1. Habitat niche – where it lives determines the boundaries of a biome and
2. Food niche – what is eats or decomposes abundance of plants and animals found in
and what species it competes with each one of them. The most important
3. Reproductive niche – how and when it climatic factors are temperature and
reproduces. precipitation.
4. Physical and chemical niche –
temperature, land shape, land slope,
humidity and other requirement.
Biome
The terrestrial part of the biosphere is
divisible into enoromous regions called
biomes, which are characterized, by climate,

Unit
2 Functions of an Ecosystem
The function of an ecosystem is a broad, Energy flows through the trophic levels:
vast and complete dynamic system. It can be from producers to subsequent trophic levels.
studied under the following three heads. This energy always flows from lower
 Energy flow (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore
 Nutrient cycling ( biogeochemical cycles) etc.) trophic level. It never flows in the
 Ecological succession or ecosystem reverse direction that is from carnivores to
development. herbivores to producers.
ENERGY FLOW There is a loss of some energy in the form of
Energy is the basic force responsible for all unusable heat at each trophic level so that
metabolic activities. The flow of energy energy level decreases from the first trophic
from producer to top consumers is called level upwards.
energy flow which is unidirectional. As a result there are usually four or five
The study of Tropic level interaction in an trophic levels and seldom more than six as
ecosystem gives an idea about the energy beyond that very little energy is left to
flow through the ecosystem. support any organism. Trophic levels are
Trophic level interaction numbered according to the steps an
Tropic level interaction deals with how the organism is away from the source of food or
members of an ecosystem are connected energy, that is the producer.
based on nutritional needs.
The trophic level interaction involves three
Trophic levels (Trophe = nourishment)
I Autotrophs Green plants (producres) concepts namely.
Herbivore 1. Food Chain
II Heterotrophs (primary consumers) 2. Food Web
3. Ecological Pyramids
III Heterotrophs Carnivores
(secondary consumers) FOOD CHAIN
Organisms in the ecosystem are related to
IV Heterotrophs Carnivore
each other though feeding mechanism or
(tertiary consuemrs)
V Heterotrophs Top carnivores trophic levels, i.e one organism becomes
(Quarternary consumers) food for the other. A sequence of organisms
that feed on one another, form a food chain.
VANI Publications Functions of an Ecosystem
A food chain starts with producers and ends (ii) Detritus food chain
with top carnivores. It starts from dead organic matter of
The sequence of eaten and being eaten, decaying animals and plant bodies
produces transfer of food energy and it is consumed by the micro-organisms and then
known as food chain. The plant converts to detritus feeding organism called
solar energy into protoplasm by detrivores or decomposer and to other
photosynthesis. predators.
Small herbivores consume the plant matter LitterEarthwormsChickenHawk
and convert them into animal matter. These Detritus food chain
herbivores are eaten by large carnivores. The distinction between these two food
Types of Food Chains chains is the source of energy for the first
In nature, two main types of food chains level consumers. In the grazing food chain
have been distinguished. the primary source of energy is living plant
(i) Grazing food chain biomass while in the detritus food chain the
The consumers which start the food chain, source of energy is dead organic matter or
utilizing the plant or plant part as their food, detritus. The two food chains are linked. The
constitute the grazing food chain. The food initial energy source for detritus food chain
chain begins from green plants at the base is the waste materials and dead organic
and the primary consumer is herbivore. matter from the grazing food chain.
FOOD WEB
A food chain represents only one part of the
food or energy flow through an ecosystem
and implies a simple, isolated relationship,
which seldom occurs in the ecosystems.
An ecosystem may consist of several
For example, In terrestrial ecosystem, grass
interrelated food chains. More typically, the
is eaten up by caterpillar, which is eaten by
same food resource is part of more than one
lizard and lizard is eaten by snake.
chain, especially when that resource is at the
In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplanktons lower trophic levels.
(primary producers) is eaten by zoo
“A food web illustrates, all possible transfers
planktons which is eaten by fishes and fishes
of energy and nutrients amount the organism
are eaten by pelicans.
in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in
only one pathway of the food”. between.
The pyramid consists of a number of
horizontal bars depicting specific trophic
levels which are arranged sequentially from
primary producer level through herbivore,
carnivore onwards. The length of each bar
represents the total number of individuals at
each trophic level in an ecosystem.
The number, biomass and energy of
If any of the intermediate food chain is
organisms gradually decreases with each
removed, the succeeding links of the chain
step from the producer level to the consumer
will be affected largely. The food web
level and the diagrammatic representation
provides more than one alternative for food
assumes a pyramid shape.
to most of the organism in an ecosystem and
The ecological pyramids are of three
therefore increases their chance of survival.
categories.
For example, grasses may serve food for
1. Pyramid of numbers,
rabbit or grasshopper or goat or cow.
2. Pyramid of biomass, and
Similarly a herbivore may be food source for
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
many carnivorous species.
Also food availability and preferences of Pyramid of Numbers
food of the organisms may shift seasonally This deals with the relationships between the
e.g. we eat watermelon in summer and numbers of primary producers and
peaches in the winter. Thus there are consumers of different levels. It is a graphic
interconnected networks of feeding representation of the total number of
relationships that take the form of food individuals of different species, belonging to
webs. each trophy level in an ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS Depending upon the size and biomass, the
The steps of trophic levels expressed in a pyramid of numbers may not always be
diagrammatic way are referred as ecological upright, and may even be completely
pyramids. The food producer forms the base inverted.
of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms

(a) Pyramid of numbers-upright
 In this pyramid, the number of individuals  In this pyramid, the number of individuals
is decreased from lower level to higher is increased from lower level to higher
trophic level. trophic level.
 This type of pyramid can be seen in
grassland ecosystem.
 A count in a forest would have a small

 The grasses occupy the lowest tropic level number of large producers, for e.g few
(base) because of their abundance. number of big trees.
 The next higher trophic level is primary  This is because the tree (primary producer)
consumer-herbivore (example- being few in number and would represent
grasshopper) the base of the pyramid and the dependent
 The individual number of grasshopper is herbivores (Example – Birds) in the next
less than that of grass. The next energy higher trophic level and it is followed by
level is primary carnivore (example – rat) parasites in the next trophic level. Hyper
 The number of rats are less than parasites being at higher trophic level.
grasshopper, because they feed on Hyper parasites being at higher trophic
grasshopper. The next higher tropic level level represents higher in number.
is secondary carnivore (example – snakes).  And the resulting pyramid is an inverted
They food on rates. shape. A pyramid of numbers does not
 The next higher trophic level is the top take into account the fact that the size of
carnivore. (Ex. Hawk) organisms being counted in each trophic
 With each higher trophic level, the number level can vary.
of individual decreases.  It is very difficult to count all the
organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and
(b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted so the pyramid of number does not
completely define the trophic structure for The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is
an ecosystem. at the maximum. The biomass of next
trophic level i.e primary consumers is less
Pyramid of Biomass
than the producers. The biomass of next
In order to overcome the shortcomings of
higher trophic level i. e secondary
pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass
consumers is less than the primary
is used. In this approach individuals in each
consumers. The top, high trophic level has
trophic level are weighted instead of being
very less amount of biomass.
counted. This gives us a pyramid of
(b) Inverted pyramid
biomass, i.e , the total dry weight of all
In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the
organisms at each trophic level at a
pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted
particular time.
form.
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by
collecting all organism occupying each
trophic level separately and measuring their
dry weight. This overcomes the size
difference problem because all kinds of
organism at a trophic level are weighted.
Biomass is measured in g/m2.
(a) Upward pyramid
For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of This is because the producers are tiny
biomass has a large base of primary phytoplanktons that grow and reproduce
producers with a smaller trophic level rapidly. Here, the pyramid of biomass has a
perched on top. small base, with the consumer biomass at
any instant actually exceeding the producer
biomass and the pyramid assumes inverted
shape.
Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles of the
trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy
pyramid is most suitable. An energy
pyramid, reflects the laws of
thermodynamics, with conversion of solar herbivore to carnivore. Therefore, the energy
energy to chemical energy and heat energy pyramid will always be upright.
at each trophic level and with loss of energy Energy pyramid concept helps to explain the
being depicted at each transfer to another phenomenon of biological magnification-the
trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always tendency for toxic substances to increase in
upward, with a large energy base at the concentration progressively at higher levels
bottom. of the food chain.
Let us explain this with an example. POLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC LEVEL
Suppose an ecosystem receives 1000 Pollutants especially nondegradable ones
calories of light energy in a given day. Most move through the various trophic levels in
of the energy is not absorbed; some is an ecosystem.
reflected back to space; of the energy Nondegradabale pollutants mean materials,
absorbed only a small portion is utilized by which cannot be metabolized by the living
green plants, out of which the plant uses up organisms.
some for respiration and of the 1000 Example: Chlorinated hydrocarbons.
calories, therefore only 100 calories are We are concerned about these phenomena
stored as energy rich materials. because, together they enable even small
concentrations of chemicals in the
environment to find their way into organism
in high enough dosages to cause problems.
Movement of these pollutants involves two
main processes:
(i) Bioaccumulation
(ii) Biomagnification.
Now suppose an animal, say a deer, eats the Bioaccumulation
plant containing 100 cal of food energy. The  It refers to how pollutants enter a food
deer uses some of it for its own metabolism chain.
and stores only 10 cal as food energy. A lion  In bioaccumulation there is an increase in
that eats the deer gets an even smaller concentration of a pollutant from the
amount of energy. Thus usable energy environment to the first organism in a food
decreases from sunlight to producer to chain.
Biomagnification of fat in it are often more susceptible to
 Boimagnification refers to the tendency of damage from toxins (poisons). If a pollutant
pollutants to concentrate as they move from is not active biologically, it may biomagnify,
one trophic level to the next. but we really don’t worry about it much,
 Thus in biomagnifications there is an since it probably won’t cause any problems.
increase in concentration of a pollutant from Examples: DDT
one link in a food chain to another. BIOTIC INTERACTION
 Organism living in this earth are interlinked
to each other in one way or other. The
interaction between the organisms is
fundamental for its survival and functioning
of ecosystem as a whole.
Biotic Interaction
S.no Type Spices 1 Species 2
1. Mutulasim (+) (+)
2. Commensalism (+) (–)
3 Competition (–) (–)
4 Predation (+) (–)
In order for biomagnifications to occur, the
5 Parasitism (+) (–)
pollutant must be: logn-lived, mobile,
6 Amensalism (–) (0)
soluble in fats, biologically active. 7 Neutralism (0) (0)
If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken (+) Benefited (–) Harmed
down before it can become dangerous. If it (0) Neither Benefited nor harmed.
is not mobile, it will stay in one place and is

Types of bio interaction
unlikely to be taken up by organism. If the
 Mutualism: Both species benefits.
pollutant is soluble in water, it will be
Example: In pollination mutualism, the
excreted by the organism. Pollutants that
pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the
dissolve in facts, however, may be retained
plant has its pollen transferred to other
for a long time.
flowers for cross-fertilization (
It is traditional to measure the amount of
reproduction).
pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such
 Commensalim: One species benefits, the
as fish. In mammals, we often test the milk
other is unaffected.
produced by females, since the milk has a lot
Example: Cow dung provides food and BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL CYCLE
shelter to dung beetles. The beetles have no The living world depends upon the energy
effect on the cows. flow and the nutrients circulation that occurs
 Competition: both species are harmed by the through ecosystem. Both influence the
interaction. abundance of organism, the metabolic rate at
Example: If tow species eat the same food, which they live, and the complexity of the
and there is not enough for both, both may ecosystem.
have access to less food than they would if Energy flows through ecosystems enabling
alone. They both suffer a shortage of food. the organism to perform various kinds of
 Predation and parasitism: one species work and this energy is ultimately lost as
benefits, the other is harmed. heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the
Example: Predation-one fish kills and eats system. On the other hand, nutrients of food
parasitism: tick gains benefit by sucking matter never get used up. They can be
blood, host is harmed by losing blood. recycled again and again indefinitely.
 Amensalism: One species is harmed, the For e.g, when we breathe we may be
other is unaffected. inhaling several million atoms of elements
Example: A large tree shades a small plant, that may have been inhaled by our ancestors
retarding the growth of the small plant. The or other organism.
small plant has no effect on the large tree. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
 Neutralism: There is no net benefit or harm phosphorus as element and compounds
to either species. Perhaps in some make up 97% of the mass of our bodies and
interspecific interactions, the costs and are more than 95% of the mass of all living
benefits experienced by each partner are organisms. In addition to these about 15 to
exactly the same so that they sum to zero. It 25 other elements are needed in some form
is not clear how often this happens in nature. for the survival and good health of plants
Neutralism is also sometimes described as and animals.
the relationship between two species These elements or mineral nutrients are
inhabiting the same space and using the always in circulation moving from non-
same resources, but that have no effect on living to living and then back to the non-
each other. In this case, one could argue that living components of the ecosystem in a
they are not interacting at all. more or less circular fashion. This circular
fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling PRODUCERS
a lg ea,lichens and
(bio for living; geo for atmosphere). green plants
eaten water and
min eral salts
Nutrient Cycling
CONSUMERS die SOILS
The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes animals humus and min erals
how nutrients move from the physical die

decompositon
DECOMPOSERS
environment to the living organism, and fungi and bacteria
subsequently recycled back to the physical Nutrient Cycling
environment. Types of Nutrient Cycle:
This movement of nutrients from the  Based on the replacement period a nutrient
environment into plants and animals and cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect
again back to the environment is essential cycle.
for life and it is the vital function of the  A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which
ecology of any region. In any particular nutrients are replaced as fast as they are
environment , to maintain its organism in a utilized. Most gaseous cycles are generally
sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must be considered as perfect cycles.
kept balanced and stable.  In contrast sedimentary cycles are
Nutrient cycling is typically studied in terms considered relatively imperfect, as some
of specific nutrients, with each nutrient in an nutrients are lost from the cycle and get
environment having its own particular locked into sediments and so become
pattern of cycling. Among the most unavailable for immediate cycling.
important nutrient cycles are the carbon  Based on the nature of the reservoir, there
nutrient cycle and the nitrogen nutrient are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and
cycle. Both of these cycles make up an sedimentary cycle.
essential part of the overall soil nutrient  Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the
cycle. There are many other nutrient cycles atmosphere or the hydrosphere, and
that are important in ecology, including a  Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is
large number of trace mineral nutrient the earth’s crust.
cycles. Gaseous Cycles
Let us first study some of the most important
gaseous cycles; namely – water, carbon and
nitrogen.
(a) Water Cycles (Hydrologic)
and oil to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the
compound that carries genetic information).
Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly
in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon
cycle involves a continuous exchange of
carbon between the atmosphere and
Water as an important ecological factor organisms. Carbon from the atmosphere
determines the structure and function of the moves to green plants by the process of
ecosystem. Cycling of all other nutrients is photosynthesis, and then to animals. By
also dependent upon water as it provides process of respiration and decomposition of
their transportation during the various steps. dead organic matter it returns back to
It acts as solvent medium for their uptake of atmosphere. It is usually a short term cycle.
nutrients by organisms.
The hydrologic cycle is the continuous
circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere
system which is driven by solar energy.
Water on our planet is stored in major
reservoirs like atmosphere, oceans, lakes,
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and
groundwater. Water moves from one Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It
reservoir to another by the processes of accumulates as un-decomposed organic
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, matter in the peaty layers of marshy soil or
precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments
and groundwater flow. of aquatic systems which take a long time to
(b) The Carbon Cycle be released.
Carbon is a major constituent of the In deep oceans such carbon can remained
atmosphere as compared to oxygen and buried for millions of years till geological
nitrogen. However, without carbon dioxide movement may life these rocks above sea
life could not exits, because it is vital for the level. These rocks may be exposed to
production of carbohydrates through erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide,
photosynthesis by plants. It is the element carbonates and bicarbonates into streams
that anchors all organic substances from coal and rivers.
Fossils fuels such as coals, oil and natural (ii) By man using industrial processes
gas etc are organic compounds that were (fertilizer factories) and
buried before they could be decomposed and (iii) To a limited extent by atmospheric
were subsequently transformed by time and phenomenon such as thunder and lighting
geological processes into fossil fuels. When The amount of Nitrogen fixed by man
they are burned the carbon stored in them is through industrial process has far exceeded
released back into the atmosphere as carbon- the amount fixed by the Natural Cycle. As a
dioxide. result Nitrogen has become a pollutant
(c) The Nitrogen Cycle which can disrupt the balance of nitrogen. It
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of may lead to acid rain, Eutrophication and
protein and is a basic building block of all Harmful Algal Blooms.
living tissue. It constitutes nearly 16% by Certain microorganisms are capable of
weight of all the proteins. fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen ions. These include free living nitrifying
in the atmosphere but the elemental form bacteria (e.g aerobic Azotobacter and
cannot be used directly by most of the living anaerobic Clostridium) and symbiotic
organisms. Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that nitrifying bacteria living in association with
is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, leguminous plants and symbiotic bacteria
before it can be taken up by plants. living in non leguminous root nodule plants
(e.g Rhizobium) as well as blue green algae
(e.g . Anabaena, Spirulina).
Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as
a source of nitrogen by some plants, or are
oxidized of nitrites or nitrates by two groups
of specialized bacteria: Nitrosomonas
bacteria promote transformation of ammonia
into nitrite. Nitrite is then further
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished
transformed into nitrate by the bacteria
in three different ways:
Nitrobacter.
(i) By microorganism (bacteria and blue-
The nitrates synthesized by bacteria in the
green algae)
soil are taken up plants and converted into
amino acids, which are they building blocks
of proteins. These then go through higher Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic
trophic levels of the ecosystem. ecosystems and water quality. Unlike carbon
During excretion and upon the death of all and nitrogen, which come primarily from the
organism nitrogen is returned to the soil in atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in large
the form of ammonia.
amounts as a mineral in phosphate rocks and
Certain quantity of soil nitrates, being highly
enters the cycle from erosion and mining
soluble in water, is lost to the system by
activities. This is the nutrient considered to
being transported away by surface run-off or
be the main cause of excessive growth of
ground water. In the soil as well as oceans
rooted and free-floating microscopic plants
there are special denitrifying bacteria (e.g
in lakes.
Pseudomonas), which convert the
The main storage for phosphorus is in the
nitrates/nitrites to elemental nitrogen. This
earth’s crust. On land phosphorus is usually
nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus
found in the form of phosphates. By the
completing the cycle.
process of weathering and erosion
The periodic thunderstorms convert the
gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to
ammonia and nitrates which eventually
reach the earth’s surface through
precipitation and then into the soil to be
utilized by plants.
Sedimentary Cycle
phosphates enters rivers and streams that
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium
transport then to the ocean
circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle.
In the ocean once the phosphorus
The element involved in the sedimentary
accumulates on continental shelves in the
cycle normally does not cycle through the
form of insoluble deposits. After millions of
atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of
years, the crustal plates rise form the sea
flow through erosion, sedimentation,
floor and expose the phosphates on land.
mountain building, volcanic activity and
After more time, weathering will release
biological transport through the excreta of
them from rock and the cycle’s geochemical
marine birds.
phase beings again.
(a) Phosphorus Cycle
(b) Sulphur Cycle
The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of
sediments where it is locked inorganic (coal, sulphates is take up by plants and
oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite incorporated through a series of metabolic
rock and sulphur rock) in the form of processes into sulphur bearing amino acid
sulphates, sulphides and organic sulphur. which is incorporated in the proteins of
It is released by weathering of rocks, autotroph tissues. It then passes through the
erosional runoff and decomposition of grazing food chain.
organic matter and is carried to terrestrial Sulphur bound in living organism is carried
and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and
The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary lakes and seas through excretion and
except two of its compounds hydrogen decomposition of dead organic material.
sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here
add a gaseous component to its normal are only a few of the many cycles present in
sedimentary cycle. the ecosystem. These cycles usually do not
Sulphur enter the atmosphere from several operate independently but interact with each
sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion other at some point or the other.
of fossil fuels, from surface of ocean and SUCCESSION
from gases released by decomposition. Succession is s universal process of
Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets directional change in vegetation, on an
oxidised into sulphur dioxide. Atmospheric ecological time scale.
suphur dioxide is carried back to the earth Succession occurs when a series of
after being dissolved in rainwater as weak communities replace one another due to
suphuric acid. large scale destruction either natural or
manmade. This process continues-one
community replacing another community,
until a stable, mature community develops.
Succession is a progressive series of changes
which leads to the establishment of a
relatively stable climax community.
The first plant to colonise an area is called
the pioneer community. The final stage of
succession is called the climax community.
The stage leading to the climax community pockets and crevices, providing soil in
are called successional stages or seres. which seeds can become lodged and grow.
Succession is characterised by the following: As the community of organism continues to
increased productivity, the shift of nutrients develop, it becomes more diverse and
from the reservoirs, increased diversity of competition increases, but at the same time
organisms with increased niche development new niche opportunities develops.
, and a gradual increase in the complexity of The pioneer species disappear as the habitat
food webs. conditions change and invasion of new
species progresses, leading to the
replacement of the preceding community.
Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when plants
recognize an area in which the climax
community has been disturbed.
Primary Succession Secondary succession is the sequential
In primary succession on a terrestrial site the development of biotic communities after the
new site is first colonized by a few hardy complete or partial destruction of the
pioneer species that are often microbes, existing community. A mature or
lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few intermediate community may be destroyed
generations alter the habitat conditions by by natural events such as floods, droughts,
their growth and development. fires, or storms or by human interventions
These new conditions may be conductive to such as deforestation, agriculture,
the establishment of additional organism that overgrazing, etc.
may subsequently arrive at the site. The This abandoned farmland is first invaded by
pioneers through their death any decay leave hardy species of grasses that can survive in
patches or organic matter in which small bare, sun baked Soil. These grasses may be
animals can live. soon joined by tall grasses and herbaceous
The organic matter produced by these plants. These dominate the ecosystem for
pioneer species produce organic acids during some years along with mice, rabbits, insects
decomposition that dissolve and etch the and seed-eating birds.
substratum releasing nutrients to the Eventually, some trees come up in this area,
substratum. Organic debris accumulates in seeds of which may be brought by wind or
animals. And over the years, forest change brought about by outside forces is
community develops. Thus an abandoned known as allogenic succession.
farmland over a period becomes dominated Autotrophic and Heterotrophic succession
by trees and is transformed into a forest. Succession in which, initially the green
The difference between primary secondary plants are much greater is quantity is known
succession, the secondary succession starts as autotrophic succession; and the ones in
on a well developed soil already formed at which the heterotrophs are greater in
the site. Thus secondary succession is quantity is known as heterotrophic
relatively faster as compared to primary succession.
succession which may often require Succession would occur faster in area
hundreds of years. existing in the middle of the large continent.
2.8.2 Autogenic and Allogenic Succession This is because, here all propagules or seeds
When succession is brought about by living of plants belonging to the different seres
inhabitants of that community itself, the would reach much faster, establish and
process is called autogenic succession, while ultimately result in climax community.
Unit
Environmental Impact Assessment
3
Introduction which clearance will be accorded after
 Industrial development has had adverse mitigation strategies are included in the
impact on the environment. Most of the plan. EIA thus proves to be a tool which
developmental activities such as building improves decision making and ensures
of dams, roads, airports, industries, that the project under construction is
railway tracks, cities etc. use enormous environmentally sound and within limits
amounts of natural resources as raw of the capacity of assimilation and
material and they may generate waste, regeneration capacities of the ecosystem.
which is disposed off into the Environmental clearance of developmental
environment. Waste disposal causes projects is a mandatory procedure.
damage to air, soil and water, and brings Project Initiation
Present Status
about depletion of natural resources. Adverse
Environment
(without project)
 The protection of the global environment Impact (without project)
is in the interest of all of us living on this
planet. Various measures have been taken Time
(a) Anticipated environmental impact of developmental project
at national and international levels to
correct a number of environmental
Environment components
problems as you have already learnt in the Environmental status without project
previous lesson.
Project with EIA
 In light of the above it is important to EIA bridges the gap
anticipate the likely environmental Project done without EIA
problems and threats that may arise out of Time
the proposed developmental activities and (b) Environmental impact rectification after
EIA
human actions. Such anticipation is termed  Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
“Environmental Impact Assessment” is an important management tool for
(EIA). ensuring optimal use of natural resources

for sustainable development, and was
 EIA is a tool which helps to evaluate
introduced in India initially for River
environmental impact of proposed
Valley Projects in 1978-79. The scope of
developmental projects or programs for
the EIA has been enhanced to cover other
developmental sectors such as industries,  Those which need upstream development
mining schemes, energy, etc. activity like assured mineral and forest
Purpose products supply or downstream industrial
1. The purpose of Environmental Impact process development;
Assessment (EIA) is to identify and evaluate  Those involving manufacture, handling
the potential impacts (beneficial and and use of hazardous materials;

adverse) of development and projects on the  Those which are sited near ecologically
environmental system. It is a useful aid for sensitive areas, urban centers, hill resorts,
decision making based on understanding of places of scientific and religious
the environment implications including importance.
social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which  Industrial Estates with constituent units of
could be integrated with the analysis of the various types which could cumulatively
project costs and benefits. This exercise cause significant environmental damage.
should be undertaken early enough in the Principles of EIA
planning stage of projects for selection of It is important to recognise that there is a
environmentally compatible sites, process general principle of assessment that applies
technologies and such other environmental to EIA, and to other assessment processes.
safeguards. There are several other processes that relate
2. While all industrial projects may have some closely to the review of environmental
environmental impacts all of them may not impacts that may result from a proposed
be significant enough to warrant elaborate project. The following are well recognized
assessment procedures. The need for such processes:
exercises will have to be decided after initial  Social Impact Assessment
evaluation of the possible implications of a  Risk Assessment
particular project and its location. The  Life Cycle Analysis
projects which could be the candidates for  Energy Analysis
detailed Environment Impact Assessment  Health Impact Assessment
include the following:-  Regulatory Impact Assessment
 Those which can significantly alter the  Species Impact Assessment
landscape, land use pattern and lead to  Technology Assessment
concentration of working and service  Economic Assessment
population;  Cumulative Impact Assessment
VANI Publications Environmental Impact Assessment
 Strategic Environmental Assessment issues from among a host of possible
 Integrated Impact Assessment impacts of a project and all the available
The EI A Cycle and Procedures alternatives.
The EIA process in India is made up of the  Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on
following phases: the basis of magnitude, prevalence,
1. Screening frequency and duration and non-
2. Scoping quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or
3. Baseline Data recreational value), significance is
4. Impact Prediction commonly determined through the socio-
5. Consideration of alternatives economic criteria.
6. Delineation of Mitigation Measures  After the areas, where the project could
7. Environmental Impact Assessment Report have significant impact, are identified, the
8. Environment management plan (EMP) baseline status of these should be
9. Public Hearing monitored and then the likely changes in
10. Decision Making these on account of the construction and
11. Monitoring the Clearance Conditions operation of the proposed project should
12. Environmental impact statement (EIS) be predicted.
(1) Screening (3) Baseline Data

Screening is done to see whether a project  Baseline data describes the existing
requires environmental clearance as per the environmental status of the identified
statutory notifications. Screening Criteria are study area. The site-specific primary data
based upon: should be monitored for the identified
1. Scales of investment; parameters and supplemented by
2. Type of development; and, secondary data if available.
3. Location of development.  This includes the establishment of both the
 A Project requires statutory environmental present and future state of the
clearance only if it is mentioned either in the environment, in the absence of the project,
provisions of EIA notification or in any law. taking into account the changes resulting
(2) Scoping from natural events and from other human
 This step seeks to identify, at an early activities.
stage, the key, significant environmental
(4). Impact Prediction  changes in land quality including effects
 Impact prediction is a way of mapping the of waste disposal
environmental consequences of the  changes in shoreline/riverbank and their
significant aspects of the project and its stability
alternatives. Environmental impact can  Biological
never be predicted with absolute certainty  Deforestation/tree-cutting and shrinkage
and this is all the more reason to consider of animal habitat.
all possible factors and take all possible  Impact on fauna and flora (including
precautions for reducing the degree of aquatic species if any) due to
uncertainty. contaminants/pollutants
 The following impacts of the project  Impact on rare and endangered species,
should be assessed: endemic species, and migratory path/route
 Air of animals.
 changes in ambient levels and ground  Impact on breeding and nesting grounds
level concentrations due to total emissions  Socio-Economic
from point, line and area sources  Impact on the local community including
 effects on soils, materials, vegetation, and demographic changes.
human health  Impact on economic status
 Noise
 Impact on human health.
 changes in ambient levels due to noise  Impact of increased traffic
generated from equipment and
5) Consideration of alternatives:
movement of vehicles
 This seeks to ensure that the proponent has
 effect on fauna and human health considered other feasible approaches,
 Water
including alternative project locations,
 availability to competing users scales, processes, layouts, operating
 changes in quality condition and the no-action option.
 sediment transport  For every project, possible alternatives
 ingress of saline water should be identified and environmental
 Land attributes compared. Alternatives should
 changes in land use and drainage pattern cover both project location and process
technologies. Alternatives should consider
no project option also. Alternatives should 9) Public Hearing
then be ranked for selection of the best  Law requires that the public must be
environmental option for optimum informed and consulted on a proposed
economic benefits to the community at development after the completion of EIA
large. report.
6) Delineation of Mitigation Measures  Any one likely to be affected by the
 Once alternatives have been reviewed, a proposed project is entitled to have access
mitigation plan should be drawn up for the to the Executive Summary of the EIA. The
selected option and is supplemented with affected persons may include:
an Environmental Management Plan 1. bonafide local residents;
(EMP) to guide the proponent towards 2. local associations;
environmental improvements. The EMP is 3. environmental groups active in the area
a crucial input to monitoring the clearance 4. any other person located at the project site
conditions and therefore details of / sites of displacement
monitoring should be included in the EMP  They are to be given an opportunity to
7) Environmental Impact Assessment Report make oral/written suggestions to the State
 An EIA report should provide clear Pollution Control Board
information to the decision-maker on the 10) Decision Making
different environmental scenarios without  Decision making process involve
the project, with the project and with consultation between the project
project alternatives. Uncertainties should proponent (assisted by a consultant) and
be clearly reflected in the EIA report. the impact assessment authority (assisted
8) Environment management plan (EMP): by an expert group if necessary)
 Delineation of mitigation measures  The decision on environmental clearance is
including prevention and control for each arrived at through a number of steps
environmental component and including evaluation of EIA and EMP.
rehabilitation and resettlement plan. 11) Monitoring the Clearance Conditions
 Delineation of monitoring scheme for  Monitoring should be done during both
compliance of conditions construction and operation phases of a
 Delineation of implementation plan project. This is not only to ensure that the
including scheduling and resource commitments made are complied with but
allocation also to observe whether the predictions
made in the EIA reports were correct or 12) Environmental impact statement (EIS)
not. Where the impacts exceed the  EIA exercise culminates in an environmental
predicted levels, corrective action should impact statement (EIS). EIS provides the
be taken. Monitoring will enable the decision makers with valuable information
regulatory agency to review the validity of that could ultimately contribute to either the
predictions and the conditions of abandonment or substantial modification of
implementation of the Environmental a proposed development action.
Management Plan (EMP). To put simply, EIA considers impacts on
ecological and human perspectives.
Environmental Changes Abundance/scarcity of pests and
disease organisms.
Medium Changes and Rates of Change in
Soil Quality (e.g. depth, structure,

fertility, degree of stalinisation or
acidification, etc.) Areas of human concern (Impact categories)
Area of arable land Displacement of population;

relocation of population in response
Air Quality Economic and
to employment opportunities;
Occupational status
The climatic elements services and distribution patterns;
property values.
Water Quantity
Resettlement; rural depopulation;
Quality Social pattern or change I population density; food;
life style housing; material; agricultural; rural;
Season ability
urban.
Area of human-made lakes
Family life styles; schools;
Extent of irrigation canals Social amenities transportation; community feelings;
and relationships participation vs. alienation;
recreation; language.
Biota Abundance/scarcity/Diversity of Psychological Involvement; expectations; stress;

species or genetic resources features frustration; Commitment.
Extent of crops, ecosystems, Physical amenities National parks; wildlife; art galleries;
vegetation and forests (intellectual, archaeological monuments;
cultural, aesthetic wilderness; clean air and water.
Extent of provision of nesting
and sensual)
grounds, etc., for migratory species
Changes in health; medical services; acts safety standards; national building
Health
medical standards. acts; noise-abatement by-laes
Freedom from molestation; freedom

Personal security
from natural disasters
Stakeholders of EIA:
Regional and Symbols; taboos; values. EIA has stakeholders from both public and
traditional beliefs
private sections. The six main players are:
Security; hazards; safety measures; (i) Those who propose the project
benefits; emission of wastes;
(ii) The environmental consultant who
Technology congestion; density.
prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent.
(iii) Pollution Control Board (State or
Leisure; new values; heritage; National)
Cultural
traditional and religious rites.
(iv) Public has the right to express their
Authority; level and degree of opinion
involvement; priorities; structure of
(v) The Impact Assessment Agency
decision-making; responsibility and
Political (vi) Regional centre of the Ministry of
responsiveness; resource allocation;
local and minority interests; defence Environment and Forest
needs.
Restructuring of administrative
Legal management; changes in taxes; DEVELOPER GOVERNMENT PUBLIC
public policy. General Public
Project Project
Proposal Regulator
Visual physical changes; moral EIA Govt. NGO’s
Research Institute
conduct; sentimental values.
Aesthetic Consultant Departments Tribal etc.
Statutory laws and Air and water quality standards; Participants for EIA
Steps in an EIA Process
 Project screening-is an EIA needed?

 Scoping-which impacts and issues to consider?
 Description of the project/development action
 Description of the environment baseline
 Prediction of impacts Public

 Evaluation and assessment of significance of Consultation
impacts
 Identification of mitigating measures
Presentation of findings in an EIS
Review of the EIS
Decision-making
 Post-decision monitoring
Auditing and predictions of mitigation measures
Applicability of Environmental Clearance 5)Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal

Environmental clearance is granted by the Regulation Zone)
Impact Assessment Agency (IAA) in the 6)Nuclear power projects.
Ministry of Environment and Forests,
List of projects requiring environmental
Government of India.
clearance from the central government
All projects that require environmental
1. Nuclear power and related projects such
clearance from central government can be
as heavy water plants, nuclear fuel complex,
broadly categorized into the following:-
rare earths.
1)Industries
2. River valley projects including hydel
2) Mining
power, major irrigation and their
3)Thermal power plants
combination
4)River valley projects
including flood control.
3. Ports, harbours, airports (except minor antimony
ports and harbours). alloy
4. Petroleum refineries including crude and 18. All tourism projects between 200m-500
products pipelines. metres of High Water Line and at locations
5. Chemical fertilisers (nitrogenous and with an elevation of more than 1000 metres
phosphatic other than single 19. Thermal power plants
superphosphate). 20. Mining projects (with lease more than 5
6. Pesticides (technical). hectares)
7. Petrochemical complexes (both olefinic 21. Highway projects except projects
and aromatic) and petrochemical relating to improvement work including
intermediates widening and strengthening of roads with
such as DMT, Caprolactam, LAB etc, and marginal land acquisition along the existing
production of basic plastics such as LDPE, alignments provided it does not pass through
HDPE, PP, PVC. ecologically sensitive areas such as National
8. Bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals Parks, Sanctuaries, Tiger Reserves, and
9. Exploration for oil and gas and their Reserve Forests
production, transportation and storage 22. Tarred roads in the Himalayas and forest
10. Synthetic rubber areas
11. Asbestos and asbestos products 23. Distilleries
12. Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives 24. Raw skins and hide
13. Primary metallurgical industries (such as 25. Pulp, paper and newsprint
production of iron and steel, aluminium, 26. Dyes
copper, zinc, lead, and ferro-alloys) 27. Cement
14. Chlor alkali industry 28. Foundries (Individual)
15. Integated paint complex including 29. Electroplating
manufacture of resins and basic raw 30. Meta aminophenol
materials required in the manufacture of
paints
16. Viscose staple fibre and filament yarn
17. Storage batteries integrated with
manufacture of oxides of lead and lead
Unit
4 Climate Change
Introduction:  Global climate depends on the amount of
 Climate change is defined as variations and energy received by the Sun and the amount
shifts in weather conditions over space and of energy that is trapped in the system.
time resulting into change of climatic type Climate change may be either global
for example, from warm and moist climate warming or global cooling for whatever
reason either due to natural or anthropogenic
to warm and dry climate, from warm and
moist climate to cool and moist climate. Causes of Climate Change
 Climate change is caused by factors such as The causes of climate change can be divided
biotic processes, variations in solar radiation into two categories-
received by Earth, plate tectonics, and
volcanic eruptions etc.  Natural causes and
 The parameters like Temperature, Pressure,  Anthropogenic causes.
Wind, Humidity and Precipitation, interact Natural causes:
with each other. They influence the There are a number of natural factors
atmospheric conditions like the direction and responsible for climate change. Some of the
velocity of wind, amount of Insolation, more prominent ones are continental drift,
cloud-cover and the amount of precipitation. volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth's tilt,
These are known as the elements of both and comets and meteorites. Continental drift
weather and climate.
 Weather is the atmospheric condition of any  Volcanoes
place for a short period of time with respect  The earth's tilt
to its one or more elements such as  Ocean currents
temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, Human causes:
precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover etc. Excess emission of Green House Gases that
 Climate is the study of the average weather intensify climate change into the atmosphere
conditions observed over a long period of caused by
time for a larger area.
 Population pressure
 Climate is a very long term phenomenon
 Deforestation
unlike weather which is a short term in its
 Urbanisation
essence.
 Industrial Revolution
VANI Publications Climate Change
 Ever increasing Demand for Energy The problem we now face is that human
 Transportation activities - particularly burning fossil fuels
All this has contributed to a rise in (coal, oil and natural gas), agriculture and
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil land clearing-are increasing the
fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas supply concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is
most of the energy needed to run vehicles the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is
generate electricity for industries, contributing to warming of the Earth.
households, etc. The energy sector is
Water vapour: It is the most abundant
3 greenhouse gas (GHG). However it has a
responsible for about th of the carbon
4 low residence time in the atmosphere and
5 therefore is not considered the most
dioxide emissions, th of the methane important GHG.
4
emissions and a large quantity of nitrous
oxide.
Solar radiation reflected
Green House Effect and Global Warming by earth

Absorbed radiation
The greenhouse effect is a natural process Green house re-emitted by green
house gases
that warms the Earth’s surface. When the gases Trapped solar
radiation
Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s Global warming
atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to

space and the rest is absorbed and re- Gas Source and Causes
radiated by greenhouse gases. Burning of fossil fuels,
Carbon dioxide(CO2)
deforestation
Greenhouse gases include water vapor,
Growing paddy, belching of
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
cattle and other livestock,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as Methane (CH4)
termites, burning of fossil fuel,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). wood, and landfills.
The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers;
Nitrogen oxides(N2O) burning of wood and crop
and the surface of the Earth. This process
residue.
maintains the Earth’s temperature at around
Hydrofluorocarbons refrigerant
33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would
Perfluorocarbons Refrigerant, solvent, anesthetic
otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist. Electrical insulator, inert gas,
Sulphur hexafluoride
etchant, microwave system
Important Green House Gases and their The decomposition of organic matter e.g. in
Sources: landfills and in agriculture, especially when
Carbon dioxide (CO2): rice or paddy fields that are flooded during
 CO2 is released naturally into the the sowing and maturing periods.
atmosphere through Domestication of animals:
 volcanic eruptions Another large source is from the belching of
 animal respiration ruminants (cows, goats etc).
 But it is also released through human Degradation:
activities such as When soil is covered with water it becomes
 Deforestation anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such
 Burning of fossil fuels for energy. conditions, methane-producing bacteria and
 CO2 also spends a long time in the other organisms decompose organic matter
atmosphere increasing its impact. in the soil to form methane.
Since the industrial revolution, humans have Accidental release:
increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by Methane is also emitted during the process
30%. of oil drilling, coal mining and also from
 China is the largest producer of CO2 gas. leaking gas pipelines (due to accidents and
 In terms of per capita emission USA is poor maintenance of sites).
larger producer. Methane is a stronger GHG than
 The US and EU are the 2nd and 3rd largest CO2 because it can absorb more heat;
emitters. however it is much less abundant in the
India despite being the 4th largest carbon atmosphere.
emitter continues to be far behind the other Nitrous oxide:

A very powerful greenhouse gas which is
three top big emitters in terms of per capita
heavily produced in
emission.  The agriculture sector with the application of
Methane: fertilizer,
The second most important GHG is  Specifically in the production and use of
produced both naturally and through human organic fertilizers.
activities.  It is also produced when burning fossil fuels.
Sources of Methane:  During combustion of fossil fuels and solid

Paddy cultivation: waste.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Ex:
These man-made compounds were produced Carbon dioxide is assigned a GWP of 1 to
for industrial use, mainly in refrigerants and serve as a baseline for other GWP values.
air conditioners. They are now regulated Carbon dioxide emissions cause changes in
under the Montreal Protocol due to their atmospheric CO2 concentrations that persist
adverse affect on the Ozone Layer. for thousands of years.
Atmospheric aerosols: Methane’s (CH4) 100-year GWP is 21,
They scatter and absorb solar and infrared which means that CH4 will cause 21 times as
radiation. much warming as an equivalent mass of
They may change the microphysical and CO2 over a 100-year time period.
chemical properties of clouds and possibly CH4 absorbs more energy than CO2, making
their lifetime and extent. its GWP higher.
The scattering of solar radiation cools the Nitrous oxide (N2O) has a GWP 300 times
planet, while absorption of solar radiation by that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale. Nitrous
aerosols warms the air directly instead of oxide emitted today remains in the
allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the atmosphere for more than 100 years, on
surface of the Earth. average.
The Global Warming Potential (GWP)
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluoro
gas is a measured on: carbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluoro carbons
 Heat trapping capacity of gas (HCFCs), perfluoro carbons (PFCs), and
 persistence of a gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are sometimes
The total energy that a gas absorbs over a called high-GWP gases because, for a given
particular period of time (usually 100 years), amount of mass, they trap substantially more
compared to carbon dioxide (CO2). The heat than CO2. Some HFCs remain in the
larger the GWP, the more warming the gas atmosphere for only a few years, while SF6
causes. can remain in the atmosphere for thousands
of years
Global Warming Potential of Primary Green House Gases
Potential (Time Horizon)

Greenhouse Gas Chemical formula Global Warming 20 years
100 years
Carbo Dioxide CO2 1 1
Methane CH4 42-70 16-26
Nitrous Oxide N2O 280 310
Hudrofluorocarbos HFCs 460-9, 100 140-11, 700
Perfluorocarbon PFCs 4,400-6,200 6,500-23,900
Sulphur Hexafluoride SF6 16,300 23,900
Urban Heat Islands systems. Shifts in forests in geographic

They are significantly warmer urban areas range and composition are likely to occur.
than its surrounding rural areas due to Ecological Impact:
human activities. Urban heat island is a  Increased extinction of many species;
major problem associated with rapid growth or losses in freshwater fish
urbanization. The temperature increase is populations depending on geographic
attributed to deforestation and the location.
construction materials adopted for city  Sea level rise causes increased losses of
building. Usually, under the urban heat coastal wetlands, inundation of coastal
island phenomenon, the central regions of lowlands, increased erosion of beaches, and
urban centers exhibit higher mean increased salinity in estuaries.
temperatures than the surrounding areas. The Impact on Water Resources:
heat island effect has corresponding The main consequence of climatic changes
ecological consequences on resident species. to inland waters includes the following;
Impacts of Global Warming  Changes in the global amount of water
Since climate influences the location and resources and in the spatial and temporal
composition of plants and animals in the distribution of these resources
natural environment, changes in climate  Changes in soil moisture
have numerous consequences on ecological
 Changes in extreme phenomena related to marine organisms, such as depressing
water resource, i.e., floods and droughts metabolic rates and immune responses in
 Changes in water quality some organisms, and causing “Coral
 Changes in sedimentation processes Bleaching”.
 Changes in water demand Other chemical reactions are triggered which
Impact on Agriculture: result in a net decrease in the amount of
Global warming exhibits direct and indirect carbonate ions available. This makes it more
geographical effects on agricultural difficult for marine calcifying organisms,
productivity. Direct effects occur through such as coral and some plankton, to form
changes in the length of the growing season, biogenic calcium carbonate, and such
the frequency of heat waves, and altered structures become vulnerable to dissolution.
patterns of rainfall, while indirect effects Ongoing acidification of the oceans
result from changes in topsoil management threatens food chains connected with the
practices. oceans. Ocean acidification has been called
Impact on Oceans: the "evil twin of global warming".
The role of the oceans in global warming is Furthermore, as the temperature of the
complex. The oceans serve as a sink for oceans increases, they become less able to
carbon dioxide, taking up much that would absorb excess CO2. The oceans have also
otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from
increased levels of CO2 have led to ocean the atmosphere.
acidification. Impact on Human Health:
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease Human health effects are manifested by
in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by changes in morbidity and increases in
the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the mortality, particularly for the elderly during
atmosphere. An estimated 30–40% of the hotter and extended summer periods.
carbon dioxide from human activity released The spread of tropical climates from the
into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, equator would bring malaria, encephalitis,
rivers and lakes. yellow fever, and other insect-borne diseases
To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it to formerly temperate zones.
reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Sea level rise could spread infectious disease
Increasing acidity is thought to have a range by flooding sewage and sanitation systems
of potentially harmful consequences for in coastal cities.
Carbon Sequestration: carbon moves between them in a continuous
 Long-term storage of carbon below ground, cycle.
ocean and soil, which helps in decreasing the  Artificial sinks – Unmineable mines,
carbon-dioxide concentration in the subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean
atmosphere, is Carbon Sequestration. water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.
 A study by Gujarat Ecological Education Carbon Terminology:
and Research (GEER) has prepared a Green Carbon:
hierarchy of local trees in India on the Carbon stored in the plants by process of
basis of their capacity for carbon photosynthesis and soil of natural
sequestration. ecosystems. It’s a vital part of the global
 Teak has the highest capacity. A normal carbon cycle.
teak tree can absorb 3.70 lakh tones of Forests can accumulate large amounts of
CO2 from the atmosphere in its life-time.
It is followed by Nilgiri, Gando baval, CO2 in relatively short periods, and is more
Neem etc.
efficient than short lived plants. Hence,
afforestation is being undertaken to enhance
Carbon Sequestration Options
biological carbon sequestration.
Blue Carbon:
Blue carbon is the carbon stored in coastal
and marine ecosystems. The carbon captured
by living organisms in oceans is stored in the
form of biomass and as sediments from
mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses.
The coastal ecosystems are very efficient at
sequestering and storing carbon. These
ecosystems are found in all continents,
except Antarctica.
Carbon Sinks:
Stranded carbon:
Any area, process or activity, which removes
It refers to fossil fuel energy resources that
a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere, is a
cannot be burnt if the world is to adhere to a
sink.
given carbon budget. Therefore some of proven
 Natural sinks – Forests, soils, oceans and reserves of fossil fuels will never be burnt and
the atmosphere all store carbon and this will remain stranded.
OZONE The Ozone hole is measured in terms of
What is ozone and where is it in the reduction in the total column ozone, above a
atmosphere? point on the Earth’s surface, expressed in
Ozone is a gas that is naturally present in our "Dobson units".
atmosphere. Each ozone molecule contains One DU is 2.69×1016 ozone molecules
three atoms of oxygen and is denoted per square centimetre, or 2.69×1020 per
square meter or 0.4462 milli moles of ozone
chemically as O3. Ozone is found primarily per square meter.
in two regions of the atmosphere. About
The base unit for an ozone hole was fixed
10% of atmospheric ozone is in the
220 DU because total ozone values of less
troposphere, the region closest to Earth than 220 Dobson Units were not found in the
(from the surface to about 10-16 kilometers historic observations over Antarctica prior to
1979.
(6-10miles)). The remaining ozone
(90%) resides in the stratosphere, primarily What is Ultraviolet radiation:
between the top of the troposphere and about Ultraviolet radiation is the one form of
50 kilometers (31 miles) altitude. The large radiant energy coming out from the sun. The
amount of ozone in the stratosphere is often sun emits a range of energy known as the
referred to as the “ozone layer”. electromagnetic spectrum. The
Is total ozone uniform over the globe? various forms of energy, or radiation, are
No, the total amount of ozone above the classified according to wavelength
surface of Earth varies with location on the (measured in nanometers where one nm is a
time scales that range from daily to millionth of a millimeter). The shorter the
seasonal. The variations are caused by wave-length, the more energetic the
stratospheric winds and chemical production radiation. In order of decreasing energy, the
and destruction of ozone. Total ozone is principal forms of radiation are gamma rays,
generally lowest at the equator and highest x-rays, UV (ultraviolet radiation), visible
neat the poles because of the seasonal wind light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and
patterns in the stratosphere. radio waves. Ultraviolet, which is invisible,
The reasons for this latitude and seasonal is so named because it occurs next to violet
dependence are complicated, involving in the visible light spectrum. The three
atmospheric circulation patterns as well as categories of UV radiation are :
solar intensity.  UV-A between 320 and 400 nm
 UV-B between 280 and 320 nm
 UV-C between 200 and 280 nm What is Antarctic Hole?
Of these UV-B and C being highly energetic The terms “ozone hole” refers to a large and
and are dangerous to life on earth. UV-A rapid decrease in the abundance of ozone
being less energetic is not dangerous. molecules, not the complete absence of
Fortunately, UV-C is absorbed strongly by them.
oxygen and also by ozone in the upper The Antarctic “ozone hole” occurs during
atmosphere. UV-B is also absorbed by the southern spring between September and
ozone layer in the Stratosphere and only 2- November. It was first reported by the
3% of it reaches the earth’s surface. The British Antarctic Survey Team in May 1985.
ozone Layer, therefore, is highly beneficial The Team found that for the period between
to plant and animal life on earth in filtering September and mid November, ozone
out the dangerous part of sun’s radiation and concentrations over Halley Bay, Antarctica,
allowing only the beneficial part to reach had declined 40% from levels during the
earth. Any disturbance or depletion of this 1960s. Severe depletion had been occurring
layer would result in an increase UV-B and since the late 1970s.
UV-C radiation reaching the earth’s surface Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
leading to dangerous consequences. Ozone (O3) layer can be destroyed both by
What is Ozone Depletion? natural and man-made causes.
Ozone depletion occurs when the natural Natural causes:
balance between the production and  A number of naturally occurring substances
destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped destroy stratospheric ozone. Most important
in favour of destruction. Although natural of these compounds are:
phenomenon can cause temporary ozone  Hydrogen oxide (HOx), Methane (CH4),
loss, chlorine and bromine released from Hydrogen gas (H2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx).
synthetic compounds is now accepted as the Chlorine monoxide (ClO); during volcanic
main cause of a net loss of stratospheric eruptions, significant amount of chlorine
ozone in many parts of the world since may be released in the stratosphere. Tiny
1980.There is strong evidence that global particulate matter in the stratosphere, known
ozone depletion is occurring. The evidence as stratospheric aerosols, may also lead to
is in the observations of the Antratic ozone ozone destruction.
“hole” and atmospheric records indicating
seasonal declines in global ozone levels.
Anthropogenic causes: temperatures in Polar Regions in winter
The three important areas, where human cause formation of so called Polar
activity can influence the ozone cycle, have Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) in the
been otherwise dry stratosphere there. These
 The direct emission of NOx by supersonic clouds are made of ice crystals which
transport flying above the tropopause, provide surface of many of chemical
additional transport of nitrous oxide as a reactions. A complex interplay of chemistry,
result of increased use of nitrogenous dynamics, and radiation lead to conditions
fertilizers, and the formation of atomic conducive to significant ozone loss in the
chlorine in the stratosphere from chloro- Polar Regions. The culprit compounds are
fluoro carbons (used as refrigerant, aerosol Chlorofluorocarbons as we all know. Upon
propellant and industrial solvent) released in reaching the stratosphere, the CFCs are
the troposphere. subject to higher levels of ultraviolet
 Another class of compounds, halons, is also radiation that decompose them and release
ozone depleting compounds. Halons are atomic chlorine. Atomic Chlorine reacts
bromo-chloro-fluorocarbons or bromo- with Ozone and gives out Oxygen as
fluorocarbons that are widely used in fire follows:
extinguishers. Although the emissions of Cl + O3→ ClO + O2
halons and thus their atmospheric In the above reaction, atomic Chlorine (Cl)
concentrations are much lower than the most gets removed once it has converted an ozone
common chloro-fluorocarbons, they are 3 to molecule to Oxygen molecule but then it is
10 times more destructive than the CFCs. regenerated through reaction of Chlorine
Chemistry of Ozone Hole: Monoxide (CLO) with oxygen atom (O) as
Ozone depletion has been seen everywhere follows:
beyond tropics and there is a severe ClO + O → Cl + O2
depletion in the Polar Regions due to some The net reaction in above two sets is as
reasons. The polar regions get a much larger follows:
variation in sunlight than anywhere else and O3 + O → 2O2
during the 3 months of winter spend most of The net result of the two reactions is the
time in the dark without solar radiation. Due depletion of ozone.
to this, the temperatures in Polar Regions go
very much down. The extremely low
Effects of Ozone Depletion changes in plant form, secondary
Effects on Human and Animal Health: metabolism, etc. These changes can have
Increased penetration of solar UV-B important implications for plant competitive
radiation is likely to have profound impact balance, plant pathogens and bio-
on human health with potential risks of eye geochemical cycles.
diseases, skin cancer and infectious diseases. Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems:
UV radiation is known to damage the cornea While more than 30 percent of the world’s
and lens of the eye. Chronic exposure to animal protein for human consumption
UV-B could lead to cataract of the cortical comes from the sea alone, it is feared that
and posterior subcapsular forms. UV-B increased levels of UV exposure can have
radiation can adversely affect the immune adverse impacts on the productivity of
system causing a number of infectious aquatic systems. High levels of exposure in
diseases. In light skinned human tropics and subtropics may affect the
populations, it is likely to develop non- distribution of phytoplanktons which form
melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). the foundation of aquatic food webs.
Experiments on animals show that UV Reportedly a recent study has indicated 6-12
exposure decreases the immune response to percent reduction in phytoplankton
skin cancers, infectious agents and other production in the marginal ice zone due to
antigens. increases in UV-B. UV-B can also cause
Effects on Terrestrial Plants: damage to early development stages of fish,
It is a known fact that the physiological and shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals,
developmental processes of plants are the most severe effects being decreased
affected by UV-B radiation. Scientists reproductive capacity and impaired larval
believe that an increase in UV-B levels development.
would necessitate using more UV-B tolerant Effects on Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles:
cultivar and breeding new tolerant ones in Increased solar UV radiation could affect
agriculture. In forests and grasslands terrestrial and aquatic bio-geo-chemical
increased UV-B radiation is likely to result cycles thus altering both sources and sinks
in changes in species composition of greenhouse and important trace gases, e.g.
(mutation) thus altering the bio-diversity in carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
different ecosystems. UV-B could also affect (CO), carbonyl sulphide (COS), etc. These
the plant community indirectly resulting in changes would contribute to biosphere-
atmosphere feedbacks responsible for the radical (OH) may change the atmospheric
atmosphere build-up of these gases. Other lifetimes of important gases such as methane
effects of increased UV-B radiation include: and substitutes of chlorofluoro carbons
changes in the production and (CFCs). Increased tropospheric reactivity
decomposition of plant matter; reduction of could also lead to increased production of
primary production changes in the uptake particulates such as cloud condensation
and release of important atmospheric gases; nuclei from the oxidation and subsequent
reduction of bacterioplankton growth in the nucleation of sulphur of both anthropogenic
upper ocean; increased degradation of and natural origin (e.g. COS and DMS).
aquatic dissolved organic matter (DOM), Is depletion of the ozone layer the
etc. Aquatic nitrogen cycling can be affected principal cause of climate change?
by enhanced UV-B through inhibition of No, ozone depletion itself is not the principal
nitrifying bacteria and photodecomposition cause of climate change. However, because
of simple inorganic species such as nitrate. ozone is a greenhouse gas, ozone changes
The marine sulphur cycle may also be and climate change are linked in important
affected resulting in possible changes in the ways. Stratospheric ozone depletion and
sea-to-air emissions of COS and increases in global tropospheric ozone that
dimethylsulfied (DMS), two gases that are have occurred in recent decades both
degraded to sulphate aerosols in the contribute to climate change. These
stratosphere and troposphere, respectively. contributions to climate change are
Effects on Air Quality: significant but small compared with the total
Reduction of stratospheric ozone and contribution from all other greenhouse
increased penetration of UV-B radiation gases. Ozone and climate change are
result in higher photo dissociation rates of indirectly linked because ozone-depleting
key trace gases that control the chemical gases, such as the chlorofluorocarbons
reactivity of the troposphere. This can (CFCs), hydro chlorofluoro carbons
increase both production and destruction of (HCFCs), and halons, also contribute to
ozone and related oxidants such as hydrogen climate change.
peroxide which are known to have adverse Effects on Materials:
effects on human health, terrestrial plants Increased levels of solar UV radiation is
and outdoor materials. Changes in the known to have adverse effects on synthetic
atmospheric concentrations of the hydroxyl polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers
and some other materials of commercial and laying the foundation for international
interest. UV-B radiation accelerates the action.
photodegradation rates of these materials Global awareness and action on the part of
thus limiting their lifetimes. Typical world community in the form of Helsinki
damages range from discoloration to loss of (1989), Montreal (1990’s) conventions and
mechanical integrity. Such a situation would protocol have had some important success
eventually demand substitution of the on this front. A complete ban on the use of
affected materials by more photostable CFCs and other ozone destroying chemicals
plastics and other materials in future. is recommended. Further, use of HCFCs
In 1974, two United States (US) scientists (Hydrochloric fluorocarbons) as a substitute
Mario Molina and F.Sherwood Rowland at for CFCs is being recommended on
the University of California were struck by temporary basis because HCFCs are
the observation of Lovelock that the CFCs relatively less damaging to ozone layer as
were present in the atmosphere all over the compared to CFCs, but they are not
world more or less evenly distributed by completely ozone safe.
appreciable concentrations. They suggested Conventions on OZONE Layer (Vienna &
that these stable CFC molecules could drift Montreal)
slowly upto the stratosphere where they may (a) Vienna Convention for the Protection
breakdown into chlorine atoms by energetic of the Ozone Layer (1985)
UV-B and UB-C rays of the sun. The  It is a framework for the international efforts
chlorine radicals thus produced can undergo to protect the ozone layer. However, it does
complex chemical reaction producing not include legally binding reduction goals
chlorine monoxide which can attack an for the use of CFCs, the main chemical
ozone molecule converting it into oxygen agents causing ozone depletion. These are
and in the process regenerating the chlorine laid out in the accompanying Montreal
atom again. Thus the ozone destroying effect Protocol.
is catalytic and a small amount of CFC (b) Montreal Protocol on Substances that
would be destroying large number of ozone Deplete the Ozone Layer (ODS)
molecules. Their basic theory was then put  It is the accompanying protocol to
to test by the National Aeronautic Space the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
Authority (NASA) scientists and found to be the Ozone Layer emphasizing on Ozone
valid, ringing alarm bells in many countries Depleting Substances(ODS)
 Its aim is to protect ozone layer by phasing  Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of
out the production of numerous ODS. the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing
 ODS are used in Refrigeration, Air country parties to the Montreal Protocol
Conditioners, Electronics, Fire whose annual per capita consumption and
extinguishers, Foams, Aerosol fumigation production of ozone depleting substances
etc. (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the
 It intends to gradual phasing out of all of control measures of the Protocol.
these ozone depleting substances contain  ABOUT OZONE DAY (16th
either chlorine or bromine (substances September)
containing only fluorine do not harm the  The UN General Assembly on 23.01.95
ozone layer). adopted a resolution 49/114 which
Ex: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), Hydro Chloro proclaims 16th September as the
Fluorocarbons (HCFC) International Day for the Preservation of
 Hydro Fluorocarbons (HFCs) has been the Ozone Layer, to commemorate the
proposed as alternative to CFC and HCHC signing of the Montreal Protocol on the
as HFCs do not contain chlorine. But HFCs Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
are greenhouse gases, with a high global which was signed on 16th September,
warming potential (GWP), comparable to 1987. India become party to the Montreal
that of CFCs and HCFCs. Protocol in June 1992 and prepared the
 The Montreal Protocol does not currently country program in 1993 for phasing out
address HFCs, but these substances figure in the Ozone Depleting Substances. Further,
the basket of six greenhouse gases under various policy measures including
the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries National Awareness Campaign have also
following the Kyoto Protocol report their been adapted for smooth implementation
HFC emission data to UNFCCC; parties to of provisions of the Montreal Protocol. In
the Montreal Protocol have no such accordance with the UN resolution 49/114,
obligation. the Ozone Cell, Government of India has
 Recent Meeting of Parties of the Montreal been celebrating the International Ozone
Protocol has started working on an Day for the Preservation of the Ozone
amendment to the Protocol which will Layer since 1995 at the national and state
reduce production and consumption of HFCs level.
INDIAN SCENARIO: Inhalers (MDIs) used for treatment of
The Government of India has entrusted the Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
work relating to the ozone layer protection Disease (COPD) ailments from 1st August,
and implementation of the Montreal 2008. Subsequently, the use of CFCs in
Protocol on Substances the Ozone Layer to MDIs has been phased out from December,
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and 2012. India has also completely phased out
Climate Change (MoEF & CC). The production and consumption of CTC and
Ministry has established an Empowered halons as of 1stJanuary, 2010.
Steering Committee (ESC) Chaired by Currently, the Ozone Cell is engaged in
Secretary (EF & CC), which is supported by phase-out of production and consumption of
two standing committees viz. Technology next category of chemicals,
and Finance Standing Committee (TFSC) Hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs) with an
and the Standing Committee on Monitoring. accelerated phase-out schedule as per the
The ESC is overall responsible for Montreal Protocol. The Ozone Cell, MoEF
implementation of the Montreal Protocol & CC in association with the implementing
provisions, review of various policies agencies and in close cooperation with the
including implementation options, project stakeholders in the country has been
approvals and monitoring. The Ministry has implementing following projects:
set up an Ozone Cell as a National Ozone  Accelerated CFC Production Sector Phase-
Unit (NOU) to render necessary services for out Project
effective and timely implementation of the  National CTC Phase-out Plan
Montreal Protocol and its ODS phase-out  National Strategy for Transition to Non-CFC
program in India. MDIs and Plan for Phase-out of CFCs in the
India had prepared a detailed Country Manufacture of Pharmaceutical MDIs
Program (CP) in 1993 for the phase-out of  HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)
ODSs in accordance with its National – Stage-I
Industrial Development Strategy by  Foam Manufacturing Sector
accessing funds from financial mechanism  Systems House
of the Montreal Protocol. The CP was  Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
updated in 2006. India has proactively Servicing Sector
phased out the production and consumption  HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)
of CFCs except use in Metered Dose – Stage-II
Kigali Agreement: Important Points It also has a provision for a multilateral fund
It is a legally binding agreement between for developing countries for adaptation and
the signatory parties with non-compliance mitigation.
measures. The Technology and Energy Assessment
It will come into effect from 1st January Panel (TEAP) will take a periodic review of
2019 provided it is ratified by at least 20 the alternative technologies and products for
member parties by then. their energy efficiency and safety standards.
It has shown a considerable flexibility in Why is Kigali Agreement significant?
approach while setting phase-down targets  It strengthens the Paris Agreement which
for different economies accommodating sets an ambitious target of restricting the rise
their developmental aspirations, different in global temperature below 2 Celsius, as
socio-economic compulsions, and scientific compared to pre-industrial level.
& technological capabilities.  Unlike Paris agreement, it gives clear,
It has divided the signatory parties into three concrete and mandatory targets with fixed
groups- timelines to the signatory parties to achieve
1. The first group consists of rich and their targets.
developed economies like USA, UK and EU  It would prevent the emission of HFCs
countries who will start to phase down HFCs equivalent to 70 billion tons of CO2.
by 2019 and reduce it to 15% of 2012 levels Kigali Amendment and India
by 2016.  India played a very flexible and cooperative
2. The second group consists of emerging role in the whole negotiating process.
economies like China, Brazil as well as  It has agreed on a lenient schedule as it
some African countries that will start phase consumes only 3% of HFCs as compared to
down by 2024 and reduce it to 20% of 2021 the other nations like the USA (37%) and
levels by 2045. China (25%).
3. The third group consists of developing
 It would be tough for Indian to adhere to this
economies and some of the hottest climatic
agreement along with Paris Pact especially
countries like India, Pakistan, Iran, and
when it has embarked on an ambitious
Saudi Arabia who will start phasing down
”Make in India” Programme to increase its
HFCs by 2028 and reduce it to 15% of 2024-
industrial production.
2026 levels till 2047.
 It should also take into consideration the hot
climatic conditions and growing demand for
air conditioners, refrigerators, and cars with industries to compete with them in global as
growing middle-class incomes while well as domestic market.
implementing the program. Acid Rain
 Still, as a responsible nation with a global Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain,
perspective, the Indian government has fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than
voluntarily passed the order to stop the normal. Acid rain is caused by atmospheric
production of HFC-23 which is a byproduct pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur
of commonly used refrigerant. This will dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted from
reduce the emission by 100 million tons burning of fossil fuels. Acid rain is formed
equivalent of Carbon dioxide in next 15 when the air that contains acidic gases
years. emitted mostly from power plants industries
Implications of Kigali Agreement on and automobiles, combines with the rain
India drops. The acid rain affects ecosystems in
Indian industries using HFCs like Air- diverse ways. Therefore, emission of
Conditioning industry, Automobiles, and sulphur dioxide oxide and of oxides nitrogen
refrigeration industry have some serious into the atmosphere can lead to the
implications on financial and technical formation of acid rain.
fronts: Harmful Effects of Acid Rain:
Financial implications-Industries have to  Effects on aquatic life: The pH of the
either invest in R & D to find out the surrounding medium is very important for
substitutes for HFCs or they have to buy metabolic processes of aquatic organisms.
patented substances and technologies from The eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other
other MNCs. Consequently, the cost of aquatic organisms are very sensitive to pH
production will increase which may change. Acid rain kills their gametes
ultimately shrink the buyer base for their affecting the life cycles and productivity.
products.  Death or their inability to increase in
Technological implications-Some of the numbers affects aquatic food chains in acidic
developed nations have already started using water bodies, causing severe ecosystem
substitutes of HFCs in their products and imbalances. Acidic lake waters may kill
have a sound technological knowledge about bacteria/ microbes/planktons and the acidic
their use. Without technology transfer or lakes become unproductive and life less.
research, it would be difficult for domestic
Such acidic and lifeless ponds/lakes art/textile etc. are adversely affected by acid
adversely affect fisheries and livelihood. rain. Limestone and marble are destroyed by
Effect on Terrestrial Life: acid rain. Smoke and soot cover such
 Acid rain damages cuticle of plant leaves objects. They slowly dissolve/flake away the
resulting in etiolation of foliage. This in turn surfaces because of acid fumes in the air.
reduces photosynthesis. Reduced Many buildings/monuments such as
photosynthesis accompanied by leaf fall TajMahal in Agra have suffered from acid
reduces plant and crop productivity. rain
 Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy Project for environmental protection of
metals such as aluminum, lead and mercury. Taj Mahal were initiated and funded by
Such metals when percolate into ground the ministry. Rs.600 crore on a 50:50 cost
water affect soil microflora/ micro fauna. sharing basis with the state Government to
The soil becomes lifeless. Absorption of implement various schemes in the Taj
these toxic metal ions by plants and Trapezium Zone for environmental
microorganisms affect their metabolism. protection of the Taj Mahal.
 Effects on forests: Acid rains damage forests
and kill vegetation and causes severe
damage to the landscape.
 Effect on buildings and monuments: Many
old, historic, ancient buildings and works of
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA
Area of
Impact Potential Measure
Impact
 Unusual and unprecedented spells of hot

weather are expected to occur far more
 With built-up urban areas rapidly
frequently and cover much larger areas.
becoming “heat-islands”, urban
Extreme Heat  Under 4°C warming, the west coast and
planners will need to adopt
southern India are projected to shift to new,
measures to counteract this effect.
high-temperature climatic regimes with
significant impacts on agriculture.
 A 2°C rise in the world’s average

temperatures will make India’s summer
monsoon highly unpredictable. At 4°C
 Improvements in hydro-
warming, an extremely wet monsoon that
meteorological systems for
currently has a chance of occurring only
weather forecasting and the
once in 100 years is projected to occur
installation of flood warning
every 10 years by the end of the century.
Changing systems can help people move
Rainfall  An abrupt change in the monsoon could
Patterns out of harm’s way before a
precipitate a major crisis, triggering more
weather-related disaster strikes.
frequent droughts as well as greater
 Building codes will need to be
flooding in large parts of India.
enforced to ensure that homes
 India’s northwest coast to the south eastern
and infrastructure are not at risk.
coastal region could see higher than average
rainfall. Dry years are expected to be drier
and wet years wetter.
 Droughts are expected to be more frequent  Investments in R&D for the

in some areas, especially in north-western development of drought-resistant
India, Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. crops can help reduce some of the
Droughts
 Crop yields are expected to fall negative impacts.
significantly because of extreme heat by the

2040s.
 Although it is difficult to predict future

ground water levels, falling water
tables can be expected to reduce further on  The efficient use of ground water
Groundwater account of increasing demand for water resources will need to be
from a growing population, more affluent incentivized.
life styles, as well as from the services
sector and industry.
 At 2.5°C warming, melting glaciers and the

loss of snow cover over the Himalayas are
expected to threaten the stability and
reliability of northern India’s primarily
glacier-fed rivers, particularly the Indus and
the Brahmaputra.
 The Ganges will be less dependent on melt

water due to high annual rainfall
downstream during the monsoon season.
 Major investments in water
The Indus and Brahmaputra are expected to
storage capacity would be needed
Glacier Melt see increased flows in spring when the
to benefit from increased river
snows melt, with flows reducing
flows in spring and compensate
subsequently in late spring and summer.
for lower flows later on.
 Alterations in the flows of the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers could
significantly impact irrigation, affecting the
amount of food that can be produced in
their basins as well as the livelihoods of
millions of people (209 million in the Indus
basin, 478 million in the Ganges basin, and
62 million in the Brahmaputra basin in the
year 2005).
 With India close to the equator, the sub-  Building codes will need to be
continent would see much higher rises in strictly enforced and urban
sea levels than higher latitudes. planning will need to prepare for
 Sea-level rise and storm surges would lead climate-related disasters.

Sea level rise to saltwater intrusion in the coastal areas,
impacting agriculture, degrading  Coastal embankments will need
groundwater quality, contaminating to be built where necessary and
drinking water, and possibly causing a rise Coastal Regulation Zone codes
in diarrhea cases and cholera outbreaks, as enforced strictly.
the cholera bacterium survives longer in
saline water.
 Kolkata and Mumbai, both densely

populated cities, are particularly vulnerable
to the impacts of sea-level rise, tropical
cyclones, and riverine flooding.
 Seasonal water scarcity, rising

temperatures, and intrusion of sea water
would threaten crop yields, jeopardizing the  Crop diversification, more
country’s food security. efficient water use, and improved
Agriculture  Should current trends persist, substantial soil management practices,
and food yield reductions in both rice and wheat can together with the development of
security
be expected in the near and medium term. drought-resistant crops can help
 Under 2°C warming by the 2050s, the reduce some of the negative
country may need to import more than impacts.
twice the amount of food-grain than would

be required without climate change.
 An increase in variability of monsoon

rainfall is expected to increase water  Improvements in irrigation
shortages in some areas. systems, water harvesting
Water
Security  Studies have found that the threat to water techniques, and more-efficient
security is very high over central India, agricultural water management
along the mountain ranges of the Western can offset some of these risks.
Ghats, and in India’s northeastern states.
 Improvements in hydro-
meteorological systems for
 Health systems will need to be strengthened weather forecasting and the
Health
in identified hotspots. installation of flood warning
systems can help people move
out of harm’s way before a
weather-related disaster strikes.
 Building codes will need to be

enforced to ensure that homes
and infrastructure are not at risk.
 Climate change impacts on agriculture and

Migration and  Regional cooperation on water
conflict livelihoods can increase the number of
issues will be needed.
climate refugees.
Phenomenon Causative Factors
Other
hydrocarbons(PAN,
O3 CO2 CO CH4 NOx SO2 NH3 CFC HFC VOC Benzopyrene)
Photo chemical
√ √ √ √ √
smog
Winter
smog/London √
smog
Ocean
√
Acidification
Eutrophication
√ √
(+phosphorous)
Green house
Gases (+water √ √ √ √ √ √ √
vapour)
Ozone
√ √
depletion
Acid rains √ √ √
 ‘√’ indicates strong causative factor in the phenomenon
 Non Green house gases: N2, O2, Ar

Earth Summit: limits on green house gas emissions for
Earth Summit 1992 was the United Nations individual countries. Neither had it
Conference on Environment and contained any enforcement mechanism. But
Development (UNCED), commonly known it set that its protocols would be legally
as the Rio Summit. It was a major United binding enforcements. One such protocol
Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro was the Kyoto Protocol. This convention has
from 3 June to 14 June 1992. It was attended been ratified by 197 countries and sub-
by 172 Governments. The outcome of this national entities which include all United
summit was the following documents: Nations members. Its secretariat is located in
 Rio Declaration on Environment and Bonn, Germany.
Development
Conference of Parties The parties to the
 Agenda 21
convention meet annually since 1995 in
 Convention on Biological Diversity
Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess
 Forest Principles progress in dealing with climate change. Till
 United Framework Convention on Climate now 22 Conferences have been concluded.
Change (UNFCCC). The Kyoto Protocol was concluded and
Out of the above, the documents on established at COP-3 in 1997 as a legally
Convention on Biological Diversity and binding obligation for developed countries
UNFCCC were set as legally binding to reduce their green house gas emissions.
agreements. Classification of Parties To reduce the
GHG emissions, the UNFCCC primarily
UNFCCC:
targeted the industrialized countries.
The United Nations Framework Convention
Accordingly, the UNFCC divided the
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was one of
countries into three groups viz.
the five outcomes of the Rio Summit 1992.
Objective:  Annex-I,
It is to stabilize greenhouse gas  Annex-II and
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level  Developing countries.
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic In Annex-I, 40 industrialized economies
interference with the climate system. The including US, UK, Australia, Germany,
convention itself was not a legally binding France, Japan, Russia, Canada and countries
agreement and did not set any mandatory of European Union were kept.
The Annex-2 was created as a subgroup of Kyoto Protocol:
23 Annex-I countries which could play The Kyoto Protocol is an international
financial role in the development of the agreement linked to the United Nations
developing countries and pay the cost of Framework Convention on Climate
development. These included Australia, Change (UNFCCC), which commits its
Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Parties by setting internationally binding
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, emission reduction targets. Recognizing that
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, developed countries are principally
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, responsible for the current high levels of
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result
United Kingdom, and United States of of more than 150 years of industrial activity,
America. the Protocol places a heavier burden on
Rest of the countries was kept in developing developed nations under the principle of
category and did not require reducing "common but differentiated
emission levels unless the developed responsibilities."
countries supply enough funding and The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto,
technology for their development. Rationale Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered
for no emission targets for Developing into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed
countries. rules for the implementation of the Protocol
The rationale for not imposing reduction were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh,
targets for developing countries was that it Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the
would hamper their development. Since "Marrakesh Accords" Its first commitment
emissions are strongly linked to industrial period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
capacity, emission cut requirements should In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the
be there for industrialized nations. This is "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol"
how the world was divided into two factions was adopted. The amendment includes:
of developed and developing countries on  New commitments for Annex I Parties to the
climate change negotiations issue. The Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on
developed countries alleged that this commitments in a second commitment
convention created an unfair split because period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December
both the developing and developed countries 2020;
need to reduce their emissions unilaterally.
 A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to Targets:
be reported on by Parties in the second The targets for the first commitment period
commitment period; and of the Kyoto Protocol cover emissions of the
 Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto six main greenhouse gases, namely:
Protocol which specifically referenced issues  Carbon dioxide (CO2);
pertaining to the first commitment period  Methane (CH4);
and which needed to be updated for the  Nitrous oxide (N2O);
second commitment period.  Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs);
On 21 December 2012, the amendment was  Per fluorocarbons (PFCs); and
circulated by the Secretary-General of the  Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
United Nations, acting in his capacity as
Kyoto Mechanisms:
Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto
The Kyoto mechanism is mechanisms which
Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and
define how the developed countries would
21 of the Protocol.
support the developing countries while
During the first commitment period, 37
reducing thier emission targets. There are
industrialized countries and the European
three kinds of mechanisms viz.
Community committed to reduce GHG
 Emission Trading,
emissions to an average of five percent
 Joint Implementation
against 1990 levels. During the second
 Clean Development Mechanism
commitment period, Parties committed to
reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent Emission Trading:
below 1990 levels in the eight-year period The concept of emission trading (also called
from 2013 to 2020; however, the Cap & Trade) is simple – the polluter pays
composition of Parties in the second while those who don’t pollute get rewarded.
commitment period is different from the In this, the governments launch schemes in
first. which they set limit (called emission permit)
Under the Protocol, countries must meet on pollutants that can be emitted by the
their targets primarily through national industries. The industries need to buy the
measures. However, the Protocol also offers emission permits to be eligible to emit
them an additional means to meet their specific volume of pollutants. The industries
targets by way of three market-based that pollute more need to spend more on
mechanisms. such permits. Thus, it is a self regulatory
system that results in pollution control by their quantified emission limitation and
increasing cost of causing pollution. The reduction commitments. Extension of Kyoto
emission permit represented the so called Protocol Beyond 2012 First commitment
Carbon Credit or Kyoto Units. One Kyoto period of Kyoto Protocol lasted from 2008-
Unit referred to one tonne of Carbon dioxide 2012. Second commitment (2013-2020)
or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a period was agreed in 2012 as Doha
carbon dioxide equivalent to one tonne of Amendment to the Kyoto protocol.
carbon dioxide. However, many annex-I parties started
Joint Implementation Article 6 of the saying that they would withdraw from the
Kyoto protocol provided that any Annex-I Kyoto Protocol because of the forced target
country can invest in emission reduction commitments. Since 2007, extension of
projects in any other Annex I country as an Kyoto Protocol has been an issue in all
alternative to reducing emissions UNFCCC annual conferences. In 2015, the
domestically. The idea is to lower the cost of Paris Agreement has been signed as a
complying with their Kyoto targets by separate instrument under the UNFCCC
investing in greenhouse gas reductions in an rather than an amendment / update of the
Annex I country where reductions are Kyoto Protocol. As of now, the Paris
cheaper, and then applying the credit for Agreement is not in force.
those reductions towards their commitment Second Commitment Period:
goal. The Union Cabinet has given its approval to
Clean Development Mechanism: Under ratify the second commitment period of the
the Clean Development Mechanism, the Kyoto Protocol on containing the emission
annex-I countries can implement an of Green House Gases (GHGs). The second
emission-reduction project in developing commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol
countries and thereby earn saleable certified was adopted in 2012 and is set to expire in
emission reduction (CER) credits, each 2020. So far, 75 countries have ratified the
equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can Second Commitment Period.
be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. Significance This decision is considered as
This has been by far the most popular Kyoto token measure to put pressure on developed
Mechanism. It helps the Non-Annex parties countries to deliver on climate change
in achieving sustainable development and commitments. It further underlines India’s
Annex parties to achieve compliance with leadership in the comity of countries

committed to global cause of environmental  Mandatory for all Countries to keep global
protection and climate justice. India’s temperature rising below 2°C by 2100 above
ratification of the Kyoto Protocol will pre-industrial levels with an ideal target of
encourage other developing countries also to keeping temperature rise below 1.5°C.
undertake this exercise. It will attract some  Developed countries to provide 100 billion
investments in implementation of Clean dollars annually to the developing
Development Mechanism (CDM) projects counterparts beginning in 2020 and it would
under this commitment period in accordance increase with time.
with Sustainable Development priorities.  Empowers countries to determine how to cut
COP 21: their emissions but mandates that they report
Conference of the Parties 21 (COP 21) has transparently on those efforts.
adopted the historic Paris Agreement on  Countries will assess their progress every
Climate Change. It was adopted by 189 five years for meeting their climate
countries of total 196 countries under the commitments and submit new plans to
United Nations Framework Convention on strengthen.
Climate Change (UNFCCC) that attended What are INDCs?

the INDC outlines the post-2020 climate actions
COP 21. they intend to take under a new international
Key Facts of Paris Agreement on Climate agreement.
Change: India’s INDCs contains the following
 Facilitates enforcement of global greenhouse proposals:
gas emission (GHGs) reduction measures in  To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP
the post-2020 i.e. in post Kyoto Protocol by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030, from 2005
scenario. levels.
 Takes into account the principle of equity  To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to
(climate justice) and common but 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through
differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) and additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
respective capabilities.  Increase the Share of Non Fossil Fuel Based
 Based on consensus among the members Electricity.
that have incorporated their respective  Sustainable Lifestyles.
Intended Nationally Determined  Cleaner Economic Development.
Contributions (INDCs) including India.
 Technology Transfer and Capacity Building. light of different national circumstances of
COP22 adopts Marrakech Action countries.
Proclamation:  The nations demanded solidarity with those
The COP22 to the UNFCC, 12th session of countries most vulnerable to the impacts of
COP of Parties to Kyoto Protocol (CMP 12), climate change.
and first session of COP of Parties to the  It highlighted the need to support efforts
Paris Agreement (CMA 1) were held in aimed at enhancing their adaptive capacity,
Marrakech, Morocco. to strengthen resilience and to reduce
Nearly 200 nations attending the COP22 to vulnerability of most vulnerable countries.
the UNFCC have adopted Marrakech Action  The countries called for an increase in the
Proclamation for Our Climate and volume, flow and access to finance for
Sustainable Development. climate projects, alongside improved
capacity and technology. Developed
The 11-day meeting concluded with all
Country Parties, reaffirm our $100 billion
participating member nations collectively
mobilisation goal.
reaffirming their commitment to climate
 The nations, who are parties to Kyoto
action under Paris Agreement adopted in
Protocol (which does not include the US)
November 2015.
should ratify of the Doha Amendment, with
Key Features of Proclamation:
its focus on pre-2020 action.
 It is urgent duty of countries to respond
 Called for urgently raising ambition and
global warming which is warming the
strengthening cooperation among the
climate at an alarming and unprecedented
countries to close the gap between current
rate.
emissions trajectories.
 It is necessary for rapid entry into force of
 Strengthen and support efforts to eradicate
the Paris Agreement with its ambitious
poverty, ensure food security and to take
goals, its inclusive nature and its reflection
stringent action to deal with climate change
of equity and common but differentiated
challenges in agriculture.
responsibilities.
Significance:
 Countries affirm their commitment to full
The adaptation of Marrakech Action
implementation of the Paris Agreement
Proclamation sends out a strong signal to the
which also reflects respective capabilities in
world on climate action and shift towards a
new era of implementation and action on
climate and sustainable development. India goal of reducing the emissions intensity of
has welcomed Marrakesh Action its GDP by 20–25%, over 2005 levels, by
Proclamation as most of its demands 2020, despite having no binding mitigation
including the issue of providing finance to obligations as per the Convention. A slew of
developing nations to tackle climate change policy measures were launched to achieve
have been incorporated. Doha Amendments this goal. As a result, the emission intensity
to the Kyoto Protocol Doha Amendments to of our GDP has decreased by 12% between
the Kyoto Protocol was made at 2005 and 2010.
Doha climate conference in 2012: NAPCC (NATIONAL ACTION PLAN

It was made for extending the obligation of ON CLIMATE CHANGE)
the developed countries under Kyoto NAPCC is a comprehensive action plan
Protocol to make targeted cuts in their which outlines measures on climate change
greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions by 2020. related adaptation and mitigation while
The Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 had simultaneously advancing development.
initially assigned GHGs emission cut targets It has 8 missions:
to the developed countries only till 2012. I. National Solar Mission
Why Doha Amendments are important? Objective:
Developing countries are putting pressure on  Make solar energy competitive with fossil-
developed countries not to ignore their based energy options.
commitments under Kyoto Protocol which  Launch an R & D programme facilitating
ends in 2020 and after which Paris international co-operation to enable the
Agreement come into existence. Unlike the creation of affordable, more convenient solar
Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement is not energy systems.
legally-binding and it does not assign any
II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy
emission cut targets on any country. Under
Efficiency
Paris Agreement, every country decides for
 The Energy Conservation Act of 2001
itself the actions that it wants to take to fight
provides a legal mandate for the
climate change.
implementation of energy efficiency
India’s progress in Combating Climate
measures through the mechanisms of The
Change:
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the
In recognition of the growing problem of
designated agencies in the country.
Climate Change, India declared a voluntary
 A number of schemes and programmes have fiscal instruments to promote energy
been initiated which aim to save about efficiency.
10,000 MW by the end of the 11th Five- The Mission seeks to upscale the efforts to
Year Plan in 2012. unlock the market for energy efficiency
 NMEEE aims to strengthen the market for which is estimated to be around Rs. 74,000
energy efficiency by creating conducive crore and help achieve total avoided capacity
regulatory and policy regime and has addition of 19,598 MW, fuel savings of
envisaged fostering innovative and around 23 million tonnes per year and green
sustainable business models to the energy house gas emissions reductions of 98.55
efficiency sector. million tonnes per year at its full
The NMEEE spelt out four initiatives to implementation stage.
enhance energy efficiency in energy
III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats
intensive industries which are as follows:
Objective:
1. Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme
Make habitats sustainable through
(PAT), a regulatory instrument to reduce
improvements in energy efficiency in
specific energy consumption in energy
buildings, management of solid waste and a
intensive industries, with an associated
modal shift to public transport.
market based mechanism to enhance the cost
National Water Mission:
effectiveness through certification of excess
Objective:
energy saving which can be traded.
 Conserving water, minimizing wastage, and
2. Market Transformation for Energy
ensuring more equitable distribution and
Efficiency (MTEE), for accelerating the shift
management of water resources.
to energy efficient appliances in designated
 Optimizing water use efficiency by 20% by
sectors through innovative measures to make
developing a framework of regulatory
the products more affordable.
mechanisms.
3. Energy Efficiency Financing Platform
IV. National Mission for Sustaining the
(EEFP), for creation of mechanisms that
Himalayan Ecosystem
would help finance demand side
Objective:
management programmes in all sectors by
Empowering local communities especially
capturing future energy savings.
Panchayats to play a greater role in
4. Framework for Energy Efficient Economic
managing ecological resources.
Development (FEEED), for development of
National Mission for a Green India: 2. Complementary tailored funding and
Objective: technical support to national REDD+
 To increase ecosystem services including actions; and
carbon sinks. 3. Technical country capacity enhancing
 To increase forest and tree cover in India to support through sharing of expertise,
33% from current 24%. common approaches, analyses,
UN-REDD (2005) and REDD+(2008) methodologies, tools, data, best practices
 REDD originally referred to "Reducing and facilitated South-South knowledge
Emissions from Deforestation in Developing sharing.

 REDD+ is a voluntary climate change
countries"
 REDD + (or REDD-plus) refers to "Reducing mitigation approach that has been
Emissions from Deforestation and forest developed by Parties to the UNFCCC. It
Degradation in developing countries, and the aims to incentivize developing countries to
role of conservation, sustainable management reduce emissions from deforestation and
of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon forest degradation, conserve forest carbon
stocks in developing countries stocks, sustainably manage forests and
 United Nations Programme on Reducing enhance forest carbon stocks.
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Green India Mission (GIM) aim to further
Degradation (UN-REDD) is a collaborative increase the forest/tree cover to the extent of
programme of the FAO, UNDP and UNEP 5 million hectares (mha) and improve
created in 2008 in response to the UNFCCC quality of forest/tree cover on another 5 mha
decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD of forest/non-forest lands along with
at COP-13 providing livelihood support. It is expected
 Its objective is to reduce forest emissions to enhance carbon sequestration by about
and enhance carbon stocks in forests while 100 million tonnes CO2 equivalent annually.
contributing to national sustainable V. National Mission for Sustainable
development. Agriculture
It supports partner countries through: Objective:
1. Direct funding and technical support to the  Make Indian agriculture more resilient to
design and implementation of National climate change by identifying new varieties
REDD+ Programmes; of crops (example: thermally resistant crops)

and alternative cropping patterns.
 Make suggestions for safeguarding farmers  It is proposed through Copenhagen Accord
from climate change like introducing new at COP-15 of UNFCCC, held at
credit and insurance mechanisms and greater Copenhagen.
access to information.  It is intended to be the centerpiece of efforts
VI. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge to raise Climate Finance of $100 billion a
on Climate Change year by 2020.
Objective: 2. Global Environmental Facility(GEF):

 Work with the global community in research  GEF is the largest public funder of projects
and technology development by to improve the global environment. An
collaboration through different mechanisms. independently operating financial
It also has its own research agenda organization, the GEF provides grants for
supported by climate change related projects related to biodiversity, climate
institutions and a Climate Research Fund. change, international waters, land
 Encourage initiatives from the private sector degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent
for developing innovative technologies for organic pollutants.
mitigation and adaptation.  The GEF also serves as financial mechanism
 India’s eight-point plan to fight climate for the following conventions:
change will soon become a 11-point plan  Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
with new missions to address the impact of  United Nations Framework Convention on
climate change on health, coastal zones and Climate Change (UNFCCC)
waste-to-energy  UN Convention to Combat Desertification
Funding Mechanism for Conventions (UNCCD)
Some of the important global funding  Stockholm Convention on Persistent

Organic Pollutants (POPs)
mechanisms for these protocols include:
 Minamata Convention on Mercury (MCM)
Green Bonds
1. Green Climate Fund (GCF): (1) Introduction:
 GCF is a fund within the framework of the  A green bond is a debt instrument with
UNFCCC founded as a mechanism to assist which capital is being raised to fund ‘green’
developing countries in adaptation and projects, which typically include those
mitigation practices to counter climate relating to renewable energy, emission
change. reductions and so on.
 Green bonds are issued by multilateral  Ability to meet commitments, for signatories
agencies such as the World Bank, to climate agreements and other green
corporations, government agencies and commitments.
municipalities.  Green bonds could support India aims to
 Today Green bonds have emerged as one of install 175 GW of renewable energy by
the key financing mechanisms driving the 2022, which will require an estimated $264
global economy’s transition to a greener billion of investments.
future.
(3) Contributing to sustainable growth
 With the rapid growth in green bond
 A growing number of corporates and
issuance in India and China, the Asian
financial institutions have leveraged this
market has emerged as a frontrunner in the
innovative mechanism to raise capital,
green bonds space.
attracting foreign investments.
(2) What are its benefits?  India also witnessed its award-winning first
 Green bonds enhance an issuer's reputation, green masala bond (rupee-denominated
as it helps in showcasing their commitment bond), with the International Financial
towards sustainable development. Corporation raising an off-shore rupee bond
 It also provides issuers access to specific set on London Stock Exchange.
of global investors who invest only in green  These green bonds have been crucial in
ventures. increasing financing to sunrise sectors like
 With an increasing focus of foreign investors renewable energy, thus contributing to
towards green investments, it could also help India’s sustainable growth.
in reducing the cost of capital.  Green bond proceeds have also been
 Green bonds typically carry a lower interest allocated to low carbon transport sector, low
rate than the loans offered by the carbon buildings, water management and
commercial banks. waste management.
 An important feature of green bonds is that  Green bonds is a key tool towards financing
the responsibility of repayment is with the the nation’s climate change targets.
issuer and not with the firm that is utilizing
(4) Risks and challenges
the funds in green projects.
 There have been serious debates about
 Green bonds expand the quantum of clean
whether the projects targeted by green bond
energy finance and broaden investor base
issuers are green enough because the
proceeds of green bond were being used to  Buyers of Indian green bonds may not invest
fund a dam project that hurts the Amazon in any bonds that are rated lower than the
rainforest in Brazil. AAA-
 Lack of Credit rating or rating guidelines for  Lack of green bond standards, low credit
green projects and bonds rating of potential issuers, and higher cost of
 Lack of historical trends on the bond issuance.
performance  Limited to large, creditworthy investors
 Green bonds in India have a shorter tenor  Limited set of green investors, limiting
period of about 10 years in India whereas a demand for green bonds to infuse new
typical loan would be for minimum 13 years. capital to scale the renewable energy market
Unit
5 Degradation
Introduction Causes of Deforestation
 Environmental degradation is the Increasing Demand for Food: Population
deterioration of the environment through explosion causes increasing demand for food
depletion of resources such as air, water and which cannot be satisfied by intensification
soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the and diversification of the use of agricultural
extinction of wildlife. It is defined as any land presently used for cultivation. This
change or disturbance to the environment results in deforestation of clearance of forest
perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. for new cultivation. In developing countries,
 The United Nations International Strategy where agriculture is a major commercial
for Disaster Reduction defines activity, the deformation take place on
environmental degradation as "The continuous basis.
reduction of the capacity of the environment Practice shifting Cultivation: Shifting
to meet social and ecological objectives, and cultivation is a process where by population
needs". Environmental degradation is of clear forests indiscriminately for the purpose
many types. When natural habitats are of cultivation. They cultivate crops for a
destroyed or natural resources are depleted, short period of time and leave the land to
the environment is degraded. Efforts to remain fallow. However, because of
counteract this problem include population explosion the pressure on the
environmental protection and environmental land cut-short the fallow period of land.
resources management Hence, the fallow soil becomes unproductive
Deforestation leading to failure of crops. In this situation,
Deforestation is a very broad term, which the trees also cannot be grown.
consists of cutting of trees including Overgrazing: It has been noted that the
repeated lopping, felling, and removal of amount of grazing is very high in most of
forest litter, browsing, grazing and trampling the forest areas of India. This over grazing
of seedlings. It can also be defined as the leads to destruction of forest as well as
removal or damage of vegetation in a forest prevent forest regeneration.
to the extent that it no longer supports its Adverse Effects of Industries and Mining:
natural flora and fauna. Industrial activity and mining activity have
VANI Publications Degradation
caused adverse effects on the forest areas. Heavy Flood: Tropical forest regulate the
This is because the forest lands are cleared flow of rain falls in the stream and river by
for undertaking these activities. retaining rainwater in the soil when forests
Requirement of Raw materials: Several are cleared automatically, the water holding
raw materials can be extracted for certain capacity is completely lost. It means the rain
industries such as paper and paper product water is restrained in the soil and this cause
industries. This leads to indiscriminate heavy flood.
deforestation on a large scale. Loss of Valuable Chemical Product:
Need for Fuel wood: Fuel wood is a major Valuable chemical products originate and
source of power and energy which leads to a grow in the tropical forest. E.g many
large scale deforestation. chemical products are used by

pharmaceutical industries for manufacturing
Need for Progress: Certain factors which
important medicines. Deforestation causes
have contributed to deforestation on a large
severe loss of those valuable chemical
scale are River Valley Project, constructions
products.
of roads establishment of industries etc.
Green House Effect: Deforestation leads to
Consequences of Deforestation
an increase in the concentration of carbon
Increase in Soil Erosion: Forests provide a
dioxide in the atmosphere of the Earth. This
natural protection to soil against rain and
leads to the green house effect and global
wind. It is because of forest, the soil is
warming which are extremely serious
protected from being wasted, washed or
problems for the human being.
blown away. Deforestation therefore
Destruction of Biodiversity: Diverse form
removes that protective cover and leads to
of plant life as well as wild life is present in
increased soil erosion.
the forest. Deforestation leads to large scale
Sedimentation in Dams: The soil is washed
destruction of plant life as well as wild life.
or blown away as a result of which some
It is due to deforestation. Certain species of
dams get filled with sediment more quickly
plants as well as animals have become
than expected.
endangered and are on the verge of
Reduction in Rainfalls: Deforestation extinction.
affects human beings in major manner by Preventive Measures
affecting the amount of rainfall in a Joint Forest Management (JFM)
negative way.
Joint Forest Management is a Forest domestic needs of the family. Non-
Management Programme with partnership commercial farm forestry is the main thrust
involving both the state forest departments of most of the social forestry projects in the
and local communities. Under Joint Forest country today.
Management (JFM), village communities  It is not always necessary that the farmer
are entrusted with the protection and grows trees for fuel wood, but very often
management of nearby forests. The areas they are interested in growing trees without
concerned are usually degraded or even any economic motive. They may want it to
deforested areas. provide shade for the agricultural crops; as
The objective of the programme are wind shelters; soil conservation or to use
 Government forest area that are closed to wasteland.
human settlement and have been degraded Community Forestry
over the years due to human activities were  It is the raising of trees on community land
afforested. and not on private land as in farm forestry.
 Government forest areas that are close to All these programmes aim to provide for the
human settlement and have been degraded entire community and not for any individual.
over the years due to human activities were  The government has the responsibility of
afforested. providing seedlings, fertilizer, but the
 Trees were planted in and around community has to take responsibility of
agricultural fields. protecting the trees.
 Plantation of trees along railways lines and  Common land being everyone’s land is very
roadsides, river and canal banks carried out. easy to exploit.
They were planted in village common land, Compensatory Afforestation Fund
government wasteland and Panchayat land. Management and Planning Authority
Social forestry also aims at raising (CAMPA)
plantations by the common man so as to The compensatory Afforestation Fund
meet the growing demand for timber, fuel Management and Planning Authority
wood, fodder etc thereby reducing the (CAMPA) is a National Advisory Council
pressure on the traditional forest area. under the chairmanship of the Union
Farm Forestry Minister of Environment and Forests for
 Individual farmers are being encouraged to monitoring, technical assistance and
plant trees on their own farmland to meet the evaluation of compensatory afforestation
activities. Compensatory Afforestation Fund are blown away by the wind. This makes the
Management and Planning Authority land look like a desert.
(CAMPA) are meant to promote Over Irrigation: The irrigation schemes
afforestation and regeneration activities as a which are meant for the supply of water are
way of compensating for forest land diverted important and hence they require adequate
to non-forest uses. planning. In efficient land irrigation schemes
Desertification result in water logging of crops and
Desertification can be defined as the consequent salination of soil. The saline soil
diminution or destruction of the biological brings up the salts and due to continued
potential of the laws which can ultimately evaporation living on the surface of the
lead to desert like conditions. The arid and ground which makes the soil unfit for
semiarid areas where climate is dry cultivation subsequently, this causes
restoration is very slow, mining and over desertification.
grazing etc adds to several other Deforestation: Forests are removed and
desertification pressures. cleaned for the variety of resources such as
Causes of Desertification cultivation of cash crop, human settlement,
Over Cultivation Most countries need to creating space for increasing cattle etc. This
cultivate commercial or crash crops. This process is called deforestation. Due to this,
displaces traditional agricultural to marginal the top quality soil or fertile soil gets
lands. The marginal lands which were exposed to the force. Subsequently. It gets
previously not used because of either decline washed away. Apart from this, the removal
in productivity or remain stagnant at the of forest makes the soil to lose its fertility.
basic production level. Natural events such Thus, deforestation results in desertification.
as droughts and famines leads to the process Mining Operation Mining operation results
of deterioration and degradation. in the disposal of rejects in fertile land.
Over Grazing: Low livestock prices tempt These mining rejects led to total erosion of
producers to rear as many as possible. The soil further resulting in the desert like
cattle over graze the green land. This leads conditions.
to removal of vegetation cover and its Growth of Population: Large increase in
nutrients. The loose soil particles, which population is taking place in many parts of
basically contain the fertile characteristics, the world. This causes severe pressure on
land and subsequently causing
desertification. In other words, land
encroachment human being it leads to
desertification.
Overgrazing leads to Animals select species they This creates

loss of most palatable prefer, they leave out imbalance and
herbs and grasses, tougher less tasty plants remove only certain
because plant species and
Overgrowth of invader
The animals species and unpalatable Invader species
plants result in the loss of
Remain hungry plants of nutritional value Make their way
This cycle of denudation

Hungry animals then
(removal of plants one by
Pulverized soil one) of a fertile land
Strip ground base for
initiates a cycle that leads
hasten soil erosion
food, and their hoofs to desertification
With loss of Rain water drains off

precotaling capacity quickly in such lands With nothing to hold
of soil, the spring, rather than percolating, back, the surface soil
wells dry up rendering the soil dry is lost as run off
Dry soil can not nourish Microclimate of earth

roots. Thus, tree/shrubs, Earth get devoid of vegetation Earth becomes
inhabiting such land and becomes inhospitable for
not killed by animals/man, denuded seed germination barren
die from drought.
Barren earth reflects more

Desertification Wind drives away Heated earth
sun rays raising the
moisture laden causes changes in
temperature at base
clouds leading to wind pattern
Consequences of Desertification Preventive Measures

Desertification is a severe problem as it  Reforestation
causes exploitation of land which is one of  Growing leguminous plants (enriching soil
the most important natural resource. This fertility)
problem is especially grave in the  Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration
developing countries. Moreover, the (FMNR)
seriousness of the problem increases because  Shelter belts, wood-locks, wind breaks
the negative consequences are irreversible.  Sand fencing
Productivity of the land is almost eliminated  Agroforestry, socialforestry
or it reaches a lowest level. Land is an
important natural resource. The productivity The compensatory Afforestation Fund
is land is vital for the survival of mankind. If Management and Planning Authority
a particular area of land becomes dry land, (CAMPA) is a National Advisory Council
the living conditions of the people in this under the chairmanship of the Union
affected area becomes miserable. Once a Minister of Environment and Forests for
land becomes a dry land or has desert like monitoring, technical assistance and
condition the result is loss of productivity or evaluation of compensatory afforestation
a loss of important means of survival. It activities. Compensatory Afforestation Fund
means the dry lands are incapable of Management and Planning Authority
producing food resources, in other words (CAMPA) are meant to promote
there is a failure of crops. Desertification afforestation and regeneration activities as a
also levels to drying up of the water way of compensating for forest land diverted
resources. It causes destruction of the natural to non-forest uses.
resources of the environment. There is also Soil Erosion
an adverse effect on the biotic and abiotic It happens when particles of soil become
component of the environment. The desert loose and are carried away by weathering
like conditions created due to desertification agents. When it rains so much that the water
affects human being also in a serious cannot seep into the soil fast enough, the
manner. It leads to less productive or extra water flows down the slope, carrying
relatively infertile land. All this factors soil particles with it. The erosion problem is
basically create miserable living conditions likely to be more severe on certain types of
or poverty for the people. soils on steep slopes, where there is intense
rainfall and where the vegetation is vegetation-winds carry away dry soil
removed. There are several ways in which particles-Rajasthan.
soil erosion takes place due to running Bad Farming Techniques: Plough fields in
water. traditional ways-small size of holdings,
Splash Erosion: Splash erosion where the absence of terracing, contour cultivation,
soil is pulverized by the impact of heavy crop rotation, improper use of manure have
drops and hailstones as in case of caused erosion.
convectional rainfall. Topography: North-Eastern parts of India,
Sheet Erosion: Removal of thin layer of soil Shiwaliks and the hilly regions in South
form a large area. In sheet erosion, a thin India are affected by soil erosion because of
layer of soil is removed from a large area. steep slopes and heavy rainfall. During
Rill Erosion: A series of small channels on heavy rainfall, soils are washed away by
a slope carved by running water. running water down the slopes.
Gully Erosion: Large, wide channels carved Deforestation: Destruction of forests for
by running water. As a rule of thumb, a cultivation-cutting of trees exposes the soil
gully is large enough that it cannot be to water and wind which leads to soil
smoothed out with conventional tillage erosion.
equipment. Effects of Soil Erosion
Causes of Soil Erosion in India  Loss of fertile top soil.
Heavy Population Pressure on Land:  Owering of the underground water table and
Forest cover as low as 20.55% of total area- decreasing soil moisture.
population continues to rise at a rapid rate  Drying of vegetation and extension of arid
more forests are destroyed-heavy pressure lands, increase in the frequency of droughts
on land. and floods.
Nature of Rainfall: Receives 80 to 90% of  Silting of river and canal beds, recurrence of
rainfall in the monsoon season. Heavy landslides, adverse effect on economic
downpour during monsoon months causes prosperity and cultural development
floods-remaining months-droughts-these  Wind erosion reduces the productive
affects soils. capacity of soil, as most of the nutrients
Overgrazing: Number of domestic animals, required by the plants are carried by the
esp cattle highest in world-cattle freely graze wind.
in open lands making them bare of
Preventation of Soil Erosion and Soil Bioremediation:
Conservation.  Bioremediation is a waste management
 Terrace farming on hilly slopes, terraces act technique which uses microorganisms to
as bunds and prevent the soil from being destroy or reduce the concentration of
washed away. hazardous waste from contaminated site and
 Contour ploughing along contours on a slope transform it to non hazardous waste.
prevents soil being washed away by  Remediation results in the cleaning of the
rainwater or by surface run off. Contours act environment by:
like bunds. Terraces are leveled into step  Degradation- microbes decompose the
like small fields with even slope. pollutants to harmless natural products such
 Afforestation planting of trees along the as CO2, H2O or other nontoxic naturally
edges of the fields, the waste land and on occurring compounds.
steepy slopes to prevent soil erosion as well  Sequestration- pollutant is trapped or
as to enhance the capacity of the soil to changed in a way that makes it nontoxic or
retain water, increase of area under forests unavailable.
and indiscriminate felling of trees must stop.  Removal- pollutant is physically removed
 Shelter belts farmers plant trees in several from the soil or water by microbes and not
rows to check wind erosion, known as wind degraded, which is then collected and
breaks. disposed of safely.
 Strip cropping, crops are grown in alternate  Bioremediation may occur on its own
strips of land to check the impact of the (intrinsic) or may occur through the addition
winds. of fertilizers, oxygen etc., that help in
 Construction of dams rivers cause soil enhancing the growth of the pollution-eating
erosion. Dams are built in the upper course microbes.
of rivers to control erosion of soil. This  Microorganisms used to perform the
would check the speed of water and thereby function of bioremediation are known as
save soil from erosion. bioremediators.
 Ploughing gullies, The gullies made in the Genetic Engineering Approaches
soil are plugged with deposition of silt Phytoremediation
during heavy rains.  Efficient use of plants to remove, detoxify or
 Shifting or jhuming or slash and burn type of immobilize environmental contaminants in
agriculture should be banned. soil, water or sediments through the natural
biological, chemical or physical activities Mycofiltration:
and processes of the plants.  Fungal mycelia are used to filter toxic waste
Types and microorganisms from water.
 Phytostimulation or rhizodegradation: use of Advantages of bioremediation:
associations between plants and symbiotic  Complete destruction of a wide variety of
soil microbes which secrete enzymes to contaminants is possible.
degrade contaminants.  Eco-friendly as residues for the treatment are
 Phyto volatilisation: use of a plant's ability usually harmless products and include
to uptake contaminants from the site and CO2,water and cell biomass
subsequently transform and volatilise  Less expensive.
contaminants into the atmosphere.  Can often be carried out on site.
 Phytoextraction: use plants to absorb, Disadvantages of bioremediation:
translocate and store toxic contaminants  All compounds are not susceptible to rapid
from a soil matrix into their root and shoot and complete degradation.Eg: heavy metals
tissue. like cadmium
 Rhizofiltration: use of roots to uptake and  Biological processes are often highly
store contaminants from aqueous medium specific.
like wetlands or estuaries.  Bioremediation often takes longer time than
 Phytostabilisation: plant-mediated other treatment process.
immobilisation or binding of contaminants Bioassay:
into the soil matrix, thereby reducing their  Biossay is a test in which organisms are used
mobility. to detect the presence or the effects of any
The bacterium Deinococcusaradiodurans has other physical factor, chemical factor, or any
been used to de toxify toluene and ionic other type of ecological disturbance.
mercury which are release from radioactive  Bioassays are very common in pollution
nuclear waste. studies. Bioassays can be conducted by
Mycoremediation: Use of fungi to degrade using any type of organisms. However, the
pollutants from the environment. fish and insect bioassays are very common.
 Fungi have the innate capability to  The aim is to find out either lethal
breakdown molecules, disassembling long- concentration or effective concentration
chained toxins into simpler less toxic causing mortality or other effects.
chemicals.
 Ultimately they are to be used for  It does not, however, address the movement
determination of safe concentration of a of radioactive waste.
chemical or Maximum Acceptable Toxicant 2. Rotterdam Convention on the Prior
Concentration (MATC). Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
 The organism is exposed to different Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in
concentration of a toxicant for a definite International Trade, 1998.It is a multilateral
period and mortality, behavioral change or treaty to promote shared responsibilities in
other signals of distress are noted relation to importation of hazardous
periodically. chemicals. The convention promotes open
Out of three types, state bioassay test is exchange of information and calls on
designed, where the organisms are exposed exporters of hazardous chemicals to use
to the same toxicant solution for the whole proper labeling, include directions on safe
experimental period. The other two are, handling, and inform purchasers of any
renewal bioassay and flow-through known restrictions or bans. Signatory
bioassays. nations can decide whether to allow or ban
the importation of chemicals listed in the
Conventions on Hazardous substances
treaty to make sure that producers within
1. Basel Convention on the Control of
their jurisdiction comply.
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
3. Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Wastes and their Disposal, 1989.
Organic Pollutants (POP), 2001.
 Its objective is to reduce the movements of
It aims to eliminate or restrict the production
hazardous waste between nations, and
and use of persistent organic pollutants
specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous
(POPs).POPs are chemical substances that
waste from developed to less developed
persist in the environment, bio-accumulate
countries (LDCs).
through the food web, and pose a risk of
 The Convention is also intended to minimize
causing adverse effects to human health and
the amount and toxicity of wastes generated,
the environment
to ensure their environmentally sound
Examples of POPs: Aldrin, Endrin, DDT,
management as closely as possible to the
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
source of generation, and to assist LDCs in
Hexachlorobenzene, Endosulfan.
environmentally sound management of the
hazardous and other wastes they generate
Unit
6 Biodiversity
INTRODUCTION BIODIVERSITY: MEANING AND
 Biological diversity or biodiversity in short, DEFINITIONS
is the sum of all the different species of  Biodiversity or biological diversity is derived
microorganisms, fungi, plants and animals from the words bio and diversity. It is the
living on Earth and the variety of habitats in diversity of and in living nature.
which they live. Since the natural ecosystems  Diversity, at its heart, implies the number of
vary horizontally i.e., from equator towards different kinds of objects, such as species.
the poles and vertically i.e., from sea levels However, defining biodiversity or measures
upward and from sea level downward and of biodiversity, is not so simple.
hence different biomes have developed  The term biological diversity, was coined by
having distinct physical and biological Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word
characteristics. Thus the number of varieties biodiversity itself, was coined by the
of species plants and animals is very entomologist E.O.Wilson in 1986.
significant indicator of the health and wealth  There are many different definitions of
of a nation. This biological variety forms the biodiversity among which the one used under
basis of biological diversity or simply the Convention on Biological Diversity
biodiversity. (CBD) is one of the most frequently cited:
 The role of man in accelerating the loss of  "Biological diversity means the variability
biodiversity is now well established, and it among living organisms from all sources
has prompted the world community to take including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
serious steps towards conserving the rich other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
living resource on Earth consequently, complexes of which they are part; this
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) includes diversity within species, between
has been adapted by 169 countries. The study species and of ecosystems."
of biodiversity includes the following ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF
aspects: BIODIVERSITY
 Meaning and concepts of biodiversity, There are three levels of diversity viz.
 Types of biodiversity, genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. In
 Benefits of biodiversity,
effect, these levels cannot be separated. Each
 Causes of the loss of biodiversity, and
 Conservation of biodiversity is important, interacting with and influencing
the others. A change at one level can cause becomes greater with increasing distance in
changes at the other levels. the relationship of species. Isolated
1. Genetic Diversity population such as those on ocean: islands or
 Genetic diversity is the “fundamental in small patches of habitats cut off from the
currency of diversity” that is responsible for surrounding environment tend to have less
variation. This is the diversity of basic units genetic variation, hence more susceptible to
of hereditary information which are passed extinction.
down to generations found within a species 2. Species Diversity
(e.g. different varieties of the same species).  Species diversity means the differences
Genetic diversity underlies the variability between species (both domesticated and
(differences) among individuals of a given wild). It is the most visible component of
species. biodiversity. It denotes the variety of species
 For example no two individuals even in the in different habitats on Earth, and it
same family are identical, unless of course represents the range of evolutionary and
they are identical twins with the same ecological adaptations of species to
genome (i.e. complete genetic makeup). particular environments.
 The differences in the genetic makeup of  The distinct ecological importance of species
organisms also form the basis for variation supports functional diversity and has a direct
within a population, or between populations, bearing on the species composition of the
of that species. Thus, genetic diversity within site, and therefore on overall biodiversity.
a species will increase with the number of For example a keystone species will be more
individuals of a given species. important than other species for conserving
 It is genetic diversity that allows a species to overall biodiversity.
adapt to changing environmental conditions 3. Ecosystem Diversity
such as a lower rainfall, a higher temperature  Ecosystem diversity means the variation
year round, etc. Genetic diversity is, thus, between different types of ecosystems.
important for the preservation of species Different species of animals, plants and
diversity, and hence biological diversity. micro-organisms interact with each other and
 Knowledge of the variability of genes also their physical environment (such as water or
allows us to understand how closely minerals).
individuals or species are related to each  These systems help maintain life processes
other. Genetic diversity between species vital for organisms to survive on earth.
VANI Publications Biodiversity
Different combinations of species and 1) Species richness
physical conditions (such as sunlight,  This is the most widely used measure of
climate, soil and water) and their various species diversity. In simple terms it is a
interactions give rise to variation among count of the total number of species in a
ecosystems. given area. It gives equal weightage to all
 For example, the physical conditions in a species and does not take into account the
coral reef are very different to those in a number of individuals that represent a
tropical forest. Accordingly, the species in a particular species.
coral reef differ from the species in a tropical  To describe the complex spatial patterns of
forest. biodiversity, ecologists and biogeographers
 It is believed that there is a positive have found it useful to express species
relationship between species diversity and an richness into four major categories:
ecosystem’s stability and resilience (i.e.  Point richness - refers to the number of
ability to resist disturbances). species that can be found at a single point in
An ecosystem having higher diversity means space.
the number of species and interactions  Alpha (α) richness- refers to the number of
between them which constitute the food web, species found in small, homogenous area.
is large. In such a situation, the elimination Alpha diversity refers to the diversity in a
of one species would have little effect on particular area or ecosystem and is usually
ecosystem balance. In sharp contrast, the expressed by the number of species (i.e.
number of species in the food web of a species richness) in that ecosystem.
simple ecosystem is small. So loss of any  Beta (β) richness- refers to the rate of change
one species has far more serious in species composition across habitats and β
repercussions for the integrity of the diversity refers to diversity between the
ecosystem. ecosystems.
 Gamma (γ) richness- refers to the rate of
Measuring Species Diversity change across larger landscape gradients and
There are many ways by which species gamma diversity is a measure of the overall
diversity is measured i.e. species richness, diversity for different ecosystems in a region.
taxonomic diversity, and species -diversity  However, species richness based on numbers
indices. alone is inadequate. Other parameters such
as species evenness (relative abundance of
species) and species dominance (the most Biomes-Distribution Of Biodiversity
abundant species) are also evaluated. Spread of biodiversity is not uniform or
2) Taxonomic diversity specific. Global distribution of biodiversity
 Taxonomic diversity is relative abundance of varies with the type of biome namely
a species as well as the ancestor descendant Terrestrial and Aquatic biomes.
relationships of species to each other. For The Terrestrial Biomes
example, an area with two species of  Primary factors that influence the formation
mammals and one species of reptile has of these biomes are Climatic, like
greater taxonomic diversity than an area of precipitation, temperature, seasonal extremes
similar size with only three species of and winds; Vegetation; Oceans; River water;
mammals although both have three species Mountain ranges; Interaction between
each. Similarly, an area with a large number species etc.
of closely related species is not as diverse as  However, topography and light are also
distantly related. important factors. Of all these, precipitation
is the chief limiting factor that determines
Methods of Measuring Genetic Diversity
whether a biome would be a forest or a
Genetic diversity needs to be measured
desert or grassland.
through some complicated processes as
 If the average annual precipitation in the
given below:
region is less than 25 cm the place would be
 Protein electrophoresis- Protein
a desert containing little vegetation. This
electrophoresis shows the variations in the
would be true regardless of average
proteins produced, thereby indicating the
temperature, light and quality of soil.
diversity of genes that coded for them.
 If a region has moderate average
 DNA fingerprinting- This method makes use
precipitation, around 25-75 cm a year,
of a common, but peculiar, group of DNA
grasslands would be formed. A region would
sequences known as ‘mini satellites’. High
be a forest if the average annual precipitation
levels of variation in the numbers of these
is more than 75 cm. The combination of
repeated units are used in “DNA
average temperature and average
fingerprinting” to identify relationships that
precipitation, however, decides the type of
range from distantly related taxonomic
desert, forest or grassland present in a region.
groups to closely related individuals within a
 Let us study briefly the main characteristic of
population.
each major world biome. Starting with the
tundra, which is the least complex of all with needle like leaves that can survive
biomes. extremely cold winters.
Tundra  It stretches across North America to Eurasia;
 The northern most biome on our planet is the this region is called taiga, a word derived
arctic tundra. It is a treeless wet circumpolar from Russian word meaning primeval forest.
band between the polar ice caps and the Typical animals found in this region include
forests to the south. The predominant plants moose, wolves, lynx, bears, gray jays. Many
are lichens, grasses, sedges and dwarf woody of these rely on their stored body fat for
plants. Despite the lack of trees, animals are survival during the cold months.
found on land, in air and nearby oceans. Temperate Deciduous Forests
 Similar communities are found at high  These regions experience moderate
mountains of all latitudes forming the alpine temperatures on average that change during
tundra. The climate is very cold with a short four distinct seasons. They have long
growing season. The soil is frozen for most summers, not too severe winters and
part of the year and only the top 0.5 meter abundant precipitation spread over the whole
melts during the short summers in the arctic year.
tundra. The permanently frozen soil below is  These regions are dominated by broad leafed
known as permafrost. deciduous trees such as oak, hickory, maple,
 Some of the common permanent residents poplar, beech, sycamore, etc., that can
are musk ox, polar bear, grizzly bear, survive the winter by dropping their leaves
wolves, snowy owl, arctic hare, weasels, and going into a dormant state. Temperate
minks, etc. Tundra is a very fragile regions are the most productive areas of the
ecosystem as the rate of organic matter world with the best agricultural lands.
decomposition is very slow. On account of Temperate Shrub lands
harsh climate plants grow very slowly and These are areas where woody shrubs
the tundra takes a long time to recover from predominate rather than trees. In regions
any disruptions. with a Mediterranean type of climate i.e., hot
Coniferous Forests and Taiga dry summers and cool wet winters, shrubs
 The taiga is a land of lakes, bogs and grow close together having typically leathery
marshes. The climate is cold with long leaves. Fires are of common occurrence and
winters and short summers. The dominant plants and animals have developed
trees are conifers like spruce, pines and firs adaptations to these special habitat features.
Grasslands exhibit dramatic day and night temperature
 In the northern hemisphere grasslands are variation. The soil is sandy or salty.
found over large areas in huge plains. Such Three plant life forms are most adapted to
grasslands are known as prairie in North the desert environment.
America, steppes in Asia and pampas in i) Annuals that avoid drought and grow when
South America. In Australia grasslands cover there is adequate moisture.
ii) Succulents – (e.g. cactus), that have
an area almost equal to the area of the desert
adaptation for water storage and avoid water
in the country. loss.
 Grasslands often fade away into deserts. iii) Hardy desert shrubs – having short stem,
Annual rainfall in areas dominated by number of branches and thick leaves.
grasslands is between 25-100 cm depending  The animals of deserts are primarily
on temperature and seasonal distribution – arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals.
(grasslands occur where rainfall is less to Large animals are uncommon. Small rodents
support forest and more than desert). are the most common mammals, along with
 Another factor that prevents penetration of small foxes. Among the herbivores, insects
forests into grasslands is the frequent are dominant. A number of insectivorous
occurrence of natural fires. Grasslands lizards are very common. However, most
provide natural pastures for grazing animals. animals restrict their activity to early
The soils under grasslands are rich and morning or after sunset.
fertile.  Desert soils are rich in nutrients but water is
Deserts a serious limiting factor. If water is supplied
 Deserts bring up the image of inhospitable or made available to desert biomes, they can
places but actually they are quite varied. The attain very good production because sunlight
world’s largest desert is the Sahara followed is abundant.
by the Great Australian desert. Tropical Savannas
 These have the driest environment with less  It is a combination of grassland with
than 30 cm rainfall (sometimes higher but, scattered or clumped trees. These special
unevenly distributed). kinds of grasslands often border tropical rain
 In deserts, day temperatures are high, rainfall forests. The climate is warm having 100-150
and humidity is low, but there are cool cm annual rainfall, with prolonged dry
northern deserts too where winter snows are season in which fires are common. The rains
common e.g. Tibet. However, all deserts are erratic.
 These grasslands have scattered trees that do Tropical Rain Forests
not form canopy in any part of savanna.  This tropical region abounds with life and
Trees are up to 20 m height, with thick, thousands of species of plants and animals
deciduous or evergreen leaves. Grasses may can be seen, though no species predominates.
attain height of 1-1.5 m and support a great  Tropical rain forests cover about 7 percent of
variety of grazing animals. the earth’s surface but house approximately
 The largest savanna is found in the African 40 percent of the plant and animal species.
continent. They also occur in Australia and Tropical rain forests are found on both sides
South America and cover nearly 8 percent of of the equator in South East Asia, Africa,
the earth’s land. The most prominent animals South and Central America, North East
of this biome are large grazing animals such Australia.
as giraffes, antelopes, elephants, buffalo and  Both temperature and humidity are very high
predators such as lions and cheetahs. and constant. Rainfall exceeds 200 cm a year
and is distributed over the year. Soil is
Tropical Deciduous Forests
nutrient poor because in spite of the high rate
 These are also known as monsoon forests
of decomposition the nutrients do not remain
found in South East Asia, in Central and
in the soil.
South America, Northern Australia, Western
 They are absorbed rapidly by plants or the
Africa and the Pacific.
rains wash them away thus making the soil
 Rainfall is high, sometimes higher than
virtually useless for agriculture.
tropical rain forests but seasonal. There are
 There is a distinct stratification of vegetation
pronounced wet and dry periods, and so are
in rain forests. The dominant plants in these
winter and summer seasons. The soils are
forests are tall, 25-30 meters high with
brown in colour and rich in nutrients.
slender trunks that branch only near the tops
 Vertical stratification in the vegetation is
forming a dense canopy of leathery
somewhat simple with a single under storey
evergreen leaves. The canopy blocks out
tree layer. The trees lose leaves in one season
most of the light, therefore, the forest floor is
but ground vegetation remains evergreen.
fairly open.
 ‘Teak’ and ‘sal’ forests are good examples of
THE AQUATIC BIOMES
this type of biome. Trees are of 20-30 m
 Most of the earth’s surface is covered by the
height, sometimes reaching a height over 40
waters of the oceans (about 71%). Beneath
m in this biome. Bamboo is also one of the
the water surface is a fascinating world of a
climax shrubs in these areas.
wide variety of habitats and living  The open water zone is called the limnetic
communities comparable in diversity to the zone. This represents the zone or depth of the
terrestrial biomes but different enough from water upto which sunlight can penetrate.
them to seem to belong to a different world Phytoplankton along with algal forms,
altogether. various zooplankton species and fish abound
 The main factors affecting the type and in this zone.
numbers of organisms found in aquatic  The deep water zone lying below the
ecosystems are water salinity and depth to limnetic zone is called profundal zone. It is
which sunlight penetrates; amount of relatively cool and dark, having low
dissolved oxygen and temperature of water. dissolved oxygen content and is inhabited by
 Salinity levels are used to distinguish the fish which can tolerate such stressful
waters on the earth into two categories, conditions. The bottom of the lake is
freshwater, and marine.
inhabited by bacteria, fungi, blood worms
1) Freshwater Biomes
and other decomposers which live on dead
 The salt content of fresh water is about 0.005
plants, organic matter including remains of
percent. The freshwater biomes consist of
animals and their metabolic wastes.
inland bodies of standing water like lakes,
Pond as an ecosystem
reservoirs, ponds and wetlands as well as the
A pond is an example of a complete, closed
flowing waters of the streams and rivers.
and an independent ecosystem. It works on
Their nature does not depend as much on
solar energy and maintains its biotic
global climate, but on the individual site
community in equilibrium. Following
where they occur.
components are found in a pond ecosystem.
 A lake or a body of standing water can be
(a) Abiotic components
divided into three zones according to
(i) Light: Solar radiation provides energy that
penetration of sunlight in the water body i.e.,
controls the entire system. Penetration of
littoral, limnetic and profundal. Each of these
light depends on transparency of water,
has their own physico-chemical features and
amount of dissolved or suspended particles
characteristic array of living organisms.
in water and the number of plankton. On the
 The littoral zone is the area where light
basis of extent of penetration of light a pond
penetrates to the bottom. Aquatic life in the
can be divided into euphotic (eu=true,
littoral zone consists of free floating and
photic=light), mesophotic and aphotic zones.
rooted plants, many aquatic insects, snails,
Plenty of light is available to plants and
amphibians, fish, turtles and water birds.
animals in euphotic zone. No light is deeper layers. Three distinct zones of aquatic
available in the aphotic zone. plants can be seen with increasing depth of
(ii) Inorganic substances: These are water, water in the following order:
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and a  Zone of emergent vegetation: eg.
few other elements like sulphur depending Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria
on the location of the pond. The inorganic  Zone of rooted vegetation with floating
substances like O2 and CO2 are in dissolved leaves. eg. Nymphaea
state in water. All plants and animals depend  Zone of submergent vegetation: eg.
on water for their food and exchange of All pond weeds like Hydrilla, Rupia, musk
gases- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and grass etc.
other inorganic salts are held in reserve in (ii) Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which
bottom sediment and inside the living feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs.
organisms. A very small fraction may be in eg. Tadpole, snails, sunfish, bass etc.
the dissolved state. Pond animals can be classified into the following
(iii) Organic compounds: The commonly found groups
organic matter in the pond is amino acids and (a) Zooplanktons are floating animals. Cyclops,
humic acids and the breakdown products of Cypris
dead animals and plants. They are partly (b) Nektons are the animals that can swim and
dissolved in water and partly suspended in navigate at will. eg. fishes
water (c) Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers:
(b) Biotic components beetle, mites, mollusks and some
(i) Producers or autotrophs: synthesize food for crustaceans.
all the heterotrophs of the pond. They can be (iii) Decomposers: They are distributed
categorized into two groups:-
throughout the entire in the whole pond but
(a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants
in the sediment most abundant. There are
are called phytoplankton (“phyto”- plants,
bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium,
“plankton” –floating). They are microscopic
Curvularia, Cladosporium) found at the
organisms. Sometimes they are so abundant
bottom of the pond.
in pond that they make it look green in
2) Marine Biomes
colour. e.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora,
 The marine biomes consist of the earth’s
Diatoms, Volvox.
oceans and its associated areas like the
(b) Rooted plants: These are arranged in
shorelines, islands, coral reefs and estuaries.
concentric zones from periphery to the
The marine waters contain about 3.5 percent a diversity of organisms that grow attached
salt, mostly sodium chloride and the to some solid substratum. Sandy shorelines
organisms inhabiting these waters are provide home to organisms that can live in
profoundly adapted to these salty conditions. burrows in sandy substratum.
 Oceans  Oceanic islands are interesting and
The oceans play a major role in determining somewhat specialized biomes. Islands which
the climate and sustaining life on earth. have broken away from the main continents
Oceans help to redistribute the solar energy, have similarity of flora and fauna related to
through ocean currents and evaporation; they the continental source, volcanic and coral
are huge reservoirs of carbon dioxide, islands show results of chance colonization.
oxygen and other minerals and help to  Coral reefs form in clear warm tropical seas
regulate the ambient temperature and also and are particularly well developed in the
help in maintaining atmospheric composition South Pacific. They are formed by
and serve as sources of various natural accumulation in calcareous skeletons of tiny
resources. colonial animals called corals over
 Most marine life is found in the shallower generations. Coral reefs usually form along
regions of the ocean and seas along the the shallow submerged shelves and they are
continental shelves, coral reefs and oceanic limited to a depth up to which sunlight can
islands. Life at greater depths is limited by diffuse. Coral reef communities in terms of
darkness, cold temperatures and pressure. species diversity, number of organisms,
Animal life at great depths comprises mainly brilliance of colours and interesting life
of scavengers and predators that feed on the forms are comparable with tropical forest
detritus and dead organic matter. The food communities.
that supports the large and diverse  Wetlands and estuaries are transitional
communities of the ocean is produced in the biomes. Land that remains flooded either
open water by phytoplankton in upper part of the year or permanently with fresh or
regions of the ocean where sunlight can salt water is known as wetland. The
reach. The average depth of the lighted zone internationally accepted definition of
of the sea is 200 meters in clean areas. wetlands is: Areas of fen, peatland or water
 Ocean shorelines include rocky coasts and whether natural or artificial, permanent or
sandy beaches that are particularly rich in temporary, static or flowing, fresh, brackish
diverse life forms. Rocky shorelines support or marine water, the depth of which does not
exceed six metres. Bogs, swamps, marshes evergreen, broad – leaf trees growing in
are covered by freshwater and found inland. brackish water in tropical areas.
These are known as island wetlands, those BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
found on the coast and covered by seawater  Biogeographic regions are large areas that
are known as coastal wetlands. contain characteristic assemblages of animals
 Wetlands provide a variety of fish and and plants, delineated on account of natural
wildlife and are major breeding, nesting and barriers such as oceans, mountains and
migration staging areas for water birds and deserts. A biogeographic region is generally
shorebirds. Importance of wetlands cannot be characterised by high levels of species
underestimated as they act as traps and filters endemism (i.e. species which are restricted to
for water that move through them reducing a specific region only). Wallace in 1876
flooding. As a result, sediments are deposited proposed six biogeographic regions based on
and chemical interactions in wetlands distribution of animals: Nearctic,
neutralize and detoxify substances in water Neotropical, Palearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental
and slow seeping of water into the ground and Australian.
helps to replenish underground water  Nearctic realm- includes North America and
reserves. extends southwards covering half of Mexico.
 Estuaries are enclosed or semi closed bodies It includes Greenland in the east. It is
of water formed where a river meets the sea separated from all other regions by sea,
forming an area of mixed fresh and sea except for the narrow strip of land
water. Estuaries usually contain rich connection it has with the Neotropic region.
sediment forming mud flats. Estuaries are  Neotropical realm-It covers the whole of
very productive areas with high species South America, most of Mexico and the
diversity. They are important nurseries for West Indies. It is connected with the nearctic
ocean fish including all economically by the Central America.
important fish and molluscs. The estuaries  Palearctic realm- This realm includes the
extend inland to form the coastal wetlands. northern part of the old World. It covers the
In temperate areas, coastal wetlands usually whole of the Europe, the erstwhile USSR to
consist of mix of bays, lagoons and salt the Pacific coast, Northern China and Japan.
marshes, while in tropical areas we find In the South, it includes the Mediterranean
mangrove swamps dominated by mangrove Sea coastal strip of Africa and part of the
trees, the mangrove forests consist of north of Arabia.
 Ethiopian realm- The whole of the continent Philippines and the Moluccas in the north,
of Africa, south of the Atlas Mountains and between Borneo and Celebes in the south
Sahara, including the southern corner of west and between Bali and Lombok in the
Arabia, makes the Ethiopian region. South.
 Oriental realm- The Oriental region covers  Weber's line-It is based mainly on the
India, Indochina, South China, the whole of distribution of molluscan and mammalian
south-east Asia, the greater part of the fauna of the area. Weber’s line runs between
Indonesian archipelago and the Philippines. the Moluccas and Celebs and between Kei
It is bounded by the Himalayas and the islands and Timor. The islands falling
Tsinling Shan in the north and to the south between the oriental and Australian regions
and east by the Indian and Pacific oceans. and is referred to as Wallacea.
 Australian realm- This region includes  Kangar-Pattini line between India and
Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea and the Myanmar.
easternmost islands of the Malay BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
Archipelago, as demarcated by  Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in
Weber’s/Wallace’s lines. This region is species, have high endemism and are under
unique in not having land connection with constant threat.
any other region.  The British biologist Norman Myers coined
the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as a
biogeographic region characterized both by
exceptional levels of plant endemism and by
serious levels of habitat loss.
 According to Conservation International
(CI), to qualify as a hotspot a region must
meet two strict criteria: it must contain at
least 1,500 species of vascular plants (>
0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics, and it
Boundaries between biogeographic regions has to have lost at least 70% of its original
are called “biogeographic lines”. habitat Collectively, these areas held as
Examples are: endemics about 44% of the world’s plants
 Wallace’s line between Southeast Asia and and 35% of terrestrial vertebrates in an area
Australia–This line runs between the that formerly covered only 11.8% of the
planet’s land surface. These areas shrank to Earth's land surface. Currently there are 35
great extant and cover only 2.3% of the biodiversity hotspots.
World’s 35 Biodiversity Hotspots
I. Africa III. Europe and Central Asia
1. Cape Floristic Region 22. Caucasus

2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 23. Irano-Anatolian
3. Eastern Afromontane 24. Mediterranean Basin
4. Guinean Forests of West Africa 25. Mountains of Central Asia
5. Horn of Africa IV. North and Central America
6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands 27. California Floristic Province
7. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany 28. Caribbean Islands
8. Succulent Karoo 29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
II. Asia-Pacific 30. Mesoamerica
9. East Melanesian Islands
10. Himalaya V. South America
11. Indo-Burma 31. Atlantic Forest
12. Japan 32. Cerrado
13. Mountains of Southwest China 33. Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
14. New Caledonia 34. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
15. New Zealand 35. Tropical Andes
16. Philippines
17. Polynesia-Micronesia
18. Southwest Australia
19. Forests of Eastern Australia (new)
20. Sundaland
21. Wallacea
22. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
 Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed (ii) The threat criterion which decrees that a hot
across the globe. Species diversity increases spot should have lost 70% or more of its
in warm areas and decreases with increasing natural vegetation,
latitude. Reptile species diversity increases (iii) The presence of mammals, birds, reptiles and
towards the subtropics and tropics, and the amphibians and their endemism serve as a
diversity of birds and mammals also back-up to further facilitate comparison
increases towards the equator. As such, among the “hot-spots”.
tropical areas have more species in a given Megadiversity and Megadiversity centres
land area than a similar sized area in the  It was found that 60-70% of the total global
temperate zone. biodiversity could be found in just 17 out of
 Though, Diversity is also greater in areas of the over 200 countries of the world. Such
high rainfall compared with drier areas. In large concentration of biodiversity in small
terrestrial ecosystems diversity generally parts of the world gave rise to the concept of
decreases with increasing altitude although megadiversity, which was first proposed at
in some tropical forests, diversity is higher at the Smithsonian’s Biodiversity Conference
mid-altitudes-giving rise to what is called a in 1988.
“mid-altitude bulge”. In coastal aquatic  The megadiversity countries or centres are
environments biodiversity declines when Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
salinity declines from normal sea water (i.e. Zaire, Madagascar, Indonesia, Malaysia,
salinity 35 ppt). In contrast, biodiversity India, China and Australia, Papau new
declines in fresh water habitats when salinity guinea, Phillippines, South Africa, USA,
levels are >2ppt (parts per thousand). Venezula.
THE BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES OF

CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING
INDIA AND THEIR BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
India has been divided into ten biogeographic
The essential criterion to be met with in
zones: Trans-Himalayas, Himalayas, Indian
qualifying as a global “hot spot” is the
Desert, Semi-Arid, Western Ghats, Deccan
(i) Presence of at least 0.5% of 1,500 of the
Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North-East India,
world’s 300,000 vascular plant species as
Islands, and Coasts. In addition, each of
endemics.
these ten zones indicates a distinctive set of
physical, climatic and historical conditions.
Characteristics of biogeographic zones of India 2) Telangana
Biogeographical Zone Biotic Province
A) Palaeoarctic a) Ladakh c) Eastern Plateau
1) Trans-Himalayan b) N.W.Himalaya 1) Eastern Ghats
(Tibetan) c) W.Himalaya 2) Chatisgarh &
Dandakaranya
2) Himalayan d) Central Himalaya
e) East Himalaya d) Chhota-Nagpur
B) Paleotropical: 1) Chhota Nagpur
African (a) Kutch Plateau
3) Desert (b) Thar 2) Garhjat
Hills
(a) Punjab e) Central Highlands
4) Semi-Arid (b) Gujarat-Rajwara 1) Satpura-Maikal
C) Paleotropical: 2) Vidhya-
Indo-Malayan Bagelkhand
7) Gangetic Plain a) Upper Gangetic
5) Western Ghats a) Malabar Coast Plain
b) Western Ghats b) Lower Gangetic
Plain
6) Deccan Peninsula a) Deccan Plateau 8) North-East India a) Brahmaputra
(South) Valley
1) Tamil Nadu plains b) Assam Hills
2) Eastern Ghats 9) Coasts a) West Coast
(South) b) East Coast
3) Karnataka 10) Islands a) Andaman Islands
b) Nicobar Islands
b) Central Plateau c) Lakshadweep
(North) Islands
1)
Maharashtra
Zone 1: The Trans-Himalayas Zone 2: The Himalayas
 This zone covers mainly Ladakh and Lahul-  The Himalayan mountain ranges in India
Spiti at the high altitude mountainous terrain stretch for over 2,000 km. The environment
which is between 4,500-6,000m. This zone here is extremely harsh, as there are steep
represents an extremely fragile ecosystem, slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense
because of its harsh climatic conditions and rainfall. Moreover, the pressures of human
the inhospitable terrain. habitation, and the demand for timber,
 The vegetation of Ladakh and Lahul-Spiti is firewood and food are intense. All these
largely a sparse alpine steppe. In addition, factors have led to rapid degradation of this
several endemic species also occur here. This ecosystem that has taken toll of the
area within India, alongwith Pakistan and biological resources occurring here. There
Tibet has the richest wild sheep and goat are more endangered species in the
communities in the whole world. There are Himalayas than anywhere else in India.
eight distinct species and sub-species of  The Himalayan zone is one of the richest
sheep, the familiar ones are: Urial or Shapu, areas of India in terms of habitat and species
Argali or Nayan, Marco Polo Sheep, diversity. It shares its boundaries with many
Markhor and Blue Sheep. The flatter other ecosystems (EDGE Zone). The wildlife
plateaux have a distinct grazing community is so diverse that we need to look at it along
comprising of Wild Yak, Tibetan Ass, its altitudinal and longitudinal ranges, and
Tibetan Gazelle, Ibex and Tibetan Antelope. also along is east-west axis.
 In addition to these herbivores, there is an  First let us look at the wildlife within the
equally distinctive set of carnivores altitudinal range of Himalayas. These are:
including Snow Leopard, Indian Wolf, (i) The lower sub-tropical foot-hills. These have
Pallas’s Cat, Fox and smaller animals like typical mixed deciduous community merging
Marbled Pole Cat, Pika and Marmot. Of into Chir Pine and then Ban Oak. The fauna
these the Pallas’s Cat is endemic to this area. consists largely of Sambar, Muntjac, Wild
The lakes and marshes too, have a distinctive Boar, Black Bear, Goral and Kalij Pheasants.
avifauna including the spectacular Black- Deciduous community refers to plants that
necked Crane, which is a migratory bird. shed their leaves seasonally.
Avifauna refers to the birds of an area (ii) The temperate areas. These lie below 3,500
collectively. m. This zone has a complex mixture of
vegetation types with forests of Maples and
Walnuts, Moru and Oak a variety of conifers lbex. Markhor, Goral, Serow and Tahr. The
such as the Blue Pine, Fir and Spruce. All Tahr is now missing from Kashmir. The
these grow in an altitudinal sequence. The Hangul which is a sub-species of Red Deer is
fauna consists of Musk Deer, serow, Koklas restricted to this area.
and Monal pheasants. In winters, the high (ii) The Central Zone: There is a poor
altitude fauna such as Tahr move to these representation of large herbivores. The lbex,
areas. Markhor and Hangul populations have
(iii) The sub-alpine area. This area has forest and dwindled to nil. The Sikkim Stag is now
scrub vegetation of Birch and thought to be extinct in the Indian Territory.
Rhododendrons interspersed with grasslands (iii) The Eastern Zone: The Brown Bear, Bharal
with several kinds of herbs. These and Tahr found in other areas are absent
communities merge into the alpine here. Mishmi Takin a herbivore, is found
communities, with sparser cover to over here. This area has a higher tree line, and
5,000 m, where only rocks and snow supports arboreal forest animal at higher
dominate. Here, Musk Deer, Serow and Tahr altitudes. The Binturong, Red Panda and
share the lower ranges with Bharal, and in Lesser Cats are the characteristic eastern
the west lbex are more common at higher faunal elements found here. The Orchids are
levels. Along with altitude, the Pheasants of profuse and the alpine areas have an
wooded areas give way to the Snowcock. abundance of dwarf Rhododendrons that are
The panther gives way to the Snow Leopard shrubby.
and Wolf. The Black Bear is replaced by Zone 3: The Indian Desert
Brown Bear.  This zone is located in the western part of the
 On moving along the east-west axis country and is also known as the Thar
characteristic communities can be seen as Desert. Because of the extreme seasonality
well. We divide this axis in three sub zones, of rainfall and extreme livestock pressures, it
i.e., the western, central and the eastern is a fragile ecosystem.
zones.  The wildlife of the desert zone is peculiar not
(i) The Western Zone: This is a comparatively because of its great diversity of density, but
drier area with Deodars and Blue Pines. In because of the extraordinary ecological
addition, there are vast expanses of grassy adaptations to the desert conditions. Several
meadows. Several species of bovids are of the species are endemic to the Thar
typical of this area. These include the Bharal,
Desert. A distinct sub-species of Wild Ass is Amongst the carnivores, the Asiatic Lion is
confined to the Rann of Kutch, its restricted to a small area in Gujarat whereas
populations in Pakistan have dwindled away. Cheetah is now extinct. Many of the species
Besides this, the Desert Fox, Desert Cat, found here are in very low densities, and
Houbara Bustard and some Sand Grouse these are of conservation interest, e.g.,
species are restricted only to the Thar area. Caracal, Jackal, Wolf, Sloth Bear,
 This region also has exculsive breeding sites Blackbuck, Great Indian Bustard, Lesser
of birds like the Flamingoes in the Indian Florican, Flamingoes and both resident and
sub-continent breed chiefly in the Rann of migratory species of waterfowl. The rivers
Kutch. In addition, there are many species, and lakes too have prominent forms such as
that are in the endangered species’ list. For the Crocodile – Mugger and Gharial, and
example, the Chinkara, Blackbuck, Wolf, turtle populations.
Caracal and Great Indian Bustard, have  The largest population of Star Tortoise is
significantly numbered populations in this seen in this zone. Meghalaya is known for its
zone. botanical value, most of which are high
Zone 4: The Semi-Arid altitude Oak forests of Shillong-Cherrapunji
 This zone has strong biological links with plateaux. The area near Tripura-Mizoram
western Asia, primarily with Pakistan, Iran, border has exceptional wildlife species
Middle-east and Northern Africa. Many of diversity with four rare primate species:
the plants found here show African affinity, Hoolock Gibbon, Leaf Monkey and both
e.g., Acacia sp., , Balanites sp., Capparis sp., Pig-tailed and Stump-tailed Macaque.
and Grewia sp. One can see pure gregarious
Zone 5: The Western Ghats
forests of Anogeissus pendula along the
 The Western Ghats represent one of the
gentler slopes of Aravalli and associated hill
major tropical evergreen forest regions in
ranges. This is the only area where it occurs
India. The tropical evergreen forests occupy
in this form. Outside this area, A.pendula
about one third of the total area of this zone.
occurs in north Madhya Pradesh, mixed with
In recent years, a large chunk of the forest
teak.
cover has been lost and this zone is now of
 The fauna consists of larger herbivores –
great conservation concern, more so because
Blackbuck, Chowsingha, Gazelle and Nilgai.
of its exceptional biological richness.
The Sambar is restricted to the wooded hills
and Chital to the moist valley areas.
 About two-thirds of India’s endemic plants This zone has deciduous forest, thorn forests
are confined to this region. However, the and degraded shrub lands. There are small
potential of many of these species is yet to be areas of semi-evergreen forests in the Eastern
tapped. The Western Ghats constitute just Ghats and, dry evergreen forests or thorn
5% of the total land area! Of these 4,000 scrub on the coastal side of the plains of
species, almost half of them (about 18,00 Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
species) are endemic to this region. This  The Northern zone has forest dominated by
zone also plays an important role in the trees like Sal, especially in the Northeast,
maintaining the hydrological cycle. Teak, and miscellaneous species –
 The well known species found exclusively in (Terminalia – Anogeissus – Chloroxylon).
Western Ghats include the following: The southern half of the zone has dry, thorn
 Among Primates – Nilgiri Langur and Lion- forests having Acaci – Albizzia amara and
tailed Macaque Hardwickia associations. The natural
 Rodents – Plataconthomys, the Spiny grasslands are rare.
Dormouse of the southern ghats.  The faunal species are widespread
 Squirrels – Several subspecies of Ratufa throughout the whole zone, e.g., Chital,
indica with separate forms in Maharashtra, Sambar, Nilgai, Chowsingha, Barking Deer,
Mysore, Malabar and Tamil Nadu Ghats. and Gaur. Some species such as the
The Grizzled Squirrel is restricted to two Blackbuck are restricted to dry open area.
localities in the drier Tamil Nadu forest. Small, relict populations of species also exist
 Carnivores – Malabar Civet in southern e.g., Elephant (Bihar-Orissa, and Karnataka-
evergreen forests, Rusty spotted Cat in Tamil Nadu) and Wild Buffalo (in a small
northern deciduous forests. area at the junction of Orissa, M.P. and
 Ungulates – Nilgiri Tahr in Nilgiris to Maharashtra). The Hard Ground Swamp
Agastyamalai montane grassland. Deer is now restricted to a single locality in
 Hornbills – Malabar Grey Hornbill. M.P.
 In addition to the above endemic species, the  The Gharial is restricted to a few rivers
other species found are: Tiger, Leopard,
flowing to the Ganges and one area in the
Dhole, Sloth Bear, Indian Elephant and
Gaur. Mahanadi River. Amongst the carnivores,
Zone 6: The Deccan Peninsula the Rusty Spotted Cat has few small
 This zone covers the largest area in India that populations in Central India. Low density
amounts to about 43% of the total land mass. populations of Wolf are seen in the drier
areas. The Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Gaur, populations of Swamp and Hog Deer in a
Sambar, Chital, Chowsingha, and Boar are few places. The Rhinoceros, Bengal
present in sufficiently high densities, Florican, and Hispid Hare are found in low
particularly in the deciduous areas. numbers in the Eastern Terai of Duras. The
 The valuable, endemic plant resources such Sambar-Chital community if found in the
as the Red Sanders and Sandalwood are of Bhabar forests, with Goral in the areas with
immediate conservation concern. Similarly, steeper slopes.
there is also a need for conservation  The wetlands and rivers also contain
measures for the species – Moist Teak, Crocodile – Mugger and Gharial populations,
Southern and Coastal Sal, Umbrella Thorn, reflict populations of Gangetic Dolphin and a
and especially Orissa semi evergreen rich, fresh-water turtle community having
communities and dry evergreen forest. over 20 species.
Zone 8: North -East India
Zone 7: The Gangetic Plain
 North-East India represents the transition
 This zone has one of the most fertile areas in
(EDGE zone) between the India, Indo-
the world, and it supports a dense and
Malayan and Indo-Chinese regions as well as
growing human population. The original
the meeting point of Himalayan mountains
vegetation found in most of the area is no
and Peninsular India. It is one of the most
longer there, as a major portion of this area
important zones in the Indian Subcontinent
has been brought under cultivation. This
for its rich biological diversity and a large
zone is topographically homogeneous for
number of its species are endemic to this
hundreds of kilometers. The natural
zone. It is not only the species of plants that
vegetation and wildlife is found in the
are diverse, but also the animals’ exhibit
northern hilly and Tarai wet Belt. This zone
species richness not found anywhere else in
has a large number of lakes and seasonal
the world. It includes the states of Assam,
swamps. These have usually escaped
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland
drainage. This area is the habitat for
and Tripura. About 40% of this area is
migrating waterfowl.
occupied by forests.
 Small relict populations of Nilgai, Blackbuck
 The fauna consists of Rhinoceros, Buffalo,
nand Chinkara, interspersed with dense
Swamp Deer, Hog Deer, Pygmy Hog and
cultivation presently exist in the western
Hispid Hare. This area also contains the
areas. The northern Terai grasslands have
largest elephant populations. This is also the
fly-way for waterfowl and other birds Zone 9: The Islands
travelling between the warmth of the  In this category we shall discuss the
subcontinent and their summer grounds in Andaman and Nicobar group of islands in
the Bay of Bengal, and the Lakshadweeps in
Siberia and China.
the Arabian Sea.
 Within the Assam Hills, two further  The Andaman and Nicobar islands are a long
gradients of variations exist: an altitudinal group of 348 islands north-south oriented
gradient, and a rainfall gradient. stretching for about 590 km. These islands
1) An altitudinal gradient encompasses tropical are actually the extensions of the Arakan
evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, tropical Mountain range of Burma and they have
moist deciduous forest, subtropical hill forest several peaks over 500m. The Barren and
and temperate forest communities. The Narcondam Islands are volcanic, and are
higher reaches of Manipur virtually show a believed to be still active. The Andamans
sub-alpine shrub community. exhibit biogeographical affinity with Burma.
2) A rainfall gradient from exposed southern And the Nicobar Islands that are about 90 km
slopes, e.g., in south Meghalaya at from Sumatra show strong biogeographic
Cherrapunji with average annual closeness to South-east Asia. The Andaman
precipitation of over 11,000 mm, to sheltered and Nicobar Islands are one of India’s three
rain-shadow slopes with precipitation below tropical moist evergreen forest zones.
1,500 mm p.a. Of the endemics, members of  The zone possesses a unique kind of plant
Magnoliaceae occur in restricted areas, and animal life exhibiting a high degree of
whereas Balsiminaceae has wider endemism. One finds these islands with
distribution. impoverished mammal fauna. This may be
largely due to the isolation of Andaman and
Meghalaya is known for its botanical value, Nicobar Islands and the small island size.
most of which are high altitude Oak forests Amongst mammals, species of rodents and
of Shillong-Cherrapunji plateaux. The area bats dominate. Centuries back, pigs were
near Tripura-Mizoram border has introduced in these islands and these are now
exceptional wildlife species diversity with known as the ‘Andaman Pigs’. Besides these,
four rare primate species: Hoolock Gibbon, some other species like the Spotted Deer,
Leaf Monkey and both Pig-tailed and Stump- Hog Deer, Barking Deer, Goats, Elephant,
tailed Macaque. Sambar, Leopard and Palm-Civet are also
present.
 Some of these species are flourishing very  The islands have 4 species of Marine Turtle
well on these islands, and are believed to be – Green, Ridley, Hawks Bill and Leathery.
reducing the native fauna that includes Of these, the only nesting beach for Leathery
certain ground nesting birds and common rat. Turtle over half of the Green Turtle nesting
The indigenous mammal species that need to area is in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
be conserved include the Nicobar Macaque, The small population of Asiatic Box Turtle –
also known as the Crab-eating Macaque, and a fresh water turtle, is a cause of concern.
a distinctive race of the widespread Long- These waters are said to have the richest fish
tailed Macaque, the Nicobar tree-Shrew, and and coral communities in India. Several
the Dugong found commonly in the coastal species of Dolphins are present and Whale
waters off the Andaman and Nicobar. sightings are frequent.
 The avifauna consists of peculiar examples  The Lakshadweep islands comprise of some
include a mound building bird found in low 25 islets, forming three main groups:
densities around sandy shores and littoral Amindivi Islands in the north; Laccadive or
forests, and the Nicobar Megapode. It is Cannanore Islands in the centre, and Minicoy
highly endangered. Island. These islands are of coral origin and
 Another interesting endemic avi-species is have a typical reef lagoon system. These
the Narcondum Hornbill that is restricted to islands are of coral origin.
7 sq km volcanic island ‘Narcondum’ to the
east of the Andamans. The Serpent Eagle,  The reefs have excellent examples of tropical
and the ‘Andamans’ or ‘Grey Teal’ – a inshore marine ecosystems needing
gregarious Duck of brackish and fresh water immediate protection. The shallow sea
forest pools, is again restricted to Andamans lagoons have marine angiosperm pastures
and is highly endangered. It has been seen that are Dugong’s feeding grounds. These
that many endemic species are restricted to islands are also major feeding grounds for
‘dense evergreen forests’ like the Nicobar Turtles and there are some Green Turtle
Pigeon, Andaman Wood Pigeon, Nicobar nesting sites also. Several oceanic bird
Parakeet and the Nicobar Crested Serpent species have resting sites on uninhabited
Eagle. The conservation of these endemic islets. Some sea birds are so peculiar that
species calls for immediate preservation of they have chosen only two islets as their
their original habitats. nesting sites. These are Pitti and Baliapani.
Zone 10: The Coasts Forestry in India
 India has a vast coastal stretch of about 5689  Forestry is defined as the theory and practice
km. On the west, the Arabian Sea washes the of all that constitutes the creation,
shores of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, conservation and scientific management of
Karnataka and Kerala States. On the east, the forests and the utilization of their resources
Bay of Bengal washes the coasts of (Anon, 1966). It includes all thinking and all
Sunderbans in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra actions pertaining to creation and
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. The southern management of forests, including harvesting,
promontory of Indian Peninsula is bathed by marketing and utilization of all forest
the Gulf of Mannar and Indian Ocean, along products and services. It includes not only
the coasts of southern portions of Tamil management of existing forests but also the
Nadu. creation of new forests.
 Some of the interesting coastal wildlife  Different types of forests:
species include: Dugong; Hump-back  India has a diverse range of forests: from the
Dolphin of estuarine turbid waters; Estuarine rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine
or salt-water Crocodile; Olive Ridley, Green, pastures of Ladakh in the north, from the
Hawksbill, Leather and Loggerhead sea deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the
Turtles; the Estuarine Turtle – Batagur evergreen forests in the north-east. Climate,
basker of Sunderbans and the huge Soft-shell soil type, topography, and elevation are the
Estuarine Turtle; Pelochelys birbornii off the main factors that determine the type of
Utkal-bengal Coast fish – mud skippers or forest. Forests are classified according to
semi-terrestrial Gobies, small Crabs in their nature and composition, the type of
association with Anemones; avifaunal climate in which they thrive, and its
communities of mangrove, mud flats and relationship with the surrounding
lagoons. In the higher regions of mangroves, environment.
there are Spotted Deer, Pigs, Monitor  Forests can be divided into six broad types,
Lizards, Monkeys, and the Sunderban Tiger. with a number of sub types.
(A) Moist tropical forests
(1) Wet evergreen
 Wet evergreen forests are found in the south
along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and
Andaman Islands and all along the north-
eastern region. It is characterized by tall, trees and evergreen shrubs in the
straight evergreen trees that have a buttressed undergrowth. These forests are dominated by
trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and
helps to keep a tree upright during a storm. rosewood.
 These trees often rise to a great height before (4) Littoral and swamp
they open out like a cauliflower. The more  Littoral and swamp forests are found along
common trees that are found here are the the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, and delta area of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
hollock.  It consists mainly of whistling pines,
 The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: mangrove dates, palms, and bulletwood.
shrubs cover the layer closer to the ground, They have roots that consist of soft tissue so
followed by the short structured trees and that the plant can breathe in the water.
then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various
colours and different varieties of orchids (B) Dry tropical forests
grow on the trunks of the trees. (5) Dry deciduous forest
(2) Semi-evergreen  Dry deciduous forests are found throughout
 Semi-evergreen forests are found in the the northern part of the country except in the
Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar North-East. It is also found in Madhya
Islands, and the Eastern Himalayas. Such Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
trees and the moist deciduous tress. The  The canopy of the trees does not normally
forest is dense and is filled with a large exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the
variety of trees of both types. sal, a variety of acacia, and bamboo.
(3) Moist deciduous (6) Thorn
 Moist deciduous forests are found  This type is found in areas with black soil:
throughout India except in the western and North, West, Central, and South India. The
the north-western regions. The trees have trees do not grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge,
broad trunks, are tall and have branching caper, and cactus are typical of this region.
trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the (7) Dry evergreen
ground.  Dry evergreens are found along the Andhra
 Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It has mainly
the dry season. There is a layer of shorter
hard-leaved evergreen trees with fragrant (9) Pine
flowers, along with a few deciduous trees.  Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes
(C) Sub alpine of the Shivalik Hills, Western and Central
 Sub alpine forests extends from Kashmir to Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills.
Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 The trees predominantly found in these areas
metres. In the Western Himalayas, the are the chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine. In
vegetation consists mainly of juniper, the lower regions sal, sandan, amla, and
rhododendron, willow, and black currant. laburnum are found.
 In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, (10) Dry evergreen
birch, and larch are the common trees. Due  Dry evergreen forests normally have a
to heavy rainfall and high humidity the prolonged hot and dry season and a cold
timberline in this part is higher than that in winter. It generally has evergreen trees with
the West. Rhododendron of many species shining leaves that have a varnished look.
covers the hills in these parts.  Some of the more common ones are the
pomegranate, olive, and oleander. These
(D) Montane sub tropical forests forests are found in the Shivalik Hills and
(8) Broad-leaved forests foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of
 Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern 1000 metres.
Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the (E) Montane temperate forests
Silent Valley. There is a marked difference (11) Wet
in the form of the vegetation in the two areas.  Wet montane temperate forests occur in the
 In the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, North and the South. In the North, it is found
rhododendron, and fragrant grass are in the region to the east of Nepal into
predominant. In the Eastern Himalayas, the Arunachal Pradesh, at a height of 1800–3000
flora has been badly affected by the shifting metres, receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000
cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests mm.
consist mainly of evergreen trees with a  In the South, it is found in parts of the
sprinkling of deciduous here and there. Niligiri Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala.
 There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and The forests in the northern region are denser
cherry trees. There are a large variety of than in the South. This is because over time
orchids, bamboo and creepers. the original trees have been replaced by fast-
growing varieties such as the eucalyptus.
Rhododendrons and a variety of ground flora Myanmar border. It has a low scrub, dense
can be found here. evergreen forest, consisting mainly of
 In the North, there are three layers of forests: rhododendron and birch. Mosses and ferns
the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the cover the ground in patches. This region
middle layer has deciduous trees such as the receives heavy snowfall.
oak and the lowest layer is covered by (15) Dry
rhododendron and champa.  Dry alpines are found from about 3000
(12) Moist metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants
 This type spreads from the Western predominate, mainly the black juniper, the
Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.
trees found in the western section are broad-
leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, National Forest Policy of 1952,
rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern Himalayas, recommended that on the basis of Functions,
the rainfall is much heavier and therefore the all forest lands may be classified into:
vegetation is also more lush and dense. A. Protection Forests
 There are a large variety of broad-leaved B. National Forests/production forests
trees, ferns, and bamboo. Coniferous trees C. Village Forests/social forests
are also found here, some of the varieties
being different from the ones found in the National Commission of Agriculture (1976)
South. proposed that forests can be classified into:
(13) Dry
 This type is found mainly in Lahul, Kinnaur, A. Protection Forests:
Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas.  The practices of managing the forests for
There are predominantly coniferous trees their protection function are called Protection
that are not too tall, along with broad-leaved forestry. In protection forestry, the object is
trees such as the oak, maple, and ash. At to protect the site due to instability of terrain,
higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and nature of soil, geological formations, etc.
chilgoza can be found. Such areas where manipulation of the forest
(F) Alpine cover is not desirable may be classed as
(14) Moist protection forests.
 Moist alpines are found all along the  The forests located on higher hill slopes,
Himalayas and on the higher hills near the national parks and sanctuaries, preservation
plots, biosphere or nature reserves and community aiming at bettering the
wilderness areas may be included under conditions of living through:
protection forests. (i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small
 The practice of forestry with a view to timber requirements
conserving flora, fauna, soil and water, (ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
increasing water yields, reducing floods and (iii) Meeting recreational needs and
droughts, amelioration of climatic (iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm
conditions, etc. is called Protection Forestry. returns
B. Production Forests:
 The practice of forestry with object of Various forms of Social forestry are:
producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel a) Community Forestry: The practice of
wood and other forest produce is called forestry on lands outside the conventional
Production Forestry. The production forestry forest area for the benefit of local population
can be further classified into: has been called Community forestry.
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry Community forestry seeks the involvement
aims to get maximum production of timber, of community in the creation and
fuel wood and other forest products as a management of such forests.
business enterprise. b) Farm Forestry: Farm Forestry is defined as
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims the practice of forestry in all its aspect on
at producing raw material required for farms of village lands generally integrated
industry. In Production forestry, there is a with other farm operations.
greater concern for the production and c) Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which
economic returns. includes the activity of raising trees on farm
(iii) Mixed Quality Forests lands, villages wastelands and community
(iv) Valuable Forests forest areas and on lands along the sides of
(v) Inaccessible Forests roads, canal banks and railway lines (Anon.,
C. Social Forests: 1976). More recently, there has been
 Social Forestry is the practice of forestry emphasis on dynamic land use planning and
which aims at meeting the requirement of efforts are made to maximise production on
rural and urban population. The object of farmlands under agroforestry.
social forestry is to meet the basic needs of d) Agro-Forestry: Agro-forestry has been
defined as a sustainable land management
system which increases the yield of the land, protection, conservation and development of
combines the production of crops and forest forests. Its main aims are,
plants and/or animals simultaneously or (i) maintenance of environmental stability
sequentially on the same unit of land and through the preservation and restoration of
applies management practices that are ecological balance.
compatible with the cultural practices of the (ii) conservation of natural heritage.
local population. (iii) control of soil erosion and denudation in
e) Recreational Forestry: More recently, there catchment areas of rivers, lakes and
has been considerable demand for reservoirs.
Recreational forestry, which is defined as the (iv) check on extension of sand dunes in desert
practice of forestry with the object of areas.
developing and maintaining forests of high (v) increase in forest tree cover through massive
scenic value. Recreational forests are being afforestation and social forestry programmes.
developed near towns and cities. The areas (vi) meet requirements of tribal and rural
are being planted with flowering trees, populations of firewood. Fodder, minor
shrubs and creepers to provide forest forest produce and soft timber,
atmosphere near towns and cities. (vii) increase the overall productivity of forests for
Conservation of forests national needs,
Conservation of resources, including forest (viii) encourage efficient utilization of forest
resources aims at their rational and cautious produce and optimum substitution of wood,
use, so that they will remain available for (ix) encourage the participation of people in
future generations. Forest conservation is achieving these objectives
intimately linked with the conservation of
National Forestry Action Programme
biodiversity and wildlife. Thus, an integrated
(NFAP) -1999
approach needs to be developed to obtain
Its prime objective is to “achieve sustainable
optimum results.
development and conservation of forest
Forest Policy in India
resources” through the involvement of all
India boasts of a forest policy dating back to
stakeholders including the local community.
1894. This was revised in 1952 and again
NFAP prescribes that,
amended in 1988. The National Forest Policy
(i) Tribal must be involved in all aspects of
of 1988 emphasizes the concepts of
forestry.
(ii) There should be active involvement of afforestation. Together, these two strategies
people in decision making process, have resulted in a net gain in the forest cover
(iii) Integrated and multipurpose management in many areas.
should be adopted in preference to single- Reforestation
purpose monoculture.  The replanting of trees and the regeneration
(iv) There should be a ‘national policy on of a forest, in areas previously cleared of
grazing’. their forest cover is referred to as
(v) Tenurial security to forest dwellers and tribal reforestation. Many countries have
communities need to be ensured, and aggressively pursued reforestation
(vi) A system of benefit sharing with programmes with positive results.
participating parties/people be established.  For a long time, great emphasis was laid on
Joint Forest Management (JFM) encouraging large monoculture tree
The National Forest Policy, 1988 prescribes plantations as the sole means of achieving
the creation of a massive people’s movement reforestation targets. Large sized plantations
through involvement of village communities employing single-species, single-use,
living a close to the forest for the protection intensive cropping were readily adopted
and development of forests. The Government since they were more result oriented. These
of India, asked the State Governments to monoculture plantations produce a high
involve local communities in the density of a single or a few species in a
management of forests. relatively short period.
Forest Conservation Strategies Monoculture Plantations and its
 Protection and maintenance of forest Consequences
ecosystems could be done in situ(=at the site) In monoculture, natural forests and
or, if necessary, ex situ(=off the site), by woodlands are replaced by plantations
integrating it with the conservation of consisting of rows of trees belonging to one a
biodiversity. few species. . The trees were chosen for their
 The major thrust in most of the conservation commercial value, and speed monoculture
efforts still continues to be two-pronged- forestry became the primary method in many
improve the canopy cover in degraded forest result-oriented reforestation and afforestation
by reforestation and convert non-forest and programmes due to the fast growth of these
degraded wastelands into forests by species. However, such monoculture
plantations make a mockery of ecological Afforestation
principles and eventually end up as  The planting of trees on land hitherto
ecological disasters. They suffer from the unoccupied by trees or forest is called
following disadvantage and undesirable afforestation. Trees are planted on available
consequences: land, mainly public land. Ideally, areas
(i) The tree populations completely lack contiguous with forestland are chosen for
diversity and have almost the same age: afforestation, although it can be carried out
(ii) Highly vulnerable to attacks by pests and on hill slopes, roadsides, and recreational
pathogens. For example, bark beetles, which parks, around and along water bodies or even
are not dangerous in natural conifers, assume on wasteland.
disastrous proportions in monoculture spruce  The potential areas on which forest cover can
plantations; be expanded through afforestation in India
(iii) Alteration in soil structure, are the “culturable wastelands”, covering
 Production of a more-humus and fulvic acid 13.94 million ha and part of the “fallow land
which encourage podsolization. other than current fallows”, covering 9.89
 Reduction in the porosity of topsoil making million ha.
it impermeable;  However, afforestation may not succeed in
(iv) Modification of water cycle; every area, since it increases the demand for
 Increased in run-off water; water and soil nutrients. The effect it may
 Increased loss of water due to evaporation; have on the local conditions should be
(v) Effects on soil fauna, like earthworms, carefully assessed before launching such
arthropods and decomposers; programmes. Like in the case of
 Decrease in earthworm population, reforestation, there is a tendency to adopt
 Reduction in arthropod diversity, monoculture methods in afforestation too,
 Reduction in bacterial decomposer activity; with similar consequences, most of which
(vi) Greatly, reduced density and diversity of bird are undersirable. In India, the National
life, due to the mono-specific and uniformly Afforestation and Eco-Development Board
aged tree populations; (NAEB) undertakes the tasks of regenerating
(vii) Higher susceptibility to forest fire, degraded forests and afforestation.
especially in conifer forests;  Afforestation programmes are area oriented
(viii) Higher levels of input costs, in the form and specifically target degraded forest areas,
pesticides and fertilizers. lands contiguous with forests, national parks
and other protected areas, and ecologically Production Forestry
fragile areas like the Western Himalayas,  Forests are capable of yielding many
Western Ghats etc. products on a sustainable basis. The
Types of Forestry Practices traditional uses of forests, such as tapping
Based on the nature of a forest, the degree rubber, harvesting fruits, oils and medicinal
and type of its exploitation for human needs, plants, and practicing agroforestry, are non-
and the level of participatory management destructive in nature. If not overdone, they
forestry practices can be divided into allow enough time for the forest to
Protection forestry, Production forestry and regenerate and provide continuous yields
Community forestry (including Social and over a long time.
Agroforestry). Accordingly, the management  Many studies have shown that the economic
practices for each forest system would vary returns from such traditional practices are
considerably. much higher than the return obtained from
Protection Forestry logging, shifting agriculture or cattle
 This is practiced in areas where the forests ranching. The total income from fruits and
are ecologically very fragile and are hence latex in a tropical forest was 9 times as much
greatly endangered. Such areas demand as the income from its timber. Even timber
protection from any form of exploitation as can be harvested on a sustainable basis by
even relatively minor disruptions by human employing methods such as strip cutting.
activity may result in serious imbalances. Community Forestry
Therefore, no commercial exploitative  This is diverse group of forestry practices,
activity is allowed in protected forests. which primarily aims at achieving forest
 Areas in the country where the main regimes conservation with the active participation of
are located are examples of such forestry the local community.
practices. In India, protection forestry is  Community forestry is defined as “forestry
practiced by designating forests as reserve designed and applied to meet local social
forests, and by having a network of Protected household and environmental need and to
Areas (PA), in the form of Biosphere favour local economic development”. The
Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife relevance of such practices lies in the fact
Sanctuaries. that there is a huge human population living
in areas contiguous to or adjoining forests.
 Since they are dependent on the forests for wood to sell or use for firewood, and
their resources. In community forestry, individuals earning income from the
professional foresters and other experts help gathering, processing and sale of minor
villages to develop woodlots and to forest products such as fruits nuts,
regenerate degraded forests in order to mushrooms, herbs and honey.
achieve sustainable local harvest to meet  While conventional production forestry
local needs. Forest conservation thus focuses on the wood that trees produce,
becomes a collective responsibility as well as social forestry focuses on people, on
a participatory efforts. community involvement and on the trees that
Social Forestry provide direct and indirect benefits locally.
 Social forestry includes practices aimed at The approach therefore is used to create
using public and common land to produce immediate economic and social benefits to
firewood, fodder and small timber in a local people or communities from their
decentralized way in order to relieve the immediate locality.
pressure on conservation of forests.It Agroforestry
embodies the virtues of community Agroforestry is a collective name for all
involvement and participation in achieving land use systems and practices in which
the goal of forest protection along with the woody perennials are deliberately grown on
development of some degree of self-reliance the same land management unit as crops
for the local community. Social forestry, thus and/or livestock with the aim of obtaining
represents, an acknowledgement of the rights output on a sustainable basis.
of local populations. It is a land-use approach that yields both
 Social forestry programmes are designed to wood products and crops, as it integrates tree
motivate large numbers of people to plant growing into farming systems. The main
trees, to promote trees which can supply premise in its practice is that woody
firewood, small timber, grasses and income, perennials in the landscape can enhance the
and to provide increased benefits to the productivity and sustainability of agricultural
poorer strata in society. These programmes practice.
are especially aimed at involving farmers and Forest Report 2015
the landless. State of Forests Report is published by the
 Social forestry can incorporate a wide variety Forest Survey of India (FSI) on a biennial
of activities, including farmers growing basis since 1987. Forest cover of the country
is mapped through indigenous E-Watch
RESOURCESAT -2 satellite data with a It is a web based GIS application developed
LISS III sensor. for monitoring various activities funded
Canopy and Canopy Density under CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation
The cover of branches and Foliage formed Fund Management and Planning Authority)
by the crown of trees is called Canopy. The CAMPA is meant to promote afforestation
percentage area of land covered by the activities in order to compensate for forest
canopy of trees is called Canopy density. land diverted to non-forest uses).
Forest Cover Carbon Stock
All lands which are more than 1 hectare in It is defined as the amount of carbon stored
area and with a Canopy density of more than in the ecosystem of the forest especially in
10% irrespective of the ownership and legal living biomass and soil.
status is called Forest Cover. Also it does not Types of Forest Covers:
make any distinction whether the forest is The degraded forest lands which have a
natural or manmade forest, government or Canopy density of less than 10% are called
private, recorded or not recorded. It includes Scrubs. The Lands with Canopy density of
bamboo, orchards, palm etc. 10-40% are called Open Forests. The Land
with forest cover having a canopy density of
Recorded Forest Area and Forest Blank
40-70% is called the Moderately Dense
 The area recorded as “forests” in the
Forest (MDF). The Lands with forest cover
Government records is called Forest Area or
having a canopy density of 70% and more
Recorded Forest Area. The patches within
are called Very Dense Forests (VDF).
the forest area which have little or no trees
Key findings:
are called “Forest Blank”.
 Total forest cover in India: 7,01,673sq km
 The recorded Forest Area denotes the legal
(increase of 3775 sq km)
status of the land. It is defined as the
 Total forest cover as percentage of
geographic area recorded as forest in
geographical area: 21.34 per cent
government records, state law or any local
 Total tree cover in India: 92,572 sq km
law. It is different from the forest cover as
(increase of 1306 sq km)
forest area may include areas with less than
 Total tree cover as percentage of
10% of tree canopy density and may exclude
geographical area : 2.82 per cent
areas more than 10% of tree canopy density.
 State with largest total forest cover: Madhya the country towards achieving INDC target
Pradesh having 77, 462 sq km of additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3.0 billion
 State having highest forest cover as % of its tonnes of CO2.
area: Mizoram (88.93 per cent) Deforestation in India
 Increase in carbon sink:103 million tonnes Deforestation refers to:
CO2 equivalent.  the removal or cutting down of forest trees,
Top five states with maximum forest cover and transformation of natural vegetation and
India’s top five states with maximum forest forests into clear land,
cover (in km²) are as follows:  Without making any arrangement for the
1. Madhya Pradesh (77,462) replenishment or re-plantation of the forest
2. Arunachal Pradesh (67,248) trees.
3. Chhattisgarh (55,586) In simple words, deforestation refers to the
4. Maharashtra (50,628) deliberate process of destroying the forests,
5. Orissa (50,354) so that the clear land may be put to other use.
Examples of deforestation include
Top five states with maximum forest cover
conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or
as part of their area Top five states / UTs
urban use. Tropical rainforests is where the
with maximum forest cover as percentage of
most concentrated deforestation occurs.
their own geographical area are as follows:
About 30% of Earth's land surface is covered
1. Mizoram (88.93%)
by forests.
2. Lakshadweep (84.56%)
Causes of Deforestation
3. A&N islands (81.84%)
The most important causes of deforestation
4. Arunachal Pradesh (80.30%)
are human ignorance and greed.
5. Nagaland (78.21%)
Besides uncontrollable degradation of
Total Carbon Stock
environment, forests in India were cleared
 The total carbon stock has also increased by
for
103 million tonnes or an increase of 1.48 in
 agriculture and farming,
percentage terms compared to previous
 Population pressure for wood and forest
assessments.
produce
 The total carbon stock in the country’s forest
 Rapid urbanization
is around 7, 044 million tonnes. The increase
 Development projects like dams, industries,
in the carbon stock shows the commitment of
roads and Power Plants etc.
The harmful effects of Deforestation very dense and mid-dense forests have been
 The exploitation of forests (deforestation) is wiped out since 2013
has been done in the past in the name of so-  States of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand,
called human welfare and development. Meghalaya, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh,
 The past century saw massive deforestation Karnataka and Telangana have suffered huge
in India. In India, many wild animals and loss of forest cover
birds are having become rare species due to  Around 2,254 square kilometre of mid-dense
massive deforestation. forest cover has turned into non-forest lands
 Forests are nature’s protective shield, but this in the past two years.
shield is being eroded by human folly and
greed. Indiscriminate cutting of trees leads to VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
the following situation, viz. Understanding the value of biological
 disturbs the ecological balance, diversity is vital to maintain the enormous
 causes environmental pollution, range of genes, species and ecosystems that
 soil erosion and landslides, the earth supports. This can be looked at in
 floods, many ways. One way would be to understand
 water sources may get dried, the “resource” or “use” value of various
 Climatic changes. components of biodiversity which are used
 Present scenario in India by humans. Biodiversity has also; however,
 Due to deforestation, the forest cover of great “non-resource” or “non-use” value such
India has fallen below the minimum as maintaining ecosystem functions.
recommended level. According to experts, Biodiversity can also be viewed in terms of
forests should cover about one-third of the economic and non-economic values. The
total area of country. But in India forests economic value of a biological resource may
covers around 24% of the total area. be broken down into a range of use and non-
 Although the total forest cover has seen an use values that are of direct or indirect
increase, around 2,510 square kilometre of benefit of humans.
Categories of values of biodiversity
Direct Use Value (Goods) Indirect Use Value (Services) Non-Use Value
Food, medicine, building material, fibre, Atmospheric and Potential (or Option
fuel climate regulation, pollination, Value)  Future
nutrient recycling value either as a good
or a service
Cultural, Spiritual, and Aesthetic Existence Value 
Value of knowing
something exists
Bequest Value 
Value of knowing that
something will be
there for future
generations
Biodiversity produces goods and services for benefits to us. Others believe that we have a
the most fundamental of our needs – clean moral responsibility to protect biodiversity
air, fresh water, food, medicines and shelter. simply because all organisms have value,
It also provides people with recreational, whether or not we understand their benefits
psychological, emotional and spiritual to us.
enjoyment. Some people believe we should
protect and restore biodiversity because of its
Goods and services provided by different ecosystems

Ecosystem Goods Services
Terrestrial  Food crops  Maintain limited watershed functions
 Fibre crops (infiltration, flow control, partial soil
 crop as genetic resources protection)
 Provide habitat for birds, pollinators,
soil organisms
important to agriculture
 Sequester atmospheric carbon
 Provide employment
Coastal  Fish and shellfish  Moderate storm impacts
ecosystem  Fishmeal (animal feed) (mangroves; barrier islands)
s  Seaweeds(for food and industrial  Provide wildlife (marine and
use) terrestrial) habitat
 Salt  Maintain biodiversity
 Genetic resources  Dilute and treat wastes
 Provide harbour and transportation
routes
 Provide human and wildlife habitat
 Contribute aesthetic beauty and
provide recreation
Forest  Timber  Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
ecosystem  Fuelwood  Cycle nutrients
s  Drinking and irrigation water  Maintain array of watershed
 Fodder functions (infiltration, purification,
 Nontimber products flow control, soil stabilization)
(vines, bamboos, leaves, etc.)  Maintain biodiversity
 Food (honey, mushrooms, fruit,  Sequester atmospheric carbon
and other edible plants; game)  Moderate weather extremes and
 Genetic resources impacts
 Generate soil
provide recreation
Miscellaneous  Drinking and irrigation water  Buffer water flow (control timing and
 Fish volume)
 Hydroelectricity  Dilute and carry away wastes
 Genetic resources  Cycle nutrients
 Maintain biodiversity
 Provide aquatic habitat
 Provide transportation corridor
provide recreation
 Livestock (food,game, hides,  Maintain array of watershed functions
fibre) (infiltration, purification, flow control,
 Drinking and irrigation water soil stabilization)
 Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
 Generate soil
provide recreation
LOSS OF GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY quickly – on the scale of thousands of years.

 As many as 500 million kinds of plants, Scientists have documented five mass
animals and microorganisms have made extinctions since the emergence of life on
earth their home since life began, over 3.5 this planet some 3.8 billion years ago.
billion years ago. Presently, it is believed  Asia’s biodiversity is being gradually lost.
that there are only 5 to 10 million species While it is not possible to quantify rates of
alive. A few species naturally become extinct species loss very precisely, high rates of
over time and it is believed that however, land, fresh water and marine habitat
during certain periods of geological time, degradation in this region is a reflection of
great numbers have been lost relatively species loss.
Causes of loss of Biodiversity: Atlantic halibut and the Pacific and Atlantic
The main causes of biodiversity loss include salmon are now threatened.
land-use changes, changing levels of  Current logging rates threaten to eliminate
atmospheric carbon dioxide, changing mahogany and other tree species that take
climate, invasive species and nitrogen many years to grow and mature.
deposition (air pollution). The causes of  Over harvesting of resources includes Poor
biodiversity loss are many and varied, and land use planning, Selective removal of
often interrelated. economically important organisms,
(1) Habitat Destruction Replacement of indigenous varieties of crop
 Habitat refers to the area where species seek species with new hybrids, hunting.
food, get shelter, and reproduce. The greatest (3) Hunting and Export
threat to wild plant and animal species is due  The hunting and export of excessive numbers
to destruction or alteration of their habitat. of certain animal species is another important
Consequently, it must compete with the local factor leading to dangerous reductions in
population of the same species as well as numbers. There are three main types of
other animals. The other option is that it hunting:
must migrate into a marginal habitat where it i) Commercial hunting – in which the animals
may succumb to predation, starvation or are killed for profit from sale of their furs or
disease. other parts;
 Some habitats are more vulnerable to species ii) Subsistence hunting – the killing of animals
extinction, these are called fragile habitats. to provide enough food for survival; and
Coral reefs, oceanic islands and mountain iii) Sport hunting – the killing of animals for
tops are important fragile habitats. recreation. Although subsistence hunting was
(2) Over Exploitation of Resources once a major cause of extinction of some
 People use some plant and animal species at species, it has now declined sharply in most
a greater rate than the species can replace areas.
themselves, which can lead to extinction. (4) Selective Destruction
 Nine of the world’s major ocean fisheries are  The selective destruction of one species of an
declining because of too much fishing as existing fauna can produce equally
well as water pollution and habitat unfortunate results. Extinction or near
destruction. Popular commercial species extinction can also occur because of attempts
such as the southern blue fin tuna, the
to exterminate pest and predator species that introduced or exotic species – are considered
compete with people and livestock for food. the most important cause of biodiversity loss.
(5) Pollution  They range from microbes to mammals.
 Pollution comes in many forms – oil spills, Invasive species also cause economic and
acid precipitation, toxic chemicals in environmental havoc. Invasive species can
fertilizers and pesticides, and urban and also alter fire cycles, nutrient cycling and the
suburban sewage runoff, to name a few. hydrology and energy budgets in native
Pollution may kill organisms outright or it ecosystems. The problem of invasive species
may weaken them by interfering with vital will rise severely through climate change.
processes such as mobility and reproduction. (8) Domestication
(6) Global Climate Change  It means that man has taken under his direct
 By burning fossil fuels such as oil, natural care the living beings which are useful to
gas and coal and by burning trees to clear him. Through extensive breeding
forests, we have dramatically increased the programmes, he has modified them to derive
amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. The maximum benefit of their products.
changed atmospheric conditions that result  During the process, the species have lost
from global warming could create greater certain useful characteristics so much so that
numbers of intense storms and prolonged these forms cannot survive on their own in
droughts. nature. A very good example is corn, which
 The expected speed of climate changes is pampered so much by man that if it is left
coupled with direct loss of natural habitat on its own, it cannot survive.
may prevent some species from adapting Categorization of Species
quickly enough. They are likely to become Threatened Species
extinct, locally or more broadly, and their  India ranks second in terms of the number of
roles in natural systems will be lost forever. threatened mammals and sixth in terms of
(7) Invasive Species countries with the most threatened birds
 Purposely or accidentally, people often bring (IUCN, 2000). Many plant and animal
non-native species into new areas where the species are threatened by the possibility of
species have few or no natural predators to extinction. However, the seriousness of the
keep their populations in check. These threat varies. For example, a species with
invasive species – also called alien, fewer than 50 known survivors living in one
small area is in much more critical condition recovered to a point where they are no longer
than another with 5,000 individuals living in threatened. With passing time, the number of
several areas. pink pages continues to increase.
 The Survival Service Commission (now The categories of threatened species (IUCN)
called Species Survival Commission) of Extinct (EX)
International Union of Conservation of A taxon is Extinct when there is no
Nature (IUCN) has established four reasonable doubt that the last individual has
categories of threatened species. These died. A taxon is presumed extinct when
describe the degree to which a species is exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected
threatened with extinction. These categories habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal,
are: Threatened defected, intermediate out of seasonal, annual), and throughout its historic
danger. range have failed to record an individual.
The Red Data Book Surveys should be over a time frame
 The book gives information on the status of appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life
various species. This is issued by the form.
International Union for Conservation of Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Nature (IUCN) located in Morges, A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is
Switzerland. “Red” symbolizes the danger known only to survive in cultivation, in
that these species both plants and animals captivity or as a naturalized population (or
presently experience throughout the globe. populations) well outside the past range. A
 The Red Data Book was first issued in 1966 taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when
by the IUCN’s Special Survival Commission exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected
as a guide for formulation, preservation and habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal,
management of species listed. Endangered seasonal, annual), throughout its historic
mammals are given importance and are range have failed to record an individual.
extensively covered in this book. Information Surveys should be over a time frame
on less prominent organisms facing appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life
extinction is also given. form.
 The pink pages in this publication include Critically Endangered (CR)
the critically endangered species. Green A taxon is Critically Endangered when the
pages are used for those species that were best available evidence indicates that it meets
formerly endangered, but have now any of the criteria for Critically Endangered,
i.e. reduction in population (> 90% over the Near Threatened (NT)
last 10 years), population size (number less A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been
than 50 mature individuals), quantitative evaluated against the criteria but does not
analysis showing the probability in wild in at qualify for Critically Endangered,
least 50% in their 10 years) and it is Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close
therefore considered to be facing an to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. threatened category in the near future.
Endangered (EN) Least Concern (LC)
A taxon is Endangered when the best A taxon is Least Concern when it has been
available evidence indicates that it meets any evaluated against the criteria and does not
of the criteria for Endangered, i.e. reduction qualify for Critically Endangered,
in population size (70% over the last 10 Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened.
years), population size estimated to number Widespread and abundant taxa are included
fewer than 250 mature individuals, in this category.
quantitative analysis showing the probability Data Deficient (DD)
of extinction in wild in at least 20% within A taxon is Data Deficient when there is
20 years and it is therefore considered to be inadequate information to make a direct, or
facing a very high risk of extinction in the indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction
wild. based on its distribution and/or population
Vulnerable (VU) status. A taxon in this category may be well
A taxon is Vulnerable when the best studied, and its biology well known, but
available evidence indicates that it meets any appropriate data on abundance and/or
of the criteria for Vulnerable i.e. reduction in distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is
population (> 50% over the last 10 therefore not a category of threat. Listing of
years) population size estimated to number taxa in this category indicates that more
fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, information is required and acknowledges
probability of extinction in wild is at least the possibility that future research will show
10% within 100 years, and it is therefore that threatened classification is appropriate.
considered to be facing a high risk of Not Evaluated (NE)
extinction in the wild. A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not
yet been evaluated against the criteria.
Add India specific critically Endangered, by more advanced plant forms, or due to a
Native species of India. gradual climate change, than due to any
CAUSES OF SPECIES EXTINCTION sudden catastrophic event.
Extinction is caused through various Artificial Extinction
processes: Even though species extinction is a natural
• Deterministic processes that have a cause process which can happen without the
and effect – e.g. glaciations, human intervention of humans, extinctions caused
interference such as deforestation. by humans is now happening over and above
• Stochastic processes (chance and random the reasonable estimate of natural extinction
events) that effect the survival and rates.
reproduction of individuals – e.g. unexpected Species are threatened with extinction by the
changes of weather patterns, decreased food intervention of humans due to:
supply, disease, increase of competitors,  Direct causes – such as hunting, collection or
predators or parasites, etc. that may act capture and persecution
independently or add to deterministic effects.  Indirect causes – such as habitat loss,
Natural Extinction modification and fragmentation and the
 Over geological time, all species have a introduction of invasive species.
finite span of existence. The average life MAJOR IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY
span of a species derived from the fossil LOSS
record is 4 million years.  The continued loss of biodiversity will
 Natural extinction patterns are usually based greatly impact human society as well as
on the study of the earth’s fossil record in ecosystem and their valuable services. It is
geological time. The available information difficult to quantify these impacts. But
indicates that overall extinction rates have looking at all the products and services
not been constant over time, and that around biodiversity provides – and the difficulty of
60% of the species extinctions have their replacement – gives us an idea of the
happened in relatively short episodes or magnitude of the consequences we face if we
spasms. do not conserve the biodiversity.
 Extinction in vascular plants has been more  There are several perceptible effects of
gradual compared with the loss of animals. It biodiversity loss at both global and national
is believed that extinction among this group levels. Some major effects are listed as
was due more to competitive displacement follows:
(i) A steady increase in atmospheric CO2 level seriously jeopardized due to loss of
due to disruption of the carbon cycle in biodiversity.
nature is one of the most obvious of global There is no way, of course, to estimate losses
climate changes in recent years. Clearing and of psychological, emotional and spiritual
destruction of tropical moist forest is well being that will result from ruined
expected to increase the atmospheric CO2 forests, beaches, lakes and other places
and decrease the carbon-fixing potential of people rely on for rejuvenation.
the biosphere.
CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY
(ii). Adverse effects on local climate and water
 Biotic diversity − the richness of life on earth
flow due to loss of tropical forests
− is like a common property resource,
(iii) Decrease of overall population size of
belongs to the whole human race and
species and loss of geographic range
therefore biodiversity conservation is a major
(iv) Extinction of species which is the
concern worldwide. Conservationists are
irreversible loss of biodiversity. The majority
involve in global efforts to protect
of the world’s species, especially tropical
biodiversity, the present rests on the past, but
invertebrates, have not been scientifically
leads into the future, and we must strive to
named or identified.
improve the attitudes and institutions that
(v) Increased coastal erosion and loss of fishery
now exist. We should conserve the rich
productivity as a result of the loss or
biodiversity of the earth for the posterity so
degradation of coastal areas such as
they can enjoy the richness of earth.
mangrove habitats and coral reefs.
 Protection, conservation and proliferation are
(vi) Reduction of genetic diversity of crop
major strategies of the plan. In this unit the
species due to replacement of traditional crop
two mechanisms for protection of biological
varieties and livestock by the use of high
diversity have been given special emphasis.
yielding, but less resistant and genetically
 Basically, there are two ways of conservation
uniform, varieties/species.
of biodiversity as follows:
(vii) Loss of traditional knowledge and cultural
(1) In-situ conservation: The conservation of
practices associated with the cultivation of
species of plants and animals in their natural
traditional varieties that are lost.
habitats i.e, wild areas is called ‘in-situ’ or
(viii) Loss of livelihoods a large proportion of the
‘on-site conservation’. In this method of
people in the world depends on bioresources
conservation of biodiversity species of plants
for subsistence use or their livelihood. This is
and animals are protected in specially  The term “Protected Area” covers areas that
demarcated natural habitats such as ‘nature are legally designated at the national level or
reserve’ or ‘biosphere reserve’, natural parks, at the international level. There are many
sanctuaries etc. ways in which Protected Areas are classified
(2) Ex-situ conservation: The method of ex-situ at the national level. IUCN’s World
conservation of biodiversity simply means Commission on Protected Areas has
protection and conservation of plants and introduced a standardised means of
animals outside their natural native places. classification by introducing eight categories
Such conservation is called ‘off-site of nationally designated and two
conservation’. internationally designated protected areas.
Ex: In order to restore genetic diversity of IUCN classification of Protected Areas at
plants and animals the seeds and germplasms the national level / Protected Area
of rare and endangered species are stored in Network:
‘seed banks’ or ‘germplasm banks’ to The United Nations List of Protected Areas
conserve genes of such species. Such storage is compiled by the IUCN Commission on
centers are also called as ‘gene banks’. National Parks and Protected Areas
Initiatives to conserve biodiversity can be (CNPPA), with the assistance of UNEP,
focused at all the three levels i.e. the UNESCO and the WWF. The ten categories
ecosystem level, species level, and genetic for conservation management are identified
level. While these initiatives will be closely in the 1982. The List is divided into three
linked, they will not be substitute for one groups as follows:
another. Group A − Areas of particular interest to
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTECTED CNPPA:
These are categories for which the CNPPA
AREAS
 Protected areas are geographically defined takes responsibility to monitor the status and
areas that are designated or regulated, and to provide technical advice as requested.
managed for purposes of conservation. As These include:
such, these areas play a valuable role in the i) Scientific Reserves/Strict Nature Reserves-
protection of areas of high species diversity The ecosystems are kept in as undisturbed a
(encompassing habitat conservation), state as possible. They are maintained for
threatened species, traditional crops and wild scientific study, education and environmental
relatives of crops and genetic diversity. monitoring.

ii) National Parks/Provincial Parks- Maintained viii) Multiple Use Management Areas/Managed
to protect one or more ecosystems, and for Resource Areas - Allow sustainable uses of
scientific, educational or recreational use. natural resources, including water, wildlife,
Commercial exploitation of resources not livestock, timber, tourism.
allowed.
iii) Natural Monuments/Natural Landmarks- Group C−Internationally
Smaller reserves to preserve unique recognized/Affiliated designation:
biological, geological or culture features. These categories form part of international
iv) Nature Conservation Reserves/Managed programmes and have specific relevance for
Nature Reserves/Wildlife Sanctuaries- nature conservation, yet, in many cases,
Similar to category, but with some human already receive protection under a previous
manipulation and controlled harvesting. category. CNPPA may be called upon to
v) Protected Landscapes- Allow non- monitor these categories and to provide
destructive traditional uses of the area by special attention in cooperation with other
local resident population. institutions with which IUCN has
Group B − Areas of interest to IUCN in consultative status. These include:
general: ix) Biosphere Reserves.
These categories are of particular importance x) World Heritage Sites (Natural)
to IUCN as a whole and are generally found
National parks
in most nations, but would not be considered
Any natural ecosystem of rich biodiversity
exclusively within the scope of CNPPA.
and almost pristine habitats may e declared
However, CNPPA may wish to monitor and
national parks, provided that such natural
provide expertise on those areas which are of
area is of ecological, faunal, floral,
particular importance to nature conservation.
geomorphological, and hydrological
These include:
importance and needs protection and
vi) Resource Reserves- Natural resources are
conservation. The following activities are
preserved for the future. Resource use is
strictly prohibited:
controlled.
 Hunting, killing or capturing of animals
vii) Anthropological Reserves/Natural Biotic
 Deprivation of any wild animal of its habitat
Areas- Allow non-destructive traditional uses
 Destruction and collection of plants
of the area by local resident population.
 Use of weapons
 Grazing by any life stock other than wild species, are named National Wildlife
animals of the concerned national parks Sanctuary, like the tri-state National
 Alteration of boundaries of national parks etc Chambal (Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary for
National parks in India are IUCN category II conserving the gharial.
protected areas. India's first national park Biosphere reserves
(reference needed as kaziranga is established  Biosphere reserves are internationally
in 1905) was established in 1936 as Hailey recognised areas established to promote and
National Park, now known as Jim Corbett demonstrate a balanced relationship between
National Park, Uttarakhand. As of July humans and the biosphere. They highlight
2015, there were 103 national parks the value of nature conservation within a
encompassing an area of 40,500 km2 (15,600 particular natural region and reconcile the
sq mi), comprising 1.23% of India's total conservation of biological diversity with
surface area. sustainable use.
Wildlife sanctuaries of India  The programme of Biosphere Reserve was
 Wildlife sanctuaries are established by IUCN initially under the Man and Biosphere
category II protected areas. India has 515 (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971.
wildlife sanctuaries referred to as wildlife The purpose of the formation of the
sanctuaries category IV protected areas. biosphere reserve is to conserve in-situ all
Among these, the 48 tiger reserves are forms of life, along with its support system,
governed by Project Tiger, and are of special in its totality, so that it could serve as a
significance in the conservation of the tiger. referral system for monitoring and evaluating
 Some wildlife sanctuaries are specifically changes in natural ecosystems. The first
named bird sanctuary, e.g., Keoladeo biosphere reserve of the world was
National Park before attaining National Park established in 1979.
status. Many National Parks were initially  As of March 2016, 669 biosphere reserves in
wildlife sanctuaries. 120 countries, including 16 transboundary
 The conservative measures taken by the sites, have been included in the World
Indian Government for the conservation of Network of Biosphere Reserves. The Indian
Tigers was awarded by a 30% rise in the government has established around eighteen
number of tigers in 2015. Biosphere Reserves in India, (categories
 Wildlife sanctuaries are of national roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V
importance due to some flagship faunal Protected areas), which protect larger areas
of natural habitat (than a National Park or b) Provide for long-term in situ conservation of
Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or genetic diversity;
more National Parks and/or preserves, along c) Promote and facilitate basic and applied
with buffer zones that are open to some research and monitoring;
economic uses. Protection is granted not only d) Promote appropriate sustainable
to the flora and fauna of the protected region, management of the living resources in the
but also to the human communities who reserve;
inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. e) Disseminate the experience so as to promote
The objectives of the Programme are: sustainable development elsewhere; and
a) Conserve representative samples of eco- f) Promote international co-operation.
systems;
Functional pattern of Biosphere Reserve

Core area legally constitutedfor long term protection
Buffer zone : Clearlyidentified for activities compatible with conservation
` Transtion area : For suitable resource managment practices
Legally protected
for conservation
Re search, monitoring,
Education, training
Sustainable
development
Core area other types of strictly protected areas. Strict

 Each biosphere reserve includes one or protection of core areas does not necessarily
several core areas that are strictly protected mean ‘non-intervention’: they can be
according to well defined conservation submitted to different types of protective
objective and consists of typical samples of management, depending on their specific
natural or minimally disturbed ecosystems. conservation objectives and on the character
 Core areas may be much larger in sparsely and history of landscape.
populated areas and relatively small in  Core areas naturally exclude the presence of
densely inhabited areas. significant human settlements. Besides non-
 Core areas may correspond to strict nature destructive research, the other significant
reserve or wild areas or national park or to
function of the core area is the environmental
Transition area
observation and monitoring.
 The transition area surrounding the buffer
uffer zone
zone plays mainly development role such as
 The buffer zone must have a clearly
cooperative activities between researches,
established legal or administrative status
managers and local populations so as to
even when several administrative authorities
ensure appropriate physical planning and
are involved in its management.
sustainable resource development.
 Only activities compatible with the
 Thus the transition zone works for the
protection of the core areas may take place.
association of environment and development.
This includes in particular research,
This zone is bio geographic in character
environmental education and training, as
rather than administrative unit, so it covers
well as tourism and recreation or other uses
larger and open areas.
carried out in accordance with the
management requirements and regulations.
Protected Areas
National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserves
1. Hitched to the habitat for 1. Generally species-oriented 1. Not hitched to anyone, two or
particular wild animal as citrus, pitcher plant, more species, but to the
species like tiger, lion, Great Indian Bustard. whole ecosystem i.e., totally
hangul, rhino etc. of all forms of life i.e.,
2. Size range is 0.61 to 7818 ecosystem-oriented
2. In India, the size range is 0.04 sq.km. Most common (in 2. Size range over 5670 sq.km
to 3162 sq.km. Most about 40%) is 100 to 500
common (in about 40%) is sq.km. In 25% is 500 to
100 to 500 sq.km. In 15% is 1000 sq.km.
500 to 1000 sq.km.
3. Boundaries not sacrosanct 3. Boundaries circumscribed by
legislation.
3. Boundaries circumscribed by 4. Limited biotic interference 4. Except the buffer zone, no
legislation biotic interference
4. Except the buffer zone, no 5. Tourism permissible 5. Tourism normally not
biotic interference 6. Lacking permissible
5. Tourism permissible 6. Managed
6. Research and scientific 7. So far no attention 7. Attention given
management lacking
7. So far no attention to genpools
and conservation
World Heritage Sites State

 A UNESCO World Heritage site is a specific Kaziranga National Park Assam
site such as a forest, mountain range, lake, Keoladeo Ghana National Rajasthan
desert, building, complex, or city that has Park
been nominated for the international world Manas National Park Assam
heritage programme administered by Sunderbans National Park West Bengal
UNESCO. The programme aims to Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand
catalogue, names, and preserve sites of Western ghats Kerala,
outstanding importance, either cultural or Karnataka, Tamil
natural, to the common heritages of human Nadu
kind. Listed sites can obtain funds from the The Great Himalayan Himachal
World Heritage find under certain National Park Pradesh
conditions. Ramsar Sites
 The concept here is the protection of cultural The Ramsar Convention is an international
and natural site and cultural landscapes that treaty for the conservation and sustainable
are of outstanding universal value. Their utilization of wetlands, i.e. to stem the
deterioration or destruction constitutes a loss progressive encroachment on and loss of
to the heritage of all humanity and not just to wetlands now and in the future, recognizing
the country where they are located. the fundamental ecological functions of
 Natural sites in India that are under world wetlands and their economic, cultural,
heritage list: scientific, and recreational value.
Contracting countries have four obligations. permanent or water, whether artificial or
(1) Incorporate the consideration of wetlands natural, permanent or temporary, with the
conservation within their national land-use water static or flowing, brackish or salt,
planning. including marine areas, depth of which does
(2) Designate at least one wetland of not exceed 6 meters such as mangroves,
international importance according to corals, estuaries, creeks, bays, sea grasses
specified criteria. and lakes etc’.
(3) Promote wetland conservation by creating
nature reserves.
(4) Train staff in wetland wardening.
The Ramsar Convention has defined
wetlands as given below:
‘Wetlands as areas of marsh fen, peat land or
water, whether artificial or natural,
List of ramsar sites in India:
State Ramsar sites
Kerala Ashtamudi Lake
Orissa Bhitarkanika Mangroves
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetland
Orissa Chilika Lake
Assam Deepor Beel
West Bengal East Calcutta Wetlands
Punjab Harike Wetlands
Punjab Kanjli Lake
Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park
Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake
Manipur Loktak Lake
Tamil Nadu Point Climere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary
Madhya Pradesh Pong Dam Lake
Punjab Ropar Lake
Sambhar Lake
Rajasthan
Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake

Jammu & Kashmir Tsomoriri
Kerala Vembanad , Kil Wetland
Jammu & Kashmir Wular Lake
Biosphere reserves of India
S.No Name Location State Type Key fauna
Part of Waynad,
Nagarhole, Bandipur and Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri tahr,
Nilgiri Biosphere Western
1 Mudumalai, Nilambur, Kerala and lion-tailed
Reserve Ghats
Silent Valley and Karnataka macaque
Anaimalai Hills
Nanda Devi Parts of Chamoli District, Snow Leopard ,
Western
2 National Park & Pithoragarh District & Uttarakhand Himalayan
Himalayas
Biosphere Reserve Bageshwar District Black Bear
Indian part of Gulf of
Mannar extending from
Rameswaram island in
Dugong or sea
3 Gulf of Mannar the North to Tamil Nadu Coasts
cow
Kanyakumari in the
South of Tamil Nadu and
Sri Lanka
East
4 Norkek Part of Garo Hills Meghalaya Red panda
Himalayas
Part of delta of Ganges
Gangetic Royal Bengal
5 Sundarbans and Brahmaputra river West Bengal
Delta tiger
system
Part of Kokrajhar,
East Golden langur,
6 Manas Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Assam
Himalayas red panda
Nalbari, Kamrup and
Darrang Districts
Gaur, royal
Part of Mayurbhanj
7 Deccan Bengal tiger,
Simlipal district Odisha
Peninsula elephant
Part of Siang and Dibang Arunachal Eastern
8 Dihang-Diban
Valley Pradesh Himalaya
Parts of Betul District,
Pachmarhi Giant squirrel,
9 Hoshangabad District
Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh Semi-Arid flying squirrel
and Chhindwara District
Four-horned
antelope, Indian
wild dog, Sarus
Achanakmar- Madhya crane, White-
Part of Annupur, Dindori Maikala
10 Amarkantak Pradesh, rumped vulture,
and Bilaspur districts Hills
Biosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh Philautus
sanctisilvaticus
(Sacred grove
bush frog)
Part of Kutch, Rajkot,
Great Rann of
11 Surendranagar and Patan Gujarat Desert Indian wild ass
Kutch
Districts
Pin Valley National Park
and
Himachal Western
12 Cold Desert surroundings;Chandratal Snow leopard
Pradesh Himalayas
and Sarchu & Kibber
Wildlife Sancturary
East Snow leopard,
13 Khangchendzonga Parts of Kangchenjunga Sikkim
Himalayas red panda
Neyyar, Peppara and
Agasthyamalai Kerala, Tamil Western Nilgiri tahr,
14 Shenduruny Wildlife
Biosphere Reserve Nadu Ghats elephants
Sanctuary and their
adjoining areas
Southern most islands of IslandsAndaman
Great Nicobar Saltwater
15 Andaman and Nicobar and Nicobar Islands
Biosphere Reserve crocodile
Islands Islands
Part of Dibrugarh and East
16 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam Golden langur
Tinsukia districts Himalayas
Seshachalam Hill Ranges
covering parts of Eastern
17 Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh
Chittoor and Kadapa Ghats
districts
Catchment Tiger, chital,
Part of Panna District Area of chinkara,
18 Panna Madhya Pradesh
and Chhatarpur District the Ken sambhar and
River sloth bear
Important national parks and wild life sanctuaries of India

S.No Name State Location Important fauna
Leopard, Musk
Deer, Himalayan
Jammu and
1 Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary western Himalayas Black Bear,
Kashmir
Himalayan Brown
Bear
Bengal tiger,
Leopard, Leopard
2 Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand cat, Elephants,
Sambhar Deer and
Golden Jackal
Bengal tiger, salt
water crocodile,
3 Sunderbans West Bengal Ganges Delta
Fishing cats,
Leopard cats,
Macaques, Wild
boar, Indian grey
mongoose, Fox,
Jungle cat, Flying
fox, Pangolin,
Chital
Tiger, Asian
elephants, Golden
foothills of the Cat, Leopards,
4 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam
Himalayas Clouded Leopard,
Slow Loris and
Chital etc.
Tigers, One –
horned
Rhinoceros,
Elephant, and the
Asian water
5 Kaziranga National Park Assam
buffalo, Swamp
Deer, Monitor
Lizard and
Spectacled Cobra
etc.
between the
Tiger, Hyena,
confluence of the
6 Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan Sloth Bear and
Banas and the
Chital etc
Chambal River
Keoladeo National
Park is popularly
Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary /
7 Rajasthan known as “bird
Bharatpur National Park
paradise. Herons,
storks, cormorants,
warblers, babblers,
bee-eaters,
bulbuls, quails,
Indian gray
hornbill,
Marshall’s iora,
Nilgai, Feral
cattle, Chital deer,
Sambar, Wild
boar, Indian
porcupine
Asiatic Lions,
Leopards, Sloth
8 Sasan Gir National Park Gujarat
Bears, Jungle Cats,
Spectacled Cobra
Tigers, Leopards,
9 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Wild dogs, Jackals
and Sloth bear etc
Tiger, Elephant,
Travancore flying
squirrel, Fruit bat,
10 Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary Kerala
Giant squirrel,
Wild pig and lion-
tailed macaque etc
Garganey teals,
glossy ibis, grey
The oldest water heron, grey
11 Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu bird sanctuary in pelican, open-
India billed stork,
painted stork,
snake bird,
spoonbill and spot
bill duck
Bengal Tiger,
Elephants, Sloth
Annamalai Wildlife Sanctuary
Bear, Indian
12 or Indira Gandhi Wildlife Tamil Nadu
Leopard, Pangolin
Sanctuary and National Park
and the Sambhar
deer
Crab-eating
Macaque, the
Megapode, The
Giant Robber crab
and the Nicobar
Pigeon. One can
also see Olive
Great Nicobar Ridley turtles as
13 Campbell Bay National Park
Island well as
Leatherback
Turtles, Wild
Boar, deer and
Civet cats. Tree
ferns and orchids
are in abundance
here.
Swamp deer, One-
horned
14 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
Rhinoceros,
Leopard and Tiger
Snow Leopard,
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
15 Uttarakhand Himalayan Black
and National Park
bear, Himalayan
Brown bear, Musk
deer, Himalayan
Tahr and plenty of
bird and breath
taking floral
species
snow leopard,
Bharal sheep,
Tibetan Wolf,
Eurasian Brown
Bear,
Hemis National Park or Hemis the largest national
16 Lammergeier
High Altitude National Park park in India
Vulture, Golden
Eagle, Himalayan
Vulture and
Mountain weasel
etc
The park contains
many mammal
species including
musk deer, snow
leopard,
Himalayan tahr,
wild dog, sloth
17 Kanchendzonga National Park
bear, civet,
Himalayan black
bear, red panda,
Tibetan wild ass,
Himalayan blue
sheep, serow,
goral and takin, as
well as reptiles
including rat snake
and Russell's
viper.
Tigers, Elephants,
sloth bears,
Mugger
18 Bandipur National Park Karnataka crocodiles,
Dholes, Spectacled
Cobra and flying
lizards etc.
tiger, the Sloth
Panna National Park (also a bear, chital,
19 Madhya Pradesh
tiger reserve) Chinkara and King
Vulture etc.
Tiger, Elephant,
Indian Bison,
Chausingha,
Leopard,
20 Similipal National Park Orissa Jungle cat
and several
species of
birds and
reptiles
Tiger, Leopard,
Indian Bison,
Sambhar
21 Karnataka Western Ghats deer, Dhole
Kudremukh National Park
and Lion-
tailed
macaque etc
Western Ghats.
Tiger, Leopard,
The park is
Dhole, Indian
surrounded by
Porcupine, Nilgiri
different
22 Kerala Tahr, Stripe-
Eravikulam National Park tributaries of the
necked mongoose,
Periyar, Kaveri
Golden Jackal and
and Chalakudiyar
Sambar Deer
River
Feral horses,
The park is Tiger, Water
surrounded by the Buffalo, Elephant,
Dibru Saikhowa Wildlife
23 Assam Brahmaputra, Flying Squirrel,
Sanctuary
Lohit and the King Cobra, River
Dibru River. Dolphin and Slow
Loris etc.
The Indian
Gharial, the
Ganges Dolphin,
Indian Wolf,
24 National Chambal Sanctuary Rajasthan Striped Hyena,
Monitor Lizard,
Indian Flying fox,
Porcupine and
Hedgehog etc
Indian Rhinoceros,
located on the Tiger, Asiatic
Northern Shores of Elephants, Pygmy
25
Orang National Park the Brahmaputra Hog, Pangolin,
River Leopard Cat and
King Cobra.
26 Arunachal Pradesh Located on the Tiger, Leopard,
Namdapha National Park Burma border Clouded leopard,
Snow Leopards,
Asiatic Black
bears, Dholes, Red
Pandas and Slow
Loris etc
first marine several species of
national park in coral, Dolphins,
India and is Whales and the
27 Gulf Of Kutch National Park Gujarat
located on an massive Whale
island in the Sharks.
Arabian Sea
Lion-tailed
Macaque, Tiger,
Leopard, Jungle
Cat, Leopard Cat,
28 Silent Valley National Park Kerala Western Ghats
Sloth bear, otter,
Travancore flying
squirrel, Porcupine
and Elephant etc.
Desert Fox,
Bengal Fox, Spiny
Tail lizard,
Monitor lizard,
29 Desert National Park Rajasthan Russell’s viper,
Desert cat, Saw-
scaled viper and
the great Indian
bustard
confluence of the endangered Indus
30 Harike Wetland Punjab
Beas and the dolphin
Sutlej rivers
Tiger, Leopard,
Wolf, Dhole,
Eturnagaram Wildlife Jackals, Sloth
31 Telangana
Sanctuary bear, Mugger
crocodiles, Cobra
and Chinkara etc
blue sheep, snow
leopard,
Himalayan brown
32 Great Himalayan National Park Himachal pradesh
bear, Himalayan
tahr, and musk
deer
Wild Asian
buffalo, gaur
(Indian bison),
nilgai, blackbuck,
chausingha (four-
horned antelope),
It derives its name sambar, chital,
32 Indravati National Park Chattisgarh from the nearby Indian muntjac,
Indravati River Indian spotted
chevrotain and
wild boar, tigers,
leopards, sloth
bears, dholes (wild
dog) and striped
hyenas.
Tigers, gaur,
Highest tiger
33 Bandhavgarh national park Madhya Pradesh Indian bison,
population in India
sambar, barking
deer, Indian wolf,
striped hyena
The national park
is surrounded by
the Bhitarkanika
Wildlife
Sanctuary.
Gahirmatha Beach
and Marine The park is home
Sanctuary lies to to Saltwater
the east, and Crocodile
separates swamp (Crocodylus
region cover with porosus), White
34 Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha canopy of Crocodile, Indian
mangroves from python, King
the Bay of Bengal. Cobra, black ibis,
The national park darters and many
and wildlife other species of
sanctuary is flora and fauna.
inundated by a
number of rivers -
Brahmani,
Baitarni, Dhamra,
Pathsala and
others.
The only floating brow-antlered
park in the world, deer, hog deer,
located in North wild boar, large
35 Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur
East India, and an Indian civet, fox,
integral part of jungle cat, golden
Loktak Lake. cat, shrew, flying
fox, sambar etc
dugong, dolphin,
South Button Island National Andaman and
36 water monitor
Park Nicobar Islands
lizard, blue whale
Conservation efforts by India Protection Force under PT to combat

Project Tiger – Tiger Conservation poachers.
 Indian tiger population at the end of the 20th PT funds relocation of villagers to minimize
century was estimated at 20,000 to 40,000 human-tiger conflicts.
individuals.
 The first country-wide tiger census Core and Buffer zones
conducted in 1972 estimated the population The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a
to comprise a little more than 1,800 ‘core-buffer strategy’.
individuals, an alarming reduction in tiger
population. Core Zone
 In 1973, Project Tiger was launched in the  The core area is kept free of biotic
Palamau Tiger Reserve, and various tiger disturbances and forestry operations, where
reserves were created in the country based on collection of minor forest produce, grazing,
a ‘core-buffer’ strategy. human disturbances are not allowed within.
 India has more than 80 national parks and  These areas are required to be kept for the
441 Sanctuaries of which some have been purposes of tiger conservation, without
declared as Tiger reserves. affecting the rights of the Scheduled Tribes
 Tiger reserves are governed by the Project or such other forest dwellers.
Tiger (1973).  These areas are notified by the State
 It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Government in consultation with an Expert
Ministry of Environment and Forests. It is Committee (constituted for that purpose).
administered by the National Tiger

Conservation Authority. Buffer Zone
Aim: Protect tigers from extinction by  The Act defines buffer zone as the area
ensuring a viable population in their natural peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core
habitats. Government has set up a Tiger area providing supplementary habitat for
dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for  No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger
co-existence of human activity (tribals). reserve shall be made except on a
 The limits of such areas are determined with recommendation of the NTCA and the
the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert approval of the National Board for Wild
Committee constituted for the purpose. Life.
 No State Government shall de-notify a tiger
Tiger Task Force
reserve, except in public interest with the
 The implementation of Project Tiger over the
approval of the NTCA and the approval of
years has highlighted the need for a statutory
the National Board for Wild Life.
authority with legal backing to ensure tiger
conservation. The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment
 On the basis of the recommendations of Act, 2006
National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force The Act provides for creating National Tiger
was set up to look into the problems of tiger Conservation Authority and Tiger and Other
conservation in the country. Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau
 The recommendations of the Task Force (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau).
include strengthening of Project Tiger by Functions of NTCA
giving it statutory and administrative powers.  The Authority lays down standards,
National Board for Wild Life  Tiger Task guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger
Force  National Tiger Conservation Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries.
Authority  It would provide information on protection
National Tiger Conservation Authority measures including future plan for
(NTCA) conservation.
 The National Tiger Conservation Authority  The Authority would facilitate and support
was established in December 2005 following tiger reserve management in the States
recommendations of the Tiger Task Force. through eco-development and people’s
 National Tiger Conservation Authority participation.
administers Project Tiger.  The Tiger Conservation Authority would be
 Administration of the tiger reserves will be required to prepare an Annual Report, which
in accordance with guidelines of NTCA. would be laid in the Parliament along with
 Tiger reserves in India are administered by the Audit Report.
field directors as mandated by NTCA.
 State level Steering Committees will be set  Provision will be made for the States to
up in the Tiger States under the establish a Tiger Conservation Foundation,
Chairmanship of respective Chief Ministers. based on the good practices emanating from
This has been done with a view for ensuring some tiger reserves.
coordination, monitoring and protection of
tigers in the States.
 A provision has been made for the State
Governments to prepare a Tiger
Conservation Plan.
List of tiger reserves in India
1 Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
2 Arunachal Namdapha Tiger Reserve
3 Pradesh Pakhui Tiger Reserve
4 Manas Tiger Reserve
5 Assam Nameri Tiger Reserve
6 Kaziranga Tiger Reserve
7 Bihar Valmiki Tiger Reserve
8 Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger Reserve
9 Chhattisgarh Achanakmar Tiger Reserve
10 Indravati Tiger Reserve
11 Jharkhand Palamau Tiger Reserve
12 Karnataka Bandipur Tiger Reserve
13 Bhadra Tiger Reserve
14 Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve
Karnataka
15 Nagarhole Tiger Reserve
16 BiligiriRangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve
17 Periyar Tiger Reserve
Kerala
18 Parambikulam Tiger Reserve
19 Kanha Tiger Reserve
Madhya Pradesh
20 Pench Tiger Reserve
21 Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve
22 Panna Tiger Reserve
23 Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve
24 Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve
25 Melghat Tiger Reserve
26 Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve
27 Bor Tiger Reserve
Maharashtra
28 Pench Tiger Reserve
29 Sahyadri Tiger Reserve
30 Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve
31 Mizoram Dampa Tiger Reserve
32 Simlipal Tiger Reserve
Odisha
33 Satkosia Tiger Reserve[15]
34 Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve
35 Rajasthan Sariska Tiger Reserve
36 Mukundara Hills Tiger Reserve
37 Kalakad-Mundathurai Tiger Reserve
38 Mudumalai Tiger Reserve
Tamil Nadu
39 Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
40 Anamalai Tiger Reserve
41 Telangana Kawal Tiger Reserve
42 Dudhwa Tiger Reserve
43 Uttar Pradesh Amangarh Tiger Reserve
44 Pilibhit Tiger Reserve
45 Uttarakhand Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve
46 Buxa Tiger Reserve
West Bengal
47 Sunderbans Tiger Reserve
There are eight subspecies of tiger: among present in the wild. They are: Bengal, South
the eight, at present five subspecies are China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and Siberian.
Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, scale development projects such as dams,
and Javan—are extinct. industry, mines, railway lines etc.
Estimation of Tiger Populations  Incessant poaching: Tigers are killed so their
 The process of estimating the number of body parts can be used for Traditional
tigers in a given area is called ‘Tiger census’. Chinese Medicine.
 It is conducted at regular intervals to know  Invasive species: Destroy the local
the current tiger populations and population producers. This has a cascading effect on the
trends. food chain. Tigers are the worst hit as they
 Besides estimating the number of tigers the are at the end of the food chain. [Tigers
method also helps to gather information on represent an “Umbrella Species” that
the density of the tiger populations and indicate the health of the ecosystem.]
associated prey. Reasons for slightly increased tiger
 The most commonly used technique in the population recently
past was ‘Pugmark Census Technique’.  Wireless communication systems and
 In this method the imprints of the pugmark outstation patrol camps have been developed
of the tiger were recorded and used as a basis within the tiger reserves, due to which
for identification of individuals. poaching has declined considerably.
 Now it is largely used as one of the indices  Fire protection is effectively done by suitable
of tiger occurrence and relative abundance. preventive and control measures.
 Recent methods used to estimate the  Voluntary Village relocation has been done
numbers of tigers are camera trapping and in many reserves.
DNA fingerprinting.  Livestock grazing has been controlled to a
 In camera trapping, the photograph of the great extent in the tiger reserves.
tiger is taken and individuals are  Various compensatory developmental works
differentiated on the basis of the stripes on have improved the water regime and the
the body.
ground and field level vegetation.
 In the latest technique of DNA
 Stringent punishments for violators.
fingerprinting, tigers can be identified from
 GIS based digitized database development to
their scats.
evaluate tiger population.
Reasons for falling number of tigers
Elephant Corridor
 Pressure on habitat, Habitat fragmentation
 An elephant corridor is defined as a
and Habitat destruction: Caused due to large-
stretch/narrow strip of forested (or
otherwise) land that connects larger habitats This often results in conflicts with humans,
with elephant populations and forms a due to elephants raiding or destroying crops.
conduit for animal movement between the Mitigation
habitats. This movement helps enhance  Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected
species survival and birth rate. areas wherever feasible; in other cases,
 There are 88 identified elephant corridors in declaration as Ecologically Sensitive Areas
India. or conservation reserves to grant protection.
 Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south  During the process of securing a corridor,
India, 12 in north-western India, 20 in central monitoring for animal movement have to be
India, 14 in northern West Bengal and 22 in carried out; depending on the need, habitat
north-eastern India. restoration work shall also be done.
Threats to Elephant Corridors  Securing the corridors involves sensitizing
 Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and local communities to the option of
destruction caused by developmental voluntarily relocation outside the conflict
activities like construction of buildings, zones to safer areas.
roads, railways, holiday resorts and the  Preventing further fragmentation of the
fixing solar energized electric fencing, etc. continuous forest habitat by encroachment
 Coal mining and iron ore mining is the two from urban areas.
“single biggest threats” to elephant corridors Haathi Mere Saathi
in central India.  Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched
 Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are by the Ministry of environment and forest
mineral-rich states, but also have the highest (MoEF) in partnership with the wildlife trust
number of elephant corridors in the country, of India (WTI).
which makes them known for elephant-man  The campaign was launched at the
conflicts. “Elephant- 8” Ministerial meeting held in
 There is also a serious poaching problem, as Delhi in 2011.
elephant ivory from the tusks is extremely  The E-8 countries comprise of India,
valuable. Botswana, the Republic of Congo, Indonesia,
 Elephants need extensive grazing grounds Kenya, Srilanka, Tanzania, and Thailand.
and most reserves cannot accommodate  This public initiative was aimed at increasing
them. If protected areas are not large enough, awareness among people and developing
elephants may search for food elsewhere.
friendship, companionship between people  Manas National Park was selected as the first
and elephants. site for translocation of rhinos.
Elephant – 8 Ministerial Meeting  Ten rhinos have been released into Manas
The E-8 ministerial meeting represented since 2008. Ten more rhinos will be moved
regions with all 3 species of elephants, viz., from Kaziranga National Park before the end
1. Asian elephant of the year.
2. African Bush Elephant  Trans locating rhinos will help to create a
3. African Forest Elephant viable population of this threatened species.
Discussions covered a wide range of issues  The vision of this program is to increase the
categorised under three basic themes. total rhino foundation in Assam from about
1. Science and conservation 2000 to 3000 by the year 2020 and to ensure
2. Management and conservation that these rhinos are distributed over at least
3. Cultural and Ethical perspectives of 7 protected areas (PA) to provide long term
conservation viability of the one-horned rhino population.
Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision 2020  Concentrating so many rhinos in a single
 One horned rhinos are poached for their protected area like Kaziranga exposes the
horns. species to risks of calamities (epidemics,
 Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the floods, massive poaching attempts).
department of environment and forests,  Further, rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded
Assam. carrying capacity and numbers must be
 The programme will be supported by WWF reduced to protect the habitat and to mitigate
— India, the international rhino foundation the increasing rhino-human conflicts.
(IRF), and a number of local NGOs. Project Snow Leopard
 Translocations are the backbone of the IRV  The snow leopard is a globally endangered
2020 program. species.
 The goal set was to populate the potential  Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving
rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP, over two million square kilometers in the
DibruSaikhowa WLS, Laokhowa– Himalaya and Central Asian mountains.
BuraChapori WLS with a viable population  Most snow leopard occur in China, followed
of rhino through translocations from by Mongolia and India.
Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS. Threats posed due to
 Human interference,
 competition with livestock – people kill them  Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on
to save their livestock, International Trade in Endangered Species
 retreating deeper into mountains due to (CITES) expanded the scope of the CITES
global warming, and Tiger Enforcement Task Force to include all
 poaching. Asian big cat species including the snow
Why to conserve the high altitude leopard.
ecosystem? Sea Turtle Project
 The high altitudes of India (> 3000 m)  A significant proportion of world’s Olive
(including the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya Ridley Turtle population migrates every
biogeographic zones) support a unique winter to Indian coastal waters for nesting
wildlife assemblage of global conservation mainly at eastern coast.
importance.  With the objective of conservation of olive
 This includes highly endangered populations ridley turtles and other endangered marine
of species such as the snow leopard, two turtles, MoEF initiated the Sea Turtle
species of bears, wolf, red panda, mountain Conservation Project in collaboration of
ungulates such as the wild yak, chiru, UNDP in 1999 with Wildlife Institute of
Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan argali, Ladakhurial, India, Dehradun as the Implementing
two species of musk deer, the hangul, three Agency.
species of goral, serow, and takin, etc. High  The project is being implemented in 10
altitude lakes and bogs provide breeding coastal States of the country with special
grounds for a variety of avifauna including emphasis in State of Orissa.
the black-necked crane, barheaded Geese,  The project has helped in preparation of
brahminy ducks, and brown-headed gulls, inventory map of breeding sites of Sea
etc. Turtles, identification of nesting and
 India has ratified international agreements breeding habitats along the shore line, and
promoting the conservation of high altitude migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles,
wildlife species such as the snow leopard. development of guidelines to safeguard and
 In 2003, the Convention on Migratory minimize turtle mortality.
Species included the snow leopard as a  One of the important achievements have
Concerted Action Species under its been demonstration of use of Satellite
Appendix I. Telemetry to locate the migratory route of

Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and
sensitizing the fishermen and State  To involve the local people in the project
Government for the use of Turtle Exclusion intimately.
Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check Project Hangul
turtle mortalit  The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native
The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project to northern India.
has pulled back the once threatened  It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir.
crocodilians from the brink of extinction and  In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam National
places them on a good path of recovery. Park at elevations of 3,035 meters.
Objectives  These deer once numbered from about 5,000
 To protect the remaining population of animals in the beginning of the 20th century.
crocodilians in their natural habitat by  Unfortunately, they were threatened, due to
creating sanctuaries. habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic
 To rebuild natural population quickly livestock and poaching.
through ‘grow and release’ or ‘rear and  This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by
release’ technique. 1970. However, the state of Jammu &
 To promote captive breeding. Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF
 Captive breeding means that members of a prepared a project for the protection of these
wild species are captured, then bred and animals.
raised in a special facility under the care of  It became known as Project Hangul. This
wildlife biologists and other expert. brought great results and the population
 Bringing an animal into captivity may increased to over 340 by 1980.
represent the last chance to preserve a Ganges Dolphin
species in the wild.  The Ministry of Environment and Forests
 To take-up research to improve management. notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the
 To build up a level of trained personnel for National Aquatic Animal.
better continuity of the project through  The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-
training imparted at project-sites and through Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu
the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile Breeding river systems of Nepal, India, and
and Management Training Institute, Bangladesh.
Hyderabad.
 It is estimated that their total population is turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), gharial
around 2,000 and they are listed in Schedule (Gavialis gangeticus) and smoothcoated
I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). otters (Lutra perspicillata) will also benefit
 The Ganges Dolphin is among the four from conservation actions that benefit the
“obligate” freshwater dolphins found in the Gangetic Dolphin.
world — the other three are the ‘baiji found Project Vulture
in the Yangtze River (China), the ‘bhulan’ of India has 9 species of vultures in the wild.
the Indus (Pakistan) and the ‘boto’ of the They are the
Amazon River (Latin America). 1. Oriental white-backed vulture
 Although there are several species of marine 2. Slender billed vulture
dolphins whose ranges include some 3. Long billed vulture
freshwater habitats, these four species 4. Egyptian vulture
live only in rivers and lakes. 5. Red headed vulture
 The Chinese River Dolphin was declared 6. Indian griffon vulture
functionally extinct by a team of In India the population of three species i.e.
international scientists in 2006. white backed vulture, slender billed vulture
 In India, the Ganges River Dolphin and long billed vulture in the wild has
is threatened by river water pollution and declined drastically over the past decade.
siltation, accidental entanglement in fishing Red headed vulture, slender billed vulture,
nets and poaching for their oil. long billed vulture are listed as critically
 In addition, alterations to the rivers in the endangered.
form of barrages and dams are separating It is initially thought that the drastic decline
populations. in population was due to non-availability of
 The Gangetic Dolphin is a Flagship species food or an unknown viral epidemic disease,
for river conservation: but later on confirmed that decline in
 It is clear that there is enormous public population was due to the drug diclofenac
support for ensuring the maintenance and (NSAID).
protection of the Gangetic Dolphins. As a Significance of vultures in India
flagship species, its conservation requires  Scavenging on animal carcasses of animals
greater efforts along the lines of that and thereby helping keep the environment
provided to the tiger and the elephant. Other clean
endangered river species such as the softshell
 Disposal of dead bodies as per the religious  The VSZ is spread around in several hundred
practices of Parsi community. kilometres covering the Jim Corbett in
 Vultures are the primary removers of carrion Uttarkhand, Dudhwa and Katarniaghat forest
in India and Africa. reserves in UP which is adjoining the Indo-
Vulture safety zones Nepal border.
 Aim of developing VSZs is to establish Vulture restaurants
targeted awareness activities surrounding At this restaurant, tables are reserved only
10km radius of vultures’ colonies so that no for the unique and rare vultures by
diclofenac or the veterinary toxic drugs are Maharashtra and Punjab forest departments.
found in cattle carcasses, the main food of The aim is to conserve dwindling vulture
vultures. population.
Unit
7 Pollution
Introduction: organic carbon compounds-to produce a
Pollution is defined as excessive addition of seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Black
certain material to the physical environment gum, poplar, oak and willow are some
(water, air and lands), making it less fit or examples of vegetation that can produce
unfit for life. abundant VOCs. The VOC production from
Pollutants these species results in ozone levels up to
Pollutants are the materials or factors, which eight times higher than the low-impact tree
cause adverse effect on the natural quality of species.
any component of the environment. For ex,  Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur,
smoke from industries and automobiles, chlorine, and ash particulates
chemicals from factories, radioactive Anthropogenic sources:

substances from nuclear plants, sewage of  Stationary sources include smoke stacks of
houses and discarded household articles are power plants, factories and waste
the common pollutants. incinerators, as well as furnaces and other
Air pollution has both natural and human types of fuel-burning heating devices. In
sources: developing and poor countries, traditional
Natural Air Pollution: biomass burning is the major source of air
 Dust from natural sources, usually large pollutants; traditional biomass includes
areas of land with little or no vegetation wood, crop waste and dung.
 Methane, emitted by various sources.  Mobile sources include motor vehicles,
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the marine vessels, and aircraft.
Earth's crust.  Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish,
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires aerosol sprays and other solvents
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits  Waste deposition in landfills, which
environmentally significant amounts of generate methane. Methane is also an
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an
warmer days. These VOCs react with enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation
primary anthropogenic pollutants— may result if the oxygen concentration is
specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
VANI Publications Pollution
 Military resources, such as nuclear 9. Radioactive compounds
weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and These pollutants are emitted by manmade
rocketry sources like transportation, fuel combustion,
 Particulate matter from mining activities. industrial operations, solid waste disposal
Types of Pollution and various other activities.
Air Pollution
Secondary Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are substances causing
Secondary air pollutants are those which are
damage to target or receptor. The target be
produced in the air by the interaction among
man, animal, plant, building or materials
two or more pollutants, with or without
which are adversely affected by pollutants.
photo activation.
Primary Pollutants
Examples of Secondary Air Pollutants
Primary air pollutants are those emitted
1. Ozone
directly from identified sources.
2. Formaldehyde
Examples of primary air pollutants:
3. PAN (Peroxy Acteyl Nitrate)
1. Finer particles (less than 100  in diameter)
4. Photochemical smog
2. Coarse particles (greater than 100  in 5. Formation of acid rains (H2SO4) due to
diameter) reaction of sulphur dioxide and dissolved
3. Sulphur compounds oxygen, when water droplets are present in
4. Oxides of nitrogen the atmosphere.
5. Carbon monoxide
6. Halogen compounds
7. Ammonia
8. Organic compounds
Common Air Pollutants, their Sources and Pathological Effects on Man
Source and Effects of Air Pollutants on Humans, Environment and Property
Possible sources
Effects on Environment and
Pollutant Natural Anthropogenic
human property
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)  Volcanoes  Combustion of  Respiratory  Acid rain
A chemical compound (67%) fossil fuel (coal, illness  Aesthetic damage
produced by volcanoes heavy fuel oil) in  Visibility
and in various thermal power impairment
industrial processes and
is also a precursor to plants, office  Aggravate
particulates in the factories. existing heard and
atmosphere.  Paper industry lung diseases
 Extravation and
distribution of
fossil fuels
 Smelting of
metals (sulfide ores
to produce copper,
lead and zinc)
 Petroleum
refining
 Combustion
process in diesel,
petrol, natural gas
driven vehicles.
Oxides of  Lightning  High  Irritates the nose  Precursor of
nitrogen(NOx)  Forest fires temperature and throat ozone formed in the
They are a generic term  Bacterial combustion  Increase troposphere
for a group of highly activity of soil (Internal susceptibility to  Form atmospheric
reactive gases that combustion respiratory fine particulate matter
contain nitrogen and engines, fossil fuel infections burden as a result of
oxygen in varying fired power oxidation to form
amounts. NOx are stations, industrial). nitrate aerosol.
emitted as nitrogen  Burning of
oxide (NO) which is biomas and fossil
rapidly oxidized to fuels.
more toxic nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
is a reddish-down toxic
gas with a
characteristic sharp,
bitting odor and is a
prominent air pollutant.
Respirable suspended  Coarse  Road traffic  Cardiopulmonar  Visibility
particulate matter particles are emissions y problems reduction
(PM10, size  m, produced by particularly from  Asthma,
coarse fraction PM10 – the mechanical diesel vehicles bronchitis, and
PM23). Also called break-up of  Industrial pneumonia in elder
thoracic fraction. larger solid combustion plants people.
Particulate matter (PM) particles. some public power  Asthma,
is a complex mixture of  Wind blown generation bronchitis, and
Suspended solid liquid dust such as  Commercial pneumonia in elder
particle in semi- road dust, fly and residential people.
equilibrium with ash, soot, combustion
surrounding gases. The agricultural particularly from
major constituents of processes by diesel vehicles
RSPM are organic and the mechanical  Industrial
elements carbon, break-up of combustion plants
metal/elements like larger solid some public power
silicon, magnesium, particles. generation
iron, ions like  Wind blown  Commercial
sulphates, nitrates, dust such as and residential
ammonium etc. PM10 road dust, fly combustion
can settle in the bronchi ash, soot  Non-
and lungs and cause agricultural combustion
health problems. processes. processes (e.g.
 Physical quarrying).
process of  Agricultural
crushing, activities
grinding and
abrasion of
surfaces
photochemicall
y.
 Produced
particles, such
as those found
in urban haze.
 Pollen grains,
mould spores,
and plant and
insect parts
 Non-
combustible
materials
released when
burning fossil
fuels.
Particular matter 2.5  Fine particles  Vehicular  Oxidative stress  Aesthetic damage
(PM 2.5 size  2.5 m , are largely emission.  Respiratory  Visibility
fine fraction size up to formed from  Industrial symptoms such as reduction
2.5 m, respirable gases. combustion plants irritation of the
fraction).  Ultrafine for some public airways, coughing,
Airborne particles particles are power generation or difficulty in
smaller than 2.5 m formed by  Commercial breathing.
called fine particles. nulceation, and residential  Decreased lung
Composed mainly of which is the combustion function
carbonaceous materials initial state in  Aggravated
(organic and which gas ashthma
elementals), inorganic becomes a  Chronic
compounds (sulfate, particle. These bronchitis
nitrate, and particles can  Irregular
ammonium), and trace grow up to a heartbeat,
metal compounds (iron, size of 1 m cardiopulmonary
aluminium, nickel, either through disorders
copper, zinc, and lead). condensation,  premature death
Pulse the greatest when in people with heart
problems, PM2.5 send additional gas or lung disease
to penetrate into the gas condensates
exchange regions of the (coagulation).
lung, and very small
particles
(<100 nanometers)
may pass through the
lungs to affect other
organs. The smallest
particles, however, less
than 100 nm
(nanoparticles) can get
into the bloodstream
and affect the
cardiovasular system.
Ozone (O3)  Ozone is  Tropospheric Tropospheric  Ozone cracking in
A pale blue gas, present in the ozone (about 10 ozone: car tires, gaskets, O-
soluble in water and stratosphere km above the earth  Lung function rings is caused by
non-polar solvents with zone (between surface) it's deficits attack of ozone on any
specific sharp odor about 10 and harmful. It is  Respiratory polymer possessing
somewhat resembling 50 km above formed by the illness olefinic or double
chlorine bleach. the reaction of sunlight  Premature death, bonds within its chain
Ozone is a secondary troposphere) of with air, containing asthma, bronchitis, structure.
pollutant formed in the the atmosphere hydrocarbons and heart attack, and  Ozone present in
atmosphere by reaction as ozone layer. nitrogen oxides other the upper troposphere
between oxides of This ozone emitted by car cardiopulmonary acts as a greenhouse
nitrogen and volatile protects us engines, industrial problems. gas, absorbing some of
organic compounds from UV operations,  Ground-level the infrared energy
(VOCs) in the presence radiations. chemical solvents ozone and pollution emitted by the earth.
of sunlight. Peak O3 to form zone. which interfaces
levels occur typically  Electronic with photosynthesis
during the warmer equipment such as and stunts overall
times of the year. photocopies. growth of some
plant species.
Lead  Food  Waste  Lead is rapidly
(lead is absorbed incineration absorbed into the
by plants).  Metal bloodstream and is
processing believed to have
 Paint industry adverse effects on
 Lead solder in the central nervous
food cans, breast system, the
milk, drinking cardiovascular
water, cosmetics, system, kidneys, and
ceramic pottery, the immune system.
burning of  Causes blood
firewood or disorders like
kerosence, anemia, increase in
indigenouos blood pressure.
remedies, tobacco  Potent
and tobacco neurotoxin that
products, accumulates both in
contaminated soft tissues and the
drinking water, bones.
toys, industrial  Causes
effluents, lead and nephropathy, and
batteries, colic-like abdominal
ammunition, paints paints.
and varnishes,  Weakness in
water pipes fingers, wrists, or
 Automobile ankles.
exhaust  Miscarriage and
reduction of fertility
in males, delayed
puberty in girls.
Carbon monoxide  Produced  Exhaust of  This gas enters

(CO) during normal internal the blood stream
Also called carbonous animal combustion through lungs and
oxide, is a colorless, metabolism (by engines, especially combines with
odorless and tastless the action of of vehicles with hemoglobin forming
gas which is slightly hemeoxygenas petrol engines. carboxyhemoglobin.
lighter than air. It is e 1 and 2 on  Burning of
highly toxic to humans the heme from carbon fules.
and animals in higher hemoglobin This condition is
quantities. Mainly breakdown and known as anoxemia,
formed by incomplete produces  Organic which inhibits
combustion of carbon carboxyhemo- combustion in blood's oxygen
containing fuels. globin in waste incineration. carrying capacity to
normal  Power station organs andtissues
persons) in low processes  Persons with
quantities and  Iron smelting heart disease are
has some  Burning of sensitive to CO
normal crop residues poisoning and may
biological experience chest
functions pain if they breathe
(signalling the gas while
molecule). exercising.
 Volcanic  Adverse effects
activity on the fetus of a
 Forest and pregnant woman.
bushfires  Infants, elederly
persons, and
individuals with
respiratory diseases
are also particularly
sensitive.
 Anti-
inflammatories,
vasodialators and
encouragers of
neovascular growth.
Ammonia (NH3)  Putrefaction of  Farms  Irritation to skin,  Odour.
A compound of nitrogenous  Fertilizers eyes, throat, and
nitrogen and hydrogen, animals and industry lungs and cause
a colourless gas with a vegetable coughing.
characteristic pungent matter.  Industrial sites  Burns.
colour. Contributes Ammonia and that store ammonia  Lung damage
significantly to the ammonium or use it as a and death may occur
nutritional needs of salts are also refrigerant can after exposure to
terrestrial organisms by found in small release high levels very high
serving as a precursor quantities in if the chemicals concentrations of
to food and fertilizers, rainwater, leaks or is spilled ammonia.
and either directly or fertile soil and
indirectly, is also a in seawater.
building block for the  During
synthesis of many volcanic
pharmaceuticals. eruptions
 The kidneys
secrete NH3 to
neutralize
excess acid.
Arsenic (AS)  Volcanic ash  Smelting of  Epigenetic
A solid layered, a weathering of metals. changes
ruffled analogue of the arsenic-  Combustion of  Multi-system
graphic, metallic gray containing fuels (especially of organ failure
in color and is a mineral and low grade brown  Arsenic
semiconductor. It is a ores as well as coal). poisoning
potent poison. (IARC) ground water.  Use of
recognizes arsenic and  Food, water, pesticides
group I carniogen. soil and air.  Wood
preservation, glass
production,
nonferrous metal
alloys, electronic
semi-conductor
manufacturing.
 Coke oven
emissions
associated with the
smelter industry.
Nickel (Ni)  Urease  Combustion of  Nickel sulfide Explosive in air.

A silvery-white (an enzyme fossil fuels. fume and dust is
lustrous corrosion- which assists in  Nickel plating. believed to be
resistant metal with a the hydrolysis  Metallurgical carcinogenic.
slight golden tinge. of urea) processes.  Allergy,
contains nickel. dermatitis.
Sensitivity to nickel
may also be present
in patients with
pompholyx.
Other Pollutants Not Included in NAAQS List
Carbon dioxide (CO2)  Respiration by  Fossil fuels  Breathlessness,  Greenhouse effect
animals and burning for headache, chest and climate change.
plants cooking, congestion.
heating in  Indirect effect
power plant due to increase in
furnaces. temperature during
green-house effect.
Chlorofluorocarbons  Air  Indirect effects  Depletion of
(CFCs) conditioners, through depletion of stratospheric ozone.
refrigerators, ozone in
 Foam stratosphere which
insulations protects human from
 Extinguishers harmful UV
 Solvent radiation. Enhanced
cleaners UV radiations cause
 Aerosol skin cancer,
propellants cataracts etc.
 Supersonic
aircraft
Pollutants in Different Area:
Industrial, Ecologically
Time weighted residential, sensitive area
S.No. Pollutants
average rural and other (Notified by
areas Central Govt.)
1 Sulphur Annual* 50 20
dioxide 24 Hours* 80 80
3
(SO2), g/m
2 Nitrogen Annual* 40 30
dioxide 24 Hours* 80 80
(NO2),
g/m3
3 Particulate Annual* 60 60
matter (Size 24 Hours* 100 100
< 10 m) or
PM10 g/m3
Particulate
matter
4 (Size < 25 Annual* 40 40
m) or PM2.5 24 Hours* 60 60
g/m3
5 Ozone (O3), 8 Hours** 100 100
3
g/m 1 hour** 180 180
6 Lead (Pb), Annual* 0.50 0.50
3
g/m 24 Hours* 1.00 1.00
7 Carbon 8 Hours** 02 02
monozide 1 hour** 04 04
3
(CO), g/m
8 Ammonia 1 hours** 100 100
(NH3), Annual** 400 400
g/m3 24 Hours**
11 Arsenic Annual* 06 06
3
(As), ng/m
12 Nickel (Ni), Annual* 20 20
3
ng/m
memory, and behavior in children.
Sources and Effects of Air Pollution: Cardiovascular and renal effects in adults
Carbon Monoxide (CO) and early effects related to anemia.
 Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
 Fuel combustion from vehicles and engines. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
 Reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the  Fuel combustion (electric utilities, big
body’s organs and tissues; aggravates heart industrial boilers, vehicles) and wood
disease, resulting in chest pain and other burning.
symptoms.  Worsens lung diseases leading to respiratory
Ground-level Ozone (O3) symptoms, increased susceptibility to
 The most important secondary pollutant is respiratory infection.
the Ground Level Ozone or Tropospheric Particulate Matter (PM)
Ozone. Emissions from industrial facilities  This is formed through chemical reactions,
and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, fuel combustion (e.g., burning coal, wood,
gasoline vapours, and chemical solvents are diesel), industrial processes, farming
some of the major sources of Nox and VOC. (ploughing, field burning), and unpaved
Ground Level Ozone forms due to reactions roads or during road constructions.
of the NOx, Carbon Monoxide and VOCs in  Short-term exposures can worsen heart or
presence of sunlight. lung diseases and cause respiratory
 Decreases lung function and causes problems. Long-term exposures can cause
respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and heart or lung disease and sometimes
shortness of breath, and also makes asthma premature deaths.
and other lung diseases get worse. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
 Ozone cracking in tires, gaskets.  Sulphur Oxides are generally a product of
Lead (Pb) the Volcanoes, Industrial processes, Coal and
 Smelters (metal refineries) and other metal petroleum, because most of them have
industries; combustion of leaded gasoline in Sulphur as a component.
piston engine aircraft; waste incinerators  Respiratory irritant, aggravates asthma and
(waste burners), and battery manufacturing. other lung and heart diseases, reduces lung
 Damages the developing nervous system, function, and is a precursor to acid rain.
resulting in IQ loss and impacts on learning,
Aerosols: airborne dust and sea-salt particles produced
They are a subset of air pollution that when sea spray dries out.
contains gases, fumes and dust in harmful Secondary aerosols are produced from
proportion. These particles can be both solid gaseous precursors. Chemicals reacts in the
and liquid which also affects environmental air, converts the primary gaseous pollutants
visibility. They are suspended particulates in (SO2, N2O) into gases with reduced
the atmosphere and have implications for volatility, some of which condense into
climate and health through different particulates. Emissions arising from
mechanisms. Several studies have suggested vegetation (as pollen grains, plant debris)
that aerosols may be mitigating global and microbial particles (algae, bacteria,
warming by increasing the planetary albedo. viruses etc) also form secondary aerosols.
Sources of Aerosols These are biogenic aerosols. The tiny
A natural aerosols found over almost the particles can range in size from 0.01 m to
entire globe is a sea salt, including both NaCl several tens of micrometre. Under normal
and sulphates as Magnesium sulphate. conditions, the majority of aerosols formed
About 90 per cent of airborne aerosols are are washed out by rain within a week or so.
naturally occurring substances like dust and A severe volcaric eruption can push large
particulate matter from volcanic eruptions, amounts of aerosol into the upper
and sea spray. Overall, humans are atmosphere.
responsible for roughly 10 per cent of the Composition of a Typical Aerosol
aerosols, mainly as exhausts from Component Percent value
automobile, industrial and biomass burning. Potassium 2
In the Indian Ocean study, however, Sea-salt + nitrate 1
scientists inferred that as much as 85 per cent Minor inorganics 2
of aerosols were of anthropogenic origin. Mineral dust 10
Aerosol sources are of two types- Sulphate 32
 Primary Ammonium 8
 Secondary Fly ash 5
Primary aerosols are emitted directly as tiny Black carbon 14
particles, such as smoke from forest or bush
Organics 26
fires, soot from burning fossil fuels in
industries, vehicles, trains, aeroplanes,
What is Black Carbon?  Heavy cloud formation, affecting world's
Black carbon (BC) aerosol assumes major freshwater bodies, as lakes,
groundwater supplies, glaciers etc.
importance due to its high absorption
 Alteration in temperature and climate,
characteristics, which in turn depends on its
affecting rainfall and monsoon patterns.
production mechanism. In addition to
 Reduced agricultural yield.
exerting its own radiative impact, black
Fine particles less than 2.5 microns() in
carbon aerosol can substantially contaminate
diameter are believed to damage human
other aerosol species, thereby altering the
health, because they move past to the lungs
radiative properties of the entire aerosol
introducing infectious microbes to lung
system and in fact their ability to act as cloud
tissues. Dust particles as large as 10
condensation nuclei.
microns() can deposit in the lung airways
The sources of BC are fossil fuel through
and cause bronchial airway constriction.
burning of diesel and solid coal, indoor
Particles upto 4 microns() can be inhaled
burning of biomass fuels for cooking and
and interfere with the lung function by
heating and outdoor burning of crop
penetrating into their gaseous-exchange
residues, savannas and forests.
regions.
Black carbon warms the atmosphere due to
Very small water droplets (formed due to
its absorption and by reducing albedo when
condensation of water vapours) remain
deposited on snow and ice
suspended in the atmosphere, and may either
SAMAR
form clouds in the sky, or combine to form
 The Indian Meteorological Department
layer droplets, which fall on the earth as rain.
(IMD) has launched a System of Aerosol
However, if there are too many particulates
Monitoring and Research (SAMAR) which
(aerosols) available in the air for water vapor
will help the country in studying
to condense on, heavy cloud formation takes
concentration of black carbon in
place. Droplets hardly become big enough in
atmosphere due to air pollution and its
size to fall as rain or snow. Thus presence of
impact on climate.
aerosols leads to heavy cloud formation
It is a network of 16 Aethalometers, 12 Sky
which in turn replenishes the major stores of
radiometers and 12 Nephelometers.
freshwater (as there are no rains, water does
Threats to Aerosols
not return to them, but remains blocked in
 Harmful to human health, being easily
atmosphere as clouds).
passed to lungs.
Sulphate aerosols have a cooling effect. On While tiny particles suspended in the air are
the contrary, there is evidence for black essential for cloud formation, if they are too
carbon aerosols having a warming effect. many in number, it may adversely affect
Warming due to black carbon aerosols, thus rainfall in heavily polluted areas; clouds do
may balance the cooling effect of sulphate not precipitate due to very small droplet size,
aerosols. The proportion of light scattered by whereas they precipitate in less polluted
aerosols to that absorbed determines their areas within a short time their formation.
warming or cooling effect. At the same time, According to the scientists of Indian Ocean
aerosols reduce the heating of the earth after experiment (INDOEX), the haze over
surface as they decrease the amount of solar the Indian Ocean causes a 1-2 per cent
energy reaching the surface by absorbing or decrease in tropical average evaporation and
scattering it. The Indian Ocean haze, with as precipitation, depending on the season.
much as 10 to 15 per cent black carbon is Model simulations have also shown that the
known to reduce the surface solar heating by haze causes significant redistribution of
about 10 per cent, while nearly doubling the rainfall in the Indian Ocean. While some
lower atmosphere heating. The haze has led regions experience as much as 20-40 per cent
to a cooling of about 0.3C over the Indian increase, others suffer from decreased
subcontinent since the 1970s. An indirect rainfall. For instance haze has caused a large
effect of aerosols on the amount of incoming increase in rainfall over southern India,
solar energy is through their effect on cloud whereas, a much decrease in winter rainfall
formation. They can enhance the possible over parts of North West India, Pakistan and
cooling effect of clouds. Dense clouds Afghanistan. Areas over the Western
containing many small droplets when the air equatorial Pacific are also getting dry.
is overcrowded with aerosols reflect the most Particulates through their effect on cloud
sunlight back into space, causing more properties may also influence the arrival of
cooling. More droplets mean more surface monsoon and its distribution in India.
area to block the light. Since haze decreases the total amount of
Aerosols many reduce the rainfall and sunlight reaching the Earth, reducing in turn
threaten the earth's fresh water supplies. The the photosysnthesis in plants, it can also
tiny particles of soot and other pollutants affect agricultural production. Besides this,
have been shown to affect the hydrological setting of aerosols on leaves can further
cycle of nature. reduce the amount of sunlight available to
plants. Such a deposition can also harm the  It occurs in winter months particularly in early
leaves through acid formation, particularly morning hours.
by sulphate fraction of the aerosols. Reduced  It causes severe lung and throat irritation.
rainfall could also have significant impact on Photochemical Smog or Los Angels Smog:
crop yield. Based on a study on crop model Photochemical smog occurs due to the action
developed at IARI, New Delhi, it could be of sunlight on air pollutants, generating
shown that haze caused about 5-10 per cent photochemical reactions. The principal
decrease in rice productivity in Southern constituents of the photochemical smog are
India through its adverse effect on available gaseous hydrocarbons (leading to ozone
sunlight. formation) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) that
SMOG are a part of automobile exhaust.)
The word "smog" is the combination of the The reaction of sunlight with hydrocarbons
words smoke and fog. and NO2 results in a variety of chemical
It was invented around 1911 by the physician products. One of these is ozone, made up of
Harold Des Voeux. 3 atoms of oxygen (O3), which is an irritating
There are two kinds of smog: noxious gas. Other undesirable chemicals
Classical Smog or London Smog: such as aldehydes also result from this
 The word smog was used initially to describe photochemical reaction.
'smoke fog' prevalent in England, in early This type of smog is oxidizing in character
and middle of the last century. because of the presence of O3, NO2 and some
photochemical oxidants.
 Coal was then widely used to heat homes and
Note: While Ozone formed during photochemical
as an industrial fuel. London is famous for its
reaction in the lowest region of the
smoke fog of 1952 when 4000 people died
atmosphere is an air pollutant, in the upper
from its effects over a four-day period.
atmosphere, the natural existence of the
 Now days, the mixture of particulates with
ozone layer helps protect living organisms
gaseous oxides of sulphur present in
from harmful U.V. rays from the Sun.
atmosphere is called classical smog.
Because sunlight is essential to this type of
 The principal source of classical smog is the
smog, the concentration of ozone and other
combustion of industrial and household fuels
measurable chemicals it is maximum around
(coal and petroleum). Because of the
mid day of summer months and falls off
presence of SO2 and carbon (soot) particles,
considerably at night.
classical smog has a reducing character.
Photochemical smog causes eyes irritation  Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power
and coughs due to the presence of ozone and generation capacity is thermal, of which 90%
can lead to respiratory problems and reduced is coal-based generation, with diesel, wind,
physical (athletic) ability. gas, and steam making up the rest. The
Harmful Effects of SMOG: Indian coal has high ash content of the order
of 30-45%, generating large quantity of fly
 Smog causes respiratory problems like
ash at coal/lignite based thermal power
asthma attacks, bronchitis, hezart related
stations in the country.
disorders.
Composition
 Being noxious, it causes irritation to eyes,
 Aluminum silicate (in large amounts)
throat and nose.
 Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
 It reduces visibility and affects road as well
 Calcium oxide (CaO).
as air traffic.
Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of
 It damages plants; Ozone is very toxic to
silica alumina, oxides of iron, calcium and
leafy vegetation such as tomatoes, tobacco
magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead,
and grape plantation. Ozone also damages
arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
old growth forests closer to sea level. Small
Advantages:
animals incur respiratory and other health
 Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto35%,
stress disorders.
thus reducing the cost of construction
 Other materials like electronic and electrical
making roads, etc.
equipments get affected.
 Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer
 Extreme and unexpected conditions due to
high strength and durability.
smog have caused death. (1952 London
 Fly ash is a better fill material for road
smog.)
embankments and in concrete roads.
Fly Ash
 Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly
 Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid
ash.
material takes place.
 Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also
 Fly ash is one such residue which rises with
enhances water holding capacity of the land.
the gases into the atmosphere. Fly ash is a
Environmental effects
very fine powder and tends to travel far in
 If fly ash is not captured and disposed off
the air. The ash which does not rise is termed
properly, it can pollute air and water
as bottom ash.
considerably.
 It causes respiratory problems 2. Second-hand smoke: It is tobacco smoke
 Fly ash in the air slowly settles on leaves and which affects other people other than the
crops in fields in areas near to thermal power 'active' smoker. It includes both a gaseous
plants and lowers the plants yield. and a particulate phase, with particular
Policy measures of MoEF: hazards arising from levels of carbon
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide monoxide and very small particulates.
its notification in 2009, has made it 3. Biological chemicals: They can arise from a
mandatory to use Fly Ash based products in host of means, like moisture induced growth
all construction projects, road embankment of mould colonies and natural substances
works and low lying land filling works released into the air such as animal dander
within 100 kms radius of Thermal Power and plant pollen. They are allergens and
Station. aggravate asthma.
 To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 4. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): They
50 kms radius of Thermal Power Stations. are emitted as gases from certain solids or
Indoor Air Pollution: liquids like paints and lacquers, pesticides,
The air pollution types mentioned so far are building materials and furnishings, office
also known as outdoor air pollution. equipment, correction fluids, glues and
Indoor air pollution is also a very important adhesives, permanent markers, and
problem. The air within homes and other photographic solutions.
buildings can sometimes be more polluted 5. Carbon monoxide: Sources of carbon
than the outdoor air even in the largest and monoxide are tobacco smoke, space heaters
most industrialised cities. Indoor air quality using fossil fuels, defective central heating
is an important concern for the health and furnaces, and automobile exhaust.
comfort of the occupants. Some of the 6. Bacteria: Many bacteria of health
sources of indoor air pollution are: significance found in indoor air and on
1. Radon: Radon is an invisible, radioactive indoor surfaces.
atomic gas that results from the radioactive 7. Ozone: Ozone is produced by ultraviolet
decay of radium, which may be found in light from the Sun hitting the Earth's
rock formations beneath buildings or in atmosphere, lightning, certain high-voltage
certain building materials themselves. Radon electric devices and as a by-product of other
is the second most frequent cause of lung types of pollution.
cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Air Pollution in India (b) Control of Gaseous Pollutants:
Air pollution in India is a serious issue with The gaseous pollutants can be controlled
the major sources being fuelwood and through the techniques of Combustion,
biomass burning, fuel adulteration, vehicle absorption and adsorption.
emission and traffic congestion. The Air (c) Control of Automobile Exhaust
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (i) use of efficient engines(e.g. multipoint
was passed in 1981 to regulate air pollution fuel injection engine).
and there have been some measurable (ii) Catalytic converter filters in the vehicles
improvements. One of the effective means of can convert nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and
controlling air pollution is to have proper reduce the potential hazards of NOx.
equipment in place. (iii) Use of good quality automobile fuels
 Policy Measures (iv) Use of lead free petrol.
 Preventive Measures: (v) Use of compressed natural gas (CNG).
1. Preventive Measures: 2. Policy measures:

(i) Destroying the pollutants by thermal or a) National Air Quality Monitoring
catalytic combustion. Programme
(ii) Conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic  In India, the Central Pollution Control
form Board (CPCB) has been executing a
(iii) Collection of the pollutant nationwide programme for ambient air
quality monitoring known as National Air
Different types of air pollutants can be
Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
eliminated/minimized by following methods:
(a) Control of particulate matter: Two types  The National Air Quality Monitoring
of devices are used to remove particulate Programme (NAMP) is undertaken in India.
pollutants from air. These are arresters and (i) to determine status and trends of ambient
scrubbers. air quality;
(i) Arresters: These are used to separate (ii) to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
particulate matters from contaminate air. (iii) to identity non-attainment cities;
(ii) Scrubbers: These are used to clean air for (iv) to understand the natural process of
both dusts and gases by passing it through a cleaning in the atmosphere; and
dry or wet packing material. (v) to undertake preventive and corrective

measures.
b) National Ambient Air Quality Standards Hyderabad. Government proposes to extend
(NAAQS)National Ambient Air Quality the measurement of air quality to 22 state
Standards (NAAQS) were notified in the capitals and 44 other cities with a population
year 1982, duly revised in 1994 based on exceeding one million.
health criteria and land uses. There are six AQI categories, namely:
The NAAQS have been revisited and revised Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted,
in November 2009 for 12 pollutants which Poor, Very poor and Severe.
include The index considers eight pollutants --
1. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3 and
2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Pb). The likely health implications of the six
3. Particulate matter having size less than 10 categories would also be provided with a
micron (PM10) colour code.
4. Particulate matter having size less than 2.5 With this step, India has joined the global
micron (PM2.5) league of countries like the US, China,
5. Ozone, Mexico and France that have implemented
6. Lead, smog alert systems.
7. Carbon monoxide (CO),
(d) Bharat Emission Standards
8. Arsenic
 These are emission standards instituted by
9. Nickel
the Government of India to regulate the
10. Benzene,
output of air pollutants from internal
11. Ammonia, and
combustion engine equipment, including
12. Benzopyrene
motor vehicles.
(c) National Air Quality Index (AQI)  The Standards, based on European
 It has been launched for monitoring the regulations were first introduced in 2000.
quality of air in major urban centres  Since October 2010, Bharat stage III (BS-
across the country on a real-time basis and III) norms have been enforced across the
enhancing public awareness for taking country.
mitigative action. The AQI has been at  In 30 major cities, Bharat stage IV (BS-IV)
present launched for 10 cities -- Delhi, Agra, norms have been in place since April 2010.
Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi, Faridabad,
 In a move to curb vehicular pollution,
Ahmedabad, Chennai, Bangalore and
Indian government has decided to move up
to the toughest emission standards of BS-VI Categorization of Polluting Industries
from the current BS-VI by April 2020  India's environment ministry has sought to
skipping BS-V standard. classify industrial units in a category of
BS VI Norms colours based on their pollution potential.
 The BS-VI compliant fuels have Sulphur  The categorisation is based on a pollution
concentration of 50 parts per million (ppm). index developed by the ministry taking into
 This will come down to as low as 10 ppm account the emissions, effluents, hazardous
in BS-VI compliant fuels and auto engines. waste generated, and the resources it
This means a lower level of harmful consumes.
emissions and reduced incidence of lung  They would be classified on the basis of
diseases. how they score on a scale ranging between
 The switch to BS-VI norms will also 15 to 60:
reduce concentration of carbon monoxide,
They would be classified on the basis of how
unburnt hydrocarbons, nitrous oxide and
they score on a scale ranging between 15 to
particulate matter from emissions.
60:
Colour Score Examples

Red 60 and above Petrochemicals, pharma,
(Heavily sugar, paper, nuclear and
Pollutin thermal power, tanneries,
g) organic chemicals,
fertilizers, fire crackers
Orange Between 30 – 59 Coal washeries, glass
manufacturing, paints,
stone crushers, aluminum
and copper extraction
from scrap
Green Between 15-29 Aluminum utensils, steel
furniture, soap, tea
processing
White Below 15 Air cooler, AC units,
(Non- Chalk factories, Biscuit
polluting tray units
)
The classification is for entire industrial  The system of annual renewal of certification
sectors and not individual units. will also be scrapped with this. The Ministry
has suggested five years renewal for red, ten polluted water is discharged into rivers, lakes
years for orange and one time certification and ponds. Thus, the domestic waste and
for green. White industries would not require garbage are the main source of water
any environmental clearance. pollution.
Water Pollution (ii). industrial effluents
Water pollution is referred to an addition in (iii). agricultural discharges and
excess of any material or heat that is harmful Water pollution caused by agriculture is
to humans or animals or desirable aquatic mainly an outcome of fertilizers and
life or otherwise causes significant agricultural chemicals such as insecticides
departures from normal activities of various and herbicides that runoff into streams and
living communities in a measurement of lakes. They are rich in many nutrients and
water. lead to phenomenon like eutrophication.
Terminology of Water Pollution (iv). industrial wastes from chemical
Four chief reasons, industries, fossil fuel plants (chemical power
(i) geometric increase in population, coupled plants) and nuclear power plants.
with The industrial wastes are most harmful of all
(ii) rapid urbanization, water pollutants as they contain toxic metals
(iii) industrialization, and (lead, mercury, zinc, copper, chromium and
(iv) agricultural development cadmium) and toxic non-metals (arsenic,
acids, alkalis, cellulose fibers, coloring and
Sources of Water Pollutants
bleaching materials, petrochemicals, etc.).
The chief source of water pollution are
These pollutants are continuously discharged
(i). Sewage and other Waste
in the water bodies either directly from waste
Domestic Sewage: Human beings use water
dumps.
for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing
Non-point and Point Sources
clothes, gardening, recreation, etc. The
discharged water has soluble and insoluble, Non point pollutants Point pollutants
organic and inorganic matter. It includes Pollutants from: Specific
detergents, toxic heavy metals and even Urban area, Industrial discharges
pathogens. In the municipal drains the area, Rural runoff from:
domestic sewage is mixed up with garbage Examples:sediment, Municipalities
from urban and rural settlements. This highly pesticides, or nitrates or industrial
entering a surface complexes Types of Water Pollution
water balance or Examples: Generally water pollution can be classified
runoff from organics or into following types
agricultural farms metals Marine Pollution
entering It can be defined as the introduction of
surface water substances to the marine environment
as a result of directly or indirectly resulting in adverse
wastewater effects like lowering the quality of sea water,
discharge obstruction of marine activities.
from a  Many of the corals are reported to have
manufacturin been killed off the Andaman and Nicobar
g plant. coast of toxic industrial effluents. Fishers are
The substances which degrade the quality of mostly adversely affected due to sea water
water from its equilibrium state are called pollution.
water pollutants which are generated from  Leakage of immense quantities of crude oils
two basic sources: from oil tankers and offshore oil wells is a
(1) Natural sources of water pollutants, and major source of sea water pollution.
(2) Anthropogenic sources of water  Water Hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can
pollutants. purify water by taking some toxic materials

and a number of heavy metals from water.
(1). Natural sources: of water pollutants
include soil erosion, landslides, coastal and
cliff erosion, volcanic eruption and decay
and decomposition of plants and animals.
(2) Anthropogenic sources: The
anthropogenic sources of water pollution
include industrial source, urban source,
Oil Spills:
agricultural source, cultural source
In Oil Spills, the oil is released into the ocean
(congregation of large number of people
or coastal waters. The Oil may be crude oil
during pilgrimage, religious fairs etc.
from the tankers, offshore platforms, drilling
rigs, Oil wells, ships or in any other form.
Causes of Oil Spills: that can have a lasting effect on the
Often oil spills are generally caused by environment.
accidents involving tankers, pipelines,  The immediate impact of an oil slick is the
refineries, drilling rigs, barges etc. They can mass death of fish and turtles and of birds
be caused due to natural disasters like because they cannot fly with wings coated by
hurricanes. They can happen due to heavy oil.
deliberate actions of terrorists, anti-social  Because the oil forms a film on the
elements and countries at war. Discharge of surface, it reduces the amount of light and
ballast, sludge and water used for cleaning of oxygen passing into the water. This
tanks. They can be caused by equipment suffocates marine life.
breakdown or due to carelessness of people.  The oil destabilises the entire marine food
What are oil slick and sheen? chain, beginning with plankton, microscopic
Oil floats on saltwater and usually on organisms that live in ocean depths, being
freshwaters also though dense oil is capable deprived of the sunlight they need to make
of sinking in freshwater. Oil spreads out very food. The death of plankton means death for
rapidly across the surface of the water to marine animals that feed on them and so on
form a thin layer called as oil slick. With up the food chain to humans.
even more spreading, the layer of oil on the  Toxic chemicals leached from the oil and
water surface starts becoming thinner and some of the oil itself sink to the seabed,
thinner and this thin layer is called as sheen. damaging coral reefs and endangering the
This sheen reaches far beyond the location of fish.
the original spill, due to which there are  The shore lines and sandy beaches in coastal
severe after effects on environment and areas may also be an indirect victim of oil
marine life. water pollution. The oil contaminated water
Effects of Oil Spill: is usually swept across the shoreline by the
Upto two-thirds of an oil-spill can evaporate waves in high tides. This makes the beaches
in the first few days, but before the light, dirty and unsafe for the human population as
toxic compounds evaporate, they kill fish well. Thus, coastal areas are continuously
and animal life and pose harm to future contaminated due to oil pollution.
generations.  Oil pollution seriously degrades the water
 The thick oil also washes ashore creating quality on a long-term basis. Being insoluble
reservoirs on the beaches of toxic chemicals
in water, oily water always exists as bi-layer. polluted water bodies. A plan should be
Also, at the shore lines, the current of waves developed to direct the restoration process
might even turn the oily water into a turbid and incorporate things like coral and
oil water emulsion (wherein the oil and water plantation reconstruction, shoreline
exist as a single turbid phase due to constant improvements and transport restrictions
mechanical mixing forces). This degrades the across water bodies.
quality of water further.  Bioremediation can also be used. When
 Tourism industry is greatly affected by oil bacteria are used to clean up oil spills in the
spills and oil pollution. Due to increasing oil marine environment, it is termed as
pollution on beaches and shorelines, bioremediation. Bioremediation is a process
recreational activities of tourists like boating, that uses natural decomposers and plant
swimming, diving, adventure sports are enzymes to treat the contaminated water.
taking a back seat. Unclean and unhealthy  Oil Zapper In 2010, a new technique of
water will repel tourists from undertaking using the bacteria to get rid of oil spill
these activities completely. became popular called Oil Zapper. Oil
Zapping is a bio-remediation technique
How to prevent and control oil spills?
involving the use of ‘oil zapping’ bacteria.
 Quality cannot be compromised when it
comes to ships and oil tankers in marine  Regular skimmers need to be employed in
waters. Their mechanical parts and marine water to monitor and control oil
equipment need to pass strict quality checks spills. Skimmers are boats that help scoop
to be proven safe against any oil spill the spilled oil from the surface of the
hazards. Extra attention is required while polluted water. This way immediate action
installing the pipes in tankers. Any probable can be taken in case of accidents to avoid
leakage issue should be eliminated before it long-term damage in serious proportions.
sets out on the sea.  The government should have a 24/7
 Government of all countries worldwide emergency team ready for any marine
should treat oil pollution seriously and come accidents and oil spill incidents. An effective
up with a suitable disaster management plan team will facilitate immediate clean up of the
to deal with this problem. Local mess that any such incidents might cause.
environmental agencies should also step up  Several laws and regulations have been
their action plans towards the recovery of operational since long in most of the
countries, but still oil pollution has been on  IISER Researchers develop Gelator to
the rise. The laws should be implemented on Scoop out marine oil spills:
ground level and facilities should be checked  Researchers from Indian Institute of Science
regularly for proper maintenance and Education and Research (IISER)
documentation of their procedures for Thiruvananthapuram have developed a
discharge as well as loading. Also, mock compound named gelator to scoop out
drills should be mandatory for all vessels, so marine oil spills. They had produced gelators
as to be prepared to clean up oil spills in using glucose as a starting material and
emergency situations. through several other chemical. The gelator
 The oil spills in the water bodies can be molecule is partly hydrophilic and partly
cleaned up the chemical way. Using sorbents hydrophobic. The hydrophilic part helps in
(big sponges which absorb oil) oil spills can self-assembling to form gelator fibres, while
be cleaned. Also, chemical dispersants the hydrophobic part is responsible for its
effectively break down oil into its diffusion into oil layer. Since outer part of
corresponding chemical constituents. the fibre is hydrophobic, oil tends to gets
 Physical methods can also be employed for into spongy network made of fibres. Once
cleaning oil spills. Vacuum trucks can suck inside the fibre network, oil loses fluidity
up spilled oil from the beaches and the and becomes a gel. The gel was strong
surface of water. Oil spills in beaches may enough to be scooped with a spatula.
also contaminate ocean water. So, shovels National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency
and road machinery can be used to clean up Plan:
oil on the beach. Oil contaminated sand and India promulgated National oil spill Disaster
gravel can be picked up and moved away, so contingency plan (NOS-DCP) in the year
that the waves hitting the shores do not pick 1996. Coast guard was designated as central
up the oily residues to cause oil water coordination authority.
pollution. Floating barriers called ‘booms’ The objectives of the plan are:
can also be used to prevent oil pollution.  To develop appropriate and effective
This is usually done by planting a large systems for the detection and reporting of
boom around a leaking oil tanker to collect it spillage of oil.
before it causes massive water  To ensure prompt response to prevent,
contamination. control, and combat oil pollution.
 To ensure that adequate protection is animal populations. When a power plant first
provided to the public health and welfare, opens or shuts down for repair or other
and the marine environment. causes, fish and other organisms adapted to
 To ensure that appropriate response particular temperature range can be killed by
techniques are employed to prevent, the abrupt change in water temperature
control, and combat oil pollution, and known as “thermal shock.” This problem is
dispose off recovered material in an particular for marine / cold blooded
environmentally accepted manner. organisms because they are adapted to
 To ensure that complete and accurate records specific temperature ranges. If water
are maintained of all expenditure to temperatures change too much, metabolic
facilitate cost of recovery. processes break down. Unlike humans, who
can adapt to wide temperature ranges, most
Thermal Water Pollution:
organisms live in narrow temperature niches.
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water
quality by any process that changes ambient Surface Water Pollution:
water temperature. A common cause of Surface water sources should be protected as
thermal pollution is the use of water as a much as possible from contamination by
coolant by power plants and industrial harmful pollutants. Surface water can be
manufacturers. When water used as a coolant polluted by industrial and municipal
is returned to the natural environment at a discharges as well as alteration to the natural
higher temperature, the change in environment, which may cause run-off and
temperature decreases oxygen supply and can include human and animal waste.
affects ecosystem composition. Urban Classified pollutants of surface water
runoff-storm water discharged to surface pollution into 8 major categories as follows:
waters from roads and parking lots-can also (1) Sewage wastes include numerous chemical
be a source of elevated water temperatures. substances brought down by the sewage
Ecological Impacts of Thermal Pollution drain of urban and industrial areas as referred
of Water: to above.
Thermal pollution, the release of liquid or (2) Infectious agents include germs and viruses
gas that increases heat in a surrounding area, which cause several types of diseases such as
has far-reaching and damaging ecological typhoid, dysentery, cholera, malaria,
effects by impacting aquatic organisms and tuberculosis, jaundice etc.
(3) Plant nutrients and dissolved substances nearby water causing an increase in nutrient
eg.. Chemical fertilizers, detergents, animal levels.
and human wastes. This causes phytoplankton to grow and
(4) Particulate matter e.g. soil and mineral reproduce more rapidly, resulting in algal
particles. blooms.
(5) Radioactive substances released from
This bloom of algae disrupts normal
nuclear reactors.
(6) Mineral and chemical substances coming ecosystem functioning and causes many
from modern industries and mining problems.
operations such as salts, acids, oil and The algae may use up all the oxygen in the
greases etc. water, leaving none for other marine life.
(7) Heat: in the form of hot water released from This results in the death of many aquatic
chemical and metal industries, electrical organisms such as fish, which need the
power plants run with atomic energy, coal, oxygen in the water to live.
petroleum and natural gas. The bloom of algae may also block sunlight
(8) Organic chemical exotics such as synthetic from photosynthetic marine plants under the
material like pesticides, insecticides, water surface.
herbicides, rodenticides etc. Some algae even produce toxins that are
Increasing urbanization and industrial harmful to higher forms of life. This can
expansion are responsible for the release of cause problems along the food chain and
enormous quantities of pollutants of various affect any animal that feeds on them.
kinds (as referred to above) through sewage
effluents into the rivers and lakes and thus
contaminating the water beyond permissible
safety level.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is when the environment
becomes enriched with nutrients. This can be
a problem in marine habitats such as lakes as
it can cause algal blooms. National River Conservation Plan
Fertilisers are often used in farming, The river conservation programme was
sometimes these fertilisers run-off into initiated with the launching of the Ganga
Action Plan in 1985. the Ganga Action Plan
was expanded to cover other rivers under table of groundwater, nature of aquifer,
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP). amount and nature of annual rainfall, general
The objective of NRCP is to improve the outlook of society, nature and rate of
water quality of rivers, which are major infiltration of rainwater and stagnant pond
water sources in the country, through and tank water and above all the nature and
implementation of pollution abatement amount of pollutants.
works in various towns along identified i. Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water
polluted stretches of rivers on cost sharing is dangerous for human health and may be
basis between the central and state fatal for infants.
governments. Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with
Ground Water Pollution: hemoglobin to from non-functional
Ground Water Pollution plays an important methaemoglobin and impairs oxygen
role in India in particular as a drinking water transport . This condition is called
source. Some of the feature of the methaemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome
groundwater which make it especially useful
to a large number are it is generally ii. Excess fluoride in drinking water causes
uncontaminated and thus can be consumed neuro-muscular disorders, gastro-intestinal
directly without any investment, it can be problems, teeth deformity, hardening of
available in close proximity to place where it bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal
is required as it is widely disbursed. fluorosis).

High concentration of fluoride ions is present
Groundwater is polluted through a variety of
in drinking water in 13 states of India. The
sources viz. leaching and downward
maximum level of fluoride, which the human
movement of pollutants from agricultural
body an tolerate is 1.5 parts per million
field(such as nitrates, phosphorous, potash
(mg/1 of water). Long term ingestion of
and several insecticides and pesticides), from
fluoride ions causes flurosis.
industrial dumping areas, from urban and
rural garbage, from earthen septic tanks and Leaching of polluting ions from the earthen
from polluted ponds and tanks. The main soak pits, septic tanks and rotten and
controlling factors of groundwater pollution damaged underground sewer pipelines
are lithological characteristics of sub-soils downward very often pollute groundwater up
and subsurface materials, depth of water to a depth of 400 m. The pollutants which
move downward with percolating water are  This treatment of waste water or sewage is
called leachates. The leached pollutants are carried out in effluent treatment plants
seldom stationary in the groundwater rather especially built for this purpose.
they move in the aquifers with the movement Water Recycling
of groundwater as guided by groundwater  With increasing population the
contour. requirement for water is increasing rapidly.
Methods for Control of Water Pollution However, the availability of water is
and Water Recycling: limited but an ever increasing water
The sewage water can be treated to make it withdrawal from different sources brings
safe for disposal into water bodies like rivers, down water quality.
lakes etc. The treatment involves three  Therefore, it is essential to utilize the
stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. available water with maximum economy.
This includes This involves recycling of waste water for
1. Sedimentation, certain uses with or without treatment.
2. Coagulation/flocculation,
Recycling refers to the use of waste-water
3. Filtration, by the original user prior to the discharge
4. Disinfection, either to a treatment system or to a
5. Softening receiving water body. Thus the waste
6. Aeration.
water is recovered and repetitively
 The first four steps are of primary treatment. recycled with or without treatment by the
The first three steps are involved in same user.
primary treatment remove suspended
Control of Water Pollution
particulate matter. Secondary treatment
 It is easy to reduce water pollution from
removes organic solids, left out after
point sources by legislation. However, due
primary treatment, through their microbial
to absence of defined strategies it becomes
decomposition.
difficult to prevent water pollution from
 The tertiary treatment is meant to remove
non-point sources. The following points
nutrients, disinfect for removing
may help in reducing water pollution from
pathogenic bacteria, and aeration removes
non-point sources.
hydrogen sulphide and reduce the amount
(i) Judicious use of agrochemicals like
of carbon dioxide and make water healthy
pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce
and fit for aquatic organisms.
their surface run-off and leaching. Avoid use 4. Chemical treatment, and
of these on slope lands. 5. Biological treatment.
(ii).Use of nitrogen fixing plants to 1. Equalisation:
supplement the use of fertilizers. For producing uniform waste-water, the
(iii). Adopting integrated pest management effluent is held for some fixed time under
to reduce reliance on pesticides. mixing condition to equalize the flow rate
(iv) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such and balance the organic concentration.
run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient 2. Neutralisation:
rich water can be used as fertilizer in the Neutralizing the excessive acidic or alkaline
fields. effluent with the help of alkali or acid
(v). Separate drainage of sewage and rain respectively.
water should be provided to prevent
3. Physical Treatment:
overflow of sewage with rainwater.
Separating the suspended inorganic matter
(vi) Planting trees would reduce pollution by
by physical processes like sedimentation and
sediments and will also prevent soil erosion.
floatation
Wastewater Treatment Methods: (i). Sedimentation: Separation of heavy
Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) inorganic settleable solids.
Effluent treatment plants are designed to (ii) Floatation:is a process that clarifies waste
treat industrial effluents (waste waters). waters by the removal of suspended matter
Since effluents from different industries and such as oil or solids. The removal is achieved
even different processes in an industry vary by dissolving air in the water under pressure
in quantity and quality, separate treatment and then releasing the air at atmospheric
methods for individual industry is required. pressure in a floatation tank basin. The
No normal method like sewage treatment can released air forms tiny bubbles which adhere
be successful. Therefore, it is important to to the suspended matter causing the
remove pollutants before treatment of suspending matter to float to the surface of
effluents. For treatment one or more the water where it may then be removed by a
following process may be used. skimming device.
1. Equalisation 4. Chemical Treatment:
2. Neutralisation Depending upon the characteristics of the
3. Physical treatment effluents chemical treatment may or may not
be required before biological treatment. By formed by the chemical reaction between
chemical treatment dissolved organic matter coagulant and alkalies of the waste-water.
may be recovered. It consists of one or more  Impurities of phosphorus, phosphoric
of the following processes: compounds etc. are removed by chemical
(i). Reverse osmosis precipitation with such compounds which
(ii) Electrodialysis can precipitate dissolve form of such
(iii).Chemical oxidation impurities. Nutrients like nitrogen and
(iv).Chemical coagulation or chemical toxic metals may also be sometimes
precipitation precipitated by using suitable chemicals.
(v) Adsorption (v) Adsorption: By passing wastewater through
(vi) Deionisation activated carbon (charcoal), the non
(vii) Thermal reduction, and biodegradable organics like synthetic
(viii) Air stripping detergents, colour and odour are removed by
(i) Reverse osmosis: Waste-water is filtered adsorption process.
through semipermeable membrane to remove (vi) Deionisation: Wastewater is passed through
dissolved salts. Before reverse osmosis, the bed of synthetic ion exchange resin to
waste-waters are subjected to activated remove undesirable cations or anions by
carbon adsorption or chemical precipitation exchanging with sodium or hydrogen ions of
and filtration. the resin.
(ii) Electrodialysis: Dissolved salts are separated (vii) Thermal reduction: substances like organic
by passing electric current through waste- cyanide when present in waste-water are
water tank installed with ion exchange removed by burning and consequent
membranes. Some pretreatment of waste- oxidation
water is done. (viii) Air stripping: Gases from the wastewater are
(iii) Chemical oxidation: Substances like removed by pouring the liquid waste down
ammonia, cyanide etc. in waste-waters are through a packed tower equipped with an air
reduced by chlorine or ozone. This also blower at the bottom.
reduces BOD load for biological treatment. 5. Biological treatment: When the
(iv) Chemical coagulation: Sedimentation of wastewaters contain large quantities of
unsettleable micro and colloidal impurities biodegradable substances, biological
which get absorbed in the gelatinous flocs treatment is given by conventional biological
treatment methods which may differ  Progressive technologies like Zero Liquid
depending upon the type of industry. Discharge will also be considered for
 When toxicity of wastewater to microbe in assistance, subject to a ceiling. The central
biological treatment method is expected, subsidy has been enhanced from 25% to
acclimatization is done. It means gradual 50% of the project cost.
exposure of wastewater in increasing
BIO TOILET
concentration to the seed/ initial microbial
 The bio-toilet consists of an easy to install
population under controlled conditions.
super-structure, a multi-chambered bio-
For growth of microbes sometimes
tank that holds the bacterial culture and
nitrogen and phosphorus containing
supports the treatment of human waste.
compounds like urea/super-phosphate are
The system doesn’t need any external
added.
energy for treatment, rather gives out
Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) pathogen-free effluent water that is apt for
Sewage treatment, or domestic waste water gardening and similar purposes; and biogas
treatment, is the process of removing that could be used for cooking or heating.
contaminants from waste water and house
The system meets all regulatory and
hold sewage, both runoff and domestic. It environmental compliances and enhances
includes physical, chemical and biological the socio-environmental fabric of India.
processes to remove physical, chemical and
 Bio-digester is a consortium of anaerobic
biological contaminants.
bacteria, which have been screened and
Common Effluent Treatment Plants gradually adapted to work at temperatures
(CETPs) as low as -5°C through the isolation of
 The concept of CETP arose inorder to make psychrophilic bacteria from Antarctica/
a co-operative movement for pollution Siachen. These convert the organic waste
control. The main objective is to reduce the into water, methane and CO2. The
treatment cost to be borne by an individual anaerobic process inactivates the
member unit to a minimum while pathogens responsible for water-borne
protecting the environment to a maximum. diseases. Bio-digesters serve as reaction
 Waste water treatment and water vessels for bio-methanation and provide
conservation are the prime objectives of anaerobic conditions and the required
the CETP. temperature for the bacteria. Bio-toilets
treat the human waste at source – obviating previously understood as being limited to
the need to carry/transport the fecal matter, material pollution. Noise is an inescapable
no spoiling of environment or by-product of the industrial environment,
groundwater, and don't need any energy. which is increasing with advances in
Then, there are other benefits of the bioloo. industrialization and urbanization. Even in
The system leaves pathogen-free water as non-industrial areas, noise from such
effluent that can be re-used. For large bio- activities such as printing, auto-repair and
tanks, methane can be collected and used. grinding affects those living in the immediate
These can be installed anywhere, without surroundings.
specification of land type, terrain, distance, What is “Safe Noise Level”?
etc. We see bio-toilets as a true panacea to Noise travels through the air. Noise is
many of India’s sanitation woes. measured in decibels. Experts believe that
Noise Pollution continuous noise levels in excess of 90
What is Noise? decibels can cause loss of hearing and
Noise, by definition, is unwanted sound. irreversible changes in nervous systems. The
What is pleasant to some ears may be World Health Organization [WHO] has fixed
extremely unpleasant to others, depending on 45 decibels as the safe noise level for a city.
a number of factors. The natural environment Metropolitan areas in India usually register
contains many sources of noise - wind, an average more than 90 decibels.
volcanoes, oceans, and animal sounds are all Sound is a mechanical energy. It is produced
familiar intrusions accepted at various levels. by any vibrating object. Any sound, which is
Man-made noises - such as those from unwanted or unpleasant to our ears, is called
machines, automobiles, trains, planes, noise. Most of the noise one hears originates
explosives and firecrackers are more from human activities. Noise pollution is a
contentious. Both kinds of noise affect sleep, growing problem. All human activities
hearing and communication as well as contribute to noise pollution to varying
mental and physical health. extent sources of noise pollution are many
and may be located indoors at outdoors.
What is Noise Pollution?
The main sources are:
It is now increasingly understood that
 Transport sector: aircraft, trains, trucks,
pollution from noise is an important
tractors, cars three-wheelers and
component of air pollution, which was
motorcycles contribute the maximum  Increase in cholesterol and blood pressure
noise. due to constriction of blood vessels.
 Industrial and construction machinery:  Stomach disorders and digestive spasm.
factory equipment, generators, pile driven,  Dilation of pupil of the eye.
pneumatic drills, road rollers and similar  It also interferes with peace of mind,
machinery. behaviour and proper communication.
 Special events: high-volume sound from  Nervousness, headache, irritability, fatigue
loudspeakers during pop music and decrease in work efficiency can be
performances, marriage receptions, caused due to noise pollution.
religions festivals, public meetings, etc.  It also affects the development of embryo
Noise pollution is increasing in industrial in mother's womb.
societies and in cities everywhere.  Effects on Wildlife: It can lead to changes
How is Sound Measured? in the delicate balance in predator and prey
Sound is measured in decibel (db). It is not a detection, interferes with the sounds of
linear, but a logarithmic, scale. For example, communication and in the relations to
a change from 40 db to 80 db represents a reproduction and navigation and
10,000-fold increase in loudness. When the overexposure to noise can lead to
sound level reaches 140 db, you will start temporary or permanent loss of hearing.
feeling pain in the ears. However, long
Methods to Control noise pollution:
exposure to noise even at 85 db can cause
 Reduction in source of noise: Source of noise
hearing loss.
pollution like heavy vehicles and old
Hearing loss begins if a person is exposed
vehicles shall not be allowed to ply in the
more than 8 hours a day to noise level of 80-
populated areas.
90 db.
 Machine noise can be reduced by proper
Level of 140 db is painful and 180 db could
machine design involving process of
kill.
modification, change in shape and
Consequences material.
 Hearing impairment.  Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the
 It causes anxiety and stress reaction and in machinery.
extreme cases, fright.  Noise levels can be reduced by reducing the
 There is increase in heart rate. noise radiating surfaces.
 Noise making machines should be kept in Governmental Actions on Noise Pollution
containers with sound absorbing media. in India:
The noise path will be interrupted and will NOISE pollution has become a serious
not reach the workers. problem for the society. In India, with
 Workers may be provided with ear protectors expanding vehicular population, traffic noise
to reduce noise reaching the eardrums. levels have increased, which can cause
 Planting more trees having broad leaves. serious health effects. The World Health
 Workers may be deployed in noisy Organization (WHO) recognized noise as
environment with maximum permissible one of the major pollutants affecting the
noise levels and the relatively quieter areas health of the human population.
in shifts so that the time of expose to high The Central Pollution Control Board
noise level doesn't exceed that (CPCB), New Delhi, has initiated a National
recommended by the Occupational Safety Ambient Noise Monitoring Network
and Health Act. (NANMN) with an objective of collecting
 Heavy machines transmit vibrations to the real-time noise monitoring data from major
hard surfaces in touch which in turn radiate cities of India. The network provides
noise. This type of secondary noise can be ambient noise level data which can be
reduced by providing pads of suitable helpful in identification of noisy spots and
material (rubber, felt, cork etc) to absorb adoption of suitable measures of abatement
and reduce noise transmission. for noise pollution control.
[
 Through law: Legislations can ensure that In March 2011, the Central Pollution Control
sound production is minimized at various Board established the first phase of noise
social functions. Unnecessary horn pollution monitoring network in 35 major
blowing should be restricted especially in cities in India including all the metros like
vehicle congested areas. Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad,
 Green Mufflers are barriers grown near Bengaluru, Lucknow and Chennai. (As per
noisy places to reduce the impact of noise. the CPCB study, nosiest city in India is
Normally 4 to 5 rows of green plants are Mumbai, followed by Lucknow, Hyderabad,
grown near the noisy places like highways Delhi and Chennai” and quietest city is
or industrial areas so that they obstruct the Bengaluru)
sound noise.
The system is a part of the National "If decibel levels are between the range of
Environmental Policy adopted in 2006. It is 80dB to 90dB, then over a period of time,
expected that by the establishment of second people can develop damage to nerves leading
and third phase, the number of locations to to hearing loss."
be monitored will be increased to 160 cities  Noise standards as laid down in Noise
covering various parts of Indian states. Pollution
Under the Environmental Protection Act, the (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.
Central Government came up with Noise  Allotting responsibility to State Pollution
Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules Control Boards or Committees and the
2000 which were to be implemented once Central Pollution Control Board, for
they got published in the official gazette. collecting, processing and providing the
These rules are meant for the following: statistical data about the noise pollution, so
 Implementation of noise standards in that adequate measures may be taken to
different zones or areas. prevent and control it.
 Restrict the use of loud-speakers. On violation of these rules, the person shall
 Restrict the over-usage of horns, sound be liable for penalty as per the Act.
creating equipments for construction and According to Noise Pollution (Regulation
fire-crackers. and Control). Rules, 2000, the permissible
WHAT THE LAW SAYS level in residential areas during the day is 55
Day time decibel (dB) and 45 dB at night.
Category of Night time
limit
area limit (in dB)
(in dB)
Industrial area 75 70
Commercial 65 55
area
Residential area 55 45
Silence zone 50 40
What are the Features of the Noise Any person violating the Rules is liable to
Regulation Rules 2000? be arrested under the stringent of the EPA.
The rules regulate noise levels in industrial, If the authorities do not act to stop violation
[75 decibels] commercial [65 decibels] and of the Noise Rules, the citizen who has
residential zones [55 decibels], and also filed a complaint can approach the Court
establish zones of silence (100 meters) near with his complaint after 60 days’ notice and
schools, courts, hospitals, etc. The the Court can initiate prosecution. The rules
rules also assign regulatory authority for also fix different ambient air quality levels
these standards to the local district courts. for firecrackers and industrial activities.
No permission can be granted by any Soil Pollution
authority for use of public address system Soil pollution is defined as the change in
in the open after 10.00 p.m. and before 6.00 the physical, chemical and biological
a.m. No exception is possible. Any conditions of soil due to the presence of
person or organization making noise on various toxic materials. Harmful substances
amplified system after 10.00 pm is are added to the soil through the surface
violation of the law and the person can be run-off or through leaching. Soils can be
prosecuted under the provisions of the EPA polluted by pathogenic organisms, organic
1986. and inorganic chemicals and toxic metals.
Who is authorised to grant permission Some of the toxic chemicals from the
after the restricted hours? polluted soils may enter the food chain and
Only District Magistrates can grant then enter the body of humans and other
permissions after 10.00 p.m. for functions organisms, causing serious health problems.
within closed premises. District Magistrates Sources of Soil Pollution
cannot grant permission for use of any  Industrial effluents like harmful gases
amplified public address system after 10.00 and chemicals.
p.m. After permission has been procured,  Use of chemicals in agriculture like
the sound must fall within the sound limits pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides.
prescribed in the Noise Rules. This can be  Improper or ineffective soil management
measured on a sound meter. system.
What are the consequences for violation  Unfavorable irrigation practices, especially
of this Rule? over-irrigation.
 Improper management and maintenance of  Imbalance in the flora and fauna of the
septic system, sanitary waste leakage, soil.
release sewage into dumping grounds and  Increase in soil salinity, making it unfit
nearby water bodies. for cultivation.
 Toxic fumes from industries get mixed with  Creation of toxic dust.
rains causing acid rains.  Foul odor due to industrial chemicals and
 Leakages of fuel from automobiles are gases.
washed off due to rains and are deposited  Alteration in soil structure can lead to
in the nearby soil. death of organisms in it.
 Use of pesticides in agriculture retains
chemicals in the environment for a long Remedial Measures
time. These chemicals also effect  Reducing the use of chemical fertilizer
beneficial organisms like earthworm in and pesticides.
the soil and lead to poor soil quality.  Recycling paper, plastics and other
 Garbage blocks passage of water into the materials.
soil and affects its water holding  Ban on use of plastic bags, which are a
capacity. major cause of pollution.
 Unscientific disposal of nuclear waste  Reusing materials.
contaminates soil and can cause  Avoiding deforestation and promoting
mutations in living beings. forestation.
 Suitable and safe disposal of wastes
Consequences of soil pollution including nuclear wastes.
Soil pollution causes huge disturbances in  Chemical fertilizers and pesticides should
the ecological balance and health of living be replaced by organic fertilizers and
organisms at an alarming rate. Some the pesticides.
effects of soil pollution are:  Encouraging social and agro forestry
 Reduced soil fertility causes decrease in programs.
agricultural yield.  Undertaking many pollution awareness
 Loss of natural nutrients in soil. programs.
 Reduced nitrogen fixation.  Bioremediation
 Increased soil erosion.
Radio Active Pollution Ionizing Radiations:
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission Radiations emitted by radioactive elements
of -particles, -particles and gamma rays like X-rays, cosmic rays and atomic
(short wave electromagnetic waves) in the radiations are included in Ionizing
environment due to disintegration of atomic radiations.
nuclei of some elements is called These radiations have high penetration
Radioactive pollution. power and cause breakage of
Sources molecules.The molecular damage may
Natural: produce short range (immediate) or long
 Cosmic rays from space range effects.
 Radioactive minerals Short range effects include burns,
 Radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust impaired metabolism, dead tissues and
such as radium-224, uranium-238, death of the organisms.
thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, Long range effects are mutations,
etc. increased incidence of tumors and cancer.
Man-made: The mutated gene can persist in living
 Nuclear power plants and weapons organisms and may affect their progeny.
 Transportation of nuclear material The actively dividing cells such as Embryo,

foetus, cells of skin, intestinal lining, bone
 Radiation therapy
marrow and gamete forming cells are more
 Disposal of nuclear waste
sensitive to radiations.
 Uranium mining
Some species of animals and plants
 Atomic explosion
preferentially accumulate specific
Types of Radiation
radioactive materials. For example, oysters
Non-Ionizing Radiations:
deposit Zinc, fish accumulate Iron, and
Nonionizing radiation refers to types of
marine animals selectively deposit
radiation that do not have enough energy to
Strontium.
cause ionizations in atoms. In terms of
Effects of Radiation:
electromagnetic radiation, photons of low-
 Radiation splits the molecules of the
energy ultraviolet, visible light, infrared;
tissues into ions and free radicals and
microwaves and radio waves do not have
causes mutation by breaking DNA
enough energy to cause ionizations.
(Deoxy ribonucleic acid) molecules in the  Appropriate steps should be taken to
nucleus. protect from occupational exposure.
 Radiation in bone marrow may cause Solid Waste
leukemia. Solid waste (Refuse) means any garbage,
 Radiation may cause skin burns which sludge from a wastewater treatment plant,
may lead to skin cancer. or air pollution control facility and other
 Radiation causes damage to the fetus. discarded material including solid, liquid,
The measure of radiation is carried out in semi-solid, or contained gaseous material,
terms of rads and the exposure of radiation of resulting from industrial, commercial,
various dose of rads could lead to number of mining and agricultural operations, and
problems such as: from community activities. But it does not
 100-250 rads exposure may not kill the include solid or dissolved materials in
person but they might suffer from fatigue, domestic sewage, or solid or dissolved
loss of hair, nausea. Recovery is possible. materials in irrigation return flows or
 400-500 rads exposure leads to bone marrow industrial discharges.
effects causing low blood count, blood clot Types and Sources of Solid-wastes
failure, lower immunity level, and usually General categories of Solid-wastes:
result in death due to bleeding and infection (i) Mining wastes: mining wastes are
1000 rads and above leads to immediate produced during mining operations wherein
death as it damages the tissues of heart, brain huge quantities of wastes are dumped on
and other vital organs land surface which may be otherwise useful
Control Measures for other purposes
It is better to prevent as there is no cure (ii) Agricultural wastes: include roots and
available for radiation damage. stems of crops, straw, hay, dung, food
 Leakage of radioactive elements should articles etc. There is almost no problem of
be totally checked. agriculture waste items as they are used and
 Safe disposal of radioactive waste. reused in a number of ways.
 Regular monitoring through frequent (iii) Industrial wastes: include huge
sampling and quantitative analysis. amount of abandoned items which create
 Regulate the use of Nuclear material. several environmental problems. For

example, huge quantities of bagasse are
produced in sugar mills during the process serious disposal problems. In India dungs
of sugar production. are picked up by farmers and are used as
(iv) Municipal wastes: include solid manures and cooking fuels. Similarly,
wastes such as paper, plastics, metal cans, bones of dead animals are used in fertilizers
glass bottles, plastic bottles and cans, industry.
aluminum foils, metal junks, polythene (vi) Hospital waste
bags, garbage mostly coming from  Hospital waste is generated during the
domestic uses etc. It may be further pointed diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of
out that most of these items are reused and human beings or animals or in research
recycled. The municipal waste substances activities or in the production or testing
are also classified into of biologicals.
(i) non combustible wastes,  These chemicals include formaldehyde
(ii) highly combustible trash, and phenols, which are used as
(iii) combustible wastes, disinfectants, and mercury, which is used
(iv) animal and vegetable trash etc. in thermometers or equipment that
(iv) Packing wastes: include packaging of measure blood pressure.
different materials such as polythene,  It may include waste like soiled waste,
plastics, paper board, paper, jute, flax disposables, anatomical wastes,
(gunny bags) etc. These packaging are disposable syringes, swabs, bandages,
generally used several times in different body fluids, human excreta, etc.
forms in developing countries but these are  These are highly infectious and can be a
immediately discarded after their first use serious threat to human health if not
and hence present the problem of their managed in a scientific and discriminate
disposal. manner.
(v) Human wastes: include fecal matter in  After the notification of the Bio-medical
the cities which is disposed off in several Waste (Handling and Management)
disposal bodies such as underground pits, Rules, 1998, these establishments are
tanks, rivers and seas. These human excreta slowly streamlining the process of waste
are washed by rainwater and are carried to segregation, collection, treatment, and
nearby lakes and streams. Animal wastes disposal.
such as dung, their skeletons and waste
substances from slaughter houses pose
(vii) Radioactive and nuclear wastes:  Solid wastes may also choke the drains
Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to and gully pits resulting in water logging.
humans, animals, and plants and are  Obnoxious odours also pollute the air due
corrosive, highly inflammable, or to decomposition of organic solid wastes.
explosive.  Noxious fumes may pollute air due to the
 Household wastes that can be categorized burning of waste products especially
as hazardous waste include old batteries, plastic containers.
shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and  Percolation of decomposed garbage
medicine bottles. dumps into soil may result into pollution
 In the industrial sector, the major of underground water and land.
generators of hazardous waste are the Environmental Impacts of Solid Waste
metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, Disposal on Land:
refining, and rubber goods industries.  Ground water contamination due to
 Direct exposure to chemicals in leaching of waste dump
hazardous waste such as mercury and  Surface water contamination due to run-
cyanide can be fatal. off on the waste dump
Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution  Bad odour, pests, rodents and wind-
The improper handling and transfer of the blown litter around waste dump \
solid wastes results in various health and  Generation of inflammable gas such as
environment hazards, such as: methane within the waste dump
 Diseases like bacillary dysentery,  Bird menace above the waste dump
diarrhea and amoebic dysentery. affecting flight of aircrafts
 Rats depending upon these solid wastes  Frequent fires
may also cause plague, salmonellosis,  Spread of epidemics due to stray animals
trichinosis, endemic typhus like diseases  Soil acidity
through direct bite.
 Green house gas emission
 The crops and water supply may also get
Factors Affecting Solid Waste
contaminated and may result in large
Generation:
scale epidemic of cholera, jaundice,
 Absence of segregation of waste at source
gastrointestinal diseases, hepatitis etc.
 Lack of funds for waste management at
ULBs
 Lack of technical expertise and for local administration, so best practice
appropriate institutional arrangement is to reduce the generation of Solid waste.
 Unwillingness of ULBs to introduce  The reduction of waste can happen only
proper collection, segregation, when everybody reduces waste
transportation and treatment/ disposal generation in the first place.
systems.  Every individual has to contribute in
 Indifference of citizens towards waste doing so. There is urgent need of public
management due to lack of awareness. awareness about waste generation. There
 Lack of community participation towards should be awareness at all levels of
waste management and hygienic Society, which will motivate them to
conditions. change their casual habits which creates
 Lack of sewage management plan. waste.
Managing Solid Waste:  Public- Private Partnership should be
Due to current lavishing lifestyle trade, engaged in this awareness activity.
continuous waste generation is an obvious  Definite Point Sources of waste
phenomenon. For better management of generation like Hotels, Restaurant, and
solid waste, periodic review of each steps Shopping Complexes etc should
involved in waste management like contribute their space for disposal in their
Generation, Collection, Disposal etc should area itself, which ultimately reduces the
be conducted & accordingly burden of Collection.
implementation of “Best Practices” is  For Public Gatherings and Events
necessary. organised in public places for any reason
Best practices for waste management can (including for processions, exhibitions,
be achieved by well known ‘3 Rs’ circuses, fairs, political rallies,
principle. ‘3 Rs’ principle (Reduce, Reuse, commercial, religious, socio cultural
Recycle) events, protests and demonstrations, etc.),
Reduce: it will be the responsibility of the
 The most uncontrollable phase in Solid Organiser of the event or gathering to
waste management is ‘Waste generation’. ensure the cleanliness of that area.
Generated solid waste particularly from
Non-point sources is always a challenge
most facouredoption prevention  Waste recycling leads to less utilization

min imisation of raw materials, saves on landfill space,
reuse reduces the amount of energy required to
recycling manufacture new products. In fact
energyre covery
recycling can prevent the creation of
diposal
least favouredoption waste at the source.
Reuse:  Promoting/motivating citizens to start
 Utilization value of any item should be segregation of waste at source involving
known to people who are using it. NGO’s, co-operatives, private,
 NGOs working for under privilege Commercial & industrial sectors for
society should work for establishing appropriate mass awareness campaigns
centres which provides goods for  Source separation: by keeping recyclables
secondary use. Such centres can be set up and organics waste separate at source,
at the source. i.e., at the point of generation facilitate
 Private sector involvement should be reuse, recycling, and composting.
encouraged, repairing facilities should be  Segregate the waste in the house -keep
offered so goods can be used as per its two garbage bins and see to it that the
utilization value. biodegradable and the non-biodegradable
 Large production companies of is put into separate bins and dispose off
Electronic appliances, gadgets etc should separately. Biodegradable waste can be
establish the collection centres, where recycled.
damaged items can be repaired & reused.  Dry waste consisting of cans, aluminium
 NGOs, Self help group etc can organize foils, plastics, metal, glass, and paper
workshop, seminars which encourage could be recycled.
people to use waste material to create  There should be recycling plant at local
some decorative articles. level.
Recycle:  Wet garbage from hotel, resident can be
 The process of transforming materials recycled by establishing composting or
into secondary resources for vermicomposting plant in the vicinity.
manufacturing new products is known as This will produce good manure that can
Recycling. be used for gardens and lawns.
 The least technically complex and most 2. Incineration
cost-effective solution should be chosen.  Incineration means burning of the solid-
 Separation of waste for efficacious wastes in properly constructed hearth of
recycling and environmentally friendly furnaces. This method is generally used
purchasing habits are two areas for when suitable dumping land areas are not
effective management. available and disposal in sea is not
 Local Bio-degradable waste processing possible.
units, wherever possible set up small 3. Pulverization
scale processing units (composting or  In this method, the solid-waste is
bio-methanation) in public parks, pulverized in grinding machines so as to
playgrounds, recreation grounds, gardens, reduce its volume and change its physical
markets. character. By doing so it becomes
 Waste should be also seen as a ‘resource’ practically odourless and unattractive to
and not just a problem. insects. Although it contains fertilizing
Methods of Solid-Wastes Disposal elements, it cannot be suitably used as
The various methods of solid-wastes manure. It has to be further disposed of
disposal are: by land filling. The method is quite
1. Land Filling:
costly, and hence not commonly used,
 In this method, solid-wastes are carried
particularly in India.
and dumped into the low lying areas. The
4. Composting
refuse is filled up or dumped in layers.
 In this method the putrescible organic
Each layer is left out for at least seven
material in solid-wastes is digested
days and compaction by trucks is carried
anaerobically and converted into humus
out for its settlement, before starting
and stable mineral compounds. Its
filling the next layer. Insecticides like
volume is also considerably reduced and
DDT should be sprayed on top to prevent
is made free of most of the pathogenic
breeding of mosquitoes and flies.
organisms so that it can be easily and
 With the passage of time, the filled up
safely handled. This method is best suited
solid-wastes will get stabilized by the
to Indian conditions, especially for small
decomposition of the organic matter and
and medium size towns; since it solves
subsequent conversion into stable
three problems simultaneously-disposal
compounds.
of solid-wastes, disposal of night soil  animal anatomical waste,
(where there is no water carriage system  soiled waste and,
of sanitation), and production of valuable  biotechnology waste
manure for crops.  Increase coverage: The coverage has
5. Pyrolysis increased and also provides for pre-
 In pyrolysis, the chemical constituents treatment of lab waste, blood samples,
and chemical energy of some organic etc.
wastes is recovered by destructive  Separation of Waste: It mandates bar
distillation of the solid waste. code system for proper control. It has
Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules simplified categorization and
2016 authorization.
Why in News?
 Pre-treatment: of the laboratory waste,
Environment ministry released the new
microbiological waste, blood samples and
Bio-medical Waste Management Rules,
blood bags through disinfection or
2016 which will bring in a wider and more
sterilization.
comprehensive regime for bio waste
 Better storage: for a safe, ventilated and
management.
secured location for storage of segregated
What is Bio-Medical Waste? biomedical waste
Biomedical waste comprises human &  Phase out use of chlorinated plastic bags,
animal anatomical waste, treatment gloves and blood bags within two years
apparatus like needles, syringes and other from the date of notification of these
materials used in health care facilities in the rules
process of treatment and research. This  Training and vaccination: provide
waste is generated during diagnosis, training to all its health care workers and
treatment or immunization in hospitals, other who are involved and immunize
nursing homes, pathological laboratories, them against Hepatitis B and Tetanus that
blood bank, etc. are likely to be transmitted by handling of
Salient Features: bio-medical waste
 Bio-medical waste classified in to 4 Procedure of disposal:
categories based on treatment options. 1. Health care facilities (HCFs) must
 Untreated human anatomical waste, segregate biomedical waste at the
individual level in colored bags—yellow, However, thermoset plastics contains alkyd,
red, blue/white and black according to the epoxy, ester, melamine formaldehyde,
category of the biomedical waste. phenolic formaldehyde, silicon, urea
2. They can store this waste for up to 48 hours formaldehyde, polyurethane, metalised and
after which they either treat it in-situ multilayer plastics etc.
(or) Bioplastics:
A worker from a common biomedical waste A bioplastic is a plastic that is made partly
treatment facility (CBMWF) comes to or wholly from polymers derived from
collect it. biological sources such as sugar cane,
3. The CMBWF then treats the waste potato starch or the cellulose from trees,
according to the colour of the bag. Different straw and cotton. Some bioplastics degrade
colours call for different types of in the open air, others are made so that they
treatments—incineration, deep burial, compost in an industrial composting plant,
autoclaving, shredding, chemical treatment, aided by fungi, bacteria and enzymes.
disposal in a landfill, etc. Others mimic the robustness and durability
Plastic Waste of conventional plastics such as
What is Plastic? polyethylene or PET.
The plastics waste constitutes two major It is - partly or wholly made from biological
categories of plastics; materials and not crude oil - represent an
1. Thermoplastics and effective way of keeping the huge
2. Thermoset plastics. advantages of conventional plastics but
Thermoplastics, constitutes 80% and mitigating their disadvantages. However,
thermoset constitutes approximately 20% of that does not imply that bioplastics can
total post-consumer plastics waste naturally decompose like biodegradable
generated in India. The Thermoplastics are plastics. The prime benefit is that it gives
recyclable plastics which include; some respite to our depleting petroleum
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Low reserves.
Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly
Vinyal Choloride(PVC), High Density Poly
Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene(PP),
Polystyrene (PS) etc.
 Hygienic with a strong gas barrier
Plastics are clean and impermeable to
oxygen and water, effectively protecting
foods from contamination by
microorganisms.
Drawbacks of plastics:
 Susceptible to heat:
Advantages of Plastics:
Some types of plastic deform when placed
 Light and robust Plastics can be used to
near a flame or heat source.
make light yet strong products, unlike
 Susceptible to scratches and dirt:
metal and ceramics.
Plastics have a soft surface compared to
 Resistant to rust and corrosion Most
metal and glass and are easily scratched.
plastics are resistant to acid, alkalis and
They are also susceptible to static
oil and do not rust or corrode.
electricity and stains are highly visible.
 Transparent and freely colorable Some
Environmental effects of plastic waste:
types of plastic are highly transparent and
1. It Upsets the Food Chain
can be easily colored, making it possible
2. Groundwater Pollution
to create bright, attractive products.
3. Land Pollution
 Mass producible Many types of plastic 1. Air Pollution
that can be molded and processed by a 2. It Kills Animals
variety of methods, so products with 3. It is Poisonous
complex shapes can be efficiently 4. It is Expensive
massproduced, helping to bring down Plus, excess pollution has lead to decreased
costs. tourism in affected areas, significantly
 Excellent electrical and electronic impacting those economies.
properties Their outstanding insulation India currently generates almost 1 lakh tonnes
properties and dimensional stability of this contaminated plastic annually, which is
allows plastics to be used in components expected to go up to 1.7 lakh tonnes in 2018. Most of
and electrical and electronic products. this huge quantity of plastic reaches the informal
 High heat-insulation efficiency Plastics recycling sector, where majority of it is mixed with
conduct heat poorly, and foam is a other plastics and recycled with no safety or health
precautions.
particularly good heat-insulating material.
What are Brominated Flame and brand owners have been made
Retardants? responsible for collecting waste generated
Brominated flame retardants are chemicals from their products.
added to plastic parts of electronic gadgets  Producers are to keep a record of their
like computers, televisions, cell phones, vendors to whom they have supplied raw
printers and refrigerators, etc. to make them materials for manufacturing. This is to
less flammable. Many of these bromine- curb manufacturing of these products in
based chemicals are highly toxic. BFRs unorganised sector.
like Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers  Responsibility of waste generator: All
(PBDEs) have been banned in many institutional generators of plastic waste
countries globally as these are chemicals of shall segregate and store the waste
high concern. Rapidly increasing levels of generated by them in accordance with the
BFRs have been found in sediments, Solid Waste Management Rules, and
marine animals and human. This indicates handover segregated wastes to authorized
significant potential for damage to ecology waste disposal facilities.
and human health.  Responsibility of street vendors and
retailers: Not to provide such carry bags or
PLASTIC WASTE RULES 2016
fine would be imposed. Only the registered
New Plastic Waste Management Rules
shopkeepers on payment of a registration
 Increasing the minimum thickness of
fee to local bodies would be allowed to
plastic carry bags from 40 microns to 50
give out plastic carry bags on charge.
microns. This would increase the cost and
 To promote the use of plastic for road
the tendency to provide free carry bags
construction or energy recovery.
would come down.
Indian Scenario Plastic Waste:
 Responsibility of local bodies: Rural areas
 It is a major environmental and public
are brought under the rules since plastic has
health problem in Indian set up
reached rural areas as well. The gram
particularly in the urban areas.
sabhas have been given responsibility of
implementation.  Plastic shopping or carrier bags are one
of the main sources of plastic waste in
 Extended Producer Responsibility:
our country.
Earlier, EPR was left to the discretion of
the local bodies. First time, the producers
Source of generation of waste plastics  The kind of recycling practiced in India is

quite different from what is practiced in the
HOUSEHOLD Carry bags
rest of the world, in that state of the art
Bottles
technologies are not employed here. The
Containers
starting point is the sorting of plastic waste
Trash bags
(based on colour, transparency, hardness,
HEALTH AND Disposable syringes density and opacity of the scrap).
MEDICARE Glucose bottles  The sorted waste is then sent to the
Blood and uro bags granulators to obtain granules using with
Intravenous tubes the traditional mechanical and grinding
Catheters Surgical techniques. The converters use these
gloves granules to make finished plastic products.
HOTEL AND Packaging items The majority of such units (granulators and
CATERING Mineral water bottles convertors) are often located in slums, and
Plastic plates, glasses, function single machine extruding units.
spoons Scrap storage is done in the backyards, and

washing is done in open drums. These
AIR/RAIL Mineral water bottles
activities are often termed as backyard
TRAVEL Plastic plates, glasses,
recycling.
Spoons Plastic bags
 The technologies used in these industries
 Plastic has become prevalent because it is are also old and local. Of the types of
inexpensive and it can be engineered with plastics recycled in India, PVC (polyvinyl
a wide range of properties. Plastics are chloride) accounts for 45%, LDPE (low
strong but lightweight, resistant when density polyethylene) for 25%, HDPE
degraded by chemicals, sunlight, and (high density polyethylene) for 20%, PP
bacteria, and are thermally and (polypropylene) for 7.6% and other
electrically insulating. polymers such as PS (polystyrene) for

2.4%. This recycling is usually results in
 Plastics have become a critical material in
the down cycling of plastics into lower-
the modern economy; the annual volume
quality products that have higher and more
of plastics produced exceeds that volume
4 leachable levels of toxic additives.
of steel.
 During recycling, the plastic scrap is E- Waste
cleaned to remove the dirt and foreign What is E-waste?
matter adhering to it. The wastewater  e-waste' means electrical and electronic
generated used for this purpose is finally equipment, whole or in part discarded as
disposed of into open drains. This waste by the consumer or bulk consumer as
wastewater has high pollution load in terms well as rejects from manufacturing,
of BOD, COD, and TSS. The final stage in refurbishment and repair processes.
the life cycle of plastics is disposal. (or)
 In India, there are three common ways of  Electronic waste, or e-waste, is a term
getting rid off plastics – for electronic products that have become
 By dumping them in landfills, unwanted, non-working or obsolete, and
 By burning them in incinerators have essentially reached the end of their
 By littering them. useful life
 Because technology advances at such
In the case of littering, plastic wastes fail to
a high rate, many electronic devices
reach landfills or incinerators. It is the
become “trash” after a few short years of
improper way of disposing plastics and is
use
identified as the cause of manifold
 In fact, whole categories of old electronic
ecological problems. Incineration of plastic
items contribute to e-waste such as VCRs
wastes also significantly reduces the
being replaced by DVD players, and DVD
volume of waste requiring disposal. It is
players being replaced by blu-ray players.
believed that the volume reduction brought
about by incineration ranges from 80 to  E-waste is created from anything
95%. But the burning of these chlorine- electronic: computers, TVs, monitors, cell
containing substances releases toxic heavy phones, PDAs, VCRs, CD players, fax
metals and emits noxious gasses like machines, printers, etc.
dioxins and furans. The latter two are two Harmful Effects of Unscientific Disposal
of the most toxic and poisonous substances of E-wastes:
on earth and can cause a variety of health  Electronic waste affects nearly every
problems. system in the human body because they
contain a plethora of toxic components
including Mercury, Lead, Cadmium,
Polybrominated Flame Retardants, Barium waste (Management and Handling) Rules
and Lithium. 2011 to ensure proper disposal, but
 Even the plastic casings of electronics progress has been slow for various reasons.
products contain Polyvinyl Chloride. The  In spite of its growing environmental
health effects of these toxins on humans footprint, sound management of electronic
include birth defects, brain, heart, liver, waste has received low priority.
kidney and skeletal system damage. They  Urban solid waste management policy has
can also significantly affect the nervous focussed on cleaning streets and
and reproductive systems of the human transferring garbage to landfills, ignoring
body. the legal obligation to segregate and
 Toxic chemicals from e-waste enter the recycle. Hazardous materials, including
“soil-crop-food pathway,” one of the most heavy metals, are dumped in garbage yards,
significant routes for heavy metals’ polluting soil and water.
exposure to humans. These chemicals are
not biodegradable-they persist in the India’s 5th Largest Producer of E-Waste
environment for long periods of time,  India is the 5th largest producer of e-
increasing exposure risk. waste in the world discarding roughly 18.5
Problems Facing the E-waste lakh metric tonnes of e-waste each year, a
Management System in India? joint study by Assocham-KPMG reveals.
 India is the fifth largest producer of e-waste  12% of the waste is contributed by the
in the World telecom sector alone, with 25% of the
India generates about eight lakh tonnes of mobiles in circulation ending up in e-waste
e-waste annually, while 151 registered annually.
recycling facilities can handle only half of New E-Waste Management Rules
that quantum. Recently, the Ministry of Environment and
 There are no systematic studies on India’s Forests have proposed the E-waste
waste generation, a problem that is (Management and Handling) Rules 2016
probably much bigger than commonly that will replace the earlier Rules of 2011.
believed. Main Features
 Producers and consumers of electronic  Applicability
goods have a responsibility under the E-
 Earlier it was applicable only to  Participation of State government:
producers and consumers, dismantlers and Involvement of state government for
recyclers. Now extended to Manufacturer, effective implantation of the rules and
dealer, refurbishers and Producer simultaneously ensure welfare, safety and
Responsibility Organisation (PRO). health of the workers involved in this
 Earlier only Electric and Electronic sector.
equipments were covered. Now even their  Provision on Reduction of Hazardous
components and spare parts are also Substances (RoHS) during
covered. Also Mercury containing lamps manufacturing stage has been brought in
like CFLs also included. line with existing EU regulations. A
 Extended Producers’ Responsibility provision for withdrawal and recall of the
(EPR) products in case of non-compliance is
 It is a strategy designed to promote the added.
integration of environmental costs
associated with goods throughout their life
cycles into the market price of the products.
 Under E-waste exchange independent
companies could offer services of sale and
purchase of end-of-life equipments.
 Collection is now exclusive responsibility
of the Producer. There is no separate
authorization needed for this as was
required earlier.
 A target based approach has been mandated
for collection. This is 30% of the quantity
of waste generated in first phase and will
eventually move to 70% in 7 years.
 Bulk Consumer responsibility: They have
to file annual returns. Health facilities have
been added to the definition.
Unit
8 Energy
Concept of Energy: that travels in waves is energy stored in
The word “energy” originates from Greek like visible light, x- objects through the
rays, gamma rays and application of a force
word “energeia”, which means activity or
radio waves and solar like compressed
operation. In physics it is defined as the energy. springs and stretched
capacity to perform work. Energy is an rubber bands.
Thermal or heat Nuclear Energy is
abstract property that cannot be perceived--
Energy energy stored in the
it is not something that you can see or touch. is the internal energy in energy that holds the
It cannot be created or destroyed; but can substances-the nucleus of an atom
only be converted from one form to another. movement of atoms together and is released
and molecules within when the nuclei are
Forms of Energy: substances. Geothermal combined or split apart.
In classical physics, forms of energy are energy is an example of Nuclear power plants
thermal energy. split the nuclei of
often classified into two main categories:
Uranium atoms
kinetic and potential. in a process called
fission. Fusion is a
KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL
process where the sun
ENERGY
combines the nuclei
Kinetic energy is Potential energy is
of hydrogen atoms.
motion. For example, stored energy or the
Motion Energy is the Gravitatioanl Energy
the motion of waves, potential energy of
movement of objects is the energy of
electrons, atoms, gravitation.
and substances from position or place. A
molecules, substances,
one place to another. rock resting at the
and objects.
Wind is an example of top of a hill contains
Electrical Energy is Chemical Energy is
motion energy. gravitationnal potential
the movement of energy stored in the
energy. A good
electrical charges. bonds of atoms and
example of
Evergything is made of molecules. Examples
gravitational energy is
tiny particles called include petroleum,
hydropower.
atoms-made up of biomass and netural
Sound is the
electorns, protons, and gas.
movement of
neutorns. Electrical
energy through
charges moving
substances in
through a wire is called
longitudianl waves.
electricity.
Sound is produced
Radiant Energy is Stored Mechanical
when a force causes an
electromagnetic energy Energy
object or substance to rivers and lakes, to form clouds that turn into
vibrate-the rain. Today’s fossil fuels were once the
energy is transferred
forests that grew in prehistoric times due to
through the substanes
in a wave. the energy of the sun.
 Chemical energy, contained in chemical
Sources of Energy on the earth:
compounds is released when they are broken
 The Sun emits Electro Magnetic radiation
down by animals in the presence of oxygen.
across most of the electromagnetic spectrum.
In India, manual labour is still extensively
But incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation) at
used to get work done in agricultural
Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent
systems, and domestic animals used to pull
infrared, 42 to 43 percent visible and 3 to 5
carts and ploughs.
percent ultraviolet.
 Electrical energy produced in several ways,
 The sun is the primary energy source in our
powers transport, artificial lighting,
lives. We use it directly for its warmth and
agriculture and industry. This comes from
through various natural processes that
hydel power based on the water cycle that is
provide us with food, water, fuel and shelter.
powered by the sun’s energy that supports
The sun’s rays power the growth of plants,
evaporation, or from thermal power stations
which form our food material, give off
powered by fossil fuels. Nuclear energy is
oxygen which we breathe in and take up
held in the nucleus of an atom and is now
carbon dioxide that we breathe out. Energy
harnessed to develop electrical energy.
from the sun evaporates water from oceans,
Classification of Energy Resources:

Energy Resources
Based on Based on Based on Long Based on

Based on origin
usability Traditional use term availability Commercial
application
 Primary  Conventional  Non-  Commercial  Fossil

 Intermediate  Non- Renewable  Non-  Nuclear
 Secondary Conventional  Renewable commercial  Hydro
 Solar
 Wind
 Biomass
 Geo-thermal
 Tidal
 Ocean thermal
 Ocean wave
1) Classification based on Usage: (a) Conventional Energy Resources:

It has 3 types These are being used for ages without very
(a) Primary Resources: modern technological intervention.
These are resources embodied in nature prior Ex: Fire wood, Fossil Fuels, Hydro, Crude
to undergoing any human made conversions oil
or transformations. Examples: coal, crude (b) Non-Conventional Energy Resources:
oil, sunlight, wind, running rivers (hydro), These are being used in modern time with
vegetation, uranium, etc. These resources are application of technology
generally available in raw forms and are Ex: Petroleum, Gas, Solar, Wind, Biomass,
located, explored, extracted, processed and Ocean, Thermal Energy etc.
are converted to a form as required by the
consumer. Thus, some energy is spent in 3) Classification based on Long term
making the resource available to a user in a availability:
usable form It has 2 types
(b) Intermediate Resources: (a) Non-Renewable Energy Resources: These
These are obtained from primary energy by are finite resources once used cannot be
one or more steps of transformation. Some replenished again.
forms of energy may be categorized both in Ex: Fossil Fuels, Atomic fuels
intermediate as well as secondary resources, (b) Renewable Energy Resources: These are
e.g., electricity and hydrogen. resources where perpetual harvesting is
(c) Secondary Resources: humanly possible.
The form of energy which is finally supplied Ex: Solar, Wind, Biotic and Hydro
to a consumer for utilization is known as resources.
secondary or usable energy, e.g., electrical
4) Classification based on Commercial
energy, thermal energy (in the form of steam
Application:
or hot water), chemical energy (in the form
It has 2 types
of hydrogen or fossil fuels), etc
(a) Non-Commercial Energy Resources: these
are directly derived from nature and used
2) Classification based on Traditional Use:
without processing.
It has 2 types
Ex: Wood, Animal cow dung cake, crop cannot be replaced once they are used. These
residues.. are available in limited amount and develop
(b) Commercial Energy Resources: these are over a long period.
derived energy resources that have Ex: fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas),
undergone processing and commercial and nuclear power.
appliances. 1) Fossil Fuels:
Ex: CNG, LPG, Shale Gas, Coal Bed Fossils are remains of organisms that lived in
Methane etc. the past and fossil fuels are plants that got
5) Classification based on origin: buried under earth that became rock over
There are many types years. Fossil fuels have to be unearthed from
(a) Fossil fuels energy mines. Most fossil fuels release energy as
(b) Hydro energy heat. The types of fossil fuels are:
(c) Nuclear energy
(d) Solar energy COAL
(e) Wind energy Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It
(f) Biomass energy was formed from the remains of the trees
(g) Geothermal energy and ferns grew in swamps around 500
(h) Tidal energy billions year ago. The bacterial and chemical
(i) Ocean thermal energy decomposition of such plant debris (which
(j) Ocean wave energy remained buried under water or clay)
Generally Energy sources are divided into produced an intermediate product known as
two groups: peat. Due to progressive decomposition
1. Nonrenewable (an energy source that cannot under heat and pressure, it transforms into
be easily recreated) different varieties of coal namely Lignite,
2. Renewable (an energy source that can be Bituminous and Anthracite coal.
easily replenished)
Rank
 Renewable and nonrenewable energy
(Lowest Properties
sources can be used to produce secondary
to High)
energy sources like electricity.
Peat Peat is recently accumulated
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
organic sediment. It has a carbon
Non-renewable energy sources are those
content of less than 40% on a dry
natural resources which are exhaustible and
ash-free basis. The absence of oxygen during the process
Lignite Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It prevents the coal from burning. Unlike coal,
is a peat that has been transformed coke can be burned with little or no smoke.
into a rock, and that rock is a Coal to Liquids
brown-black coal. It has a carbon Coal can also be converted into a liquid fuel
content up to 60% on a dry ash-free like diesel or gasoline through direct or
basis. It is known as "brown coal." indirect liquefaction. Liquid coal can
Bituminous Bituminous coal is formed when a become a petroleum substitute and be used
peat, Lignite coal is subjected to in the transportation industry. It is used as
increased levels of organic
alternative liquid fuels like methanol and
metamorphism. It has a carbon
content of between 77 and 87% on dimethyl ether (DME); it is also used in
a dry ash-free basis and a heating lubricants, synthetic waxes and chemical
value that is much higher than
feed stock.
lignite. It is often referred to as
"soft coal"; Environmental Impacts of Coal:
Anthracite Anthracite is the highest rank of  Coal is the world’s single largest
coal. It has a carbon content of over contributor of green house gases and is one
87% on a dry ash-free basis.
of the most important causes of global
Anthracite coal generally has the
highest calorific value. It is often warming.
referred to as "hard coal";  Many coal-based power generation plants
Charcoal: Charcoal is artificially formed are not fitted with devices such as
coal chunk obtained from incomplete electrostatic precipitators to reduce
burning of Plant remains (mainly wood). On emissions of suspended particulate matter
complete burning, wood would turn into ash; (SPM) which is a major contributor to air
however, if burning is incomplete, other pollution.
constituents of wood get decomposed  Burning coal also produces oxides of
leaving behind charcoal rich in Carbon. sulphur and nitrogen which, combined with
Coking Coal: Coal is a naturally-found water vapour, lead to ‘acid rain’. This kills
fossil fuel; where as Coking Coal is a forest vegetation, and damages architectural
derivative product from coal after removing heritage sites, pollutes water and affects
impurities, such as coal-tar and coal-gas, at human health.
high temperatures in an oxygen-free furnace.
 Thermal power stations that use coal reservoirs, in tiny spaces within sedimentary
produce waste in the form of ‘fly ash’. Large rocks, and near the surface in tar (or oil)
dumps are required to dispose off this waste sands. Petroleum products are fuels made
material, while from crude oil and other hydrocarbons
efforts have been made to use it for making contained in natural gas. Petroleum products
bricks. The transport of large quantities of can also be made from coal, natural gas, and
fly ash and its eventual dumping are costs biomass.
that have to be included in calculating the  Products made from crude oil
cost-benefits of thermal power.  After crude oil is removed from the
 The environmental impact of the coal ground, it is sent to a refinery where
industry includes issues such as land use, different parts of the crude oil are separated
waste management, and water and air into useable petroleum products. These
pollution, caused by the coal mining, petroleum products include gasoline,
processing and the use of its products. distillates such as diesel fuel and heating oil,
 In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal jet fuel, petrochemical feed stocks, waxes,
burning produces hundreds of millions of lubricating oils, and asphalt.
tons of solid waste products annually,  Crude oil and other liquids produced from
including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas fossil fuels are refined into petroleum
desulfurization sludge that contain mercury, products that people use for many different
uranium, thorium, arsenic, sulfur and other purposes.
heavy metals. Miners expose to these  Main Petroleum products from crude oil
pollutants results in reduced life expectancy includes Petrol/Gasoline, Diesel oil, Heating
especially due to chronic lung diseases, such Oil/fuel oil, Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL)
as pneumoconiosis (black lung) disease. like propane, ethane, butane and Jet fuel etc..
 Underground mining hazards include  Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are
suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and also used as petroleum products by blending
gas explosions. with petrol and diesel fuel.
Oil and Petroleum Products:  Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL) are
 Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed hydrocarbons that occur as gases at
from plants and animals that lived millions atmospheric pressure and as liquids under
of years ago. Crude oil is a fossil fuel, and it higher pressures. HGL can also be liquefied
exists in liquid form in underground pools or by cooling.
 Environmental Effects of petroleum oil and gasoline. Benzene is present in
Industry: automobile exhaust. Benzene is present in
 Crude oil is a mixture of many different both crude oil and gasoline and is known to
kinds of organic compounds, many of which cause leukemia in humans
are highly toxic and cancer causing NATURAL GAS:
(carcinogenic).  Natural Gas is a new age fuel. Natural gas
 Incompletely burned compounds are consisting of 87-92% of Methane with a

created in addition to just water and carbon small percentage of other higher
dioxide. The other compounds are often hydrocarbons like ethane, propane and
toxic to life. Examples are carbon monoxide heavier hydrocarbons. Small quantities of
and methanol. Also, fine particulates of soot nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur
blacken humans' and other animals' lungs compounds, and water may also be found in
and cause heart problems or death. Soot natural gas.
is cancer causing (carcinogenic).  With only one carbon and four hydrogen
 Nitrous oxides, along with sulfur dioxide atoms per molecule, Natural Gas has the
from the sulfur in the oil, combine with lowest carbon to hydrogen ratio, hence it
water in the atmosphere to create acid rain. burns completely, making it the cleanest of
 Oil spill is the release of hydrocarbons into fossil fuels.
the environment, especially marine areas,  Natural Gas comes in four basic forms
due to human activity or negligence. It has 1. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): Natural
adverse impacts. As oil spill, it floats on Gas, which has been liquefied at – (Minus)
water and prevents sunlight to pass through 160 degree Centigrade. Natural Gas is
it. Many baby animals and birds starve to liquefied to facilitate transportation in large
death, since their parents cannot detect their volumes in cryogenic tankers across sea as it
natural body scent. Oil is "acutely lethal" to reduces volume to 1/600 parts.
fish. 2. Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (RLNG):
 Volatile organic compounds VOCs from LNG Re-gasified before transporting it to
petroleum are toxic and foul the air, and consumers through Pipelines.
some like benzene are extremely toxic, 3. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): Natural Gas
carcinogenic and cause DNA damage. compressed to a pressure of 200-250 kg/cm2
Benzene often makes up about 1% of crude used as fuel for transportation. CNG
decreases vehicular pollution on the virtue of  Uses of Natural Gas:
being cleaner fuel than liquid fuels. Natural gas is used as a fuel in Power,
4. Piped Natural Gas (PNG): Natural Gas Transport, Fertilizer. Natural gas is also used
distributed through a pipeline network that as a raw material for many products
has safety valves to maintain the pressure, including paints, fertilizer, plastics,
assuring safe, uninterrupted supply to the antifreeze, dyes, photographic film,
domestic sector for cooking and medicines, and explosives.
heating/cooling applications. Unconventional Gases:
 LNG is different from LPG. LPG is  Unconventional natural gas is trapped in
Liquefied Petroleum Gas. LPG production deep underground rocks that are hard to
happens during the refining of crude oil. The reach, such as shale rock or coal beds.
composition is predominantly propane, Recent technological advances have made it
butane, or a mix of these and other gases. In possible to get these new sources of energy
addition, extraction of LPG takes place out of the ground.
directly from some of the oil wells. Because  Shale Gas is defined as a natural gas
of its potential to vaporize immediately, any produced from shale. Shale has low
leaks can be hazardous. Basic knowledge of permeability, so gas production in
safety is necessary for using LPG. The commercial quantities requires fractures to
addition of odorizers helps make it easy to provide permeability. Shale gas has been
identify any leakage. produced for years from shales with natural
CNG LPG fractures; the shale gas boom seen in the
Constituent is Constituents are USA in recent years has been due to new
methane propane and butane
technology in hydraulic fracturing
Release of Release of green house
greenhouse gas is greater but (especially directional drilling and frack
gas is very less relatively clean to fluids) to create extensive artificial fractures
gasoline.
around well bores. It is sometimes referred
It is lighter than air It is heavier than air
and disperses quickly and to as tight gas. Shale is by far the most
in the event of on leakage settles to common rock associated with tight gas, but
spillage. Hence, risk ground and gets others include certain sandstones.
of ignition is accumulated in lower
 Shale oil: Fracking can be used not only to
minimal. layers. Hence, risk of
fire is more. get gas out of the rock, but also oil known as
shale oil.
 Tight gas is natural gas held in rocks with injected into isolated formations, released
pores up to 20,000 times narrower than a into streams, used for irrigation, or sent to
human hair, such that the gas will not flow evaporation ponds. It is often contaminated
freely into a well without fracturing. with all manner of dissolved ingredients
A mix of sand, water
chemicals are injected into
Recovered water is taken from the coal beds and associated rocks.
to a treatment plant
the borehole
 All the above types of gas extraction fall
0 under the category of Unconventional Gas.
Methane flows out of borehole One way of defining unconventional gas is

and is used to generate electricity
that can only be produced economically by
or fed into the gas grid
Hydraulic Fracturing using hydraulic fracturing, horizontal
Hydraulic fracturing or
‘fracking’, involves the injection drilling, or other techniques to expose more
1 of water, sand and chemicals at
high pressure into horizontally of the reservoir to a borehole in order to gain
Kilometres
drilled boreholes. The pressured

mixture causes the shale to crack. access to the gas.
These fissures are held open by
the sand particles so that methane Atomic Energy:
from the shale can flow up the
borehole.  Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules
Fissure that make up gases, liquids, and solids.
2 Methane flows Shale
from fissures
Pertorated casing
Atoms themselves are made up of three
into borehole
particles called protons, neutrons, and
electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core)
Fissure Mixture of Borehole
Borehole turns 3 water, Sand

and chemicals Sand keeps containing protons and neutrons, which is
Fissures open
horizontal
Pressure inside the borehole surrounded by electrons. There is enormous
Shale formation
fractures the shale
energy present in the bonds that hold the
 Coal Bed Methane (CBM), also sometimes nucleus together. This nuclear energy can be
known as sweet gas, coal bed gas, or coal released when those bonds are broken. The
mine methane (CMM), is a form of natural bonds can be broken through nuclear fission,
gas extracted from coal beds. Unlike shale, and this energy can be used to produce
coal is frequently very porous and electricity.
permeable, and therefore often has high  In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart,
water content. It generally needs to be de- which releases energy. All nuclear power
watered before any gas can be extracted and plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear
collected. The ‘produced water’ is re- power plants use uranium atoms. During
nuclear fission, a neutron hits a uranium  Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be
atom and splits it, releasing a large amount extracted and processed before it can be used
of energy in the form of heat and radiation. as a fuel.
More neutrons are also released when a Merits of Nuclear Energy:
uranium atom splits. These neutrons go on to 1. Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear
hit other uranium atoms, and the process energy by far has the lowest impact on the
repeats itself over and over again. This is environment since it does not releases any
called a nuclear chain reaction. This reaction gases like carbon dioxide, methane which
is controlled in nuclear power plant reactors are largely responsible for greenhouse effect.
to produce a desired amount of heat. There is no adverse effect on water, land or
 Nuclear energy can also be released in any habitats due to the use of it. Though
nuclear fusion, in which atoms are combined some greenhouse gases are released while
or fused together to form a larger atom. This transporting fuel or extracting energy from
is the source of energy in the sun and stars. uranium.
Nuclear fusion is the subject of ongoing 2. Powerful and Efficient: It is very powerful
research as a source of energy for heat and and efficient than other alternative energy
electricity generation, but it is not yet clear sources. Advancement in technologies has
whether or not it will be a commercially made it more viable option than others.
viable technology because of the difficulty 3. Reliable at all times: Unlike traditional
of controlling a fusion reaction. sources of energy like solar and wind which
Nuclear fuel - uranium require sun or wind to produce electricity,
 Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear energy can be produced from nuclear
nuclear plants for nuclear fission. Uranium is power plants even in the cases of rough
considered to be a non-renewable energy weather conditions. They can produce power
source, even though it is a common metal 24/7 and need to be shut down for
found in rocks worldwide. Nuclear power maintenance purposes only.
plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred 4. Cheap Electricity: The cost of uranium
to as U-235, for fuel because its atoms are which is used as a fuel in generating
easily split apart. Although uranium is about electricity is quite low. Also, set up costs of
100 times more common than silver, U-235 nuclear power plants is relatively high while
is relatively rare. running cost is low. The average life of
nuclear reactor is around 40 years. These 2. Water Pollutant
factors when combined make the cost of Nuclear fission chambers are cooled by
producing electricity very low. Even if the water. This water is then turned into steam,
cost of uranium rises, the increase in cost of which is used to power the turbines. When
electricity will be much lower. the water cools enough to change back into
5. Low Fuel Cost: The main reason behind the liquid form, it is pumped outside into nearby
low fuel cost is that it requires little amount wetlands. While measures are taken to
of uranium to produce energy. When a ensure that no radiation is being pumped into
nuclear reaction happens, it releases million the environment, other heavy metals and
times more energy as compared to traditional pollutants can make their way out of the
sources of energy. chamber. The immense heat given off by this
6. Supply: Uranium resources are expected to water can also be damaging to eco systems
last for another 100 years while coal, oil and located nearby the reactor.
natural gas are limited and are expected to
3. Waste
vanish soon.
When the uranium has finished splitting, the
7. Easy Transportation: Production of nuclear
resulting radioactive byproducts need to be
energy needs very less amount of raw
removed. While recycling efforts of this
material. 28 gram of uranium releases as
waste product have been undertaken in
much energy as produced from 100 metric
recent years, the storage of the by-product
tons of coal. Since it is required in small
could lead to contamination through leaks or
quantities, transportation of fuel is much
containment failures.
easier than fossil fuels.
4. Leaks
Demerits of Nuclear Energy: Nuclear reactors are built with several safety
1. Raw Material systems designed to contain the radiation
Uranium is used in the process of fission. It given off in the fission process. When these
is a naturally unstable element. This means safety systems are properly installed and
that special precautions must be taken during maintained, they function adequately. When
the mining, transporting and storing of the they are not maintained, or have structural
uranium, as well as the storing of any waste flaws or were improperly installed, a nuclear
product to prevent it from giving off harmful reactor could release harmful amounts of
levels of radiation. radiation into the environment during the
process of regular use. If a containment field must be isolated from people and the
were to rupture suddenly, the resulting leak environment indefinitely.
of radiation could be catastrophic.  The presence of some radon around a
5. Shutdown Reactors uranium mining operation and some dust
There have been several nuclear reactors that bearing radioactive decay products - as well
have failed and been shutdown that are as the hazards of inhaled coal dust in a coal
still in existence. These abandoned reactors mine - are well understood. In both cases,
are taking up valuable land space, could be using the best current practice, the health
contaminating the areas surrounding them, hazards to miners are very small and
yet are often too unstable to be removed. certainly less than the risks of industrial
accidents.
Environment and Nuclear Energy:
Renewable Energy Resources
 Nuclear power plants routinely emit low
Renewable energy resources are those
level radioactivity with disposal of nuclear
natural resources which are inexhaustible
waste and hazardous material. It may pose
(i.e., which can be replaced as we use them)
cancer risks for nearby communities.
and can be used to produce energy again and
 Mining of uranium contributes to water
again. These are available in unlimited
pollution and land degradation. The mining
amount in nature and develop in a relatively
process results in both the deliberate routine
short period of time. These include solar,
release and accidental spill of contaminated
wind, water, geothermal, ocean, and biomass
water, leading to the potential poisoning of
energy. Nuclear energy, however, can also
nearby waterways and threatening the local
be considered as inexhaustible source of
environment and human residents.
energy if atomic minerals are used in fast
 GHGs are associated with the entire
breeder reactor technology.
production cycle of nuclear power. The
There are six main renewable energy
construction of generation plants requires
sources:
fossil fuels that release GHGs, and the same
1.Hydro energy
is true when the uranium in those plants is
2.Wind energy
mined, enriched, and transported. 3.Geothermal energy
 The solid high-level waste from nuclear 4.Ocean, Wave and Tidal Energy
5.Solar energy
power stations is hot and very radioactive, so
6.Biomass energy
1) Hydropower 2. Water accumulation can lead to thermal and
Hydropower is the largest renewable energy chemical changes, in the depth of the
source for electricity generation. reservoirs. Deposits, sediment, reached
 This uses water flowing down a natural bottom may encourage the developmental
gradient to turn turbines to generate accumulation of aquatic flora (plankton,
electricity known as ‘hydroelectric power’ algae) which under certain conditions can
by constructing dams across rivers. cause atrophy accumulation – reducing the
 Hydroelectricity or hydropower is the fourth amount of oxygen and death of wildlife.
largest source of commercial energy 3. Hydroelectric power plants may harm fish
production and consumption globally. populations, change water temperature and
flow (disturbing plants and animals) and
Merits:
force the relocation of people and animals
1. Hydropower plants have a higher economic
that live near the dam site. Reservoir water is
lifetime as the maintenance cost is small.
typically low in dissolved oxygen and colder
2. It can be considered as “clean” as no
than normal river water. When this water is
greenhouse gas is emitted directly and is also
released, it could have negative impacts on
considered as “regenerative” energy source
downstream plants and animals.
as water can be used again and again.
4. Erosion – sediment is retained behind the
3. Basins constructed for the production of
dam so that the banks downstream of dams
hydropower, can be used for other
judgments are subject to erosion;
activities such as aquaculture and irrigation
agriculture and may attract tourists. 2) Wind Power
Demerits:  About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is
1. Hydropower does not directly pollute the converted into the kinetic energy of moving
water or the air. However, hydropower air called wind. The uneven absorption of
facilities can have large environmental the solar radiation by the earth’s surface
impacts by changing the environment and causes differences of temperature, density
affecting land use, homes, and natural and pressure which produce air movements
habitats in the dam area. It disturbs the at local,
natural ecological flow of the river. regional and global levels powered by wind
energy.
 The kinetic energy of the wind can be 3) Geothermal Power:
harnessed by converting it into mechanical  Geothermal energy is the energy produced
energy or electrical energy using suitable
by natural processes occurring within the
devices.
 Wind speed typically increases with altitude earth. The major source of this energy (in the
and increases over open areas without form of heat) is molten underground rock or
windbreaks. Good sites for wind turbines magma.
include the tops of smooth, rounded hills,  Geothermal energy is extracted for heating
open plains or shorelines, and mountain gaps and power generation from natural steam,
that funnel and intensify wind. Wind is hot water or dry rocks in the Earth’s crust.
concentrated in certain regions and is Water is pumped down through an injection
variable with time at any given location. well where it passes through joints in the hot
 Five nations - USA, Germany, Denmark, rocks and then water rises to the surface
Spain and India - account for 80% of the through a recovery well. This water may be
world’s installed wind energy capacity. converted into steam through a heat
Merits: exchanger.
1. Free and readily available energy supply on  Geothermal reservoirs are naturally
a windy day occurring areas of hydrothermal resources.
2. Technology fairly well developed They are deep underground and are largely
3. Very low environmental impact undetectable above ground. Geothermal
4. Moderate net useful energy yield energy finds its way to the earth's surface in
5. Decreases heat buildup in the atmosphere three ways:
from energy use  Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where
Demerits: volcanic gases are released)
1. Insufficient wind in many places  Hot springs

2. Requires conventional backup electrical  Geysers
system or fairly expensive a storage system  There are three main types of geothermal
3. Production and installation costs are high energy systems:
(but should decrease with mass production)  Direct use and district heating systems use
4. Cannot be used to power vehicles unless hot water from springs or reservoirs located
electricity is used to produce hydrogen gas near the surface of the earth.
or to recharge batteries  Electricity generation power plants require
water or steam at high temperatures (300° to
700°F). Geothermal power plants are (GHP), hot water bath resorts, aquaculture,
generally built where geothermal reservoirs greenhouses, industrial processes and
are located within a mile or two of the enhanced oil recovery. Unlike solar energy,
surface of the earth. it is not dependent on the weather
 Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or conditions. (weather proof)
water temperatures near the earth's surface to Demerits of Geothermal Energy
control building temperatures above ground. 1. Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed
Merits of Geothermal Energy and usually some distance away from
1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and the area needing energy. Only few sites
least polluting renewable energy resource. have the potential of Geothermal Energy.
2. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive. 2. The minimum temperature of steam required
3. It is not subject to the same safety, political, for the efficient production of electricity is
price and operating cost uncertainties as about 100C. As a result, many reservoirs of
imported oil, natural gas or nuclear fuel use. hot waters can be used only for direct
4. Geothermal power plants could be brought heating (as in Iceland), because thermal
on line more quickly than most other energy energy cannot be efficiently transported very
sources incase of an extended national far from the source.
emergency. 3. Though geothermal energy, as a whole, can
5. Hydrothermal power plants with modern be treated as an inexhaustible resource, a
emission controls have shown that they have single bore will have a limited life of 10
relatively benign environmental impacts. years or so in economic terms.
6. Within the electric supply system, 4. Withdrawal of large amounts of steam or
geothermal sources could provide steady water from a geothermal source may result
base load power with very low variable in surface subsidence.
costs. 5. Air pollution results in case of release of
7. The power generation level is higher for gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 with traces of
geothermal than for solar and wind. (High silica, toxic heavy metals including mercury,
thermal efficiency) arsenic and boron present in the steam and
8. Geothermal energy can be used effectively hot water coming out of the geothermal
and efficiently for direct uses such as space source. The SO2 pollution from a geothermal
and district heating, geothermal heat pumps power plant may be as much as that of a
high-sulphur-coal based thermal power is naturally found in the steam and in the hot
plant. water used to generate geothermal power.
6. Hot brine discharged into surface water 3. Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-
bodies may be ecologically hazardous. causing sulfur compounds than are emitted
7. Construction of geothermal power plants can by fossil fuel power plants. After the steam
affect the stability of land. In fact, and water from a geothermal reservoir are
geothermal power plants have lead to used, they are injected back into the earth.
subsidence in many places. It causes Surface 4) Ocean Energy
Instability and may result in Earthquakes. Oceans are large water bodies covering
8. Drilling operations at geothermal sites cause 70.8% of the Earth’s total surface are and
noise pollution. hold about 1,445 million cubic km of saline
water. Energy from ocean or sea can be
Positive Environmental effects of
obtained in many ways. These include:
geothermal energy:
a) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
1. The environmental impact of geothermal
(OTEC)
energy depends on how geothermal energy is
b) Tidal Energy
used or on how it is converted to useful
c) Wave Energy
energy. Direct use applications and
d) Current Energy
geothermal heat pumps have almost no
e) Salinity Gradient Energy
negative impact on the environment. Direct
f) Ocean Wind Energy
use applications and geothermal heat
g) Ocean Geothermal Energy
pumps can actually have a positive effect
h) Bio Conversion Energy
because they may reduce the use of other
types of energy that may have greater a) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
negative impacts on the environment. (OTEC):
2. Geothermal power plants release less than The sun warms the oceans at the surface and
1% of the carbon dioxide emissions released wave motion mixes the warmed water
by a fossil fuel power plant. Geothermal downward to depths about 100m. This mixed
power plants further limit air pollution layer is separated from the deep cold water
through the use of scrubber systems that formed at high latitudes by a thermocline.
remove hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide This boundary is sometimes marked by an
abrupt change in temperature but more often
the change the change is gradual. The be very easy to integrate into a wider
vertical temperature distribution consisting electricity supply system.
of two layers with thermal gradient ranging (vi) It might also be possible to use the OTEC
100-300c with higher values found in systems for on-site manufacture of energy-
equatorial waters. The engine using this intensive products, such as NH3 and
energy is referred as OTEC. OTEC makes aluminum.
use of the difference in temperature between (vii) The use of the cold deep water as the chiller
the two layers of the sea to extract energy. fluid in air-conditioning has also been
This energy is used to drive the turbines for proposed.
generating electricity. (viii) A floating OTEC plant can generate power
Merits of OTEC even at mid-sea and can be used to provide
(i) Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable power for operations like off-shore mining
and pollution free. and processing of manganese nodules.
(ii) OTEC offers one of the most benign power (ix) Electric power generated by OTEC could be
production technologies, since the handling used to produce hydrogen.
of hazardous substances is limited to the (x) Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could
working fluid (e.g. ammonia) and no be made independent of conventional fuels
noxious by-products are generated. for the production of electricity and fresh
(iii) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and water by using plants of appropriate size.
returning of the sea water, close to the Limitations of OTEC
thermocline, could be accomplished with (i) One principal difficulty with OTEC is not of
minimal environmental impact. technological order. OTEC is capital
(iv) An unexpected bonus of OTEC systems intensive, and the very first plants will most
might be the enrichment of fishing grounds likely be small requiring a substantial capital
due to the transfer of nutrients from the investment.
unproductive deep waters to the warmer (ii) Due to small temperature difference between
surface waters. the surface water, the conversion efficiency
(v) Unlike other sources of solar electricity, the is as low as 3-4%. This value is low as
output of an OTEC system would show very compared to the efficiencies obtained for
little daily or seasonal variation, and would conventional power plants;
(iii) The low efficiency coupled with high capital reservoir (the bay), turning the blades of
costs, large sized floating vessels and water turbines and generating electricity.
pipes, maintenance of pumps and pipes,  Again when the reservoir (the bay) is filled,
operational snags, etc. make the OTEC the dam is closed, stopping the flow and
power uneconomical for small at the present holding the water in reservoir when the tide
state of the technology. falls (ebb tide), the water level in the
(iv) A sustained flow of cold, nutrient-rich, reservoir is higher than that in the ocean. The
bacteria-free deep ocean water could cause dam is then opened to run the turbines
sea surface temperature anomalies and (which are reversible), electricity is
biostimulation if resident times in the mixed produced as the water is let out of the
layer and the euphotic zone (upper layer in reservoir.
which there is sufficient light for photo-  The dams built to harness the tidal power
synthesis) respectively are long enough (i.e., adversely affect the vegetation and wildlife.
Marine Upwelling). Wave Energy:
b) Tidal and wave Energy: Wave energy is produced when electricity
 The gravitational force exerted by moon generators are placed on the surface of the
causes tides and movement of winds over ocean. The energy provided is most often
sea surface due to differential heating causes used in desalination plants, power plants and
waves in the sea. water pumps. Energy output is determined
Tidal Energy: by wave height, wave speed, wavelength,
 Tidal power projects attempt to harness the and water density. To date there are only a
energy of tides as they flow in and out. The handful of experimental wave generator
main criteria for a tidal power generation site plants in operation around the world.
are that the mean tidal range must be greater
Merits of Tidal Energy
than 5 meters.
(i) It is an inexhaustible and renewable source
 The tidal power is harnessed by building a of energy.
dam across the entrance to a bay or estuary (ii) Besides being inexhaustible, it is completely
creating a reservoir. As the tide rises, water independent of the uncertainty of
is initially prevented from entering the bay. precipitation (rainfall, etc.). Even if there is a
Then when tides are high and water is continuous dry spell for many years, there
sufficient to run the turbines, the dam is will be no effect whatsoever on tidal power
opened and water flows through it into the generation.
(iii) It is pollution-free source of energy, as it flow; and corrosion of the barrage,
does not use any fuel and also does not sluiceways and turbines by salt water.
produce any unhealthy waste. (vii) Tidal power plants hamper the other natural
(iv) Tidal power plants do not require large areas uses of estuaries such as fishing, migration
of valuable land, as they are on the bays or of marine organisms or navigation.
estuaries. (viii) A tidal electric station would alter the
(v) Peak power demand can be effectively current velocities and wave action with
satisfied, when it works in combination with consequential effects on the pattern of
conventional power plants. shoreline erosion and sediment regime.
Limitations of Tidal Energy Merits of Wave Energy

(i) Variability in output caused by the variations (i) It is free, renewable and pollution-free
in the tidal range. energy resource.
(ii) Generation is intermittent. However, this (ii) Unlike tidal energy (which is very site-
intermittent pattern could be improved to specific), some potential for the extraction of
certain extent by using two (or more) basins wave energy exists on almost any coastline.
and a double cycle system. (iii) Energy has been naturally concentrated in
(iii) Tidal power schemes require low-head waves. Therefore, the energy density of
turbines, which are larger and more ocean waves is greater than that of wind as
expensive than high-head turbines of similar well as solar (the natural processes that
power. generate them).
(iv) Since the tidal ranges are highly variable, the (v) Wave power devices do not require large
turbine have to work on a wide range of head land masses like solar or wind power
variation. This affects the efficiency of the devices.
tidal plant. (vi) Wave power devices are relatively pollution
(v) Because tidal-power schemes are feasible free. After removing energy from the waves,
only at sites of unusually high tidal range, the water is left in a relatively calm state.
their maximum possible contribution to Limitations of Wave Energy
energy needs, though useful, is fairly small. (i) Wave energy extraction equipment must be
(vi) The most onerous problems in the use of capable of operating in a marine
tidal power are those of barrage construction environment and withstand very severe peak
(particularly closure) in areas of high tidal stresses in storms.
(ii) A variety of working fluids and prime energy that reaches earth, the planet’s energy
movers are required to convert the slow- requirements can be fulfilled.
acting, reversing wave forces into high-  Solar energy use can be classified as:
speed, unidirectional rotation of a generator i) Direct use of solar energy through the capture
shaft. That is, the wave energy conversion of sunlight and it can be used for heating,
devices are relatively complicated. generating electricity and cooling
(iii) With present state of technologies, wave ii) Indirect use of solar energy derived
power is expensive from natural processes driven by the sun, for
(iv) Relative scarcity of accessible sites of large example wind, biomass, waves,
wave activity. hydroelectric power.
(v) The geographic distribution and temporal  Under Direct use, Sunlight can be converted
variability of wave energy resources are into
governed by the major wind systems that 1. Heat as Solar Thermal Energy
generate ocean waves-extra tropical storms 2. Electricity as Solar Electric Energy
and trade winds. In some area, notably India, 3. Chemical Energy as Solar Fuels
local monsoons can also influence the wave 1. Solar Thermal Energy:
climate.  Solar thermal energy can be used to heat
(vi) Various natural processes might be affected water or air. It is most often used for heating
if significant amounts of wave energy are water in buildings and in swimming pools.
removed from the coastal ecosystem, Solar thermal energy is also used to heat the
including sediment transport and the insides of buildings.
functioning of nearshore biological  Solar heating systems can be classified as
communities. Marine mammal and seabird passive or active.
populations could also be affected by the  Passive solar space heating happens in a car
physical presence of wave energy structures. on a hot summer day. The sun's rays pass
5) Solar Power through the windows and heat up the inside
 Sun is a source of enormous amounts of of the car. In passive solar heated buildings,
energy in the form of radiation energy air is circulated past a solar heat-absorbing
traveling in small wave packet called surface and through the building by natural
photons. It is believed that with just 0.1 per convection. No mechanical equipment is
cent of the 75,000 trillion kwh of solar used for passive solar heating.
 Solar thermal energy devices include solar it maintains a high degree of concentration
cookers, solar water heating systems, solar on the absorber.
air heating, crop drying, refrigeration, water  Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems:
pumping, timber seasoning and water Most solar thermal systems use a solar
desalination collector with a mirrored surface to focus
 Active solar heating systems use collector sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid.
and a fluid to collect and absorb solar The super-heated liquid is used to make
radiation. Fans or pumps circulate air or steam to produce electricity in the same way
heat-absorbing liquids through collectors and that coal plants do.
then transfer the heated fluid directly to a  Solar energy for cooling A solar collector
room or to a heat storage system. Active can also be used for cooling. In this system,
water heating systems usually include a tank energy from the sunlight powers a small heat
for storing water heated by the system. engine similar to an electric motor of a
 Solar collectors are either non-concentrating refrigerator. The heat engine drives a piston
or concentrating that compresses a special vapour into a
 Nonconcentrating collectors – The liquid; the liquid then revapourizes and
collector area (the area that intercepts the draws heat out of the surrounding air.
solar radiation) is the same as the absorber 2) Solar Electric Energy:
area (the area absorbing the radiation). Flat-  Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles
plate collectors are the most common type of of solar energy. These photons contain
nonconcentrating collectors and are used varying amounts of energy that correspond
when temperatures lower than 200°F are to the different wavelengths of the solar
sufficient. Nonconcentrating collectors are spectrum.
often used for heating water or air for space  A Photovoltaic (PV) cell is made of a semi
heating in buildings and in swimming pools conductor material. When photons strike a
 Concentrating collectors — the PV cell, they may be reflected, pass right
intercepting area of the solar radiation is through, or be absorbed by the
greater, sometimes hundreds of times semiconductor material. Only the absorbed
greater, than the absorber area. The collector photons provide energy to generate
focuses or concentrates solar energy onto an electricity. When enough sunlight (solar
absorber. The collector usually moves so that energy) is absorbed by the material,
electrons are dislodged from the material's 3) Solar Chemical Energy (Solar Fuel):
atoms. Special treatment of the material  The biggest obstacle to renewable energy is
surface during manufacturing makes the not the generation of sustainable energy
front surface of the cell more receptive to the sources but the storage of renewable energy.
dislodged or free electrons, so the electrons  Solar fuels refer to the process where energy
naturally migrate to the surface of the cell. from the sun is captured and stored in the
Electrical conductors are placed on the cell chemical bonds of a material. Photosynthesis
to absorb the electrons. When the conductors is the blueprint for this procedure.
are connected in an electrical circuit to an  There are three main approaches for
external load, such as an appliance, producing Solar fuels:
electricity flows in the circuit. 1. Artificial photosynthesis
 Photovoltaic cells generate direct current 2. Natural photosynthesis
(DC) electricity. This DC electricity can be 3. Thermochemical approaches
used to charge batteries that, in turn, power
1) Artificial photosynthesis is a term that has
devices that use direct current electricity.
emerged to describe processes that, like
Nearly all electricity is supplied as
natural photosynthesis, harvests sunlight and
alternating current in electricity transmission
uses this energy to chemically convert water
and distribution systems. Devices
and carbon dioxide into fuels.
called inverters are used on PV modules or
 Artificial photosynthesis refers to the
in arrays to convert the DC electricity to
construction of a bio-inspired device that
alternating current (AC) electricity.
directly converts energy from the sun into
Solar Radiation
fuel. Such a device will almost certainly use
the same basic steps as used in
Solar Thermal photosynthesis: light harvesting, charge
Photovoltaics (PV) Heat exchange
Solar cells, photovoltaic arrays
separation, water splitting (solar Hydrolysis)
Solar Hot water
Concentrating Solar and fuel production. Such a device can,
Thermal Parabolic
through, power lower, potentially, yield a much higher efficiency
parabolic dish, fresnel
Electricity reflector compared to other methods of solar-to-fuel
Process Heat conversion in theory up to 42 %.
Space heating, food processing
And cooking, distillation, desalination,
industrial hot water
Photosynthesis: Nature’s way of making solar fuel  Firstly, natural photosynthesis recycles CO2
2. This solar energy drives a complex
1. Sunlight is absorbed process in which water and carbon from air and the potential efficiency is
by plants, algae and dioxide are converted to oxygen
certain bacteria and carbohydrates or other ‘fuels’ relatively high. With current technology,
solar-to-fuel efficiencies of a few per cent
can be reached. Future genetically modified
Plants
Sunlight organisms may raise this value towards ten
Algae
Water + Carbon  oxygen + Fuel
dioxide
per cent.
 Second, many of these microorganisms can be
Cyanobacteria
(microscopic view) grown in dirty or brackish water. This means
 Solar Hydrolysis involves usage of solar that they can be cultivated in places that may
energy to split water into its component not otherwise be put to good use and they do
parts, thereby allowing the solar energy to be not compete with the production of food.
stored as hydrogen fuel.  Fuel can also be made from plants (this is the
Producing hydrogen by splitting water using sunlight way most of the current biofuels are
Sunlight is used produced). However, solar-to-fuel

to split water into hydrogen
Sunlight and oxygen conversion efficiencies are low (generally
Solar fuel Sunligh
Production system
significantly less than 1 per cent). Fuel
Oxygen
Water production from plants is generally
Hydrogen
water considered not to be a good longterm
Hydrogen can be used as a transport solution. However, research into increasing
fuel and is already widely used as a
raw material for making products like the efficiency of photosynthesis in plants is
fertilizer and plastics
very strongly pursued: not so much for the
2) Natural photosynthesis
production of biofuel, but to increase the
 An obvious route to the production of fuel
production of food and other feedstock.
from sunlight is to use photosynthesis itself.
3) Thermochemical production
Here, there are two main directions: cellular
Thermochemical production of fuel uses heat
systems and plants. Single-celled
from the sun to heat reactants to a very high
photosynthetic organisms such as algae and
temperature to produce carbon monoxide
photosynthetic bacteria can be utilised to
and hydrogen. These two substances can
produce fuels. Such an approach is attractive
then be used to produce fuel.
for a number of reasons.
Advantages of Solar Energy: together especially when electricity is to be
1. Solar energy is free although there is a cost in produced and used in the same location.
the building of ‘collectors’ and other 5. Solar power is used to charge batteries so that
equipment required to convert solar energy solar powered devices can be used at night.
into electricity or hot water. However, the batteries are large and heavy
2. Solar energy does not cause pollution. and need storage space. They also need
However, solar collectors and other replacing from time to time.
associated equipment / machines are 6) Biomass Energy
manufactured in factories that in turn cause  Biomass is organic material that comes from
some pollution. plants and animals, and it is a renewable
3. Solar energy can be used in remote areas source of energy. Biomass contains stored
where it is too expensive to extend the energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's
electricity power grid. energy in a process called Photosynthesis.
4. Many everyday items such as calculators and  Sources of Biomass:
other low power consuming devices can be These are obtained from the following four
powered by solar energy effectively. broad categories of biomass sources:
5. It is estimated that the worlds oil reserves will (1) Plantations specially raised for producing
last for 30 to 40 years. On the other hand, energy or energy and food such as energy
solar energy is infinite (forever). plantations, petro crops, agro-forestry etc.;
Disdvantages of Solar Energy: (2) Agricultural residues and wastes including
1. Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is manure, straw, bagasse, and forest wastes;
daytime and sunny. (3) Uncultivated biomass such as weeds; and
2. Solar collectors, panels and cells are relatively (4) Organic urban or industrial wastes.
expensive to manufacture although prices are  Biomass energy can be derived in many
falling rapidly. ways
3. Solar power stations can be built but they do (1) By Direct Burning as Solid Biofuels.
not match the power output of similar sized (2) By converting into Liquid Biofuels
conventional power stations. They are also (3) By Converting into Biogas
very expensive. (1) Solid Biomass Burning (Solid Biofuels):
4. Large areas of land are required to capture the  When biomass is burned, the chemical
suns energy. Collectors are usually arranged energy in biomass is released as heat. It is
an age old practice to harness bio-energy.  Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often
Examples of biomass and their uses for claimed to provide a direct replacement for
energy: gasoline/petrol, because it can be used
 Examples of solid biomass sources include directly in a gasoline engine.
Wood logs and pellet, Charcoal, Agricultural The sources of sugars to produce ethanol
waste (stalks and other plant debris), include:
Timbering waste (branches, treetops and  sugar containing materials, like sugar cane,
wood chips), Animal waste (dung), Aquatic sugar beet, sweet sorghum, etc.
 starch containing materials such as corn,
plants (kelp and water hyacinths), Urban
Potato skins cassava, wheat, rice, algae etc.;
waste (paper, card board and other and,
combustible materials)  cellulosic materials such as bagasse, wood
 Biomass can be burnt directly as a source for waste, agricultural and forestry residues
cooking, heating, lighting, generating steam,  Biodiesel from Vegetable Seed Oils a
for industrial use for producing electricity. methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acids produced
(2) Liquid Biofuels: from vegetable oils, both edible and non-
 Liquid biofuels being considered world over edible, or animal fat of diesel quality;
fall into the following categories: biodiesel sources include animal fats,
1. Alcohols; vegetable oils, soya, sunflower, castor,
2. Plant seed oils; and rapeseed, linseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard,
3. Biocrude and synthetic oils. flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field
 Alcohols produced by the action of micro pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae.
organisms and enzymes through the  Green diesel is produced through

hydrocracking biological oil feed stocks,
fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), such as vegetable oils and animal fats.
or cellulose (more difficult).  Vegetable Oil is Straight unmodified edible
 Bio-ethanol, most commonly used, is vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel,
produced by fermentation of sugar and but lower-quality oil can and has been used
starchy crops. for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is
 Bio-methanol can be obtained by thermo- increasingly being processed into biodiesel,
chemical degradation of lignocellulosic or (more rarely) cleaned of water and
material. particulates and used as a fuel.
(3) Bio fuel gas: supply restricted to less than that
 Biogas is a mixture of different gases theoretically required for full combustion.
produced by the breakdown of organic  Biomethanation process is one of the most
matter in the absence of oxygen. essential processes for treating the
 Biogas primarily consists of methane (CH4) Biodegradable portion of Municipal Solid
and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have Waste. In this process the organic matter is
small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), converted into biogas that is a very useful
moisture and siloxanes. form of energy. For this the biomethanation
 Biogas can be produced from raw materials process reactor, called Bio-digester is used
such as agricultural waste, manure, in which the temperature and atmosphere is
municipal waste, Landfills, plant material, controlled for the process to occur.
sewage, green waste or food waste.  In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria
 Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a fuel gas decompose organic matter as follows:
mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen,  Organic matter + Anaerobic bacteria  CH4
carbon monoxide, and very often + CO2 + H2S + NH3 + Other end products +
some carbon dioxide. It is produced by energy.
partial combustion of biomass, that is,  The conditions for bio gasification need to
combustion with an amount of oxygen that is be anaerobic, for which a totally enclosed
not sufficient to convert the biomass process vessel is required. Although this
completely to carbon dioxide and water. necessitates a higher level of technology
Syngas can be produced from many sources, than compared to composting, it allows a
including natural gas, coal, biomass, or greater control over the process itself and the
virtually any hydrocarbon feedstock. emission of noxious odours.
 Producer gas is fuel gas that is
Microbial Fuel Cells:
manufactured from material such as coal, as
 Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) represent a
opposed to natural gas.
completely new method of renewable energy
 Biomass Gasification:
recovery. The direct conversion of organic
 Biomass gasification is thermo-chemical
matter to electricity using bacteria. It has
conversion of biomass into a combustible
been known for many years that bacteria
gas mixture (Producer gas or Syn gas)
could be used to generate electricity.
through a partial combustion route with air
 However, expensive and toxic chemicals on a commercial scale. The most common
were needed to shuttle electrons from the conventional biofuels that are largely used as
bacteria to the electrode and purified transport fuels are ethanol and biodiesel.
chemicals (such as glucose) were needed for Both ethanol and biodiesel are used in
the bacteria to grow on. Electricity can be internal combustion engines either in its pure
generated using biodegradable material-- form or more often as an additive.
even wastewater-- and need not to add any 2. Advanced biofuels (2nd and 3rd generation
special chemicals if we use bacteria already biofuels) include biofuels based on
present in the wastewater. feedstock like lignocellulosic biomass,
 While some iron-reducing bacteria, such as which include cellulosic ethanol, biomass-to-
Shewanella putrefacians and Geobacter liquids diesel, and bio-synthetic gas. The
metallireducens can be used to make category also includes novel conversion
electricity, there are many other bacteria technologies, such as algae-based biofuels
already present in wastewater that can do and the conversion of sugar into diesel-type
this. biofuels using biological or chemical
catalysts, and biofuel produced from
Classification of Biofuels:
conversion of agricultural residues. The
The International Energy Agency (IEA)
technologies deployed for producing
adopts a simplified classification of biofuels
advanced biofuels are still in the research
based on the maturity of the technology
and development (R&D) or demonstration
deployed. This taxonomy uses terms like
stage.
“conventional” and “advanced” to
distinguish between different types of Merits of Bio-energy:
biofuels. 1. Plants ensure a continuous supply of energy
due to their continuous growth.
1. Conventional biofuels (1st generation
2. The cost of obtaining bio-energy through
biofuels) include sugar and starch-based
energy-plantations is less than the cost of
ethanol, oil-crop based biodiesel and straight
obtaining energy from fossil fuels.
vegetable oil, as well as biogas derived
3. The production of biogas (particularly from
through anaerobic digestion. The technology
human or animal wastes) has additional
for conventional biofuel is well-established
value in intensive agricultural systems as a
and is being deployed for producing biofuels
method of avoiding pollution.
4. Growth of biomass consumes more carbon we are no better off environmentally for
dioxide than is released during combustion using one or the other. And speaking of
of biomass beside producing the atmosphere- using waste products, there is the smell to
purifying oxygen as a by-product of the consider. While it is not physically harmful,
photosynthetic process. it is definitely unpleasant, and it can attract
5. Within the energy supply system as a whole, unwanted pests (rats, flies) and spread
biomass sources have the advantage over bacteria and infection.
many other renewable sources that they 4. Consume More Fuel: Finally, using trees
provide a stored form of energy; and in and tree products to power machines is
many cases in a form suitable for vehicle inefficient as well. Not only does it take a lot
propulsion. Bio-energy has a tremendous more fuel to do the same job as using
potential, especially for rural areas conventional fuels, but it also creates
environmental problems of its own. To
Demerits of Biomass energy:
amass enough to power a nation full of
1. Expensive: Firstly, its expensive. Living
vehicles or even a power plant, companies
things are expensive to care for, feed, and
would have to clear considerable forest area.
house, and all of that has to be considered
This results in major topological changes
when trying to use waste products from
and destroys the homes of countless animals
animals for fuel.
and plants.
2. Inefficient as Compared to Fossil Fuels:
5. Require More Land: Combustion of
Secondly, the relative inefficiency of
biomass products require some land where
biomass energy. Ethanol, as a biodiesel is
they can easily be burnt. Since, it produces
terribly inefficient when compared to
gases like methane in atmosphere, it can be
gasoline, and it often has to be mixed with
produced in those areas which are quite far
some gasoline to make it work properly. On
from residential homes.
top of that, ethanol is harmful to combustion
engines over long term use. Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy:
3. Harmful to Environment: Thirdly, using 1. Greater Deforestation and soil degradation
animal and human waste to power engines 2. Destruction of natural habitat for wild life
may save on carbon dioxide emissions, but it 3. Water scarcity and alters ground water table
increases methane gases, which are also 4. Over consumption of Fertilizers and
harmful to the Earth’s ozone layer. So really, pesticides
5. More Carbon dioxide emissions results in Ranking By cleanliness By Sustainability
acute climate change 1 Wind Wind

2 CSP Hydro
6. Traditional Biomass usage like wood
3 Geothermal PV
burning results in forest degradation,
4 Tidal Geothermal
deforestation, and biodiversity loss and air 5 PV
pollution. 6 Wave
7. Diversion of agricultural crop land for petro 7 Hydro
crops results in threat to Food security.

Rankings of renewable energies
Recent developments and key conditions for faster deployment of low-carbon energy technologies
Technology Recent developments Key conditions for faster deployment
 Installation of renewables-based power  Ensure a predictable and reliable long term

generation technologies hit a record high in market to mitigate investment risks.
2014, helped by the continuing decline in  Promote a regulatory framework that supports
Renewables
technology costs. cost-effective remuneration, avoiding high
power
 Onshore wind capacity increased by 45 GW, cost incentives and the possibility of
with China alone adding 20 GW. Solar PV retroactive change.
grew by around 40 GW.
 In 2014, 72 GW of nuclear capacity were under  Promote incentives for all types of low carbon
construction. solutions to provide financing certainty for
 Three projects began construction in 2014, down investment.
Nuclear power from ten in 2013.  Recognize the security of supply, reliability
 Almost 40 countries are considering developing and predictability that nuclear power
first nuclear plants. Three countries have offers.
committed to phasing out nuclear power.
 The first large-scale power plant CO2 capture  Demonstrate financial and policy commitment
was demonstrated in 2014. to CCS demonstration and deployment.
Carbon capture
 Thirteen large-scale CCS projects were online, Help to mitigate investment risks.
and
capturing a total of 26 Mt CO2 per year by  Carbon pricing that expands the commercial
storage
the end of 2014. value of CO2 beyond its use in enhanced
(CCS)
 Two large-scale CCS power projects are under oil recovery.
construction in the United States.
 Impacted by the price declines in crude oil, there  Develop long-term policies, demonstration-
Biofuels
is ongoing uncertainty over future biofuel scale and pilot plants to advance
demand and investment. technology development.
 Investment in new biofuels capacity has focused  Formulate and implement sustainability
on hydro-treated vegetable oil in Europe and criteria and standards.
cellulosic plants in the United States.
 Global sales of light-duty passenger electric  Continue and enhance research and
vehicles grew by 50% in 2014, compared development, infrastructure roll-out and
Hybrid and with 2013. government incentives to support
electric  Battery costs continued to fall, and vehicle range development of EVs.
vehicles increased for several EV models.
 Extend promotion of EVs for modes other
than passenger transport.
 The share of the world’s energy consumption  Strengthen and expand efficiency regulation
covered by efficiency regulations increased and increase policy action to remove
Energy efficiency
from 12% in 2005 to 27% in 2014 with the barriers to implementation of energy
largest increase in China. efficiency measures.
Energy Storage:  A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in

 Energy storage is the capture of energy this case mechanical, in the spring tension),
produced at one time for use at a later time. a rechargeable battery stores readily
A device that stores energy is sometimes convertible chemical energy to operate a
called an accumulator. Energy comes in mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam
multiple forms including radiation, chemical, stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational
gravitational potential, electrical potential, potential energy. Fossil fuels such as coal
electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and gasoline store ancient energy derived
and kinetic. Energy storage involves from sunlight by organisms that later died,
converting energy from forms that are became buried and over time were then
difficult to store to more conveniently or converted into these fuels. Food (which is
economically storable forms. Bulk energy made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a
storage is dominated by pumped hydro, form of energy stored in chemical form.
which accounts for 99% of global energy  Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy in
storage. the form of latent heat) frozen by otherwise
 Some technologies provide short-term wasted energy at night to meet peak daytime
energy storage, while others can endure for demand for cooling. The energy isn't stored
much longer.
directly, but the effect on daytime These features, along with the low cost,
consumption is equivalent. make it attractive for being economical for
 The biggest obstacle is not the generation of larger power applications where weight is of
sustainable energy but the storage of energy. little concern. The lead acid battery is the
As we know, by far the most used form of preferred choice for hospital equipment,
stored energy are fossil fuels. wheelchairs, emergency lighting and UPS
systems, Automobiles.
Batteries:
 The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd) uses
Batteries are electrochemical devices that
nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic
convert chemical energy into electrical
cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic
energy. We can distinguish between primary
element, and was banned for most uses by
or secondary batteries. Primary batteries
many countries. The NiCd is used where
convert chemical energy to electrical energy
long life, high discharge rate and economical
irreversibly. For example, zinc carbon and
price are important. Main applications are
alkaline batteries are primary batteries.
two-way radios, biomedical equipment,
Secondary batteries or rechargeable
professional video cameras and power tools.
batteries, as they are more commonly called,
The NiCd contains toxic metals and is
convert chemical energy to electrical energy
environmentally unfriendly. Nickel–
reversibly. This means that they can be
cadmium batteries have been almost
recharged when an over-potential is used. In
completely superseded by nickel–metal
other words, excess electrical energy is
hydride (NiMH) batteries.
stored in these secondary batteries in the
 The nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH)
form of chemical energy. Typical examples
has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the
for rechargeable batteries are lead acid or
negative electrode instead of cadmium. It has
lithium ion batteries.
a higher energy density compared to the
Types of batteries:
NiCd at the expense of reduced cycle life.
 The lead–acid battery, is the oldest type of
NiMH contains no toxic metals.
rechargeable battery. Despite having a very
Applications include mobile phones and
low energy-to-weight ratio and a low
laptop computers. These are now a common
energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply
use for consumer and industrial type goods.
high surge currents means that the cells have
a relatively large power-to-weight ratio.
 The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the once this is depleted the battery must be
market in 1991. Li - ion is used where high- discarded, or recharged by using an external
energy density, lightweight and a very supply of electricity to drive the
slow loss of charge when not in use. The electrochemical reaction in the reverse
technology is fragile and a protection circuit direction. A fuel cell, on the other hand, uses
is required to assure safety. Applications an external supply of chemical energy and
include consumer electronics like notebook can run indefinitely, as long as it is supplied
computers and cellular phones. with a source of hydrogen and a source of
 Lithium-ion polymer batteries are light in oxygen (usually air).
weight, offer slightly higher energy density  Fuel cells are generally classified according to
than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be the nature of the electrolyte (except for direct
made in any shape. They are available but methanol fuel cells which are named for
have not displaced Li-ion in the market. their ability to use methanol as a fuel), each
Fuel Cell Technology: type requiring particular materials and fuel.
 Fuel cells generate electricity by an Each fuel cell type also has its own
electrochemical reaction in which oxygen operational characteristics, offering
and a hydrogen-rich fuel combine to form advantages to particular applications. This
water.
makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.
 Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also
 As a result, fuel cells have a broader range of
require oxygen. One great appeal of fuel
application than any other currently available
cells is that they generate electricity with
power source - from toys to large power
very little pollution–much of the hydrogen
plants, from vehicles to mobile chargers, and
and oxygen used in generating electricity
from household power to battlefield power.
ultimately combine to form a harmless
byproduct, namely water. Merits of Fuel Cells:
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Electricity +  Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel
Water Vapor or gas engines.
 Both batteries and fuel cells convert  Fuel cells can eliminate pollution caused by
chemical potential energy into electrical burning fossil fuels; for hydrogen fuelled
energy and also, as a by-product of this fuel cells, the only by-product at point of use
process, into heat energy. However, a battery is water.
holds a closed store of energy within it and
 If the hydrogen comes from the electrolysis of needs only doubling the amount of fuel and
water driven by renewable energy, then not the doubling of the capacity of the unit
using fuel cells eliminates greenhouse gases itself.
over the whole cycle.  Unlike batteries, fuel cells have no "memory
 Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such effect" when they are getting refueled.
as oil or gas and can therefore reduce  The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since
economic dependence on oil producing there are few moving parts in the system.
countries, creating greater energy security  Unlike batteries that must be disposed of once
for the user nation. their chemicals are used up, fuel cell
 Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere reactions do not degrade over time and can
where there is water and a source of power, theoretically provide continuous electricity.
generation of fuel can be distributed and  Traditional power plants must be large in
does not have to be grid-dependent. order to gain efficiency, but fuel cells can
 The use of stationary fuel cells to generate achieve higher efficiencies at any scale,
power at the point of use allows for a making them perfect for small portable,
decentralised power grid that is potentially residential, and transportation uses.
more stable.  Because fuel cells are clean and efficient at
 Low temperature fuel cells (PEMFC, DMFC) any size, they can be located almost
have low heat transmission which makes anywhere, including dense urban areas
them ideal for military applications. where both air quality and transmission
 Most fuel cells operate silently, compared to congestion may be of concern.
internal combustion engines. They are
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
therefore ideally suited for use within
1. It is expensive. While widely available,
buildings such as hospitals.
hydrogen is expensive. A good reason for
 Higher temperature fuel cells produce high-
this is that it takes a lot of time to separate
grade process heat along with electricity and
the element from others. If the process were
are well suited to cogeneration applications
really simple, then a lot would have been
(such as combined heat and power for
doing it with relative ease, but it’s not.
residential use).
Although, hydrogen cells are now being used
 Operating times are much longer than with
to power hybrid cars, it’s still not a feasible
batteries, since doubling the operating time
source of fuel for everyone. Until technology
is developed that can make the whole hydrogen is to get rid of using fossil fuels,
process a lot more simpler, then hydrogen they are still needed to produce hydrogen
energy will continue to be an expensive fuel.
option. 6. Costly To Produce One of the biggest
2. It is difficult to transport and store. pitfalls of hydrogen fuel cells is the simple
Hydrogen is very hard to move around. fact that it is very expensive to produce. As
When talking about hydrogen, just moving of now, the energy is not efficient enough to
even small amounts is a very expensive produce hydrogen energy in a cost effective
matter. For that reason alone, the transport way.
and storage of such a substance is deemed 7. Cells can’t hold much the actual cells that
impractical. the hydrogen energy is stored in can store
3. It is not easy to replace existing only a small amount of power. This makes
infrastructure. Gasoline is still being the process of maintaining reliable power
widely used to this day. And as of the sources with the use of hydrogen fuel cells
moment, there just isn’t any infrastructure very unlikely.
that can support hydrogen as fuel. This is 8. Much Work To Be Done The use of fuel
why it becomes highly expensive to just cells is very new, and quite a bit of
think about replacing gasoline. Also, cars advancement and research still needs to be
need to be refitted in order to accommodate done before it can be used on a wide scale
hydrogen as fuel. basis. The plausibility of it’s use isn’t even
4. It is highly flammable. Since it is a very fully known yet, and many people believe it
powerful source of fuel, hydrogen can be is just a fairy tale.
very flammable. In fact, it is on the news
Energy Scenario at world
frequently for its much number of risks.
 Top ten Countries in Energy
Hydrogen gas burns in air at very wide
Consumption (mtoe):
concentrations – between 4 and 75 percent.
1) China 3,101
5. It is dependent on fossil fuels. Although
2) USA 2,196
hydrogen energy is renewable and has
3) India 882
minimal environmental impact, other non-
4) Russia 718
renewable sources such as coal, oil and
5) Japan 435
natural gas are needed to separate it from
6) Germany 305
oxygen. While the point of switching to
7) Brazil 299 ‘A’ is given for a very high performance.
8) South Korea 280 Countries with good results are awarded
9) Canada 251 with the score ‘B’. High performers receive
10) France 246 the score ‘AAA’ while countries that do not
11) Iran 244 yet perform well receive a ‘DDD’ score.
12) Indonesia 227
Energy Resources in INDIA
ENERGY TRILEMMA INDEX Coal
The Energy Trilemma Index ranks countries  India has the third-largest hard coal reserves
in terms of their likely ability to provide in the world (roughly 12% of the world
sustainable energy policies through the 3 total), as well as significant deposits of
dimensions of the energy trilemma: lignite. The estimated reserves of coal were
 Energy security: the effective management of 301.05 billion tons. 98% of India’s coal
primary energy supply from domestic and reserves belong to Gondwana coal. Yet the
external sources, the reliability of energy deposits are generally of low quality and
infrastructure, and the ability of participating India faces major obstacles to the
energy companies to meet current and future development of its coal resources in a way
demand. that keeps pace with burgeoning domestic
 Energy equity: the accessibility and needs.
affordability of energy supply across the  Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern
population. and south central parts of the country. The
 Environmental sustainability: the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
achievement of supply and demand-side West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
energy efficiencies and the development of Pradesh and Maharashtra account for more
energy supply from renewable and other than 99% of the total coal reserves in the
low-carbon sources. country. The State of Jharkhand had the
The Index rank measures overall maximum share (26.81%) in the overall
performance and the balance score highlights reserves of coal in the country as on 2014
how well a country manages the trade-offs followed by the State of Odisha(24.94%) .
between the three competing dimensions:  In 2015, India produced almost 650 million
energy security, energy equity, and tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce), but it also
environmental sustainability. The best score imported some 140 Mtce – roughly 12% of
world coal imports (61% from Indonesia, The ash content increases the cost of
21% from Australia, 13% from South transporting coal, is corrosive and lowers the
Africa). With a view to limiting reliance on efficiency and load factor of coal-fired
imports, the government intended to double power plants.
the country’s coal production by 2020. Oil and oil products
 The coal sector in India is dominated by big  India is one of the few countries in the world
state-owned companies, of which Coal India (alongside the United States and Korea) that
Limited (CIL) is the largest accounting for rely on imports of crude oil while also being
80% of India’s output. significant net exporters of refined products.
 At present, more than 90% of coal in India is Domestic crude oil production of just over
produced by open cast mining. This method 900 thousand barrels per day (kb/d) is far
has relatively low production costs and is from enough to satisfy the needs of 4.4 mb/d
less dangerous than deep mining, but has a of refinery capacity. The output from the
large, adverse environmental footprint in the refinery sector, in turn, is more than enough
form of land degradation, deforestation, to meet India’s current consumption of oil
erosion and acid water runoff. products, at around 3.8 mb/d (with the
 Among the other problems facing the Indian exception of LPG, for which India imports
coal sector is a mismatch between the about half of domestic consumption).
location  The estimated reserves of crude oil in India
of hard coal reserves and mines, which are as in 2014 stood at 762.74 milliontons (MT).
concentrated in eastern and central India, and  Geographical distribution of Crude oil
the high-demand centres of the northwest, indicates that the maximum reserves are in
west and south. A tonne of coal must travel the Western Offshore (42.91%) followed by
on average more than 500 kilometres (km) Assam (22.69%), whereas the maximum
before it is converted to electricity, straining reserves of Natural Gas are in the Eastern
the country’s rail network. There are also Offshore (37.24%) followed by Western
challenges related to the quality of the coal offshore (30.17%).
reserves. Most of the hard coal has low to  India has relatively modest oil resources and
medium calorific values and high ash most of the proven reserves (around 5.7
content. The low heat value means that more billion barrels) are located in the western
coal must be burned per unit of electrical part of the country, notably in Rajasthan and
output, leading to higher local emissions. in offshore areas near Gujarat and
Maharashtra. The Assam-Arakan basin in  Panipat in Haryana;
the northeast is also an oil-producing basin  Mangalore in Karnataka;
and contains nearly a quarter of total  Kochi in Kerala;
reserves.  Bina in M.P;
 The upstream of oil supply in India is still  Mumbai in M.H;
dominated by a few state-owned companies:  Paradip in Orissa;
about two-thirds of crude oil is produced by  Bathinda in Punjab;
the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited  Chennai, Cauvery Basin in T.N;
(ONGC) and Oil India Limited (OIL) under  Mathura in U.P;
a pre-liberalisation nomination regime. Most  Haldia in W.B
of the remaining production comes from
joint ventures with the national oil and gas
companies and from blocks awarded under
successive licensing rounds held under the
New Exploration Licensing Policy
introduced in 1999.
 By contrast, the refining sector continues to
strengthen. India has almost doubled its
refining capacity in the last ten years and has
added more than 2 mb/d of new capacity.
India’s refinery assets include the largest
refinery in the world, Reliance’s Jamnagar
complex, with over 1.2 mb/d of throughput
Natural gas has a relatively small share
capacity (more than India’s domestic crude
(6%) of the domestic energy mix. The main
production).
onshore producing fields are in the states of
Refineries in India:
Assam in the northeast, Gujarat in the west
 Visakhapatnam, Tatipaka in A.P;
and Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in the
 Digboi, Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Numaligarh
south. Some of the most promising areas are
in Assam;
offshore, including the Krishna Godavari
 Barauni in Bihar;
basin off the east coast.
 Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar in Gujarath;
Production of conventional gas reached 34 products to Haldia port and bring back
bcm in 2013 and was supplemented by LNG imported crude-oil to Barauni refinery.
imports via four regasification terminals. (iv) Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline: This pipeline
The majority state-owned gas company, was completed in 1966 to transport refined
GAIL, is the largest player in the midstream petro-leum products to Kanpur city.
and downstream gas market. In addition to (v) Noonmati-Bongaigaon Pipeline: This
conventional gas resources, India also has pipeline was constructed to transport crude-
large unconventional potential, both from oil to Bongaigaon petro-chemical complex.
coalbed methane (CBM) and shale gas. (vi) Haldia-Maurigram-Rajbandh Pipeline:
Major Pipelines in India: This pipeline was completed in 1998
Crude oil from oil-wells and finished 2. Pipelines of Western India
products from refineries are generally (i) Bombay-High Mumbai-Ankleshwar-
transported through pipelines. Transportation Koyali Pipeline: This pipe-line connects the
of oil and petroleum through pipelines is oilfields of Bombay High and Gujarat with
cheap, effective and considered to be safe. the Koyali refinery of Gujarat. The city of
Looking at these advantages, a network of Mumbai has been connected with a pipe line
pipelines has been developed in India. of 210 km length double pipeline to Bombay
Some of the important pipelines are as High to transport crude oil and natural gas.
under: The Ankleshwar-Koyali pipeline was
1. Pipelines of North-East India completed in 1965 to transport crude oil to
(i) Noonmati-Siliguri-Pipeline to transport Koyali refinery.
petroleum products from Noonmati to (ii) The Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipeline: This
Siliguri. pipeline, 1075 km in length was laid down
(ii) Lakwa-Rudrasagar-Barauni Pipeline, from Salaya (Gulf of Kachchh) to Koyali
completed in 1968 to transport crude-oil and Mathura via Viramgram to supply crude
from Lakwa and Rudrasagar (Sibsagar oil to the Mathura refinery. From Mathura, it
District, Assam) to Barauni Oil Refinery has been extended to the oil-refinery at
(Bihar). Panipat (Haryana) and Jalandhar in Punjab.
(iii) Barauni-Haldia Pipeline: This pipeline was It has an offshore terminal and the Sayala-
laid down in 1966 to carry refined petroleum Koyali sector of the pipeline was completed
in 1978, while the Viramgram-Mathura
sector was completed in 1981.
3. The Mathura-Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar fertiliser plants at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur,
Pipeline: This 513 km long pipeline was Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla, and
constructed to transport refinery products of Babrala. Each one of these fertiliser plants
Mathura to the main cities of north and has the capacity to produce about 1400
north-west India. tonnes of ammonia per day.
4. Pipelines of Gujarat: In Gujarat, there are a 8. The Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline: This
number of short distance pipelines to pipeline transports imported crude-oil from
transport crude-oil and natural gas to the the Kandla seaport to the Bhatinda refinery.
refineries and the refined products to the
market. These include the Kalol-Sabarmati
Crude Pipeline, the Nwagam-Kalol-Koyali
Pipeline, the Cambay-Dhuravan Gas
Pipeline, the Ankleshwar-Uttran Gas
Pipeline, the Ankleshwar-Vadodara Gas
Pipeline, and the Koyali-Ahmadabad
products Pipeline .
5. Mumbai Pipelines: From Mumbai,
pipelines have been laid up to Pune and
Manmad to distribute petroleum products.
6. The Haldia-Kolkata Pipeline: Through this
pipeline, the Haldia products are sent to
Kolkata and neighbouring urban places.
7. The Hajira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Shale Gas/Shale Oil Resources:
Gas Pipeline: Having a length of 1750 km, It is estimated that a number of onland
this is the longest pipeline of India. It crosses sedimentary areas in Gangetic plain, Gujarat,
75 big and small rivers and 29 railway Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh & Assam in
crossings. This pipeline was laid down by India, including the hydrocarbons bearing
the Gas Authority of India. This gas pipeline basins – Cambay, Cauvery, Krishna
connects Kawas (Gujarat), Anta (Rajasthan), Godavari, Assam-Arakan & Damodar
Bijaipur (M.P.) and Jagdishpur (U.P.) and (Gondwana) have large shale deposits. There
Auraiya (U.P.). It provides gas to the have been few efforts by the Government to
conduct surveys and estimate the full Though the current share of nuclear power in
potential reserves of shale oil and shale gas the generation mix is relatively small at 3%,
in the country. India has ambitious plans to expand its
future role, including a long-term plan to
Coal Bed Methane (CBM):
develop more complex reactors that utilise
CBM is a Natural Gas produced from Coal
thorium – a potential alternative source of
Beds in Coal bearing areas. In order to
fuel for nuclear reactors. India has limited
harness CBM potential in the country, CBM
low-grade uranium reserves, but it has the
Policy was formulated in 1997. The
world’s largest reserves of thorium:
Government of India has so far awarded 33
developing a thorium fuel cycle will though
CBM blocks under 4 rounds of CBM
require a range of tough economic, technical
bidding & nomination basis, in the states of
and regulatory challenges to be overcome.
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Odisha and Assam
Nuclear power:
India has twenty-one operating nuclear
reactors at seven sites, with a total installed
capacity close to 6 GW. Another six nuclear
power plants are under construction, which
will add around 4 GW to the total. The
operation of the existing nuclear fleet has
been constrained in the past by chronic fuel
shortages.
Nuclear Policy of India
 This constraint was eased after India became
Though the National Security Advisory
a party to the Nuclear Suppliers Group
Board of India has submitted a Draft Nuclear
agreement in 2008, allowing access not only
Policy to the government in 1998, it has not
to technology and expertise but also reactor
yet been accepted and approved by the
parts and uranium.
government. However, the Draft Policy has
Nuclear program of India:
not been rejected too and the government has
included some of the key aspects of the Draft
policy in the nuclear doctrine. The main 10. Special focus is to be given to ensure nuclear
tenets mentioned in the Draft Policy have safety.
been described below: 11. With a view to improving communication
1. The prime objective of India is to achieve network to develop effective surveillance
economic, political, social, scientific and and early warning system, space science and
technology development within a peaceful other communication techniques will be
and democratic network. strengthened.
2. In order to fulfill the objective, India will 12. India will strengthen her computing and
strive for peace and insurance against intelligence system.
possible potential risks to stability. 13. India will assure the dual capable delivery
3. India strongly feels that unless the system.
disarmament is followed globally, the target 14. India will assure improved research and
to sustain nuclear deterrence cannot be development programs to sustain
technological advancements.
achieved.
15. Arms control measures will be made a part
4. Indian nuclear weapon programme aims to of the national security policy.
deter the possible use of such weapons by 16. Indian will focus on developing a strong
disaster control system.
any other country.
17. India will continue to strive for a making a
5. India is ready to invoke measures to counter
nuclear weapon-free world.
any threat to her peace and stability.
18. India continues to make efforts for an
6. India will maintain effective surveillance and
international treaty agreeing to no first use of
early warning capabilities.
nuclear weapons.
7. India will not take any step to use nuclear
19. India preserves the right to autonomy of
weapon against any country except in case of
decision-making in the development and
any nuclear attack on India by other
strategic matters.
countries. This tenet has popularly been
20. India will maintain a robust command and
known as the concept of ‘no first use’.
control system.
8. India will follow the policy of credible
INDIA’S NUCLEAR ENERGY
minimum deterrence.
9. India’s principles of nuclear deterrence are PROGRAMME
creditability, effectiveness and survivability.  The importance of nuclear energy, as a
sustainable energy resource for India was
recognized at the very inception of its atomic
energy programme more than four decades  A large volume of R & D has been done in
ago. A three-stage nuclear power the past to provide support to PHWR
programme, based on a closed nuclear fuel programme. Such support has encompassed
cycle, was then chalked out. The three stages construction, commissioning, operation and
are: maintenance of these power plants.
First stage Considering the limited size of India’s
Reactor Pressuried Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) nuclear power programme based on PHWRs,
Capacity 250 MW
there does not seem to be any necessity for
Fuel Natural Uranium
seeking major changes in the already
By-product Plutonium
Coolant Heavy Water matured and standardized designs of its 220
Second stage and 500 MWe PHWRs. The required R & D
Reactor Fast Breeder Reactor support for currently operating and future
Capacity 500 MW PHWRs will, however, continue although
Fuel Plutonium obtained from the first stage
the range and volume of these activities to be
Along with the fuel, some Thorium will be kept inside the
carried out at BARC is likely to
reactor and it will be converted into U-233.
Third stage progressively reduce.
Reactor Fast Breeder Reactor  As a part of the Second Stage, India started
Capacity 1000 MW the FBR programme with the Fast Breeder
Fuel U-233 obtained from the second stage. Test Reactor (FBTR), at IGCAR,
 India started the indigenous development of Kalpakkam. This reactor, operating with
nuclear power plants based on uranium cycle indigenously developed mixed (U+Pu)
in PHWRs, in the First Stage. At present carbide fuel, has already yielded a large
India has twelve such reactors under volume of operating experience and a better
operation, four are under construction, and understanding of the technologies involved.
several others have been planned. India has This has enabled the country to design 500
become self sufficient in all aspects of the MWe (prototype) FBR that will utilize
PHWR technology. The capacity factors of plutonium and the depleted uranium from its
operating PHWRs have been close to eighty PHWRs. Construction of this reactor is due
percent during recent years, and excellent to begin soon.
performance even with respect to  With the experience gained from the first
international standards. prototype, improvements and up-gradation in
the technology will of course, be an
important part of the programme in the time bound high intensity development in
coming years. Implementation of further the efficient utilization of thorium. The work
evolutionary and innovative improvements on AHWR will also help in conserving and
in the reactor design and associated fuel further enhancing the R & D expertise
cycle technologies will follow next. related to Heavy Water Reactors.
 In preparation for the Third Stage, Reprocessing and refabrication of the fuel
development of technologies pertaining to plays a major par in the utilization of
utilization of thorium has been a part of resources to the full extent. R & D work on
India’s ongoing activities. Considerable the reprocessing and refabrication in the
thorium irradiation experience has been context of AHWR is an important step
acquired in research reactors and thorium forward towards large-scale thorium
has been introduced in PHWRs in a limited utilization.
way.  A very important and upcoming technology
 With the sustained efforts over the past many is Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS), which
years, India already has small-scale is attracting worldwide attention due to its
experience over the entire thorium fuel superior safety characteristics and its
cycle. An example is the KAMINI reactor, in potential for burning actinide and fission
IGCAR, the only currently operating reactor product waste and energy production. A
in the world, which used 233U as fuel. This number of countries around the world have
fuel was bred, processed and fabricated drawn up roadmaps/programs for
indigenously. Efforts are currently on to development of ADS.
enlarge that experience to a bigger scale.  Indian interest in ADS has an additional
 India is now designing and developing dimension, which is related to the planned
advanced nuclear systems, which will utilize utilization of its large thorium reserves for
the precious plutonium resources in an future nuclear energy generation. Thorium
optimum way to maximize conversion of has the added advantage that is produces
thorium to 233U, extract power in-situ from much less quantities of long-lived
the thorium fuel, and recycle the bred 233U radioactive actinide wastes as compared to
in future reactors. uranium. However, as discussed earlier
 The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor thorium by itself is not fissile and must be
(AHWR) project provides a focal point for a first converted to fissile U-232 by neutron
irradiation. In ADS, the accelerator delivers control, irrigation and domestic uses. It can
additional neutrons over and above those also enable variable renewables to make a
coming from fission. greater contribution to the grid. However, its
development has lagged well behind thermal
Shaping the third stage of India’s nuclear
generation capacity, leading to a consistent
power program
decline in its share of total electricity output.
Technologies pertaining to utilization of
High upfront costs, the need for long-term
thorium have been under development,
debt (which is quite limited in India’s capital
mainly at BARC, right since the inception of
markets) and consequent difficulties with
India’s nuclear power programme. The
financing have been a major impediment to
irradiation of thorium bundles in PHWRs for
realising India’s hydropower potential.
flux flattening, design, construction and
 Some hydropower projects have faced very
operation of U-233 fuelled Purnima and
long environmental clearance and approval
Kamini reactors and large volume of
procedures, as well as significant public
research activities including irradiation of
opposition arising largely from resettlement
thorium fuel in the research reactors, and
issues and concern over the impact on other
studies on the fuel cycle technologies related
water users. Some of these concerns can be
to thorium, have already led India to become
reduced by undertaking small-scale projects:
one of the top ranking countries in the world
India has an estimated potential 20 GW of
in the thorium uitlisation field.
small hydro projects (up to 25 megawatt
Hydropower [MW] capacity). As of 2014, 2.8 GW of
 India has significant scope to expand its use small hydro (less than 10 MW) had been
of hydropower: its current 45 GW of developed. Such projects are particularly
installed capacity (of which over 90% is well-suited to meet power requirements in
large hydro) represents a little under a third remote areas.
of the assessed resource. Much of the Other Renewable resources in India:
remaining potential is in the north and The total potential for renewable power
northeast. A further 14 GW are under generation in the country in 2014 is
construction. If developed prudently, estimated at 147615 MW. This includes
hydropower can bring multiple benefits as a wind power potential of 102772 MW
flexible source of clean electricity, and also (69.6%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential
as a means of water management for flood of 19749 MW (13.38%), Biomass power
potential of 17,538 MW (11.88%) and 5000 obligations also exists, requiring that a
MW (3.39%) from bagasse-based certain percentage of all electricity should be
cogeneration in sugar mills. sourced from wind, solar and other
renewables.
 Solar power has played only a limited role in
power generation thus far, with installed
capacity reaching 3.7 GW in 2014, much of
this added in the last five years. However,
India began to put a much stronger emphasis
on solar development with the launch in
2010 of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission, the target of which was
 Wind and solar From a low base, modern
dramatically upgraded as National Solar
renewable energy (excluding hydropower) is
Mission in 2014 to 100 GW of solar
rapidly gaining ground in India’s energy mix
installations by 2022, 40 GW of rooftop
as the government has put increasing
solar photovoltaics (PV) and 60 GW of
emphasis on renewable energy, including
large- and medium-scale grid-connected PV
grid-connected and off-grid systems.
projects (as part of a broader 175 GW target
 Wind power has made the fastest progress and
of installed renewable power capacity by
provides the largest share of modern non-
2022, excluding large hydropower).
hydro renewable energy in power generation
 The dependence of national targets on
to date. India has the fifth-largest amount of
supportive actions taken at state level is
installed wind power capacity in the world,
underlined by the fact that four states
with 23 GW in 2014, although investment
(Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
has fluctuated with changes in subsidy
Maharashtra) account for over three-quarters
policies at national and state level.
of today’s installed capacity. Rooftop solar
 Key supporting measures have included a
also has the potential to become a more
generation-based financial incentive (a
important part of India’s solar portfolio,
payment per unit of output, up to certain
particularly where it can minimize or
limits) and an accelerated depreciation
displace expensive diesel-powered back-up
provision. A scheme of renewable purchase
generation.
 The need for land and additional transmission small businesses. Although modern
and distribution infrastructure (which India bioenergy constitutes only a small share of
is trying to address via the concept of “green energy use at present, Indian policy has
energy corridors”) could likewise constrain recognised – with the launch of a National
progress. Bioenergy Mission – the potential for
 The largest wind power generating state is modern bioenergy to become a much larger
Tamil Nadu accounting for nearly 30% of part of the energy picture especially in rural
installed capacity, followed in decreasing areas, where it can provide a valuable
order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan additional source of income to farmers, as
and Karnataka. well as power and process heat for
Bioenergy: consumers.
 Biofuels are another area of bioenergy
Bioenergy accounts for roughly a quarter of
India’s energy consumption, by far the development in India, supported by an
largest share of which is the traditional use ambitious mandatory blending of 5% in
of biomass for cooking in households. This petrol has started in 2009, that anticipates a
reliance gives rise to a number of problems, progressive increase to a 20% share for
notably the adverse health effects of indoor bioethanol and biodiesel by 2017.
air pollution. India is also deploying a range Implementation has thus far been slower
of more modern bioenergy applications, than planned: the present share of bioethanol
relying mainly on residues from its large – mostly derived from sugarcane – remains
agricultural sector. well under 5% and progress with biodiesel
 There was around 7 GW of power generation

has been even more constrained. The main
capacity fuelled by biomass in 2014, the concern over biofuels – and some other
largest share is based on bagasse (a by- forms of bioenergy – is the adequacy of
product of sugarcane processing) and a supply: land for biofuels cultivation can
smaller share is cogeneration based on other compete with other uses, as well as requiring
agricultural residues. The remainder water and fertilisers that may be limited and
produces electricity via a range of is required in other sectors.
gasification technologies that use biomass to Geo thermal Energy:
produce syngas, including small-scale According to some ambitious estimates,
thermal gasifiers that often support rural India has 10,600 MW of potential in the
geothermal provinces but it still needs to be
exploited. India has potential resources to Tidal wave energy
harvest geothermal energy. India has six  Tidal energy technologies harvest energy
geothermal provinces: from the seas. The potential of tidal wave
 Himalayan Province (Tertiary Orogenic energy becomes higher in certain regions by
belt) local effects such as shelving, funnelling,
 Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast reflection and resonance.
regions and Son-Narmada (Areas of Faulted  India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its
blocks). potential to harness tidal energy is
 Andaman and Nicobar arc. (Volcanic arc) significant.
 Cambay basin in Gujarat (Deep sedimentary  Energy can be extracted from tides in several
basin) ways. In one method, a reservoir is created
 Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand. behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass
(Radioactive Province) through turbines in the barrage to generate
 Cratonic province (Peninsular India) electricity. This method requires mean tidal
differences greater than 4 metres and also
India has about 340 hot springs spread over
favourable topographical conditions to keep
the country.
installation costs low.
India identified six most promising  One report claims the most attractive
geothermal sites for the development of locations in India, for the barrage
geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and
order of potential: the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast
 Tattapani in Chhattisgarh where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and
 Puga in Jammu & Kashmir 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and
 Cambay Graben in Gujarat 5.23 m respectively.
 Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh  The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, West
 Surajkund in Jharkhand Bengal is another possibility, although with
 Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir significantly less recoverable energy; the
India plans to set up its first geothermal maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is
power plant, with 2–5 MW capacity at Puga approximately 5 m with an average tidal
in Jammu and Kashmir. range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage
technology could harvest about 8 GW from  Another approach to harvest tidal energy
tidal energy in India, mostly in Gujarat. consists of ocean thermal energy technology.
 The barrage approach has several This approach tries to harvest the solar
disadvantages, one being the effect of any energy trapped in ocean waters into usable
badly engineered barrage on the migratory energy. Oceans have a thermal gradient, the
fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. surface being much warmer than deeper
Integrated barrage technology plants can be levels of ocean.
expensive to build.
Installed Electricity Generation in India
 In 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable
as on 2016:
Energy, Government of India and the
Installed Capacity – 303 GW
Renewable Energy Development Agency of
(Non-Renewable – 72% & Renewable –
Govt. of West Bengal jointly approved and
28%)
agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW
Conventional & Non-Renewable:
Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian
 Thermal – 210 GW (From Coal-185GW,
government believes that tidal energy may
Gas-24 & Diesel-1GW)
be an attractive solution to meet the local
 Nuclear - 5.78GW
energy demands of this remote delta region.
Conventional & Renewable:
 The annual wave energy potential along the
 Hydro - 42GW
Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per
metre, suggesting a theoretical maximum Non-Conventional & Renewable Sources
potential for electricity harvesting from (43GW)
India's 7500 kilometre coast line may be  Wind – 27GW
about 40 GW. However, the realistic  Solar – 7GW
economical potential, the report claims, is  Biomass – 5GW
likely to be considerably less.  Small Hydro – 4GW
 A significant barrier to surface energy  Geothermal – Very Less
harvesting is the interference of its  Ocean – Very Less
equipment to fishing and other sea bound  Percapita Generation of electricity –1010 kwh
vessels, particularly in unsettled weather. Sector wise Electricity Consumption in
India built its first seas surface energy India:
harvesting technology demonstration plant in  Industrial – 42%
Vizhinjam, near Thiruruvananthpuram.  Domestic – 24%

 Agriculture – 20% Energy Crisis
 Commercial – 9%  A situation in which resources are less than
 Miscellaneous – 5% the demand
Problems with India's power sector:  In the past few decades due to high demand,
 Inadequate last mile connectivity there is shortage of energy resources, which
 A system of cross-subsidization has created energy crisis
 Intraday load and demand Variations  Major causes for Energy Crisis:
 Unreliable Coal supplies  Rapid Industrialization
 Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure  Over Population
 Environmental Clearances  Transfer losses
 Lack of clean and reliable energy sources  Rise in oil prices
Recommendations of Ashok Chawla  Problems in Middle east
Committee on Natural Resources  Wastage of energy resources
 Creation of national database of natural Energy Security of India
resources  Energy is the prime mover of a country’s
 Allocation of natural resources, if possible, economic growth. Availability of energy
through e-auction with required quality of supply is not only
 Measures for benefit of stakeholders in key to sustainable development, but the
mineral rich areas commercial energy also have a parallel
Need for conserving Conventional Energy impact and influence on the quality of
Resources service in the fields of education, health and,
 Are limited in supply and cannot be renewed in fact, even food security.
easily.  With the growing GDP of 8%, India is
 Due to population explosion, modernization moving parallel to China in terms of
and industrialization the demand for energy development, but the energy consumption is
resources is increasing day by day catching up as well. But the country is
 To control energy crisis there is need to finding it increasingly difficult to source all
conserve conventional energy resources. the oil, natural gas, and electricity it needs to
 There is also an eminent need to explore run its booming factories, fuel its cars, and
alternative sources of energy light up its homes.
 According to a report by IEA (International between 300- 736 (Mtoe), which may be an
Energy Agency), India needs to invest a total import dependence of 34%-57%. Total
of 800 billion dollars in various stages by import dependence may be 58%-67%, as
2030 to meet its energy demand. India against the current level of 25%, with
accounts to around 2.4% of the annual world imports estimated at the higher end at 1,382
energy production, but on the other hand (Mtoe) and total energy consumption at
consumes 3.3% of the annual world energy 2,077 (Mtoe). Clearly, the two major fuels -
supply. And this imbalance is estimated to oil and coal – may require large imports in
surpass Japan and Russia by 2030 placing the next two decades.
India into the third position in terms of 2. Lack of Exploration and Production
annual energy consumption. Therefore, after In India, there was hardly any investments in
summing up all the energy issues, energy the activities of exploration and production
security has been identified as the only tool in past two decades. There are small oil
to overcome the energy concerns. fields that are been explored which can
 Even though domestic production of energy barely fulfil our oil demand. The KG-
resources is projected to increase, the import Basin case is the only significant
dependence is expected to maintain high achievement.
levels. Import of crude oil is currently about 3. Shortage in the Storage Facilities
80% per cent of total crude demand in the The threat of energy security not only arises
country. from the lack of supply, but also due to the
Issues of Energy Security uncertainty of availability of imported energy.
1. Import of Fossil Fuels Domestic production may also harm energy
The energy requirements of Indian economy security. As the major sources of energy are
are estimated to increase substantially in the imported, there is a threat due to lack of storage
facilities in India. During the economic crisis,
next two decades. According to Integrated
India may suffer from shortfall of crude oil for
Energy Policy, for a 9% growth over a
refining and will eventually purchase it at higher
sustained period, imports of crude oil in
prices leading to decline in country’s economy.
2031-32 may be between 362-520 million
4. Rural Electrification
tonnes with import dependence of 91%-94%.
India was suffering from a deficit of around
For natural gas, it may be 25-135 (Mtoe),
12% on an average in terms of electricity
which means an import dependence of 20%-
and major share of this deficit is due to the
57% of supply. Coal imports may be
lack of electricity in rural areas. The per can produce 20 MW/sq km of Solar Power.
capita energy consumption in India is around But out of the above numbers, only 30% of
1000 KW which is far more less than China the renewable potential have been utilised.
which is our competitor. Due to lack of The electricity generation mix in India
capability to pay high tariffs, private players comprise of around 10% of the renewable.
in the power sector have ignored setting up a 7. Energy Efficiency and Energy
power plant near the rural areas. REC Ltd. Conservation The concept of efficiency can
(Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd.), the be applied in energy extraction,
only PSU in India, was set up for rural transportation, conversion, as well as in
electrification. While India’s villages consumption. The major areas where it can
continue to reach almost 100% make a substantial impact are mining,
electrification the rural households lag electricity generation, electricity
behind because of 10% criteria i.e., for a transmission, electricity distribution,
village to be declared electrified the number transport equipment pumping water,
of households electrified should be minimum industrial production and processes, mass
of 10%. transport, building design, construction,
5. Transmission and Distribution Losses lighting and household appliances, heating
Our country is already suffering from ventilation and air conditioning. It should
electricity deficit and fuelling this concern is also be noted that a unit of energy saved by a
the hurdle of T & D losses upto 30% of user is greater than a unit produced as it
generation. This has also laid to higher saves on production, transport, transmission
tariffs that are to be faced by the local and distribution losses. A “Negawatt” (a
consumers. There is a loss of power in the negative Megawatt) produced by reducing
agricultural sector as no defined schedule is the use of energy need, saves more than a
been planned. Reduction in the T&D losses Megawatt generated
will help India in supporting the energy
Strategies for Energy Security in India:
efficiency and energy security of the nation
1. Acquiring Energy Resource Assets :
6. Unutilized renewable resources
 Oil and Gas Sector: The important policy
India has a potential of around 45000 MW
for assured availability of energy is investing
from Wind Power, close to 15000 MW from
in energy assets abroad and developing
Small Hydro, 16000 MW from Biomass and
domestic infrastructure for receiving LNG.
OVL has been leading this initiative. As part uranium from NSG member countries is
of the investment policy, a joint venture has very crucial to boost the generation of
been set up in Oman for producing nuclear power. Also, the potential of
fertilizers. It will be useful to set up similar domestic thorium reserves must be realized
projects in Qatar, Australia, Egypt, by stepping into 3rd stage of nuclear program
Kazakhstan, Vietnam, Venezula, of India.
Turkmenistan and Mozambique or other 2. Diversifying Sources:
countries, if gas is available.  In respect of oil, for example, we can tap
 Coal Sector: The import requirements of markets in Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil,
coal at this juncture are limited but are slated Africa, countries of the Middle East and
to expand rapidly. Both US and China have South America. This will enable flexibility
large domestic coal reserves. India, however, in acquisition. Similarly, sourcing of natural
will have to import in the coming years large gas and LNG needs to be from a host of
quantities of coal as mentioned earlier. sources. This may include Qatar, Australia,
Though Coal Videsh under the Ministry of Middle East, Iran, Kazakhstan and
Coal has been formed, it has done very little Turkmenistan. Some of the pipelines from
business so far. A number of private players Iran and Turkmenistan may pass via
have invested in mines in Indonesia and Afghanistan and Pakistan. We will have to
Australia. There is a need to give a very find innovative ways to meet our security
strong push to the mining investments concerns. These could be in the form of
abroad. energy pipelines being owned by large
 Nuclear Energy: Similar arrangements for international conglomerates backed by major
investments can be worked out for uranium world economies or funded by international
mining. France and Japan had 60%-70% of financial organizations.
their power from uranium. They have  The exploration and production of shale gas
developed mining sources from different in the United States (US) has been a game
countries like Kazakhstan, South Africa, changer, making the country self-sufficient
Australia and Niger. The investment in these in natural gas over the last few years. This
provides security for uninterrupted has created considerable excitement
operations. In the view of environmental globally, particularly in Europe. India is also
and security issues, nuclear energy option looking at exploring shale gas domestically
must be carefully promoted. Supply of to fill in the supply–demand gap. The
activities in the exploration of shale gas in develop extra stocks of uranium in the power
India also needs to undertaken as it is turning plants to meet the eventuality of disruption
out to be a vital source of energy. in supplies. This will add very marginally to
 The solar energy potential in India is the costs but will ensure continuity and
immense due to its convenient location near uninterrupted power in generation. While
the Equator. India receives nearly 3000 setting up new atomic power plants, this
hours of sunshine every year, which is must be strategic part of our operation.
equivalent to 5000 trillion kWh of energy. 4. Maximizing Domestic Reserves:
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission  Oil & Gas Sector: In the oil sector, India has
(JNNSM) has set the target of 100 GW by adopted an aggressive policy to expand
2022. The target will principally comprise of domestic production by developing a
40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large transparent regime for award of oil blocks.
and Medium Scale Grid Connected Solar Exploration of oil and gas are long term
Power Projects. As the nation is facing an investments.
increasing demand - supply gap in energy, it  Coal Sector: To augment coal production,
is important to tap the solar potential to meet more coal blocks were awarded to private
the energy needs. players. There have also been problems with
3. Improving Storage Facilities environmental clearances. These issues will
 Crude Oil: The third policy initiative is the need to be addressed. Most countries of the
development of crude oil/gas storage world exploit their coal reserves and the coal
capacities for meeting exigencies. Also fields are thereafter developed and re-
given the different nature of products and forested. We have taken a very restrictive
nature of government control on pricing of policy in the recent time. No country can
various oil products, the possibility of cess afford to let its mineral resources go unused
and its realization in the overall costs may and hope to grow economically. A policy
raise problems. Cess of this magnitude permitting exploration and reforestation of
should be adequate to meet the inventory the areas already mined would be necessary.
costs of the oil for 90 days. This is an area of very serious concern.
 Nuclear Fuel: There is clearly a need for  Nuclear Energy: The domestic exploration of
such reserves of nuclear fuel at Atomic uranium mines has been confined, so far,
Power plants, too. It may be possible to primarily to Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh.
The quality of uranium has been poor and building sectors. It is also proposed to make
the domestic production has not picked up energy efficiency standards mandatory for
significantly. Exploration on this so far has equipment and appliances used in domestic
not led to discovery of any major deposits. sector, hotel equipment, office equipment,
While deposits were discovered in transport equipment, industrial products etc.
Meghalaya, there have been other issues  It also mandates technology improvement
which have clouded the development of programme, energy conservation building
mines. A more aggressive policy for code and disseminating measures for
discovering more uranium and mining it will generally creating a climate of energy
be necessary to augment our resources. India efficiency. This is clearly a step in the right
has the largest reserves of thorium in the direction.
world. Part of the requirements of energy  One of the major components of the
may be met by developing thorium based programme is introduction of super critical
atomic plants. boilers in power plants and promoting
5. Domestic Demand and its Management: energy efficiency in existing plants. The
 Energy Intensity: The primary concern of average energy efficiency of coal in the
management of domestic demand is to Indian power plants is around 30%-33%.
develop an energy efficient economy so that With the introduction of super critical
the energy intensity of the GDP goes down. technology, it is possible to increase this to
In the context of climate change, so far this 40% or more.
has assumed major importance.  Around 80% of the coal is consumed in the
 A National Mission on Enhanced Energy power sector. If energy efficiency in this
Efficiency has been a component of National sector can be improved substantially, the
Action Plan on Climate Change. It envisages requirement of coal imports can be reduced
setting up of specific energy consumption drastically, thereby reducing domestic
goals for specific plants and performance, demand.
achievement and trade (PAT) mechanism so  Similarly, IGCC (Integrated Gasification
that those who fail to achieve the target can Combined Cycle) technology and promoting
compensate their failure by buying the energy efficiency in existing plants, many of
permits from those who do so. which are quite old, is important.
 Energy efficiency in domestic lighting, Introduction of advanced super critical
municipal, agricultural and commercial
boilers, which have energy efficiency higher based on estimates of the World Bank. Large
than above, is another important step. numbers of them do not have access to
6. Reducing Transmission and Distribution minimum energy. One of the guidelines in
Losses: A major initiative for improving this regard has been the government policy
energy efficiency can come from reduction to provide minimum of 30 KWH of energy
in Transmission and Distribution (T&D) to every citizen. In addition, a certain
losses. Efforts are being made to reduce minimum facility for cooking of 6 kg LPG
losses through Accelerated Power has also been suggested.
Development and Reforms Programme
Energy Policies and Acts in India
(APDRP) and activities by National
Energy Conservation Act 2001
Electricity Fund. Several states are also
An act to provide for efficient use of energy
undertaking privatization of distribution
and its conservation and for matters
utilities or giving these utilities to a
connected there with.
franchisee. Privatization has helped in
The bureau (government department)
reducing losses to some extent but it needs
established for the purpose of this act is
more encouragement and incentives.
called BEE (bureau of Energy Efficiency)
7. R&D in Hybrid Vehicles: The major
Features:
consumers of transport fuel are the cars,
The Act empowers the Central Government
trucks and railway engines. There have been
and, in some instances, State Governments
some R&D initiatives like the use of
to:
hydrogen and electric cars. Unless energy
 specify energy consumption standards for
efficiency in this sector, which consumes
notified equipment and appliances;
about 30% of the total requirement, is
 direct mandatory display of label on notified
improved, it will be difficult to manage the
equipment and appliances;
domestic demand. This must be
 prohibit manufacture, sale, purchase and
supplemented by a strong Public Transport
import of notified equipment and appliances
System and fewer private cars per thousand
not conforming to energy consumption
of population. This is another area where a
standards;
strong policy intervention is required.
 notify energy intensive industries, other
8. Social Equity: Today, we have nearly 40%
establishments, and commercial buildings as
of the population below the poverty line
designated consumers;
 establishment and prescribe energy Scheme for Setting up of 1000 MW CTU
consumption norms and standards for (Central transmission Utility)-connected
designated consumers; Wind Power Projects through Solar Energy
 prescribe energy conservation building codes Corporation of India (SECI).
for efficient use of energy and its  The Scheme will be implemented for setting
conservation in new commercial building up 1000 MW capacity of CTU connected
(having connected load  500kW) Wind Power Projects by Wind Project
Developers on build, own and operate basis.
New & Renewable Energy Schemes
1. Wind Power Programme SMALL WIND ENERGY AND HYBRID
 The broad based Wind Power Programme of SYSTEMS (SWES) PROGRAMME
the Ministry aims to catalyze The objective of the programme on Small
commercialization of grid interactive wind Wind Energy and Hybrid Systems (SWES)
power. is
 The present wind power installed capacity in  to develop technology and promote
the country is nearly 26.7 GW sharing applications of water pumping windmills and
around 9 % of total installed capacity.
 Globally India is at 4th position in terms of aero-generators/ Wind-Solar hybrid systems
wind power installed capacity after China, including promotion by setting up of

demonstration projects in North Eastern
USA and Germany.
region and J&K areas.
 The Government of India has set an
ambitious target of achieving 175 GW power  both the solar and wind energy is effectively
capacity from renewable energy resources by utilized for power generation in the remote
areas by installing hybrid system consisting
2022 and out of this 60 GW to come from
of both Solar Photovoltaic and aero
wind power.
 The wind power potential in the country is generator / small wind turbine technologies.
assessed by the National Institute of Wind 2. BIOMASS POWER AND

Energy (NIWE) at 100 meter above ground COGENERATION PROGRAMME
level, which is estimated to be over 302 GW.  The programme is implemented with the
 Most of this potential exists in 8 windy main objective of promoting technologies for
States namely Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, optimum use of country’s biomass resources
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, for grid power generation. Biomass
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. materials used for power generation include
bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk,  The Mission had set a target, amongst others,
coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, for deployment of grid connected solar
coffee waste, jute wastes, ground nut shells, power capacity of 20,000 MW by 2022 to be
saw dust etc. achieved in 3 phases (1000 MW in first
3. Bio-Mass Gasification phase up to 2012-13, 9000 MW in second
 The Ministry is promoting multifaceted phase from 2013 to 2017 and 10000 MW in
biomass gasifier based power plants for the third phase from 2017 to 2022).
producing electricity using locally available  Currently, the Government of India is
biomass resources such as wood chips, rice considering to substantially scaling up
husk, arhar stalks, cotton stalks and other targets of solar capacity additions in the
agro-residues in rural areas. The main country to 100 GW by 2022.
components of the biomass gasifier International Solar Alliance (ISA)
programmes are:  In order to accelerate massive deployment of
 Distributed / Off-grid power for Rural Areas solar energy at various scales in their
 Captive power generation applications in countries, Ministers agreed to take concerted
Rice Mills and other industries. action through targeted Programmes
 Tail end grid connected power projects up to launched on a voluntary basis, to better
2 MW capacities. harmonize and aggregate the demand for:
4. Solar  Solar finance, so as to lower the cost of
National Solar Mission (NSM) finance and facilitate the flow of more than
 Major initiative of the Government of India US $ 1000 billion investment in solar assets
to promote ecologically sustainable growth in member countries;
while addressing India’s energy security  Mature solar technologies that are currently
challenge with active participation from the deployed only at small scale and need to be
States. scaled up;
 The objective of the Mission is to establish  Future solar technologies and capacity
India as a global leader in solar energy, by building, through strategic and collaborative
creating the policy conditions for its large solar R&D, to improve the efficiency and
scale diffusion across the country as quickly integration of solar power as well as increase
as possible. the number of solar applications available.
 The Two Programmes of the ISA  Among solar photovoltaic technologies,
“Affordable finance at scale”; and there are some devices/ systems such as solar
Programme “Scaling solar applications for lanterns, solar home systems, solar street
agricultural use” lights, solar pumps, solar power packs, roof
 Development of Solar Cities Programme top SPV systems etc which could be useful
 The basic aim is to motivate the local both in rural and urban areas for the purpose
Governments for adopting renewable energy of reducing burden on conventional fuels.
technologies and energy efficiency  Solar Water Heaters
measures. In a Solar City all types of  Solar Cookers & Steam Generating Systems
renewable energy based projects like solar,  Roof Top Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV)
wind, biomass, small hydro, waste to energy Systems
etc. may be installed alongwith possible 5. Small Hydro Power Programme
energy efficiency measures depending on the  Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has
need and resource availability in the city. been vested with the responsibility of
Solar Energy Systems developing Small Hydro Power (SHP)
 The country receives solar radiation projects up to 25 MW station capacities. The
equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion estimated potential for power generation in
kWh/year, which is far more than its total the country from such plants is about 20,000
annual energy requirement. MW. Most of the potential is in Himalayan
 The radiation available could be utilized for States as river-based projects and in other
thermal as well as for photovoltaic States on irrigation canals.
applications. Solar thermal technologies  Hydro power projects are generally
have already found ready acceptance for a categorized in two segments i.e. small and
variety of decentralized applications in large hydro. In India, hydro projects up to 25
domestic, industrial and commercial sectors MW station capacities have been categorized
of the country. as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects. The
 The most widely acceptable application is Ministry’s aim is that the SHP installed
the solar water heating technology. capacity should be about 7000 MW by the
However, solar steam generating and air end of 12th Plan.
heating technologies and energy efficient 6. Biogas production is a clean low carbon
solar buildings are also attracting attention in technology for efficient management and
urban and industrial areas. conversion of organic wastes into clean
renewable biogas and organic fertilizer Urja Shops” in all the districts for sale and
source. It has the potential for leveraging service of solar energy and other renewable
sustainable livelihood development as well energy products.
as tackling local (land, air and water) and 7. Off-Grid Power
global pollution. Biogas obtained by Distributed/decentralized renewable power
anaerobic digestion of cattle dung and other projects using wind energy, biomass energy,
loose and leafy organic matters/ wastes can hydro power and hybrid systems are being
be used as energy source for cooking, established in the country to meet the energy
lighting and other applications like requirements of isolated communities and
refrigeration, electricity generation and areas which are not likely to be electrified in
transport applications. near future.
National Biogas and Manure SAARC Energy grid- SAME Agreement
Management Progamme (NBMMP) for  SAARC nations’ 30% energy needs is met
setting up family type biogas plants in the through imports.
country. The objective of the scheme is to  Recognizing the importance of electricity in
provide clean gaseous fuel for cooking and promoting economic growth, SAARC
organic bio-manure as a by-product in the countries formulated the idea of Energy grid
form of biogas plant left over slurry, which and SAARC Market of Electricity
contains higher values of Nitrogen, Agreement (SAME) is signed.
phosphorus and potassium (N, P&K).  The agreement is finalized at New Delhi
meeting of SAARC energy ministers.
National Biomass Cookstoves
 This grid will help transferring electricity
Programme-Biomass cook stove is
among SAARC nations.
basically a combustion device which burns
 Energy grid focuses on 3 pronged strategy :
biomass fuel more efficiently with reduced
 Harness both conventional and renewable
emissions and offers cleaner cooking energy
energy
solutions.
 Build Inter-connected transmission grids
Akshay Urja Shops- The objective of the
 Power trade agreements
programme is to support the establishment of
Green Energy Corridor Project
one shop in each district for creation of a
The Green Energy Corridor Project is an
network of retail outlets in form of “Akshay
upcoming project which aims at
synchronizing electricity produced from hydrogen energy including its production,
renewable sources, such as solar and wind, storage and use as a fuel for generation of
with conventional power stations in the grid. mechanical/thermal/electrical energy.
The Project:  Chemical Sources of Energy (Fuel Cells) -
Objective: Synchronizing electricity The main objective of the Chemical Sources
produced from renewable sources, such as of Energy Programme is the development
solar and wind, with conventional power and applications of fuel cell technology
stations in the grid. which produces electricity, water and heat
 Cost: Rs 43,000-crore. through reaction between hydrogen and
 The whole project has been divided into two oxygen/air. Prototypes of polymer
parts: Inter State electrolyte membrane or proton exchange
 To be developed by State utilities Intra State membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and
 To be developed by Power Grid Corporation phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) have
of India (PGCIL) been developed in kW size in India. The
applications of these prototypes have been
New Technologies
demonstrated for power generation (PEMFC
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
& PAFC) and transport sectors (PEMFC).
(MNRE) has taken up the following
 Alternative Fuel For Surface Transportation
programmes on various New Technologies,
programme-to promote research,
as part of these programmes, research,
development and demonstration projects in
development and demonstration projects
the field of battery operated vehicles (BOVs)
have been initiated at various research,
 Geo-Thermal Energy - MNRE is targeting
scientific and educational institutes,
for deployment of Geo-thermal capacity of
universities, national laboratories, industry,
1000 MWth in the initial phase till 2022. The
etc. These projects are helping in the
objective of the programme is to assess the
development of indigenous research and
potential of geothermal resources in the
industrial base, expertise, trained manpower
country and to harness these resources in two
and prototypes/devices/systems in the
distinct categories namely
country
(i) Power Production
 Hydrogen Energy-The Ministry has
(ii) Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHP’s)/ Geo-
supported research, development and
exchange Pumps.
demonstration projects on various aspects of
 Ocean Energy - India has a long coastline besides promoting deployment of
with the estuaries and gulfs where tides are technologies for pilot and full-scale projects
strong enough to move turbines for electrical on biofuels in general.
power generation. A variety of different
Non-Renewable Energy Policies
technologies are currently under
1. Coal
development throughout the world to harness
 Coal is the mainstay of India’s energy and
this energy in all its forms including waves
55% of primary energy supply and 70% of
(40,000 MW), tides (9000 MW) and thermal
power generation in the country are coal
gradients (180,000 MW).Although currently
based. India ranks third in coal production
under-utilised, Ocean energy is mostly
globally after China and USA.
exploited by just a few technologies: Wave,
 Coal, the most important and abundant fossil
Tidal, Current Energy and Ocean Thermal
fuel in India, accounts for more than half of
Energy.
the country’s energy need. It is apparent that
 Biofuel Programme - To meet the increasing
coal will retain its predominant role in
energy needs of the country and to provide
India’s future energy mix scenario. India,
Energy Security, National Policy on Biofuels
like other emerging economies, looks set to
was announced in December 2009. The
remain dependent on coal in the short to
major goals of the policy are Development
medium term for its economic growth.
and utilization of indigenous non-food feed
Coal mining policy
stocks raised on degraded or waste lands,
 The Parliament passed the Coal Mines
thrust on research and development on
(Special Provisions) Bill 2015 on 20th
cultivation, processing and production of
March. Under the provisions of the Coal
biofuels and a blending mandate of 20%
Mines ( Special Provisions) Act
Ethanol and Bio-diesel by 2017.
,2015, the Central Government has so far
 The objective of biofuel programme is to
successfully auctioned in three tranches 31
support R&D, Pilot plant/Demonstration
coal mines and allotted 42 coal
projects leading to commercial development
mines/Blocks to Central or State
of 2nd Generation biofuels. The ministry
Government Companies .
supports R & D projects for development of
 The objective of this act is to empower the
technologies for production of biofuels
government to allocate the coal mines on the
through Biogas, Pyrolysis and Gasification,
basis of competitive bidding to ensure
continuity in coal mining operations and proposal for approval or rejection. It is
promote optimum utilisation of coal possible that a mine in a 'go' area after
resources. inspection turns out to be a 'no-go' mine,
Go-zone / no-go zone Coal cess

 The environment ministry had in 2009  In a move to reduce its carbon footprint, it
classified the country’s heavily forested has been decided that India will pay more to
regions into ‘Go’ and ‘No-Go’ regions and a consume energy produced from coal, petrol
ban was imposed on mining in No-Go zones and diesel. Raw coal and lignite miners have
through an indicative categorisation on to shell out Rs400 per tonne of coal and
environmental grounds. lignite mined in India for the National Clean
 A 'no go' zone is a densely forested area Energy Fund (NCEF). The cess on coal
where mining will not be allowed at any production increased from Rs 200 per tonne
cost. to Rs 400 per tonne and the Clean Energy
 Nine major coalfields have been taken up for cess would be renamed as Clean
identification of prima facie “go/no go” Environment cess.
areas for coal mining from the point of view  This was the third time the cess was doubled,
of forestry clearances. They are: North since being introduced as Rs 50 per tonne in
Karanpura (Jharkhand), IB Valley (Orissa, the 2010 budget. The NCEF fund was
Chattisgarh), Singaurali (MP, UP), Talcher created to use the carbon tax and clean
(Orissa), West Bokaro (Jharkhand), Wardha energy cess for funding research and
(Maharashtra), Mandraigarh (Chattisgarh), innovative projects in clean energy
Hasdeo (Chhattisgarh), and Shoagpur technologies, in both public and private
(Chhattisgarh, MP). sector
 "Thirty-five per cent of coal mining areas Mines and Minerals (Development and
fall in "no go areas" where mining will not Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2016.
be allowed. But even in the 'go' areas,  The Bill amends the Mines and Minerals
projects will have to go through the due (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957
environmental and forest clearance process that regulates the mining sector in India and
before being approved."Go does not mean specifies the requirement for obtaining and
green signal. 'Go' area prima facie means granting mining leases for mining
that the ministry will only consider the operations.
 The Bill adds a new Fourth Schedule to the  Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana is aimed
Act. It includes bauxite, iron ore, limestone at replacing the unclean cooking fuels
and manganese ore and are defined as mostly used in rural India with more clean
notified minerals. The central government and efficient LPG (Liquefied Petroleum
may, by notification, amend this Schedule. Gas). The scheme aims at empowering
 The Bill creates a new category of mining women and protecting their health and
license i.e. the prospecting license-cum- reducing the number of deaths in India, due
mining lease, which is a two stage- to use of unclean cooking fuels. It is a
concession for the purpose of undertaking scheme to provide clean fuel to the BPL
prospecting operations (exploring or proving families and is a boon to women to
mineral deposits), followed by mining experience cooking without smoke. Under
operations. this scheme, 5 Cr LPG connections will be
Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) provided to BPL households.
 UCG is a clean coal extraction technology  "PAHAL Yojana” - This direct cash transfer
for extracting energy from coal seams and scheme has brought an end to leakage of
lignite resources which cannot be mined LPG subsidies which are now reaching
through traditional mining technology. people more effectively. The scheme has
 Under this process coal is converted into been highly effective in elimination of
product gases ( “syngas”) such as methane, duplicate LPG connections. The "PAHAL"
hydrogen, CO and CO2 that are combusted scheme has been acknowledged by the
for electricity generation. Guinness Book of World Records for being
 The gasification process is carried out in the largest cash transfer program
non-mined coal seams. (households) in the world. Currently, 16.72
 India has the 4th largest coal reserves in the crore LPG customers are receiving their
world and ranks 3rd in coal production. subsidy directly in to their bank accounts.
 Central Mine Planning and Design Institute Hydrocarbon vision 2030 for North-East
Ltd (CMPDIL) will be the nodal agency for  Union Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
all business related proposals and Gas released Hydrocarbon Vision 2030 for
regulations. North-East with an eye to leverage the
2. Gas & Oil hydrocarbon sector for the development of
Subsidies the North-East India.
 It focuses on pipeline connectivity for Four main facets of Objectives of
carrying liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), HELP policy are: HELP
natural gas, and petroleum products; Uniform license for Enhance
Building refineries. exploration and production of domestic
 States Covered: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam all forms of hydrocarbon oil and gas
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland production
Sikkim and Tripura. An open acreage policy Bring substantial
Hydrocarbon Exploration Licensing investment
Policy - HELP Easy to administer revenue Enhance
 In a major policy drive to give a boost to sharing model and transparency and
petroleum and hydrocarbon sector, the Marketing and pricing freedom Reduce
Government has unveiled Hydrocarbon for the crude oil administrative
Exploration Licensing Policy, HELP: An and natural gas produced. discretion.
innovative Policy for future which provides
for a uniform licensing system to cover all Parameter HELP NELP
hydrocarbons such as oil, gas, coal bed Revenue
Fiscal Model Profit sharing
methane etc. under a single licensing sharing
framework. Presently, there are separate Cost recovery Not applicable Yes
policies and licenses for different Cost
hydrocarbons. Encouraged Neutral
efficiency
 There are separate policy regimes for Low rates for
conventional oil and gas, coal-bed methane, Royalty Standard rates
offshore
shale oil and gas and gas hydrates. For Onland and
example, while exploring for one type of Shallow
hydrocarbon, if a different one is found, it Onland and
Water-
will need separate licensing, adding to cost. Shallow Water-8
Exploration 7 years
 HELP replaces the present policy regime for years
Period Deepwater &
exploration and production of oil and gas, Deepwater-10
Ultra-
known as New Exploration Licensing Polity years
deepwater – 8
(NELP), which has been in existence for 18 years
years.
Management More focus Technical &
Committee on reservoir financials grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich
monitoring; examination sources of petroleum and natural gas.
no micro-
 It is a cleaner-burning than coal or oil. From
management
After cost economic growth point of view, domestic
Revenue to On recovery i.e., availability of shale gas will reduce
Government production
from profit dependence on fuel import like crude oil,
Exploration in coal etc.
Allowed Not allowed
Mining areas Major shale gas reserves in India:
 Canbay basin
The new policy regime marks a generational  Assam-Arakan basin
shift and modernization of the oil and gas  Krishna-Godavari basin
 Damodar basin
exploration policy. It is expected to stimulate The main challenge India facing, now, is the
new exploration activity for oil, gas and lack of appropriate technology to extract
other hydrocarbons and eventually reduce Shale gas.
import dependence. It is also expected to 4. Coal-Bed Methane Policy
create substantial new job opportunities in Cabinet has approved a policy framework
the petroleum sector. The introduction of the for development of Underground Coal
concept of revenue sharing is a major step in Gasification (UCG) in unexplored coal and
the direction of “minimum government lignite bearing areas in country
maximum governance”, as it will not be  The UCG policy framework has been framed
necessary for the Government to verify the in line with the existing policy for Coal Bed
costs incurred by the contractor. Marketing Methane (CBM) development on revenue
and pricing freedom will further simplify the sharing basis.
process. These will remove the discretion in  Development of UCG has been envisaged to
the hands of the Government, reduce provide for energy security and will be
disputes, avoid opportunities for corruption, adopted for offering the blocks through
reduce administrative delays and thus competitive bidding.
stimulate growth. Central Mine Planning and Design Institute
3. Shale gas Policy Ltd (CMPDIL) will be the nodal agency for
 Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped all business related proposals and
within shale formations. Shales are fine- regulations.
Practice Questions 04. Which one of the following is not a

constituent of biogas? CDSII/2007
01. Microbial fuel cells are considered a source (a) Methane
of sustainable energy. Why ? (b) Carbon dioxide
1. They use living organisms as catalysts (c) Hydrogen
to generate electricity from certain (d) Nitrogen dioxide
substrates.
05. What does water gas comprise of?
2. They use a variety of inorganic
CDSII/2007
materials as substrates.
(a) Carbon monoxide and hydrogen
3. They can be installed in waste water
(b) Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
treatment plants to cleanse water and
(c) Carbon monoxide and Methane
produce electricity.
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane
Which of the following statements given
06. The government of India has recently made
above is/ are correct? CSP/2011
it mandatory for oil marketing companies to
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
blend 5% ethanol with petrol. Which of the
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
following is/are the likely consequence/
02. In the context of alternative sources of
consequences of the policy?
energy, ethanol as a viable biofuel can be
1. Lowers India's dependence on the fossil
obtained from CSP/2009
oil
(a) Potato (b) Rice
2. Reduce fuel import bill CDSI/2013
(c) Sugarcane (d) Wheat
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
03. Consider the following statements :
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Maize can be used for the production of
starch. 07. With reference to two non conventional
2. Oil extracted from maize can be a energy sources called ‘coal bed methane’
feedstock for biodiesel. and ‘shale gas’, consider the following
3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by statements:
using maize. 1. Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas
Which of the statements given above is / are extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is
correct ? CSP/2014 a mixture of propane and butane only that
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only can be extracted from fine-grained
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 sedimentary rocks.
2. In India, abundant coal bed methane (c) Biogas (d) Hydel
sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources
11. Which of the following rock types would
have been found.
most likely be the best oil reservoir
Which of the statements given above is/ are
(a) Granite (b) Shale
correct ? CSP_2014
(c) Sandstone (d) Salt
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 12. Which of the following is a conventional
source of energy? CSP_1987
08. With reference to the usefulness of the by-
(a) Geothermal (b) Hydropower
products of sugar industry, which of the
(c) Solar (d) Wind
following statements is/are correct ?
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for 13. The most appropriate source of energy for
the generation of energy. cooking and lighting purposes in rural India
2. Molasses can be used as one of the is CSP_1984
feedstock for the production of synthetic (a) Biogas (b) Solar energy
chemical fertilizers. (c) Nuclear energy (d) Tidal energy
3. Molasses can be used for the production
of ethanol.
14. The largest source of energy in India is
Select the correct answer using the codes
CSP_1982
given below. CSP_2013
(a) Hydroelectric (b) Solar
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Thermal (d) Nuclear
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
15. Which one among the following is not a
09. Given below are the names of four energy
source of renewable energy? NDAI_2011
crops. Which one of them can be cultivated
(a) Hydroelectricity (b) Solar energy
for ethanol? CSP_2010
(c) Fuel cell (d) Wind energy
(a) Jatropha (b) Maize
(c) Pongania (d) Sunflower
16. Which one of the following is a non-
10. Among the sources of energy listed below renewable resource ? CDSII_2015
which one is non conventional in present (a) Solar energy (b) Coal
day rural India? CSP_1988 (c) Water (d) Wind
(a) Fuel wood (b) Cowdung cake
17. What is the most abundant pollutant from
fossil fuel combustion
(a) Carbon monoxide (b) Nitrogen oxide
(c) Particulates (d) Sulfur oxides
18. A fuel cell, inorder to produce electricity,

burns
(a) Helium (b) Nitrogen
(c) Hydrogen (d) None of these
19. The objective of the Green energy Corridor

is to
(a) create special industrial zones which will
be powered by renewable energy.
(b) fund geothermal based energy projects.
(c) facilitate the flow of renewable energy
into the national power grid.
(d) none of the above.
20. What is the commercially beneficial output
in Bagasse Cogeneration?
(a) Heat (b) Electricity
(c) both (d) None
KEY
1 d 2 c 3 d 4 d 5 a
6 c 7 d 8 c 9 b 10 c
11 b 12 b 13 a 14 c 15 c
16 b 17 a 18 c 19 c 20 b
Unit
9 Conservation
Biodiversity: Meaning and Definitions variation. This is the diversity of basic units
Biodiversity or biological diversity is of hereditary information which are passed
derived from the words bio and diversity. It down to generations found within a species
is the diversity of and in living nature. (e.g. different varieties of the same species).
The term biological diversity, was coined by Genetic diversity underlies the variability
Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word (differences) among individuals of a given
biodiversity itself, was coined by the species.
entomologist E.O.Wilson in 1986. The differences in the genetic makeup of
There are many different definitions of organisms also form the basis for variation
biodiversity among which the one used within a population, or between populations,
under the Convention on Biological of that species. Thus, genetic diversity
Diversity (CBD) is one of the most within a species will increase with the
frequently cited: number of individuals of a given species.
"Biological diversity means the variability It is genetic diversity that allows a species to
among living organisms from all sources adapt to changing environmental conditions
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and such as lower rainfall, higher temperature
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological year round, etc.
complexes of which they are part; this Ex: Homo sapiens, is distinct from another.
includes diversity within species, between Similarly, there are many varieties within
species and of ecosystems." the same species such as rice, wheat, apples,
Types of Biodiversity mangoes, etc. that differ from one another in
There are three levels of diversity viz. shape, size, colour of flowers and taste of
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. In fruits and seeds due to the variations at the
effect, these levels cannot be separated. A genetic level.
change at one level can cause changes at the 2. Species Diversity
other levels. Species diversity means the differences
1. Genetic Diversity between species (both domesticated and
Genetic diversity is the “fundamental wild). It is the most visible component of
currency of diversity” that is responsible for biodiversity.
The distinct ecological importance of 1) Species richness:
species supports functional diversity and has  This is the most widely used measure of
a direct bearing on the species composition species diversity. In simple terms it is a
of the site, and therefore on overall count of the total number of species in a
biodiversity. given area. It gives equal weightage to all
Ex: Tropical forest has higher species diversity as species and does not take into account the
compared to a timber plantation. i.e. the number of individuals that represent a
Western Ghats have greater amphibian
particular species.
species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
3. Ecosystem Diversity  To describe the complex spatial patterns of
Ecosystem diversity means the variation biodiversity, ecologists and biogeographers
between different types of ecosystems. have found it useful to express species
Different species of animals, plants and richness into four major categories:
micro-organisms interact with each other Parameters Description
and their physical environment (such as It refers to the number
water or minerals). of species that can be
Point richness
These systems help maintain life processes found at a single point
vital for organisms to survive on earth. in space.
Different combinations of species and It refers to the diversity
physical conditions (such as sunlight, within a particular area
climate, soil and water) and their various or ecosystem and is
Alpha (α) richness
interactions give rise to variation among usually expressed by
ecosystems. the number of species
For instance, with its deserts, rain forests, in that ecosystem.
mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, It is a comparison of
diversity ecosystems,
and alpine meadows has greater ecosystem
Beta (β) richness usually measured as the
diversity than a Scandinavian country like change in amount of
Norway. species between the
Measuring Species Diversity ecosystems.
It is a measure of the
There are many ways by which species
overall diversity for the
diversity is measured i.e. species richness, Gamma (γ) richness
different ecosystems
taxonomic diversity, and species -diversity
within a region.
indices.
VANI Publications Conservation
 However, species richness based on numbers groups to closely related individuals within a
alone is inadequate. Other parameters such population.
as species evenness (relative abundance of
Biodiversity Hot Spots
species) and species dominance (the most
Introduction:
abundant species) are also evaluated.
The British biologist Norman Myers coined
2) Taxonomic diversity:
the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as a
 Taxonomic diversity is relative abundance
biogeographic region characterized both by
of a species as well as the ancestor
exceptional levels of plant endemism and by
descendant relationships of species to each
serious levels of habitat loss. In 1990 Myers
other. For example, an area with two species
added a further eight hotspots, including
of mammals and one species of reptile has
four Mediterranean-type ecosystems.
greater taxonomic diversity than an area of
Conservation International (CI) adopted
similar size with only three species of
Myers’ hotspots as its institutional blueprint
mammals although both have three species
in 1989, and in 1996, the organization made
each. Similarly, an area with a large number
the decision to undertake a reassessment of
of closely related species is not as diverse as
the hotspots concept.
distantly related.
According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a
Methods of Measuring Genetic Diversity region must meet two strict criteria:
Genetic diversity needs to be measured  It must contain at least 1,500 species of
through some complicated processes as vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total)
given below:
as endemics, and
 Protein electrophoresis-Protein
 It has to have lost at least 70% of its original
electrophoresis shows the variations in the
habitat.
proteins produced, thereby indicating the
In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity
diversity of genes that coded for them.
hotspots in the book “Hotspots: Earth’s
 DNA fingerprinting- This method makes use
biologically Richest and Most Endangered
of a common, but peculiar, group of DNA
Terrestrial Eco regions”. Collectively, these
sequences known as ‘mini satellites’. High
areas held as endemics about 44% of the
levels of variation in the numbers of these
world’s plants and 35% of terrestrial
repeated units are used in “DNA
vertebrates in an area that formerly covered
fingerprinting” to identify relationships that
only 11.8% of the planet’s land surface. The
range from distantly related taxonomic
habitat extent of this land area had been In 2005 CI published an updated titled
reduced by 87.8% of its original extent, such “Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically
that this wealth of biodiversity was restricted Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial
to only 1.4% of Earth’s land surface. Eco regions”.
Bio World’s 35 Biodiversity Hotspots
I. Africa III. Europe and Central Asia
1. Cape Floristic Region 23.Caucasus

2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 24. Irano-Anatolian
3. Eastern Afromontane 25. Mediterranean Basin
4. Guinean Forests of West Africa 26. Mountains of Central Asia
5. Horn of Africa
6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
7. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
8. Succulent Karoo
II. Asia-Pacific
9. East Melanesian Islands IV. North and Central America
10. Himalaya 27. California Floristic Province
11. Indo-Burma 28. Caribbean Islands
12. Japan 29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
13. Mountains of Southwest China 30. Mesoamerica
14. New Caledonia
15. New Zealand
16. Philippines
17. Polynesia-Micronesia V. South America
18. Southwest Australia 31. Atlantic Forest
19. Forests of Eastern Australia (new) 32. Cerrado
20. Sundaland 33. Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
21. Wallacea 34. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
22. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka 35. Tropical Andes
{
The above table shows 35 biodiversity The area is also rich in wild relatives of
hotspots which cover 2.3% of the Earth's plants of economic significance e.g. rice,
land surface, yet more than 50% of the banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and
world’s plant species and 42% of all sugarcane.
terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to 2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern
these areas (Conservation International). India, except Assam and Andaman group of
These are the areas which are suffering Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,
biodiversity loss and where attention is Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
needed. 3. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of
Biodiversity Hotspots In India Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Brunei, Philippines)
Himalayan region (and that falling in
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and
Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
Myanmar).
The Western Ghats region, which is spread
Phytogeographically, the Eastern Himalaya
into 6 states of India, is considered to be one
forms a distinct floral region and comprises
of the most important bio-geographic zones
of Nepal, Bhutan, states of East and North-
of India, as it is one of the richest centres of
East India and a contiguous sector of
endemism.
Yunanan Province in South-Western China.
Due to varied topography and micro-
In the whole of Eastern Himalaya, there are
climatic regimes, some areas within the
an estimated 9000 plant species, out of
region are considered to be active zones of
which 3500 (i.e., 39 per cent) are endemic.
speciation.
Atleast 55 flowering plants endemic to this Many of the endemic and other species are
area are recognised as rare, e.g. the pitcher listed as ‘Threatened’. Nearly, 235 species
plant (nepenthes khasiana). of endemic flowering plants are considered
The area has long been recognised as a rich endangered. Rare fauna of the region
centre of primitive flowering plants and is include-Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri
popularly known as the Cradle of Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying Squirrel and
Speciation. Malabar Gray Hornbill.
Biogeographic Realms (b) Gujarat-Rajwara
Biogeographic realms are large spatial C) Paleotropical:
regions within which ecosystem share a Indo-Malayan
broadly similar biota. A realm is a continent 5) Western Ghats a) Malabar Coast
or sub-continent sized area with unifying b) Western Ghats
features of geography and flora and fauna. In
the world, eight terrestrial biogeographic 6) Deccan Peninsula a) Deccan Plateau
realms are typically recognised. (South)
1) Tamil Nadu plains
Biogeographical Classification of India
2) Eastern Ghats
Indian consists of 2 biogeographic realms,
10 Biogeographic zones and 25 (South)
Biogeographic provinces 3) Karnataka
Biogeographical Realms of India

b) Central Plateau
There are 2 biogeographical realms in India
(North)
1. The Himalayan region represented by
1) Maharashtra
Palearctic realm and
2) Telangana
2. The rest of the sub-continent represented
c) Eastern Plateau
by Malayan realm.
1) Eastern Ghats
The Biogeographic Zones of India And 2) Chattisgarh &
Their Biodiversity Dandakaranya
There are 10 biogeographic zones of India

d) Chhota-Nagpur
Biogeographical Zone Biotic Province
1) Chhota Nagpur
A) Palaeoarctic a) Ladakh
Plateau
1) Trans-Himalayan b) N.W.Himalaya
2) Garhjat Hills
(Tibetan) c) W.Himalaya
2) Himalayan d) Central Himalaya
e) Central Highlands
e) East Himalaya
1) Satpura-Maikal
B) Paleotropical:African
2) Vidhya-
3) Desert (a) Kutch
Bagelkhand
4) Semi-Arid (b) Thar
7) Gangetic Plain a) Upper Gangetic
(a) Punjab
Plain 10. Semi - Arid - Punjab Plains
b) Lower Gangetic 11. Semi - Arid - Gujarat Rajputana
Plain 12. Western Ghats - Malabar Plains
13. Western Ghats - Western Ghats Mountains
8) North-East India a) Brahmaputra 14. Deccan Peninsular - Central Highlands
Valley 15. Deccan Peninsular - Chotta Nagpur
b) Assam Hills 16. Deccan Peninsular - Eastern Highlands
9) Coasts a) West Coast 17. Gangetic Plains - Upper Gangetic Plains
b) East Coast 18. Gangetic Plain - Lower Gangetic Plains
10) Islands a) Andaman Islands 19. Coasts - West Coast
b) Nicobar Islands 20. Coasts - East Coast
c) Lakshadweep 21. Coasts - Lakshadweep
Islands 22. North - East - Brahmaputra Valley
23. North - East - North - East Hills
There are 25 Biogeographical regions in India
24. Islands - Andamans
1. Himalayan - Ladakh Mountains
25. Islands - Nicobars
2. Himalaya - Tibetan Plateau
3. Trans - Himalaya Sikkam
4. Himalaya - North West Himalaya
5. Himalaya - West Himalaya
6. Himalaya - Central Himalaya
7. Himalaya - East Himalaya
8. Desert - Thar
9. Desert - katchchh
Value of Biodiversity
CATEGORIES OF VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Direct Use Value
Indirect Use Value (Services) Non-Use Value
(Goods)
Food, medicine, Atmospheric and Potential (or Option Value)  Future
building material, climate regulation, pollination, value either as a good or a service
fibre, fuel nutrient recycling
Existence Value  Value of knowing
Cultural, Spiritual, and Aesthetic
that something exists
Bequest Value  Value of knowing
that something will be there for future
generations
GOODS AND SERVICES PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem Goods Services
Terrestrial  Food crops  Maintain limited watershed functions
 Fibre crops (infiltration, flow control, partial soil

 Crop as genetic resources protection)
 Provide habitat for birds, pollinators, soil
organisms
important to agriculture
Coastal  Fish and shellfish  Moderate storm impacts (mangroves; barrier
ecosystems  Fishmeal (animal feed) islands)

 Seaweeds(for food and  Provide wildlife (marine and terrestrial)
industrial use) habitat
 Salt  Maintain biodiversity
 Genetic resources  Dilute and treat wastes
 Provide harbour and transportation routes
 Contribute aesthetic beauty and provide
recreation
Forest  Timber  Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
ecosystems  Fuelwood  Cycle nutrients
 Drinking and irrigation water  Maintain array of watershed functions
 Fodder (infiltration, purification, flow control, soil
 Nontimber products stabilization)
(vines, bamboos, leaves, etc.)  Maintain biodiversity
 Food (honey, mushrooms,  Sequester atmospheric carbon
fruit, and other edible plants;  Moderate weather extremes and impacts
game)  Generate soil
 Genetic resources  Provide employment
recreation
Miscellaneous  Drinking and irrigation water  Buffer water flow (control timing and
 Fish volume)
 Hydroelectricity  Dilute and carry away wastes
 Provide aquatic habitat
 Provide transportation corridor
recreation
 Livestock  Maintain array of watershed functions
(food, game, hides, fibre) (infiltration, purification, flow control, soil
 Drinking and irrigation water stabilization)
 Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
 Generate soil
recreation
Loss of Global Biodiversity
 As many as 500 million kinds of plants,  species is due to destruction or alteration of
animals and microorganisms have made their habitat. Consequently, it must compete
earth their home since life began, over 3.5 with the local population of the same species
billion years ago. Presently, it is believed as well as other animals. The other option is
that there are only 5 to 10 million species that it must migrate into a marginal habitat
alive. A few species naturally become where it may succumb to predation,
extinct over time and it is believed that starvation or disease.
however, during certain periods of  Some habitats are more vulnerable to species
geological time, great numbers have been extinction, these are called fragile habitats.
lost relatively quickly – on the scale of Coral reefs, oceanic islands and mountain
thousands of years. Scientists have tops are important fragile habitats.
documented five mass extinctions since the (2) Over Exploitation of Resources:
emergence of life on this planet some 3.8  People use some plant and animal species at
billion years ago. a greater rate than the species can replace
 Asia’s biodiversity is being gradually lost. themselves, which can lead to extinction.
While it is not possible to quantify rates of  Nine of the world’s major ocean fisheries
species loss very precisely, high rates of are declining because of too much fishing as
land, fresh water and marine habitat well as water pollution and habitat
degradation in this region is a reflection of destruction. Popular commercial species
species loss. such as the southern blue fin tuna, the
Causes of loss of Biodiversity Atlantic halibut and the Pacific and Atlantic
The main causes of biodiversity loss include salmon are now threatened.
land-use changes, changing levels of  Current logging rates threaten to eliminate
atmospheric carbon dioxide, changing mahogany and other tree species that take
climate, invasive species and nitrogen many years to grow and mature.
deposition (air pollution). The causes of  Over harvesting of resources includes Poor
biodiversity loss are many and varied, and land use planning, Selective removal of
often interrelated. economically important organisms,
(1) Habitat Destruction: Replacement of indigenous varieties of crop
 Habitat refers to the area where species seek species with new hybrids.
food, get shelter, and reproduce. The
greatest threat to wild plant and animal
(3) Hunting and Export: (6) Global Climate Change:
 The hunting and export of excessive  By burning fossil fuels such as oil, natural
numbers of certain animal species is another gas and coal and by burning trees to clear
important factor leading to dangerous forests, we have dramatically increased the
reductions in numbers. There are three main amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. The
types of hunting: changed atmospheric conditions that result
i) Commercial hunting – in which the animals from global warming could create greater
are killed for profit from sale of their furs or numbers of intense storms and prolonged
other parts; droughts.
ii) Subsistence hunting – the killing of animals  The expected speed of climate changes
to provide enough food for survival; and coupled with direct loss of natural habitat
iii) Sport hunting – the killing of animals for may prevent some species from adapting
recreation. Although subsistence hunting quickly enough. They are likely to become
was once a major cause of extinction of extinct, locally or more broadly, and their
some species, it has now declined sharply in roles in natural systems will be lost forever.
most areas. (7) Invasive Species:
(4) Selective Destruction:  Purposely or accidentally, people often bring
 The selective destruction of one species of non-native species into new areas where the
an existing fauna can produce equally species have few or no natural predators to
unfortunate results. Extinction or near keep their populations in check. These
extinction can also occur because of invasive species – also called alien,
attempts to exterminate pest and predator introduced or exotic species – are considered
species that compete with people and the most important cause of biodiversity
livestock for food. loss.
(5) Pollution:  They range from microbes to mammals.
 Pollution comes in many forms – oil spills, Invasive species also cause economic and
acid precipitation, toxic chemicals in environmental havoc. Invasive species can
fertilizers and pesticides, and urban and also alter fire cycles, nutrient cycling and the
suburban sewage runoff, to name a few. hydrology and energy budgets in native
Pollution may kill organisms outright or it ecosystems. The problem of invasive species
may weaken them by interfering with vital will rise severely through climate change.
processes such as mobility and reproduction.
(8) Domestication and decrease the carbon-fixing potential of
 It means that man has taken under his direct the biosphere.
care the living beings which are useful to (ii) Adverse effects on local climate and water
him. Through extensive breeding flow due to loss of tropical forests
(iii) Decrease of overall population size of
programmes, he has modified them
species and loss of geographic range
to derive maximum benefit of their products.
(iv) Extinction of species which is the
 During the process, the species have lost
irreversible loss of biodiversity. The
certain useful characteristics so much so that
majority of the world’s species, especially
these forms cannot survive on their own in
tropical invertebrates, have not been
nature. A very good example is corn, which
scientifically named or identified.
is pampered so much by man that if it is left
(v) Increased coastal erosion and loss of fishery
on its own, it cannot survive.
productivity as a result of the loss or
Major Impacts of Biodiversity Loss
degradation of coastal areas such as
 The continued loss of biodiversity will
mangrove habitats and coral reefs.
greatly impact human society as well as
(vi) Reduction of genetic diversity of crop
ecosystem and their valuable services. It is
species due to replacement of traditional
difficult to quantify these impacts. But
crop varieties and livestock by the use of
looking at all the products and services
high yielding, but less resistant and
biodiversity provides – and the difficulty of
genetically uniform, varieties/species.
their replacement – gives us an idea of the
(vii) Loss of traditional knowledge and cultural
magnitude of the consequences we face if
practices associated with the cultivation of
we do not conserve the biodiversity.
traditional varieties that are lost.
 There are several perceptible effects of
(viii) Loss of livelihoods a large proportion of the
biodiversity loss at both global and national
people in the world depends on bio
levels. Some major effects are listed as
resources for subsistence use or their
follows:
livelihood. This is seriously jeopardized due
(i) A steady increase in atmospheric CO2 level
to loss of biodiversity.
due to disruption of the carbon cycle in
There is no way, of course, to estimate
nature is one of the most obvious of global
losses of psychological, emotional and
climate changes in recent years. Clearing
spiritual well being that will result from
and destruction of tropical moist forest is
ruined forests, beaches, lakes and other
expected to increase the atmospheric CO2
places people rely on for rejuvenation.
Conserving Biodiversity habitats such as ‘nature reserve’ or wildlife
Biotic diversity-the richness of life on earth- sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere
is like a common property resource, belongs reserve.
to the whole human race and therefore (2) Ex-situ conservation: conserving the living
biodiversity conservation is a major concern organisms outside of their living habitat or
worldwide. foreign habitat is called ‘off-site
Biodiversity is important for human conservation’.
existence. All forms of life are so closely Ex: botanical gardens, zoological parks,
interlinked that disturbance in one gives rise seed/gene banks, cryopreservation and
captive breeding.
to imbalance in the others. If species of
Initiatives to conserve biodiversity can be
plants and animals become endangered, they
focused at all the three levels i.e. the
cause degradation in the environment, which
ecosystem level, species level, and genetic
may threaten human being’s own existence.
level. While these initiatives will be closely
Basically, there are two ways of linked, they will not be substitute for one
conservation of biodiversity as follows: another.
Biodiversity Conservation
National parks:
In site conservation Ex- site conservation Any natural ecosystem of rich biodiversity
and almost pristine habitats may declare
1. Seed bank 1. Home garden
2. Field gene bank 2. Sacred plant national parks, provided that such natural
3. Cryopreservation
area is of ecological, faunal, floral,
1. Botanical garden
Protected Area 2. Zoological parks geomorphological, and hydrological
3. Aquaria
4. Arboreta importance and needs protection and
National Sanctuary Biosphere
park reserves conservation. The following activities are
strictly prohibited:
Terrestrial Marine
 Hunting, killing or capturing of animals
(1) In-situ conservation: The conservation of
 Deprivation of any wild animal of its habitat
species of plants and animals in their natural
 Destruction and collection of plants
habitats i.e., wild areas is called ‘in-situ’ or
 Use of weapons
‘on-site conservation’.
 Grazing by any life stock other than wild
In this method of conservation of
animals of the concerned national parks
biodiversity species of plants and animals
 Alteration of boundaries of national parks
are protected in specially demarcated natural
etc
National parks in India are IUCN category II (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971.
protected areas. India's first national park The purpose of the formation of the
was established in 1936 as Hailey National biosphere reserve is to conserve in-situ all
Park, now known as Jim Corbett National forms of life, along with its support system,
Park, Uttarakhand. As of July 2015, there in its totality, so that it could serve as a
were 103 national parks encompassing an referral system for monitoring and
area of 40,500 km2 (15,600 sq m), evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.
comprising 1.23% of India's total surface The first biosphere reserve of the world was
area. established in 1979.
 As of March 2016, 669 biosphere reserves in
Wildlife sanctuaries of India:
120 countries, including 16 transboundary
 Some wildlife sanctuaries are specifically
sites, have been included in the World
named bird sanctuary, e.g., Keoladeo
Network of Biosphere Reserves. The Indian
National Park before attaining National Park
government has established around eighteen
status. Many National Parks were initially
Biosphere Reserves in India, (categories
wildlife sanctuaries.
roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V
 Wildlife sanctuaries are of national
Protected areas), which protect larger areas
importance due to some flagship faunal
of natural habitat (than a National Park or
species, are named National Wildlife
Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or
Sanctuary, like the tri-state National
more National Parks and/or preserves, along
Chambal (Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary for
with buffer zones that are open to some
conserving the gharial.
economic uses. Protection is granted not
Biosphere reserves:
only to the flora and fauna of the protected
 Biosphere reserves are internationally
region, but also to the human communities
recognised areas established to promote and
who inhabit these regions, and their ways of
demonstrate a balanced relationship between
life.
humans and the biosphere. They highlight
the value of nature conservation within a
The objectives of the Programme are:
particular natural region and reconcile the
a) Conserve representative samples of eco-
conservation of biological diversity with
systems;
sustainable use.
b) Provide for long-term in situ conservation of
 The programme of Biosphere Reserve was
genetic diversity;
initially under the Man and Biosphere
c) Promote and facilitate basic and applied f) Promote international co-operation.
research and monitoring;
d) Promote appropriate sustainable
management of the living resources in the
reserve;
e) Disseminate the experience so as to promote
sustainable development elsewhere; and
Functional Pattern of Biosphere Reserve
Core area: legally constituted for long-term protection

` Buffer zone: clearly identified for activities compatible with conservation
Transition area: for sustainable resource management practices
Legally protected
for conservation
Research, monitoring,
Education, training
Sustainable
development
Core area: management, depending on their specific

 Each biosphere reserve includes one or conservation objectives and on the character
several core areas that are strictly protected and history of landscape.
according to well defined conservation  Core areas naturally exclude the presence of
objective and consists of typical samples of significant human settlements. Besides non-
natural or minimally disturbed ecosystems. destructive research, the other significant
 Core areas may be much larger in sparsely function of the core area is the
populated areas and relatively small in environmental observation and monitoring.
densely inhabited areas. Buffer zone:
 Core areas may correspond to strict nature  The buffer zone must have a clearly
reserve or wild areas or national park or to established legal or administrative status
other types of strictly protected areas. Strict even when several administrative authorities
protection of core areas does not necessarily are involved in its management.
mean ‘non-intervention’: they can be  Only activities compatible with the
submitted to different types of protective protection of the core areas may take place.
This includes in particular research, managers and local populations so as to
environmental education and training, as ensure appropriate physical planning and
well as tourism and recreation or other uses sustainable resource development.
carried out in accordance with the Thus the transition zone works for the
management requirements and regulations. association of environment and
Transition area: development. This zone is bio geographic in
 The transition area surrounding the buffer character rather than administrative unit, so
zone plays mainly development role such as it covers larger and open areas.
cooperative activities between researches,
Protected Areas
National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserves
1 Both flora and fauna is protected 1 .Particular flora or fauna is 1. Both flora and fauna, land
2. In India, the size range is 0.04 to protected scope and traditions and
3162 sq.km. Most common (in about 2. Size range is 0.61 to 7818 cultures of the people are
40%) is 100 to 500 sq.km. In 15% is sq.km. Most common (in about protected.
500 to 1000 sq.km. 40%) is 100 to 500 sq.km. In 2. Size range over 5670
3. Boundaries circumscribed by 25% is 500 to 1000 sq.km. sq.km
legislation 3. Boundaries not sacrosanct 3. Boundaries circumscribed
4. Except the buffer zone, no biotic 4. Limited biotic interference by legislation.
interference 5. Tourism permissible 4. Except the buffer zone, no
5. Tourism permissible 6. Lacking biotic interference
6. Research and scientific 7. So far no attention 5. Tourism normally not
management lacking permissible
7. So far no attention to gene pools 6. Managed
and conservation 7. Attention given
Total number of wild life Total number of biosphere
Total number of national parks -103
sanctuaries -537 reserves -18
BIOSPHERE RESERVES OF INDIA

S.No Name Location State Type Key fauna
1 Nilgiri Biosphere Part of Waynad, Tamil Nadu, Western Nilgiri tahr,
Reserve Nagarhole, Bandipur Kerala and Ghats lion-tailed
and Mudumalai, Karnataka macaque
Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Anaimalai Hills
Nanda Devi Parts of Chamoli
National Park & District, Pithoragarh Western Snow Leopard
2 Uttarakhand
Biosphere District & Bageshwar Himalayas , Himalayan
Reserve District Black Bear
Indian part of Gulf of
Mannar extending from
Rameswaram island in
Dugong or sea
3 Gulf of Mannar the North to Tamil Nadu Coasts
cow
Kanyakumari in the
South of Tamil Nadu
and Sri Lanka
East
4 Norkek Part of Garo Hills Meghalaya Red panda
Himalayas
Part of delta of Ganges
Gangetic Royal Bengal
5 Sundarbans and Brahmaputra river West Bengal
Delta tiger
system
Part of Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon, Barpeta, East Golden langur,
6 Manas Assam
Nalbari, Kamrup and Himalayas red panda
Darrang Districts
Gaur, royal
Part of Mayurbhanj Deccan
7 Simlipal Odisha Bengal tiger,
district Peninsula
elephant
Part of Siang and Arunachal Eastern
8 Dihang-Diban
Dibang Valley Pradesh Himalaya
Pachmarhi Parts of Betul District, Giant squirrel,
9 Madhya Pradesh Semi-Arid
Biosphere Hoshangabad District flying squirrel
Reserve and Chhindwara District
Four-horned
antelope,
Indian wild
dog, Sarus
Achanakmar-
Part of Annupur, Madhya crane, White-
Amarkantak Maikala
10 Dindori and Bilaspur Pradesh, rumped
Biosphere Hills
districts Chhattisgarh vulture,
Reserve
Philautus
sanctisilvaticus
(Sacred grove
bush frog)
Part of Kutch, Rajkot,
Great Rann of
11 Surendranagar and Gujarat Desert Indian wild ass
Kutch
Patan Districts
Pin Valley National
Park and
Himachal Western
12 Cold Desert surroundings;Chandratal Snow leopard
Pradesh Himalayas
and Sarchu & Kibber
Wildlife Sancturary
East Snow leopard,
13 Khangchendzonga Parts of Kangchenjunga Sikkim
Himalayas red panda
Neyyar, Peppara and
Agasthyamalai
Shenduruny Wildlife Kerala, Tamil Western Nilgiri tahr,
14 Biosphere
Sanctuary and their Nadu Ghats elephants
Reserve
adjoining areas
Great Nicobar Southern most islands of IslandsAndaman
Saltwater
15 Biosphere Andaman and Nicobar and Nicobar Islands
crocodile
Reserve Islands Islands
Part of Dibrugarh and East
16 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam Golden langur
Tinsukia districts Himalayas
Seshachalam Hill
Ranges covering parts Eastern
17 Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh
of Chittoor and Kadapa Ghats
districts
Catchment Tiger, chital,
Part of Panna District Area of chinkara,
18 Panna Madhya Pradesh
and Chhatarpur District the Ken sambhar and
River sloth bear
IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS AND WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES OF INDIA
S.N
Name State Location Important fauna
o
Dachigam Leopard, Musk Deer, Himalayan
Jammu and
1 Wildlife western Himalayas Black Bear, Himalayan Brown
Kashmir
Sanctuary Bear
Bengal tiger, Leopard, Leopard
Jim Corbett
2 Uttarakhand cat, Elephants, Sambhar Deer
National Park
and Golden Jackal
Bengal tiger, salt water
crocodile, Fishing cats, Leopard
cats, Macaques, Wild boar,
3 Sunderbans West Bengal Ganges Delta
Indian grey mongoose, Fox,
Jungle cat, Flying fox, Pangolin,
Chital
Tiger, Asian elephants, Golden
Manas Wildlife foothills of the
4 Assam Cat, Leopards, Clouded Leopard,
Sanctuary Himalayas
Slow Loris and Chital etc.
Tigers, One –horned Rhinoceros,
Kaziranga Elephant, and the Asian water
5 Assam
National Park buffalo, Swamp Deer, Monitor
Lizard and Spectacled Cobra etc.
between the confluence
Ranthambore Na Tiger, Hyena, Sloth Bear and
6 Rajasthan of the Banas and the
tional Park Chital etc
Chambal River
Keoladeo National Park is
popularly known as “bird
paradise. Herons, storks,
Keoladeo Bird
cormorants, warblers, babblers,
Sanctuary/
7 Rajasthan bee-eaters, bulbuls, quails,
Bharatpur
Indian gray hornbill, Marshall’s
National Park
iora, Nilgai, Feral cattle, Chital
deer, Sambar, Wild boar, Indian
porcupine
Asiatic Lions, Leopards, Sloth
Sasan Gir
8 Gujarat Bears, Jungle Cats, Spectacled
National Park
Cobra
Kanha National Madhya Tigers, Leopards, Wild dogs,
9
Park Pradesh Jackals and Sloth bear etc
Tiger, Elephant, Travancore
Periyar Wild flying squirrel, Fruit bat, Giant
10 Kerala
Life Sanctuary squirrel, Wild pig and lion-tailed
macaque etc
Garganey teals, glossy ibis, grey
Vedanthangal The oldest water bird heron, grey pelican, open-billed
11 Tamil Nadu
Bird Sanctuary sanctuary in India stork, painted stork, snake bird,
spoonbill and spot bill duck
Annamalai
Wildlife
Sanctuary or Bengal Tiger, Elephants, Sloth
12 Indira Gandhi Tamil Nadu Bear, Indian Leopard, Pangolin
Wildlife and the Sambhar deer
Sanctuary and
National Park
Crab-eating Macaque, the
Megapode, The Giant Robber
crab and the Nicobar Pigeon.
Campbell Bay Great Nicobar One can also see Olive Ridley
13
National Park Island turtles as well as Leatherback
Turtles, Wild Boar, deer and
Civet cats. Tree ferns and
orchids are in abundance here.
Dudhwa Swamp deer, One-horned
14 Uttar Pradesh
National Park Rhinoceros, Leopard and Tiger
Snow Leopard, Himalayan Black
Nanda Devi
bear, Himalayan Brown bear,
Biosphere
15 Uttarakhand Musk deer, Himalayan Tahr and
Reserve and
plenty of bird and breath taking
National Park
floral species
snow leopard, Bharal sheep,
Hemis National
Tibetan Wolf, Eurasian Brown
Park or Hemis the largest national
16 Bear, Lammergeier Vulture,
High Altitude park in India
Golden Eagle, Himalayan
National Park
Vulture and Mountain weasel etc
The park contains many
mammal species including musk
deer, snow leopard, Himalayan
tahr, wild dog, sloth bear, civet,
Kanchendzonga Himalayan black bear, red
17
National Park panda, Tibetan wild ass,
Himalayan blue sheep, serow,
goral and takin, as well as
reptiles including rat snake and
Russell's viper.
Bandipur Tigers, Elephants, sloth bears,
18 Karnataka
National Park Mugger crocodiles, Dholes,
Spectacled Cobra and flying
lizards etc.
Panna National
Madhya tiger, the Sloth bear, chital,
19 Park (also a tiger
Pradesh Chinkara and King Vulture etc.
reserve)
Tiger, Elephant, Indian Bison,
Similipal
Chausingha, Leopard, Jungle cat
20 National Orissa
and several species of birds and
Park
reptiles
Tiger, Leopard, Indian Bison,
Kudremukh
21 Karnataka Western Ghats Sambhar deer, Dhole and Lion-
National Park
tailed macaque etc
Western Ghats. The
Tiger, Leopard, Dhole, Indian
park is surrounded by
Eravikulam Porcupine, Nilgiri Tahr, Stripe-
22 Kerala different tributaries of
National Park necked mongoose, Golden
the Periyar, Kaveri and
Jackal and Sambar Deer
Chalakudiyar River
The park is surrounded Feral horses, Tiger, Water
Dibru Saikhowa
by the Brahmaputra, Buffalo, Elephant, Flying
23 Wildlife Assam
Lohit and the Dibru Squirrel, King Cobra, River
Sanctuary
River. Dolphin and Slow Loris etc.
The Indian Gharial, the Ganges
National Dolphin, Indian Wolf, Striped
24 Chambal Rajasthan Hyena, Monitor Lizard, Indian
Sanctuary Flying fox, Porcupine and
Hedgehog etc
Indian Rhinoceros, Tiger,
located on the Northern
Orang National Asiatic Elephants, Pygmy Hog,
25 Shores of the
Park Pangolin, Leopard Cat and King
Brahmaputra River
Cobra.
Namdapha Arunachal Located on the Burma Tiger, Leopard, Clouded
26
National Park Pradesh border leopard, Snow Leopards, Asiatic
Black bears, Dholes, Red Pandas
and Slow Loris etc
first marine national
several species of coral,
Gulf Of Kutch park in India and is
27 Gujarat Dolphins, Whales and the
National Park located on an island in
massive Whale Sharks.
the Arabian Sea
Lion-tailed Macaque, Tiger,
Leopard, Jungle Cat, Leopard
Silent Valley
28 Kerala Western Ghats Cat, Sloth bear, otter,
National Park
Travancore flying squirrel,
Porcupine and Elephant etc.
Desert Fox, Bengal Fox, Spiny
Tail lizard, Monitor lizard,
Desert National
29 Rajasthan Russell’s viper, Desert cat, Saw-
Park
scaled viper and the great Indian
bustard
confluence of the Beas
30 Harike Wetland Punjab endangered Indus dolphin
and the Sutlej rivers
Tiger, Leopard, Wolf, Dhole,
Eturnagaram
Jackals, Sloth bear, Mugger
31 Wildlife Telangana
crocodiles, Cobra and Chinkara
Sanctuary
etc
blue sheep, snow leopard,
Great Himalayan Himachal
32 Himalayan brown bear,
National Park pradesh
Himalayan tahr, and musk deer
Wild Asian buffalo, gaur (Indian
bison), nilgai, blackbuck,
It derives its name from chausingha (four-horned
Indravati
32 Chattisgarh the nearby Indravati antelope), sambar, chital, Indian
National Park
River muntjac, Indian spotted
chevrotain and wild boar, tigers,
leopards, sloth bears, dholes
(wild dog) and striped hyenas.
Tigers, gaur, Indian bison,
Bandhavgarh Madhya Highest tiger
33 sambar, barking deer, Indian
national park Pradesh population in India
wolf, striped hyena
The national park is
surrounded by the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary. Gahirmatha
Beach and Marine
Sanctuary lies to the
The park is home to Saltwater
east, and separates
Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus),
swamp region cover
Bhitarkanika White Crocodile, Indian python,
34 Odisha with canopy of
National Park King Cobra, black ibis, darters
mangroves from the
and many other species of flora
Bay of Bengal. The
and fauna.
national park and
wildlife sanctuary is
inundated by a number
of rivers - Brahmani,
Baitarni, Dhamra,
Pathsala and others.
The only floating park
brow-antlered deer, hog deer,
in the world, located in
Keibul Lamjao wild boar, large Indian civet,
35 Manipur North East India, and
National Park fox, jungle cat, golden cat,
an integral part of
shrew, flying fox, sambar etc
Loktak Lake.
South Button Andaman and
dugong, dolphin, water monitor
36 Island National Nicobar
lizard, blue whale
Park Islands
What is Eco-Sensitive Zone?  Transition zones around protected forest
It is created to act as a buffer for further areas would minimise forest depletion and
protection around Protected Areas (PAs) man-animal conflict.
such as National Parks and Wildlife  The protected areas are based on the core
sanctuaries. and buffer model of management. The core
Activities around such areas are regulated area has the legal status of being a national
and managed so as to protect the park. The buffer area, however, does not
environment. have legal status of being a national park and
ESZ is notified under Section 3 of the could be a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 by the or tiger reserve.
Union Ministry of Environment and Forest.  This will help in protecting endangered
species.
ESZ Guidelines classify activities under
 This will also promote eco-tourism.
three categories:
 Prohibited: Commercial Mining, Setting of Eco-Sensitive Zone Guidelines:
Saw Mill, Setting of industries causing
 The guidelines proposed that the boundary
pollution, establishment of major
hydroelectric projects etc. had to be site specific, decided in
 Regulated: Felling of Trees, Establishment consultation with a field based team
of hotels and resorts, erection of electrical comprising representatives from the forest
cables, drastic change of agricultural department, revenue department and
systems etc. Panchayati Raj institution.
 Permitted: Ongoing agriculture and  Though ESZ does not affect the ownership
horticulture practices by local communities, rights of people on land resources, it restricts
rain water harvesting, organic farming etc. land-use change. Activities such as widening
Many states are opposed to ESZ because of of roads, construction or expansion of
presence of minerals and resources side by buildings, change of the agriculture system
side. Local people in many areas are also and erection of electric cables will also be
opposed to ESZ for loss of livelihood due to regulated by a monitoring committee, mostly
restriction placed by it on various activities. comprising of government officials, as per
Why ESZ’s? the master plan of the ESZ.
 The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more  It mentioned that the ESZs are not anti-
protection to the parks by acting as a shock people and do not intend to hamper their
absorber or transition zone. everyday activities.
Concerns of Local People: to comprise a little more than 1,800
 Locals claim that it is against their individuals, an alarming reduction in tiger
livelihood. population.
 There is no compensation for damage to  In 1973, Project Tiger was launched in the
crops by animals. Palamau Tiger Reserve, and various tiger
 Man-animal conflict may increase. reserves were created in the country based
 Local people will be treated as encroachers. on a ‘core-buffer’ strategy.
 There are no policies to regulate tourism.  India has more than 80 national parks and
Hotels and mega resorts, dominate the area 441 Sanctuaries of which some have been
and locals are restricted to low paying jobs. declared as Tiger reserves.
The locals are not enthusiastic in the  Tiger reserves are governed by the Project
ecotourism business as mass tourism gives Tiger (1973).
them tough competition.  It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the
Supreme Court order on ESZ: Ministry of Environment and Forests. It is
 All states and Union Territories were administered by the National Tiger
required to send proposals detailing the site- Conservation Authority.
specific geographical extent of ESZs around Aim: Protect tigers from extinction by
environmentally protected areas falling ensuring a viable population in their natural
within their boundaries. habitats. Government has set up a Tiger
 Unless site-specific ESZs are declared a Protection Force under PT to combat
10-km area around each of these wildlife poachers.
zones is treated as an ESZ.
PT funds relocation of villagers to minimize
 States which are having largest number of
human-tiger conflicts.
ecologically sensitive zones is eight and
Core and Buffer Zones:
gujarath consists of six.
The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a
Conservation Efforts by India ‘core-buffer strategy’.
Project Tiger – Tiger Conservation Core Zone:
 Indian tiger population at the end of the 20th  The core area is kept free of biotic
century was estimated at 20,000 to 40,000 disturbances and forestry operations,
individuals. where collection of minor forest produce,
 The first country-wide tiger census grazing, human disturbances are not
conducted in 1972 estimated the population allowed within.
 These areas are required to be kept for the National Board for Wild Life  Tiger Task
purposes of tiger conservation, without Force  National Tiger Conservation
affecting the rights of the Scheduled Authority
Tribes or such other forest dwellers.
National Tiger Conservation Authority
 These areas are notified by the State
(NTCA)
Government in consultation with an
 The National Tiger Conservation
Expert Committee (constituted for that
Authority was established in December
purpose).
2005 following recommendations of the
Buffer Zone: Tiger Task Force.
 The Act defines buffer zone as the area  National Tiger Conservation Authority
peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or administers Project Tiger.
core area providing supplementary habitat  Administration of the tiger reserves will be
for dispersing tigers, besides offering in accordance with guidelines of NTCA.
scope for co-existence of human activity  Tiger reserves in India are administered by
(tribals). field directors as mandated by NTCA.
 The limits of such areas are determined  No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger
with the concerned Gram Sabha and an reserve shall be made except on a
Expert Committee constituted for the recommendation of the NTCA and the
purpose. approval of the National Board for Wild
Tiger Task Force: Life.
 The implementation of Project Tiger over  No State Government shall de-notify a
the years has highlighted the need for a tiger reserve, except in public interest with
statutory authority with legal backing to the approval of the NTCA and the
ensure tiger conservation. approval of the National Board for Wild
 On the basis of the recommendations of Life.
National Board for Wild Life, a Task The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment
Force was set up to look into the problems Act, 2006:
of tiger conservation in the country. The Act provides for creating National Tiger
 The recommendations of the Task Force Conservation Authority and Tiger and Other
include strengthening of Project Tiger by
Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau
giving it statutory and administrative
powers. (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau).
Functions of NTCA: which would be laid in the Parliament
 The Authority lays down standards, along with the Audit Report.
guidelines for tiger conservation in the  State level Steering Committees will be set
Tiger Reserves, National Parks and up in the Tiger States under the
Sanctuaries. Chairmanship of respective Chief
 It would provide information on protection Ministers. This has been done with a view
measures including future plan for for ensuring coordination, monitoring and
conservation. protection of tigers in the States.
 The Authority would facilitate and support  A provision has been made for the State
tiger reserve management in the States Governments to prepare a Tiger
through eco-development and people’s Conservation Plan.
participation.  Provision will be made for the States to
 The Tiger Conservation Authority would establish a Tiger Conservation
be required to prepare an Annual Report, Foundation, based on the good practices
emanating from some tiger reserves.
LIST OF TIGER RESERVES IN INDIA
List of Tiger Reserves Core & Buffer Areas:
List of Core and Buffer areas of Tiger Reserves in India, notified under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972, as amended in 2006 (as on 03.09.2014)
S.No. Name of Tiger Reserve State Total area (In Sq.Kms.)
1 Bandipur Karnataka 1456.3
2 Corbett Uttarakhand 1288.31
Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) Uttar Pradesh 80.60
3 Kanha Madhya Pradesh 2051.791
4 Manas Assam 3150.92
5 Melghat Maharashtra 2768.52
6 Palamau Jharkhand 1129.93
7 Ranthambore Rajasthan 1411.291
8 Similipal Odisha 2750.00
9 Sunderbans West Bengal 2584.89
10 Periyar Kerala 925.00
11 Sariska Rajasthan 1213.342
12 Buxa West Bengal 757.9038
13 Indravati Chhattisgarh 2799.07
14 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh 2052.82
15 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 2201.7748
16 Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu 1601.542
17 Valmiki Bihar 899.38
18 Pench Madhya Pradesh 1179.63225
19 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra 1727.5911
20 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh 1598.10
21 Panna Madhya Pradesh 1578.55
22 Dampa Mizoram 988.00
23 Bhadra Karnataka 1064.29
24 Pench Maharashtra 741.22
25 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh 1198.45
26 Nameri Assam 344.00
27 Satpura Madhya Pradesh 2133.30797
28 Anamalai Tamil Nadu 1479.87
29 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh 1842.54
30 Satkosia Odisha 963.87
31 Kaziranga Assam 1173.58
32 Achanakmar Chattisgarh 914.017
33 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka 1097.514
34 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh 1674.502
35 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 688.59
36 Nagarahole Karnataka 1205.76
37 Parambikulam Kerala 643.662
38 Sahyadri Maharashtra 1165.57
39 Biligiri Ranganatha Temple Karnataka 574.82
40 Kawal Telangana 2019.12
41 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu 1408.40
42 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan 759.99
43 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra 653.674
44 Nagarjunsagar Srisailam Andhra Pradesh 3296.31
45 Amrabad Telangana 2611.39
There are eight subspecies of tiger: among  Recent methods used to estimate the
the eight, at present five subspecies are numbers of tigers are camera trapping and
present in the wild. They are: Bengal, South DNA fingerprinting.
China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and Siberian.  In camera trapping, the photograph of the
Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, tiger is taken and individuals are
and Javan-are extinct. differentiated on the basis of the stripes on
the body.
Estimation of Tiger Populations
 In the latest technique of DNA
 The process of estimating the number of
fingerprinting, tigers can be identified
tigers in a given area is called ‘Tiger
from their scats.
census’.
 It is conducted at regular intervals to know Reasons For Falling Number of Tigers:
the current tiger populations and  Pressure on habitat, Habitat fragmentation
population trends. and Habitat destruction: Caused due to
 Besides estimating the number of tigers large-scale development projects such as
the method also helps to gather dams, industry, mines, railway lines etc.
information on the density of the tiger  Incessant poaching: Tigers are killed so
populations and associated prey. their body parts can be used for
 The most commonly used technique in the Traditional Chinese Medicine.
past was ‘Pugmark Census Technique’.  Invasive species: Destroy the local
 In this method the imprints of the pugmark producers. This has a cascading effect on
of the tiger were recorded and used as a the food chain. Tigers are the worst hit as
basis for identification of individuals. they are at the end of the food chain.
 Now it is largely used as one of the indices [Tigers represent an “Umbrella Species”
of tiger occurrence and relative that indicate the health of the ecosystem.]
abundance. Reasons for Slightly Increased Tiger

Population Recently:
 Wireless communication systems and The Ministry of Environment, Forest and
outstation patrol camps have been Climate Change provides the financial and
developed within the tiger reserves, due to technical support to major elephant range
which poaching has declined considerably. states in the country through Project
 Fire protection is effectively done by Elephant.
suitable preventive and control measures. Elephant Corridor:
 Voluntary Village relocation has been  An elephant corridor is defined as a
done in many reserves. stretch/narrow strip of forested (or
 Livestock grazing has been controlled to a otherwise) land that connects larger
great extent in the tiger reserves. habitats with elephant populations and
 Various compensatory developmental forms a conduit for animal movement
works have improved the water regime between the habitats. This movement
and the ground and field level vegetation. helps enhance species survival and birth
 Stringent punishments for violators. rate.
 GIS based digitized database development  There are 88 identified elephant corridors
to evaluate tiger population. in India.
 Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south
PROJECT ELEPHANT was launched by the
India, 12 in north-western India, 20 in
Government of India in the year 1992 as a
central India, 14 in northern West Bengal
Centrally Sponsored Scheme with following
and 22 in north-eastern India.
objectives:
1. To protect elephants, their habitat & Threats to Elephant Corridors:
corridors  Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and
2. To address issues of man-animal conflict destruction caused by developmental
3. Welfare of captive elephants activities like construction of buildings,

roads, railways, holiday resorts and the
The Project is being mainly implemented in
fixing solar energized electric fencing, etc.
16 States/UTs, viz. Andhra Pradesh,
 Coal mining and iron ore mining are the
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh,
two “biggest threats” to elephant corridors
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
in central India.
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu,
 Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are
Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West
mineral-rich states, but also have the
Bengal.
highest number of elephant corridors in
the country, which makes them known for  Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by
elephant-man conflicts. the department of environment and forests,
 There is also a serious poaching problem, Assam.
as elephant ivory from the tusks is  The programme will be supported by
extremely valuable. WWF -India, the international rhino
 Elephants need extensive grazing grounds foundation (IRF), and a number of local
and most reserves cannot accommodate NGOs.
them. If protected areas are not large  Translocations are the backbone of the
enough, elephants may search for food IRV 2020 program.
elsewhere. This often results in conflicts  The goal set was to populate the potential
with humans, due to elephants raiding or rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas
destroying crops. NP, DibruSaikhowa WLS, Laokhowa–
Mitigation: BuraChapori WLS with a viable
 Fusion of the corridors with nearby population of rhino through translocations
protected areas wherever feasible; in other from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS.
cases, declaration as Ecologically  Manas National Park was selected as the
Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves first site for translocation of rhinos.
to grant protection.  Ten rhinos have been released into Manas
 During the process of securing a corridor, since 2008. Ten more rhinos will be
monitoring for animal movement have to moved from Kaziranga National Park
be carried out; depending on the need, before the end of the year.
habitat restoration work shall also be done.  Trans locating rhinos will help to create a
 Securing the corridors involves sensitizing viable population of this threatened
local communities to the option of species.
voluntarily relocation outside the conflict  The vision of this program is to increase
zones to safer areas. the total rhino foundation in Assam from
 Preventing further fragmentation of the about 2000 to 3000 by the year 2020 and
continuous forest habitat by encroachment to ensure that these rhinos are distributed
from urban areas. over at least 7 protected areas (PA) to
Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision 2020 provide long term viability of the one-
 One horned rhinos are poached for their horned rhino population.
horns.
 Concentrating so many rhinos in a single  This includes highly endangered
protected area like Kaziranga exposes the populations of species such as the snow
species to risks of calamities (epidemics, leopard, two species of bears, wolf, red
floods, massive poaching attempts). panda, mountain ungulates such as the
 Further, rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded wild yak, chiru, Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan
carrying capacity and numbers must be argali, Ladakhurial, two species of musk
reduced to protect the habitat and to deer, the hangul, three species of goral,
mitigate the increasing rhino-human serow, and takin, etc. High altitude lakes
conflicts. and bogs provide breeding grounds for a
variety of avifauna including the black-
Project Snow Leopard
necked crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy
 The snow leopard is a globally endangered
ducks, and brown-headed gulls, etc.
species.
 India has ratified international agreements
 Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving
promoting the conservation of high
over two million square kilometers in the
altitude wildlife species such as the snow
Himalaya and Central Asian mountains.
leopard.
 Most snow leopards occur in China,
 In 2003, the Convention on Migratory
followed by Mongolia and India.
Species included the snow leopard as a
Threats posed due to
Concerted Action Species under its
 Human interference,
Appendix I.
 competition with livestock – people kill
 Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on
them to save their livestock,
International Trade in Endangered Species
 retreating deeper into mountains due to
(CITES) expanded the scope of the CITES
global warming, and
Tiger Enforcement Task Force to include
 Poaching.
all Asian big cat species including the
Why to conserve the high altitude snow leopard.
ecosystem?
Sea Turtle Project:
 The high altitudes of India (> 3000 m)
 A significant proportion of world’s Olive
(including the Himalaya and Trans-
Ridley Turtle population migrates every
Himalaya biogeographic zones) support a
winter to Indian coastal waters for nesting
unique wildlife assemblage of global
mainly at eastern coast.
conservation importance.
 With the objective of conservation of olive Objectives:
ridley turtles and other endangered marine  To protect the remaining population of
turtles, MoEF initiated the Sea Turtle crocodilians in their natural habitat by
Conservation Project in collaboration of creating sanctuaries.
UNDP in 1999 with Wildlife Institute of  To rebuild natural population quickly
India, Dehradun as the Implementing through ‘grow and release’ or ‘rear and
Agency. release’ technique.
 The project is being implemented in 10  To promote captive breeding.
coastal States of the country with special  Captive breeding means that members of a
emphasis in State of Orissa. wild species are captured, then bred and
 The project has helped in preparation of raised in a special facility under the care of
inventory map of breeding sites of Sea wildlife biologists and other expert.
Turtles, identification of nesting and  Bringing an animal into captivity may
breeding habitats along the shore line, and represent the last chance to preserve a
migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles, species in the wild.
development of guidelines to safeguard  To take-up research to improve
and minimize turtle mortality. management.
 One of the important achievements have  To build up a level of trained personnel for
been demonstration of use of Satellite better continuity of the project through
Telemetry to locate the migratory route of training imparted at project-sites and
Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and through the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile
sensitizing the fishermen and State Breeding and Management Training
Government for the use of Turtle Institute, Hyderabad.
Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing  To involve the local people in the project
trawlers to check turtle mortality. intimately.
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project Project Hangul:
The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project  The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a
has pulled back the once threatened subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer
crocodilians from the brink of extinction and native to northern India.
places them on a good path of recovery.  It is the state animal of Jammu &
Kashmir.
 In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam found in the Yangtze River (China), the
National Park at elevations of 3,035 ‘bhulan’ of the Indus (Pakistan) and the
meters. ‘boto’ of the Amazon River (Latin
 These deer once numbered from about America).
5,000 animals in the beginning of the 20th  Although there are several species of
century. marine dolphins whose ranges include
 Unfortunately, they were threatened, due some freshwater habitats, these four
to habitat destruction, over-grazing by species live only in rivers and lakes.
domestic livestock and poaching.  The Chinese River Dolphin was declared
 This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by functionally extinct by a team of
1970. However, the state of Jammu & international scientists in 2006.
Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the  In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is
WWF prepared a project for the protection threatened by river water pollution and
of these animals. siltation, accidental entanglement in
 It became known as Project Hangul. This fishing nets and poaching for their oil.]
brought great results and the population  In addition, alterations to the rivers in the
increased to over 340 by 1980. form of barrages and dams are separating
populations.
Ganges Dolphin:
 The Gangetic Dolphin is a Flagship
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests
species for river conservation:
notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the
 It is clear that there is enormous public
National Aquatic Animal.
support for ensuring the maintenance and
 The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-
protection of the Gangetic Dolphins. As a
Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-
flagship species, its conservation requires
Sangu river systems of Nepal, India, and
greater efforts along the lines of that
Bangladesh.
provided to the tiger and the elephant.
 It is estimated that their total population is
Other endangered river species such as the
around 2,000 and they are listed in
softshell turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus),
Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act
gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and
(1972).
smoothcoated otters (Lutra perspicillata)
 The Ganges Dolphin is among the four
will also benefit from conservation actions
“obligate” freshwater dolphins found in
that benefit the Gangetic Dolphin.
the world — the other three are the ‘baiji
Project Vulture: Vulture safety zones:
India has 9 species of vultures in the wild.  Aim of developing VSZs is to establish
They are the targeted awareness activities surrounding
1. Oriental white-backed vulture 10km radius of vultures’ colonies so that
2. Slender billed vulture no diclofenac or the veterinary toxic drugs
3. Long billed vulture are found in cattle carcasses, the main
4 Egyptian vulture food of vultures.
5. Red headed vulture  The VSZ is spread around in several
6. Indian griffon vulture hundred kilometres covering the Jim
In India the population of three species i.e. Corbett in Uttarkhand, Dudhwa and
white backed vulture, slender billed vulture Katarniaghat forest reserves in UP which
and long billed vulture in the wild has is adjoining the Indo-Nepal border.
declined drastically over the past decade.
Vulture restaurants:
Red headed vulture, slender billed vulture, At this restaurant, tables are reserved only
long billed vulture are listed as critically for the unique and rare vultures by
endangered. Maharashtra and Punjab forest departments.
It is initially thought that the drastic decline The aim is to conserve dwindling vulture
in population was due to non-availability of population.
food or an unknown viral epidemic disease, International and National Conservation of
but later on confirmed that decline in Biodiversity:
population was due to the drug diclofenac United Nations Conference on Environment
(NSAID). and Development (UNCED), byname Earth
Significance of vultures in India: Summit, conference held at Rio de Janeiro,
 Scavenging on animal carcasses of Brazil (June 3–14, 1992), to reconcile
animals and thereby helping keep the worldwide economic development with
environment clean protection of the environment. The Earth
 Disposal of dead bodies as per the Summit was the largest gathering of world
religious practices of Parsi community. leaders in history, with 117 heads of state
 Vultures are the primary removers of and representatives of 178 nations in all
carrion in India and Africa. attending. By means of treaties and other
documents signed at the conference, most of
the world’s nations nominally committed
themselves to the pursuit of economic development on their forest resources and
development in ways that would protect the take steps to limit the damage done to them.
Earth’s environment and nonrenewable The Convention on Biological Diversity
resources. (CBD): 1993
The main documents agreed upon at the  It is one of the key agreement of Rio Earth
Earth Summit are as follows. Summit-1992
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity  While past conservation efforts were aimed at
(CBD): it is a binding treaty requiring protecting particular species and habitats, the
nations to take inventories of their plants and Convention recognizes that ecosystems,
wild animals and protect their endangered species and genes must be used for the
species. benefit of humans. However, this should be
2. The United Framework Convention on done in a way and at a rate that does not lead
Climate Change(UNFCCC) or Global to the long-term decline of biological
Warming Convention: it is a binding treaty diversity.
that requires nations to reduce their emission  The convention also offers decision-makers
of carbon dioxide, methane, and other guidance based on the precautionary
“greenhouse” gases thought to be principle that where there is a threat of
responsible for global warming; the treaty significant reduction or loss of biological
stopped short of setting binding targets for diversity, lack of full scientific certainty
emission reductions, however. should not be used as a reason for
3. The Declaration on Environment and postponing measures to avoid or minimize
Development, or Rio Declaration, laid down such a threat.
27 broad, nonbinding principles for  The Convention on Biological Diversity
environmentally sound development. (CBD) entered into force from 1993.
4. Agenda 21: outlined global strategies for It has 3 main objectives:

cleaning up the environment and  The conservation of biological diversity
encouraging environmentally sound  The sustainable use of the components of
development. The Statement of Principles on biological diversity
Forests, aimed at preserving the world’s  The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
rapidly vanishing tropical rainforests, is a arising out of the utilization of genetic
nonbinding statement recommending that resources
nations monitor and assess the impact of
 The agreement covers all ecosystems, species,  It is a supplementary agreement to CBD.
and genetic resources. It links traditional Its aim is the implementation of one of the
conservation efforts to the economic goal of three objectives of the CBD: the fair and
using biological resources sustainably. equitable sharing of benefits arising out of
 UN declared that 2010 was the International the utilization of genetic resources,
Year of Biodiversity and the decade of 2011 thereby contributing to the conservation
- 2020 as the United Nations Decade on and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Biodiversity.
 It has 2 protocols and 1 program
1. Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety
 The Nagoya Protocol is on Access to
2. Nagoya Protocol and Aichi Targets
Genetic Resources and the Fair and
(i) The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from
Convention – 2000 their Utilization to the Convention on
 It is also known as the Biosafety Protocol. Biological Diversity is a supplementary
It seeks to protect biological diversity agreement to the Convention on
from the potential risks posed by living Biological Diversity.
modified organisms resulting from modern  It provides a transparent legal framework
biotechnology. for the effective implementation of one of
 This protocol makes clear that products the three objectives of the CBD: the fair
from new technologies must be based on and equitable sharing of benefits arising
the precautionary principle and allow out of the utilization of genetic resources.
developing nations to balance public  The Protocol was adopted on 29 October
health against economic benefits. It will, 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan,
for example, let countries ban imports of a and entered into force on 12 October 2014.
genetically modified organism (GMO) if Its objective is the fair and equitable
they feel there is not enough scientific sharing of benefits arising from the
evidence the product is safe and requires
utilization of genetic resources, thereby
exporters to label shipments containing contributing to the conservation and
genetically modified commodities such as sustainable use of biodiversity.
corn or cotton.
Aichi Targets:
(ii) Nagoya Genetic Resources Protocol – 2010
 Nagoya Protocol adopted an updated
and Aichi targets
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including
the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, for the annually. Since then these meetings have
period of 2011-2020. been held somewhat less frequently and,
 Some of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets following a change in the rules of procedure
are: in 2000, will now be held every two years.
 At least halve and, where feasible, bring The Twelfth meeting of the Conference of
close to zero the rate of loss of natural the Parties to the Convention on Biological
habitats, including forests Diversity was held in Pyeongchang,
 Establish a conservation target of 17% of Republic of Korea from 6 -17 October 2014.
terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of The Thirteenth meeting of the Conference of
marine and coastal areas the Parties (COP 13) will be held in
 Restore at least 15% of degraded areas Cancun, Mexico, in December 2016.
through conservation and restoration
activities
 Make special efforts to reduce the pressures
faced by coral reefs
Conference of the Parties (COP):

Background and Status
The Conference of the Parties is the
governing body of the Convention, and
advances implementation of the Convention
through the decisions it takes at its periodic
meetings.
To date the Conference of the Parties has
held 12 ordinary meetings, and one
extraordinary meeting (the latter, to adopt
the Biosafety Protocol, was held in two
parts). From 1994 to 1996, the Conference
of the Parties held its ordinary meetings
Meetings of the Conference of the Parties
COP 13 - Thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on

Biological Diversity Cancun, Mexico, 4 - 17 December 2016
COP 12 - Twelfth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea, 6 - 17 October 2014
COP 11 - Eleventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on

Biological Diversity Hyderabad, India, 8 - 19 October 2012
COP 10 - Tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan, 18 - 29 October 2010
COP 9 - Ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity Bonn, Germany, 19 - 30 May 2008
COP 8 - Eighth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Curitiba, Brazil, 20 - 31 March 2006
COP 7 - Seventh Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 9 - 20 February 2004
COP 6 - Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity. The Hague, Netherlands, 7 - 19 April 2002
COP 5 - Fifth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Nairobi, Kenya, 15 - 26 May 2000
EXCOP 1 - First Extraordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on
Biological Diversity Cartagena, Colombia & Montreal, Canada, 22 - 23
February 1999 & 24 - 28 January 2000
COP 4 - Fourth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Bratislava, Slovakia, 4 - 15 May 1998
COP 3 - Third Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4 - 15 November 1996
COP 2 - Second Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Jakarta, Indonesia, 6 - 17 November 1995
COP 1 - First Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity Nassau, Bahamas, 28 November - 9 December 1994
The agenda of the meetings of the meeting of the Conference of the Parties and
Conference of the Parties is very wide- formed the basis for a decision on future
ranging, reflecting the programme of work operations of the Convention.
the Conference of the Parties has established
Institutions related to the National
for itself. At its first meeting, the Conference
Biodiversity Act:
of the Parties decided on a medium-term
To realize the initiatives pertaining to access
programme of work for the period 1995-
and benefit sharing (ABS) and the protection
1997. Implementation of this programme has
of traditional knowledge (TK) in compliance
laid the groundwork for the long-term
with the Convention on Biological Diversity
implementation of the Convention itself. In
(CBD), a three-tiered structure at the
particular it has seen the development of a
national, state and local level is to be
number of thematic work programmes, and
established under the Biological Diversity
identified a series of key cross-cutting issues
Act of 2002. A brief description of the
relevant to all work programmes.
institutions is as follows:
The fourth meeting of the Conference of the  National Biodiversity Authority (NBA):
Parties established a programme of work to The Authority deals with all matters relating
cover the period from then until the seventh to requests for access by foreign individuals,
meeting and, more importantly, established a institutions or companies, and all matters
process to review the operations of the relating to transfer of results of research to
Convention and set out a longer term any foreigner.
programme of work. As part of this process,  State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs):
an intersessional meeting on the operations All matters relating to access by Indians for
of the Convention was held in 1999, the commercial purposes are under the purview
results of which were reported to the fifth of the State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs).
The Indian industry is required to provide State Government on promotion of
prior intimation to the concerned SBB about wildlife conservation and controlling
the use of biological resource. The State poaching and illegal trade of wildlife and
Board has the power to restrict any such its products; making recommendations for
activity, which violates the objectives of setting up and managing national parks,
conservation, sustainable use and equitable sanctuaries and other protected areas and
sharing of benefits. suggesting measures for improvement of
 Biodiversity Management Committees wildlife conservation.
(BMCs):  It has also set-up National Tiger Conservation
Authority
Institutions of local self-government are
 The acts set-up various provisions related to
required to set up Biodiversity Management trade and penalties for hunting the animals in
Committees in their respective areas for wild.
 Five kinds of protected areas can be notified in
conservation, sustainable use, and the act.
documentation of knowledge relating to
These are as follows:
biodiversity. Technical support and guidance
Sanctuaries-The State of Central
is also provided to the biodiversity
Government may by notification declare its
management committees for the preparation
intention to constitute any are as a sanctuary
of people’s biodiversity register.
protecting wildlife and the environment. The
Acts and Conventions Related to
government determines the nature and extent
Biodiversity:
of rights of persons in or over the land
ACTS: within the sanctuary.
WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972 National Parks-The State or Central
(WITH AMENDEMENT ACTS OF 2003 Government may declare an area, whether
AND 2006) inside a sanctuary or not, as a national part
 The act provides for the protection of wild for the purpose of protecting and developing
animals, birds and plants and matters wildlife and its environment. The State
connected with them, with a view to Government cannot alter the boundaries of a
ensure the ecological and environmental national par except on the recommendation
security of India. of the National Board (for wildlife, No
 The act constituted a National Board for grazing is allowed inside a national park. All
Wildlife that provides guidelines for provisions applicable to a sanctuary are also
framing policies and advising Central and applicable to a national park.
Conservation Reservation-The State reforms over the preceding Act of 1927. The
Government after consultations with local 1927Act deals with the four categories of the
communities can declare any area owned by forests, namely
the government, particularly areas adjacent  Reserved forests,
to national park or sanctuaries, as  Village forests,
conservation reserves. The government  Protected forests and
constitutes a Conservation Reserve  Private forests.
Management Committee to manage and  A state may declare forest lands or waste
conserve the conservation reserve. lands as reserved forest and may sell the
produce from these forests. Any
Community Reserves-The State Government
unauthorized felling of trees quarrying,
can, in consultation with the community or
grazing and hunting in reserved forests is
an individual who have volunteered to
punishable with a fine or imprisonment, or
conserve wildlife, declare any private or
both reserved forests assigned to a village
community land as community reserve. A
community are called village forests.
Community Reserve Management
 The state governments are empowered to
Committee shall be constituted by State
designate protected forests and may prohibit
Government for conserving and managing
the felling of trees, quarrying and the
the reserve.
removal of forest produce from these forests.
Tiger Reserves-These areas are reserved for
The preservation of protected forests is
protection tiger in the country. The State
enforces through rules, licenses and criminal
Government on the recommendation of the
prosecutions. Forest officers and their staff
Tiger Conservation Authority may notify an
administer the Forest Act.
area as a tiger reserve, for which it has to
 Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and
prepare a Tiger Conservation Plan.
resulting environmental degradation, Centre
The Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980: Government enacted the Forest
 First Forest Act was enacted in 1927. It was (Conservation) Act in1980. Under the
enacted to consolidate the law related to provisions of this Act, prior approval of the
forest, the transit of forest produce and the Central Government is required for
duty livable on timber and other forest diversion of forestlands for non-forest
produce. purposes.
 Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act
was promulgated in 1980 to make certain
 An Advisory Committee constituted under Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and
the Act advises the Centre on these Biodiversity Management Committees
approvals.
(BMCs) in local bodies. NBA and SBB are
Biodiversity Act 2000:
required to consult BMCs in decisions
 India’s richness in biological resources and
indigenous knowledge relating to them is relating to use of biological resources or
well related knowledge within their jurisdiction
recognized. One of the major challenges is and BMCs are to promote conservation,
in adopting an instrument which helps
sustainable use and documentation of
realize the objectives of equitable benefit
sharing enshrined in the Convention on biodiversity.
Biological Diversity (CBD). The legislation  All foreign nationals or organizations
aims at regulating access to biological
require prior approval of NBA for obtaining
resources so as to ensure equitable sharing
of benefits arising from their use. biological resources and associated
 The Act covers conservation, use of biological knowledge for any use. Indian individuals
resources and associated knowledge /entities require approval of NBA for
occurring in India for commercial or transferring results of research with respect
research purposes or for the purposes of bio- to any biological resources to foreign
survey and bio-utilisation. It provides a nationals/organizations. Collaborative
framework for access to biological resources research projects and exchange of
and sharing the benefits arising out of such knowledge and resources under these
access and use. The Act also includes in its projects are exempted provided they are
ambit the transfer of research results and drawn as per the policy guidelines of the
application for intellectual property rights Central Government and have its approval
(IPRs) relating to Indian biological the objectives of conservation, sustainable
resources. use and benefit
 Salient features of the biodiversity legislation: sharing. However, Indian citizens/entities/lo
 The main intent of this legislation is to
cal people including vaids and hakims to
protect India’s rich biodiversity and
have free access to use biological resources
associated knowledge against their use by
within the country for their own use,
foreign individuals and organizations
medicinal purposes and research purposes.
without sharing the benefits arising out of
 While granting approvals, NBA will impose
such use, and to check Biopiracy.
terms and conditions to secure equitable
 The Act provides for setting up of a National
sharing of benefits. Before applying for any
Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State
form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights)  It does not cover discharges from land-based
in or outside India for an invention based on sources such as pipes and outfalls, wastes
research or information on a biological generated incidental to normal operation of
resource obtained from India, prior approval vessels, or placement of materials for
of NBA will be required. purposes other than mere disposal, providing
 There is an enabling provision for setting up such disposal is not contrary to aims of the
a framework for protecting traditional Convention
knowledge. 2. United Nations Convention on the Law of
 The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a the Sea (UNCLOS)
result of approvals by NBA to be deposited  Law of the Sea Convention defines the
in National Biodiversity Fund, which will be rights and responsibilities of nations with
used for conservation and development of respect to their use of the world's oceans,
areas from where resource has been establishing guidelines for businesses, the
accessed, in consultation with the local self- environment, and the management of marine
government concerned. natural resources
 This Act intends to check biopiracy, protect  Its aim is to prevent, reduce and control
biological diversity and local growers pollution of the marine environment from
through a three-tier structure of central and any source that are toxic, harmful and
state boards and local committees. These persistent substances.
will regulate access to plant and animal 2. Conventions on Nature and Biotic
genetic resources and share the benefits. Resources:
Conventions: 1. Antarctic Treaty - 1959
1. On Aquatic Environment  It is to regulate international relations with
1. London Convention on the Prevention of respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and without a native human population. For the
Other Matter (Marine Dumping) purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is
 It is to control pollution of the sea by defined as all of the land and ice
dumping and to encourage regional shelves south of 60°S latitude.
agreements supplementary to the  This treaty sets aside Antarctica as a
Convention. It covers the deliberate disposal scientific preserve, establishes freedom of
at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, scientific investigation and bans military
aircraft, and platforms. activity on that continent.
 Antarctica is a very fragile ecosystem where administered by UNESCO. The programme
biotic resources are at very early stage of aims to catalogue, names, and preserve sites
evolution. The protection of the Antarctic of outstanding importance, either cultural or
environment is identified through five natural, to the common heritages of human
specific areas on marine pollution, fauna and kind. Listed sites can obtain funds from the
flora, environmental impact assessments, World Heritage find under certain
waste management, and protected areas. It conditions.
prohibits all activities relating to mineral  The concept here is the protection of cultural
resources except for scientific use and natural site and cultural landscapes that
3. Convention Concerning the Protection of the are of outstanding universal value. Their
World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the deterioration or destruction constitutes a loss
World Heritage Convention) - 1972 to the heritage of all humanity and not just to
 It is the Convention of UNESCO that prepares the country where they are located.
a list of properties that have outstanding  Natural sites in India that are under world
cultural and natural heritage value, called the heritage list:
World Heritage List. State
 This Convention established that biological Kaziranga National Park Assam
resources, such as plants, were the common Keoladeo Ghana National Rajasthan
heritage of mankind need to be preserved to Park
create great public banks of genetic Manas National Park Assam
resources, located outside the source- Sunderbans National Park West Bengal
countries. Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand
 In 2005, the World Heritage Marine Western ghats Kerala,
Programme was established to protect Karnataka,
marine areas with Outstanding Universal Tamil Nadu
Values. The Great Himalayan Himachal
World Heritage Sites National Park Pradesh
 A UNESCO World Heritage site is a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

specific site such as a forest, mountain (GSPC):
range, lake, desert, building, complex, or  The Strategy considers plants in the terrestrial,
city that has been nominated for the inland water and marine environments.
international world heritage programme Further, the Strategy applies to the three
primary levels of biological diversity as Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
recognized by the Convention, hence plant specimens of wild animals and plants does
genetic diversity, plant species and not threaten the survival of the species in the
communities and their associated habitats wild, and it accords varying degrees of
and ecosystem. protection to more than 35,000 species of
4. Bonn Convention on the Conservation of animals and plants.
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Although CITES is legally binding on the
– CMS) - 1979 Parties – in other words they have to
 Conservation and effective management of implement the Convention – it does not take
migratory species of terrestrial and marine the place of national laws.
wild animals through the concerted action of Rather it provides a framework to be
all countries within their national boundaries respected by each Party, which has to adopt
of which such species spend any part of their its own domestic legislation to ensure that
life cycle. CITES is implemented at the national level.
 CMS covers many mammals, including land Parties = 181
mammals, marine mammals and bats; birds; Traffic:

fish; reptiles and one insect.  The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network
 It is the only global convention specializing in (TRAFFIC)
the conservation of migratory species, their  TRAFFIC is a non-governmental

habitats and migration routes, CMS organization working globally on trade in
complements and co-operates with a number wild animals and plants in the context of
of other international organizations. both biodiversity conservation and
sustainable development.
5. Washington Convention on International  TRAFFIC is a joint programme of World
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN.
and Flora (CITES) - 1973  Traffic is complimentary to Convention on
It is also known as the Washington International Trade in Endangered Species
Convention). It is a multilateral treaty of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in  The programme was founded in 1976, with
1963 at a meeting of members of the headquarters now located in Cambridge,
International Union for Conservation of United Kingdom.
Nature (IUCN).
 TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that trade in  Cooperate internationally on transboundary
wild plants and animals is not a threat to the wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared
conservation of nature. species.
 It investigates and analyses wildlife trade
trends, patterns, impacts and drivers to The Montreux Record:
provide the leading knowledge base on trade  The Montreux Record is a register of
in wild animals and plants. wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
6. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands - 1971 International Importance where changes in
 The Convention uses a broad definition of ecological character have occurred, are
wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers, occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of
underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, technological developments, pollution or
wet grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, other human interference. It is maintained as
deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and other part of the Ramsar List.
coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human- 7. Paris Convention to Combat Desertification
(CCD) – 1994
made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies,
 Its objective is to combat desertification and
reservoirs and salt pans.
mitigate the effects of drought in countries
 The Convention’s mission is “the experiencing serious drought and/or
conservation and wise use of all wetlands desertification, particularly in Africa,
through local and national actions and through effective action at all levels,
international cooperation, as a contribution supported by international cooperation and
towards achieving sustainable development partnership arrangements, in the framework
throughout the world”. of an integrated approach which is consistent
 Under the “Three Pillars” of the Convention, with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing
the Contracting Parties commit to: to the achievement of sustainable
 Work towards the wise use of all their development in affected areas.
wetlands;  It is to be achieved through the long-term
 Designate suitable wetlands for the List of integrated strategies that focus on
Wetlands of International Importance (the productivity, rehabilitation, conservation and
“Ramsar List”) and ensure their effective sustainable management of land and water
management; resources, leading to improved living
conditions, in particular at the community
level.
 The year 2006 was declared "International  It supports scientific research, manages field
Year of Deserts and Desertification” projects all over the world and brings
International and national institutions governments, non-government
associated with biodiversity conservation: organizations, United Nations agencies,
International Institutions: companies and local communities together

to develop and implement policy, laws and
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR
best practice and maintains Red Data book.
CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)
Functions:
It is also known as ‘world conservation
1. Knowledge: IUCN develops and supports
congress.
cutting edge conservation science,
International Union for Conservation of
particularly in species, ecosystems,
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Also
biodiversity, and the impact these have on
known as the World Conservation Union.
human livelihoods.
 The IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest
2. Action: IUCN runs thousands of field
global environmental organization.
projects around the world to better manage
 Established in the year 1948 as international
natural environments.
union for the protection of nature (IUPN)
3. Influence: IUCN supports governments,
following international conference in
NGOs, international conventions, UN
Fontainebleau, France. It has changed its
organizations, companies and communities
name to IUCN in the year 1956.
to develop laws, policy and best-practice.
 IUCN includes both Nations and NGOs.
4. Empowerment: IUCN helps implement
 HQ=Gland, Switz.
laws, policy and best-practice by mobilizing
The IUCN enjoys “observer status” at the
organizations, providing resources, training
United Nations General Assembly.
people and monitoring results.
IUCN works to develop pragmatic solutions
to the most pressing environment and
development challenges.
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Threatened categories
Critically Endangered (CR)

Adequate data Extinction
Endangered (EN) risk
Vulnerable (VU)
Evaluated
Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)

All species –
Data Deficient (DD)
Not Evaluated (NE)
1. It is a system of classifying plants, animals CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)

etc on basis of their likelihood of extinction. A taxon is Critically Endangered when the
2. This classification contains total 9 groups. best available evidence indicates that it
Observe following chart. meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically
EXTINCT (EX) Endangered, and it is therefore considered to
A taxon is Extinct when there is no be facing an extremely high risk of
reasonable doubt that the last individual has extinction in the wild.
died. ENDANGERED (EN)

EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW) A taxon is Endangered when the best
A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is available evidence indicates that it meets any
known only to survive in cultivation, in of the criteria A to E for Endangered, and it
captivity or as a naturalized population (or is therefore considered to be facing a very
populations) well outside the past range. high risk of extinction in the wild.
VULNERABLE (VU) What is the Red Data Book?
A taxon is Vulnerable when the best The Red Data Book is the state document
available evidence indicates that it meets any established for documenting rare and
of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable, and it is endangered species of animals, plants and
therefore considered to be facing a high risk other least prominent species as well as
of extinction in the wild. some local sub-species that exist within the
NEAR THREATENED (NT) territory of the state or country.
A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been
WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE
evaluated against the criteria but does not
(WWF)
qualify for Critically Endangered,
 The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is
Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close
an international non-governmental
to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a
organization working on issues regarding the
threatened category in the near future.
conservation, research and restoration of the
LEAST CONCERN (LC) environment, formerly named the World
A taxon is Least Concern when it has been Wildlife Fund, which remains its official
evaluated against the criteria and does not name in the United States and Canada.
qualify for Critically Endangered,  It is the world’s largest independent
Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. conservation organization supporting
Widespread and abundant taxa are included conservation and environmental projects
in this category. around the world.
DATA DEFICIENT (DD)  Currently, much of its work focuses on the
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is conservation of three biomes that contain
inadequate information to make a direct, or most of the world’s biodiversity forests,
indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction freshwater ecosystems and oceans and
based on its distribution and/or population coasts.
status.  Among other issues, it is also concerned with
endangered species, pollution and climate
NOT EVALUATED (NE)
change.
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not yet
Green peace
been evaluated against the criteria.
 Green peace is an international organisation
that prioritises global environmental
campaigns on most urgent environmental
and social issues. Greenpeace’s cornerstone  BirdLife International strives to conserve
principles and core values are: birds, their habitats and global biodiversity,
 to prevent environmental destruction in a working with people towards sustainability
peaceful, non-violent manner; in the use of natural resources.
 financial independence from political or  BirdLife International is the official Red List
commercial interests; authority for birds, for the International
Union for Conservation of Nature.
 seek solutions for and promote open,
 It identifies the sites known/referred to as
informed debate about society’s ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.
environmental choices. International Day for Biological Diversity-
22 May
Vision and Mission:
The United Nations has proclaimed May 22 The
To collectively ensure environmental and International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB)
social justice, human dignity, and respect for to increase understanding and awareness of
human rights and peoples’ rights so as to biodiversity issues. When first created by the
Second Committee of the UN General Assembly
secure sustainable societies.
in late 1993, 29 December (the date of entry into
 To halt and reverse environmental degradation force of the Convention of Biological Diversity),
and depletion of natural resources, nurture was designated The International Day for
Biological Diversity. In December 2000, the UN
the earth’s ecological and cultural diversity
General Assembly adopted 22 May as IDB, to
and secure sustainable livelihoods.
commemorate the adoption of the text of the
 To secure the empowerment of indigenous Convention on 22 May 1992 by the Nairobi
peoples, local communities, women, groups Final Act of the Conference for the Adoption of
the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological
and individuals, and to ensure public
Diversity.
participation in decision making. This was partly done because it was difficult for
 To engage in vibrant campaigns, raise many countries to plan and carry out suitable
awareness, mobilize people and build celebrations for the date of 29 December, given
the number of holidays that coincide around that
alliances with diverse movements, linking
time of year.
grassroots, national and global struggles. Themes
Bird Life International: 2017- Biodiversity and Sustainable Tourism
 BirdLife International is the world’s largest 2016 - Mainstreaming Biodiversity;
Sustaining People and their Livelihoods
nature conservation Partnership.
2015- Biodiversity for Sustainable Development
 Together they are 120 BirdLife Partners
worldwide.
NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS: maintenance of herbaria and museums, and
Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) creating interests among botanists and the
The MOEF is primarily concerned with public in general. In a recent review (1987),
planning, promotion and coordination of the the aims and objectives of Botanical Survey
implementation of Indian's environmental remained unchanged except that activities
and forestry policies and programmes. The like the survey and exploration of plant
primary concern of the Ministry lies in the resources, listing of endangered species,
implementation of policies and programmes publication of natural flora, preparation of
relating to the conservation of the country's national data bank on herbarium and live
natural resources including lakes and rivers, collection, plant distribution and
its biodiversity, forests and wildlife, nomenclature were prioritised.
ensuring the welfare of its animals and Forest Survey of India
prevention and abatement of pollution. Forest Survey of India is associated with
These objectives are well supported by a set surveying, mapping, creating data base for
of legislative and regulatory measures, country, with its headquarters at Dehradun.
aimed at the preservation, conservation and The satellite images are used to estimate
protection of the environment. canopy cover of different forests in India.
Botanic Garden of India Republic
Botanical Survey of India (BSI)
Botanic Garden of India Republic (BGIR)
The BSI was established in 1890 at the
was set up in April 2002 as part of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. However
Botanical Survey of India. The scheme was
it closed down for several years after 1939.
identified as a "Green Channel" project
After reorganisation, with the development
under the National Jai Vigyan Science &
and establishment of different regional
Technology Mission of the Ministry of
centers, the aims and objectives of the
Science & Technology and approved by the
Survey were redefined by the Programme
Planning Commission. Its objective was the
Implementation and Evaluation Committee
ex situ conservation and propagation of rare
in 1976 with a view to encourage taxonomic
and indigenous plants, to serve as a 'centre
research and to accelerated scientific
of excellence' for research and training, and
expertise for the preparation of a
to build public awareness through
comprehensive list of the flora of the
environmental education.
country, under the 'Flora of India' project,
ethnobotanical study, modernisation and
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
The ZSI was established in 1916.Its mandate
Mumbai
was to do a systematic survey of the fauna in
The BNHS began as a small society of six
India. It has over the years collected 'type
members in 1883. It grew from a group of
specimens' on the basis of which our animal
shikaris and people from all walks of life
life has been studied. Its origins were
into an important research organisation that
collections based at the Indian Museum at
substantially influences conservation policy
Calcutta, which was established in 1875.
in the country. Its influence on wildlife
The older collections of the Asiatic Society
policy building, research, and popular
of Bengal, which were made between 1814
publications and peoples action has been a
and 1875, as well those of the Indian
unique feature of the multifaceted society.
Museum, made between 1875and 1916,
Undoubtedly its major contribution has been
were then transferred t the ZSI. Today, it has
in the field of wildlife research. It is India's
over a million specimens. The makes it one
oldest conservation research-based NGO and
of the largest collections in Asia. It has done
one that has been at the forefront of the
an enormous amount of work on taxonomy
battle for preservation of species and
and ecology. It currently operates from 16
ecosystems. The BNHS publishes a popular
regional centres.
magazine called the Hornbill and also an
Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
internationally well-known Journal on MCBT, the first crocodile conservation
Natural History. Its other publications breeding centre in Asia, was founded in
include Salim Ali's Handbook on Birds, JC 1976 to conserve Indian crocodiles and
Daniel's Book of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater's establish a programme for the conservation
Book of Indian Mammals and PV Bole's and propagation of other species of
Book of Indian Trees. One of its greatest endangered reptiles. Over the years, over
scientists was Salim Ali, whose 1500 crocodiles and several hundred eggs
ornithological work on the birds of the have been supplied to various State Forest
Indian subcontinent is world famous. The Departments for restocking programmes in
BNHS has over the years helped the the wild and for setting up breeding facilities
Government to frame wildlife-related laws in other states of India and neighbouring
and has takes up battles such as the 'Save the contries. MCBT started the first sea turtle
Silent Valley' campaign. survey and conservation programme in India,
including a sea trutle hatchery.
The Crocodile Bank is the site of the Irula This institution was established in 1982, as a
Snake Catches' Cooperative Society, which major training establishment for Forest
is an Adivasi self-help project and supplies Officials and for research in Wildlife
all of India's snake and scorpion venom Management. Its most signigicant
needed for the production of anti-venom and publication has been planning a Wildlife
for medical use. Protected Area Network for India (Rodgers
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and and Panwar, 1988). The Organisation has
Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore over the years added an enormous amount of
This institution was Salim Ali's dream, information of India's biological wealth. It
which became a reality only after his has trained a large number of Forest
demise, Initially conceived as being a wing Department officials and staff as Wildlife
of the BNHS, it later evolved into an Managers. Its MSc Program has trained
independent organisation based at excellent wildlife scientists. It also has an
Coimbatore in 1990. It has instituted a Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) cell.
variety of field programmes that have added It trains personnel in eco development,
to the country's information on our wildlife biology, habitat management and
threatened biodiversity. nature interpretation.
World Wide Fund for Nature-India Action Plan Associated with Biodiversity
(WWF-I), New Delhi Conservation in India:
The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP)
Mumbai, after which the headquarters were The National Environment Policy, 2006,
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices seeks to achieve balance and harmony
all over India. The early years focused between conservation of natural resources
attention on wildlife education and and development processes and also forms
awareness. It runs several programmes, the basic framework for the National
including the Natural Clubs of India Biodiversity Action Plan.
programme for school children and works as
National Wildlife Action Plan
a think-tank and lobby force for
The National Wildlife Action Plan provides
environmental and developmental issues.
the framework of strategy as well as
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), programme for conservation of wildlife. The
Dehradun first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP)
of 1983 has been revised and the new
Wildlife Action Plan (2002 -2016) has been (1) Incorporate the consideration of wetlands
adopted. The Indian Board of Wildlife, conservation within their national land-use
headed by the Prime Minister, is the apex planning.
advisory body overseeing and guiding the (2) Designate at least one wetland of
implementation of various schemes for international importance according to
wildlife conservation specified criteria.
(3) Promote wetland conservation by creating
Wetland Conservation Act
nature reserves.
Wetland conservation has been accorded a
(4) Train staff in wetland wardening.
high priority in India. Since 1987, the
National Wetland conservation activities Ramsar Sites:
take place all over India. Under the The Ramsar Convention is an international
programme, 115 wetlands have been treaty for the conservation and sustainable
identified for conservation and management utilization of wetlands, i.e. to stem the
till date. progressive encroachment on and loss of
India is also a party to the Ramsar, The wetlands now and in the future, recognizing
Wetlands (Conservation and Management) the fundamental ecological functions of
Rules, 2010 is a positive step towards wetlands and their economic, cultural,
conservation of wetlands in India. This is the scientific, and recreational value.
first time that (legally enforceable rules are The Ramsar Convention has defined
being notified for such eco-sensitive areas in wetlands as given below: Conservation
our country. under which 25 wetlands from India are
included in the list of wetlands of
Definition:
international importance.
‘Wetlands as areas of marsh fen, peat land or
water, whether artificial or natural, LIST OF RAMSAR SITES IN INDIA:
permanent or water, whether artificial or State Ramsar sites
natural, permanent or temporary, with the Kerala Ashtamudi Lake
water static or flowing, brackish or salt, Bhitarkanika
Orissa
including marine areas, depth of which does Mangroves
not exceed 6 meters such as mangroves, Madhya
Bhoj Wetland
corals, estuaries, creeks, bays, sea grasses Pradesh
and lakes etc’. Orissa Chilika Lake
Contracting countries have four obligations.
Assam Deepor Beel for comprehensive planning and
West Bengal East Calcutta Wetlands management.
Punjab Harike Wetlands Environmental Movements In India:

Punjab Kanjli Lake Chipko Movement
Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park  It is social-ecological movement that practiced
Andhra the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and
Kolleru Lake
Pradesh with growing awareness towards rapid
Manipur Loktak Lake deforestation.
Tamil Nadu Climere Wildlife and  The landmark event in this struggle took place
Point Bird Sanctuary on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant
Madhya women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in
Pong Dam Lake
Pradesh Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted
Punjab Ropar Lake to prevent in cutting of trees and reclaim
Rajasthan Sambhar Lake their traditional forest rights that were
Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake threatened by the contractor system of the

state Forest Department.
Jammu &
Tsomoriri  Their actions inspired hundreds of such
Kashmir
actions at the grassroots level throughout the
Vembanad , Kil
Kerala region.
Wetland
 By the 1980s the movements had spread
Jammu &
Wular Lake throughout India and led to formulation of
Kashmir
people-sensitive forest policies, which put a
National Ganga River Basin Authority stop to the open felling of trees in regions as
(NBRBA) far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western
NGRBA was constituted on February 2009 Ghats.
under the Environment Protection Act 1986.  The first recorded event of Chipko however,
The agency is a planning, monitoring, took place in village Khejarli, Jodhpur
coordinating and financing body of the district, in 1730 AD, when 363 Bishnois, led
centre and the states. The objective of the by Amrita Dive sacrificed their lives while
NGRBA is to ensure effective abatement of protecting green Khejri trees, considered
pollution and conservation of the river sacred by the community, by hugging them,
Ganga by adopting a river basin approach and braved the axes of loggers sent by the
local ruler, today it is seen an inspiration and Time Scale
a precursor for Chipko movement of Rachel Carson publishes "SilentSpring;"
Garhwal. it is considered a turning point in our
1962 understanding of the interconnections
Appiko Movement
between the environment, the economy,
 Appiko movement was a revolutionary
and social well-being.
movement based on environmental
conservation in India. 1980 The term “sustainable development” is
 The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the first introduced into the international
policy debate by the World
Himalayas inspired the villagers of the
Conservation
district of Karnataka province in southern
India to launch a similar movement to save Strategy.
their forests. 1987 The World Commission on Environment
 In September 1983, men, women and children and Development publishes "Our
of Salkani “hugged the trees” in Kalase Common Future," also known as the
forest. (The local term for “hugging” in Brundtland Report; it weaves together
Kannada is appiko). social, economic, cultural, and
 Appiko movement gave birth to a new environmental issues and global
awareness all over southern India. solutions; it popularizes the term
Sustainable Development "sustainable development."
Origin of the Concept of Sustainable 1992 The United Nations General Assembly
Development sets up the Commission on Sustainable
In United Nations Conference on Development to oversee
Environment and Development (the “Earth implementation of Agenda 21 into the
Summit”) held in Rio de Janerio in year programs and
1992, the world leaders signed Framework processes of the United Nations system.
Convention on Climate Change and 1999 The global sustainability index is
Biological Diversity. The “Rio Summit” launched, tracking leading corporate
adopted Rio Declaration for achieving sustainability practices worldwide;
Sustainable Development in the 21st called
Century. It is here that the concept the Dow Jones Sustainability Group
originated. Indexes, the tool provides guidance to

investors looking for profitable
companies poverty eradication, and the institutional
that follow sustainable development framework for sustainable development
principles.
2000 The United Nations Millennium Summit Sustainable Development Index:
agrees to a set of time-bound and The Sustainable Development Index seeks to
measurable goals for combating poverty, help countries identify gaps that must be
hunger, disease, illiteracy, closed in order to achieve SDGS by 2030
environmental and to identify priorities for early action.
degradation, and discrimination against The new index was launched by Sustainable
women; the Millennium Development Development Solutions Network (SDSN)
Goals are to be achieved by 2015. and the Bertelsmann Stiftung.
The World Summit on Sustainable Methodology: SDI ranks countries based on
Development is held in Johannesburg, their performance across the 17 global
marking the 10-year anniversary of the SDGs. The index helps countries to identify
United Nations Conference on priorities for early actions.
2002
Environment and Development; the
India has been ranked a low 110th out of
summit promotes “partnerships” as a
149 countries on Sustainable Development
non-negotiated approach to
index (SDI). The SDI assesses countries
sustainability.
where they stand with regard to achieving
The United Nations Conference on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Sustainable Development gathers in also their progress and ensuring
Rio accountability.
de Janeiro to mark the 20th anniversary
Top 10 Countries: Sweden (1st), Denmark
of
(2nd), Norway (3rd), Finland (4th),
the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Switzerland (5th), Germany (6th), Austria
2012 Environment and Development in Rio
(7th), Netherlands (8th), Iceland (9th) and
de
United Kingdom (10th).
Janeiro and the 10th anniversary of the
Bottom 5 Countries: Chad (145th), Niger
2002 World Summit on Sustainable
(146th), Congo (147th), Liberia (148th) and
Development in Johannesburg; it focuses
Central African Republic (149th).
on two themes: a green economy in the
context of sustainable development and
Carrying Capacity Concept load or pressure or use that the environment
 If maximum amount of natural resources are can withstand by economic or other human
drawn from environment and too much activities”.
pollutants are discharged into it than it can  The main cause of unsustainability is in ever
absorb, then it is severely damaged. Once increasing human population and over
damaged and destroyed beyond repair, it exploitation of resources.
loses its ability to get back to its pure or
usable or harmless state. Nature is finite and
we have almost reached a critical point
beyond which ecological decline would lead
to disaster.
 Thus the carrying capacity of the
environment may be defined as “maximum
Intended Results Improved quality of life

Human Activities
Land cleaning  Food production  Fibre production
Agriculture  Shelter  Water supply
Forestry  Consumer goods  Enjoyment
Fisheries  Culture  Knowledge
Grazing
Water diversion Unintended Results Environmental cost
Mineral extraction
Fuel consumption  Habitat fragmentation  Soil degradation
Industrialisation  Deforestation  Pollution
Urbanisation  Desertification  Eutrophication
Recreation  Acid precipitation  Loss of Biodiversity
 Climate change
Human activities affecting sustainability of the biosphere
Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of Ecological Foot Print

“enoughness” in his saying “the earth  The amount of biologically productive area
provides enough to satisfy every persons of the earth needed to produce the required
need but not for every person’s greed” is resources as well as to absorb the wastes
perhaps more relevant at present time than produced from such resources use.
when it was said.
Per Capita Ecological Footprint

Country (Hectare per person) 1.5
Earth’s Ecological
Number of Earths
1.2 Capacity
United States 9.6
0.9
The Netherlands Humanity’s Ecological Footprint
3.8
0.6
India 0.8
0.3
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
 Humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds the dividing the world biocapacity (the amount
earth’s ecological capacity to replenish its of natural resources generated by Earth that
renewable resources and absorbs the waste. year), by the world ecological footprint
Humanity is consuming the renewable (humanity's consumption of Earth’s natural
resources faster than the earth can renew resources for that year), and multiplying by
them. The ecological footprint of most 365.
people in developed countries is large (World Biocapacity/ world ecological foot
because of their significantly high print)* 365 = Earth overshoot day
consumption of renewable resources. EOD represents the day in which humanity
A carbon footprint is defined as the total amount enters an ecological deficit spending. Earth
of greenhouse gases produced to directly and Overshoot Day illustrates the level by which
indirectly support human activities, usually
human population overshoots or exceeds its
expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide
(CO2). The carbon footprint is the sum of all
environment. It is an ecological debt, and the
emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which were interest we are paying on that mounting
induced by human activities in a given time debt—food shortages, soil erosion, and the
frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated build-up of CO in our atmosphere—
for the time period of a year.
comes with devastating human and
Earth overshoot day
monetary costs.
Earth Overshoot Day (EOD) is previously
Earth Overshoot Day is calculated by Global
known as Ecological Debt Day (EDD). It is
Footprint Network and is a campaign
the date on which humanity’s resource
supported by dozens of other nonprofit
consumption for the year exceeds Earth’s
organizations.
capacity to regenerate those resources that
Overshoot day for the year 2016 is August
year. Earth Overshoot Day is calculated by
8th.
Sustainable Development substitutes are available. Sustainable
World Commission on Environment and development requires that the rate of
Development (WCED) popularly known as depletion of non renewable resources should
the Brundtland Commission Report entitled foreclose as few future options as possible.
Common Future (1987) defined "Sustainable  The loss of plant and animal species can
development is development that meets the greatly limit the options of future
needs of the present without compromising generations; so sustainable development
the ability of future generations to meet their requires the conservation of plant and animal
own needs.” species.
 It contains within it two key concepts:  So-called free goods like air and water are
 The concept of needs, in particular the also resources. The raw materials and energy
essential needs of the world's poor, to which of production processes are only partly
overriding priority should be given; and converted to useful products. The rest comes
 The idea of limitations imposed by the state out as wastes. Sustainable development
of technology and social organization on the requires that the adverse impacts on the
environment's ability to meet present and quality of air, water, and other natural
future needs." elements are minimized so as to sustain the
 As for non-renewable resources, like fossil ecosystem's overall integrity.
fuels and minerals, their use reduces the  In essence, sustainable development is a
stock available for future generations. But process of change in which the exploitation
this does not mean that such resources of resources, the direction of investments,
should not be used. In general the rate of the orientation of technological
depletion should take into account the development; and institutional change are all
criticality of that resource, the availability of in harmony and enhance both current and
technologies tor minimizing depletion, and future potential to meet human needs and
the likelihood of substitutes being available. aspirations.
Thus land should not be degraded beyond
Principles of Sustainable Development
reasonable recovery. With minerals and
1. Intergenerational equity - recognizes the
fossil fuels, the rate of depletion and the
long-term scale of sustainability in order to
emphasis on recycling and economy of use
address the needs of future generations
should be calibrated to ensure that the
2. Polluter pays principle - governments should
resource does not run out before acceptable
require polluting entities to bear the costs of
their pollution rather than impose those costs  Results of the Earth Summit
on others or on the environment so that  3 Documents were made:
environmental costs are internalized  Rio Declaration on Environment and
3. The precautionary principle establishes that Development
“where there are threats of serious or  Agenda 21
irreversible damage, lack of full scientific  Forest Principles
certainty shall not be used as a reason for  3 legally binding agreements (Rio
postponing cost effective measure to prevent Conventions) were opened for signature:
environmental degradation”  Convention on Biological Diversity
4. Common but differentiated responsibilities (CBD)  Covered under BioDiversity
recognizes that each nation must play their Conventions
part on the issue of sustainable development  Framework Convention on Climate
and Developed nation bear greater
Change (UNFCCC) Covered under
responsibility in light of the resources they
Atmosphere Conventions
have historically used which exerted greater
 United Nations Convention to Combat
pressure on the environment
Desertification (UNCCD)  Covered
5. Think globally and act locally any
under Environmental Degradation
environmental problem either local or
Conventions
regional can become a gigantic global issue
 Earth Summit established the Commission
if not addressed in time. If communities
on Sustainable Development (CSD). In
address their local problem (issues) then
2013, the CSD was replaced by the High-
bigger problems get solved.
level Political Forum on Sustainable
Initiative of Sustainable Development
Development that meets every year as part
(1) United Nations Conference on Sustainable
of the ECOSOC meetings, and every
Development (1st Earth Summit – 1992)
fourth year as part of the General
 United Nations Conference on Environment
Assembly meetings.
and Development (UNCED), also known as
 Agenda 21:
the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit , Rio
 It is an action agenda for the UN,
Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth
other multilateral organizations, and
Summit was a major United Nations
individual governments around the world
conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in
that can be executed at local, national, and
1992.
global levels. The "21" in Agenda 21 refers
to the 21st Century. It has been affirmed and  The primary result of the conference was
had a few modifications at subsequent the nonbinding document, "The Future
UN conferences. We Want,"
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
2. 2nd Earth Summit – 2002 @ Johannesburg
The Millennium Development Goals are
(Rio +10 Summit)
goals that 192 United Nations member states
 The Johannesburg Declaration was the
have agreed to try to achieve by the year
main outcome of the Summit.
2015. The MDGs were officially established
 Instead of new agreements between
at the Millennium Summit in 2000, where
governments, the Earth Summit was
189 world leaders adopted the United
organized mostly around almost 300
Nations Millennium Declaration.
"partnership initiatives" known as Type II
to include private and civil actors, as The 8 MDGs that were particularly
opposed to Type I Partnerships which are promoted in the years following the
the more classic outcome of international Millennium Summit break down into 18
treaties. These were to be the key means to quantifiable targets that are measured by 48
achieve the Millennium Development indicators. These include:
Goals. These are kept in a database of  Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Partnerships for Sustainable Development.  Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
 Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower

3. 3rd Earth Summit – 2012 @ Rio de Janeiro
women
(Rio +20 Summit)
 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
 The third international conference
 Goal 5: Improve maternal health
on sustainable development aimed at
 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
reconciling the economic and
diseases
environmental goals of the global
 Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
community.
 Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for
 The conference had three objectives:
Development
1. Securing renewed political commitment for
sustainable development Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
2. Assessing the progress and implementation The Sustainable Development Goals
gaps in meeting previous commitments. (SDGs), officially known as Transforming
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges. our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, are an intergovernmental set
of aspiration Goals with 169 targets. The 9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure -
Resolution is a broader intergovernmental Build resilient infrastructure, promote
agreement that, while acting as the Post inclusive and sustainable industrialization
2015 Development Agenda (successor to the and foster innovation Targets.
Millennium Development Goals), builds on 10. Reduced Inequalities - Reduce inequality
the Principles, popularly known as The within and among countries Targets.
Future We Want. 11. Sustainable Cities and Communities - Make
This included the following goals: cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
1. No Poverty - End poverty in all its forms resilient and sustainable Targets.
everywhere Targets. 12. Responsible Consumption and Production -
2. Zero Hunger - End hunger, achieve food Ensure sustainable consumption and
security and improved nutrition and promote production patterns Targets.
sustainable agriculture Targets. 13. Climate Action - Take urgent action to
3. Good Health and Well-being - Ensure combat climate change and its impacts
healthy lives and promote well-being for all Targets.
at all ages Targets. 14. Life Below Water - Conserve and
4. Quality Education- Ensure inclusive and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
equitable quality education and promote resources for sustainable development
lifelong learning opportunities for all Targets.
Targets. 15. Life on Land - Protect, restore and promote
5. Gender Equality - Achieve gender equality sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
and empower all women and girls Targets. sustainably manage forests, combat
6. Clean Water and Sanitation - Ensure desertification, and halt and reverse land
availability and sustainable management of degradation and halt biodiversity loss
water and sanitation for all Targets. Targets.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy - Ensure 16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions -
access to affordable, reliable, sustainable Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
and clean energy for all Targets. sustainable development, provide access to
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth - justice for all and build effective,
Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable accountable and inclusive institutions at all
economic growth, full and productive levels Targets.
employment and decent work for all Targets.
17. Partnerships for the Goals - Strengthen the are those that are least toxic and least energy
means of implementation and revitalize the intensive and yet maintain productivity and
global partnership for sustainable profitability i.e. low input agriculture or
development Targets. organic farming.
Thus, sustainable agriculture is one that,
 supports profitable production;
Economic
(7-12)  protects environmental quality;
Social (1-6)
 uses natural resources efficiently;
 provides consumers with affordable, high-
Environment quality products;

(13-17)  decreases dependency on non-renewable
resources;
1 – 6: Social goals  enhances the quality of life of farmers and
7 – 12: Economic goals rural communities
13 – 17: Environmental goals Many farmers in India and other developing
countries follow the traditional practice of
mixed cropping or diverse cropping and crop
rotation.
(a) Mixed cropping or diverse cropping

 It is an old practice in our country. Two
or more crops are grown all at the same
time in a field. If by chance one crop
fails, the others crops cover the risk of
total crop failure. Usually a long duration
crop is grown with a short duration one
so that both get sufficient nutrition at the
Sustainable Agriculture
time of maturity. Then water and nutrient
Sustainable agriculture is that form of
requirement are also different.
agriculture which attempts to produce
 Generally a leguminous crop is grown
sufficient food to meet the needs of present
along with the main crop. Legumes help
day population without exhausting soil
to increase soil fertility by fixing
fertility and irreversibly damaging the
environment. Sustainable farming systems
atmospheric nitrogen, thus saving the Bio-Fertilizers And Their Use In
cost of chemical fertilizers. Agriculture
(b) Crop rotation  For a sustainable agriculture system, it is
It is practice of growing different crops in essential to use renewable inputs
regular succession in the same field. This (fertilizer, pesticides, water etc.) which
practice controls insects and diseases, can benefit the plant and cause no or
increases soil fertility and decreases soil minimal damage to the environment. One
erosion. possible way is to reduce the use of
 Generally soil cannot sustain continuous chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
cropping with high yielding single crop  One of the energy efficient and pollution
because certain nutrients required by the free method is to exploit the ability of
crop get exhausted totally while others certain microorganisms like bacteria, algae
remain unutilized leading to serious and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen,
nutrient imbalance in soil and encouraging solubilize phosphorus, decompose organic
certain diseases and pests. material or oxidize sulphur in the soil.
 Sowing a leguminous crops (eg. green When they are applied in the soil, they
gram) as a rotational crop is very useful enhance growth and yield of crops,
because legumes enhance nitrogen level in improve soil fertility and reduce pollution.
the soil due to their ability to fix They are known as “bio fertilizers”.
atmospheric nitrogen, reduces the need for  Thus bio-fertilizers are living or
chemical nitrogen fertilizer, thereby biologically active products or microbial
cutting the cost and saving the soil from inoculants of bacteria, algae and fungi
the harmful effects of using high yielding (separately or in combination) which are
varieties along with the application of able to enrich the soil with nitrogen,
large amount of fertilizer, pesticides and phosphorus, organic matter etc.
water. Important bio fertilizers
 It is possible to grow two or sometimes Following are some of the important types
three different crops in succession on the of bio fertilizers which can be considered for
same land within a year and it is known as agro based industries.
multiple cropping. This practice can go on  Rhizobium biofertilizer: Rhizobium is a
for some time but the land cannot maintain symbiotic bacterium forming root nodules
high yield in the long run. in legume plants. These nodules act as
miniature nitrogen production factories in fields blue green algae serves as a nitrogen
the fields. The nodule bacteria fix more biofertilizer.
nitrogen (N2) than needed by legume plant  Azolla biofertilizers: Azolla is a water fern
and the bacteria. The surplus fixed inside which grows the nitrogen fixing
nitrogen is then secreted and fertilizes the blue green algae Anabaena. It contains 2-
soil. Rhizobium is more efficient than-free 3% nitrogen when wet and also produces
living nitrogen-fixing bacteria. organic matter in the soil. The Azolla-
 Azotobacter biofertilizer: Azobacter are Anabaena combination type biofertilizer is
aerobic free living nitrogen fixers. They used all over the world. This can be grown
grow in the rhizosphere (around the roots) in cooler regions. But there is a need to
and fix atmospheric nitrogen non develop a strain that can tolerant to high
symbiotically and make it available to the temperature, salinity and resistant to pests
particular cereals. These bacteria produce and diseases. Production technology is
growth promoting hormones which helps very easy and can be adopted by rice
in enhancing growth and yield of the plant. farmers. The only constraint in Azolla is
 Azospirillium biofertilizer: These are that it is an aquatic plant and water
aerobic free living nitrogen fixers which becomes limiting factor in growing it
live in associative symbiosis. In this type particularly in summer.
of association bacteria live on the root  Phosphorus solubilising biofertilizer:
surface of the host plant and do not form Phosphorus is an important element
any nodule with roots of grasses. It required for plant growth. This element is
increases crop yield and its inoculation also needed for nodulation by rhizobium.
benefits crop. They also benefit the host Some microorganisms are capable of
plants by supplying growth hormones and solubilizing immobilized phosphorus
vitamins. These bacteria are commonly making it available to plants for
used for the preparation of commercial absorption.
inoculants.  Mycorrhizal fungi acts as biofertilizer are
 Blue green algae: Blue green algae (BGA known to occur naturally on roots of forest
or cyanobacteria) like Nostoc and trees and crop plants. In soils low in
Anabaena are free living photosynthetic available nutrients there is an increased
organisms also capable of fixing absorption of nutrients by plants infected
atmospheric nitrogen. In the flooded rice with Mycorrhiza. The fungus has the
ability to dissolve and absorb phosphorus wastes. The process of conversion of organic
that plant roots can not readily absorb. materials into manure is chiefly
A wise way will be to develop an integrated microbiological. Earthworms are important
nutrient supply system involving the for producing vermicompost from organic
combination of chemical fertilizers and wastes.
biofertilizers. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Organic Farming and its Benefits  The most sustainable way to control pests
 Organic farming is a type of agriculture or is a carefully designed integrated pest
farming which avoids the use of synthetic management (IPM) program. In this
fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, approach, each crop and its pests are
and livestock feed additives. evaluated as parts of an ecological
 Organic farming systems rely on crop system. Then farmers develop a control
rotation, crop residues, animal manures, programme that includes cultivation,
legumes, green manure, off-farm organic biological and chemical methods applied
wastes and biofertilizers, mechanical in proper sequence and with the proper
cultivation, mineral bearing rocks. timing.
 Organic farmers build healthy soils by  The aim of IPM is not to eradicate the pest
nourishing the living component of the population completely but to keep the crop
soil, the microbial inhabitants that release, damage to economically tolerable level.
transform, and transfer nutrients. Soil Biotechnology and Modern Agriculture
organic matter contributes to good soil With conventional breeding practices
structure and water-holding capacity. reached their saturation point, the “gene
 Organic farmers feed soil biota and build revolution” seems to hold lot of potential.
soil organic matter with cover crops, Agricultural biotechnology or gene
compost, and biologically based soil technology or genetic engineering may act
amendments. These produce healthy as the second “green revolution” that can be
plants that are better able to resist disease used to create high yielding crop varieties
and insect predation. that are:
Vermicompost (i) herbicide tolerant,
Vermicomposting is an appropriate (ii) insect resistant,
technique for efficient recycling of animal (iii) resistant to pathogens like virus,
wastes, crop residues and agro-industrial bacteria and fungi
(iv) have better nutritional value and other 3. By slowing down and controlling ripening in
commercial properties. The crop plants tomato by introducing a bacterial gene that
produced by these techniques are called prevents ethylene formation thus delaying
“transgenics” or genetically modified (GM) ripening. Such tomatoes are easy to handle
plants or genetically modified organisms during transportation and remains on the
(GMOs).By using the technique of genetic shelf for a long time
engineering it has been possible to 4. Cold damage to crop plants can be
genetically transform large number of minimized by introducing genes for
agricultural and ornamental crops. antifreeze proteins (AFPs) found in the
Some important examples of transgenics or blood of arctic fishes. Frost resistant
GMOs are: tomatoes have been produced by introducing
1. Bt cotton produced by incorporating Btgene gene for antifreeze proteins from polar fish
which encodes for BT toxin (insecticidal living in ice water. Plant biotechnology can
protein in Bacillus thuringiensis) in the help to make intensive agriculture less
cotton plant. The plant becomes insect damaging to the environment as well as help
resistant and this gene has been incorporated the country to spend less money on
in corn, potato, tomato, tobacco etc. making fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc.
them insect resistant (bio pesticides). Such Benefits and controversies on GM products
plants can reduce our dependence on (a) Benefits
chemical pesticides which will save us (i) Crops
money and our environment. Recently, the  Enhanced taste and quality.]
Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
 Reduced maturation time, improved
gave its nod to commercially cultivate
resistance to diseases and pests.
transgenic mustard called DMH – 11.
 Increased nutrients, yields, and stress
2. “Golden Rice” a transgenic with enhanced
tolerance.
vitamin a content producing nutritionally
(ii) Animals
rich rice to save many lives. Salt and flood
 Increased resistance, productivity,
tolerance genes have been incorporated in
hardness, and feed efficiency.]
rice so that Bt rice in China shows higher
 Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk.
yield and a huge reduction in pesticide use.
 Improved animal health and diagnostic
Such rice can be grown on saline soil.
method
(iii) Environment  Biopesticides, a contraction of 'biological
 “Friendly” bioherbicides and pesticides', include several types of pest
bioinsecticides. management intervention: through
 Conservation of soil, water and energy. predatory, parasitic, or chemical
 Bioprocessing for forestry products. relationships. The term has been
associated historically with biological
(b) Controversies
control - and by implication - the
(i) Safety
manipulation of living organisms.
 Potential human health impact: allergens,
 They are typically created by growing and
transfer of antibiotic resistance markers,
concentrating naturally occurring
unknown effects.
organisms and/or their metabolites
 Potential environmental impact:
including bacteria and other microbes,
unintended transfer of transgenes through
fungi, nematodes, proteins, etc.
crosspollination, unknown effects on other
 They are often considered to be important
organisms (e.g., soil microbes) and loss of
components of integrated pest
flora and fauna biodiversity
management (IPM) programmes, and have
(ii) Access and intellectual property
received much practical attention as
 Domination of world food production by a
substitutes to synthetic chemical plant
few companies.
protection products (PPPs).
 Increasing dependence on industrialized
nations by developing countries. Types
 Biopiracy—foreign exploitation of natural Biopesticides fall into three major classes:
resources.  Microbial pesticides- which consist of
(iii) Ethics bacteria, fungi or viruses (and sometimes
 Violation of natural organisms’ intrinsic includes the metabolites that bacteria or
values. fungi produce).
 Tampering with nature by mixing genes  Biochemical pesticides or herbal

among species. pesticides- are naturally occurring
 Objections to transferring animal genes in substances that control pests and microbial
plants and vice versa. diseases.
 Stress for animal.  Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) -

have genetic material from other species
Biopesticides/ bio insecticides: incorporated into their genetic material

(i.e. GM crops). Their use is controversial,  Often variable efficacy due to the
especially in many European countries. influences of various biotic and abiotic
 RNAi pesticides- some of which are factors (since some biopesticides are
topical and some of which are absorbed by living organisms, which bring about
the crop. pest/pathogen control by multiplying
Biopesticides have usually no known within or nearby the target pest/pathogen)
function in photosynthesis, growth or other  Living organisms evolve and increase
basic aspects of plant physiology; however, their resistance to biological, chemical,
their biological activity against insect pests, physical or any other form of control. If
nematodes, fungi and other organisms is the target population is not exterminated
well documented. These biodegradable, or rendered incapable of reproduction, the
economical and renewable alternatives are surviving population can acquire a
used especially under organic farming tolerance of whatever pressures are
systems. brought to bear, resulting in an
Advantages evolutionary arms race.
 No harmful residues detected

 Can be cheaper than chemical pesticides
when locally produced.
 Can be more effective than chemical
pesticides in the long-term
 Biodegradable
Disadvantages
 High specificity: which may require an
exact identification of the pest/pathogen
and the use of multiple products to be
used; although this can also be an
advantage in that the biopesticide is less
likely to harm species other than the target
 Often slow speed of action (thus making
them unsuitable if a pest outbreak is an
immediate threat to a crop)
Principles of Design, Drawing
and importance of safety
Index
S.No Chapter Name Page No.
1 Engineering Design in Process 432 – 443
2 Problem Definition and Information Gathering 444 – 457
3 Engineering Drawing Introduction 458 – 517
4 Orthographic Projection 518 – 525
5 Projection of Points 526 – 531
6 Projection of Lines 532 – 545
7 Projection of Auxiliary Planes 546 – 551
8 Projection of Planes 552 – 560
9 Projection of Solids 561 – 576
10 Section of Solids 577 – 599
11 Development of Surfaces 600 – 612
12 Safety and its Importance 613 – 618

Unit
1 Engineering Design Process

INTRODUCTION
What is engineering?
According to the American Engineer’s Council for Professional Development Engineering is
defined as: “The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures
machines apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination,
or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior
under specific operating conditions; all as respect an intended function, economics of operation or
safety to life and property.”
So basically engineering deals with building something or improving the design of something that
already exists. The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and contains a range of more
specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific focus on particular areas of applied
science, technology and application types.
What Engineers Do?

 Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to
technical problems. Their work is the link between scientific and the commercial applications
that meet the needs of consumer as well as society as a whole.
 Many engineers develop new products. During this process, they consider several factors. For
example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional
requirements; design and test the robot’s components; integrate the components to produce the
final design, and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This
process applies to the development of many different products, such as chemicals, computers,
power plants, helicopters, and toys.
 This process solving a design problem includes creating a new product or developing an existing
product for better functioning. This process is called ‘The Engineering Process’ or ‘The
Engineering Design’. This process includes a methodical series of steps that all kinds of
engineers use in creating functional products and processes.
VANI Publications Design
ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
The engineering design process can be used to achieve several different outcomes such as:
 Designing of products, whether they be consumer goods such as refrigerators, power tools, or
DVD players.
 Designing of highly complex products such as a missile system or a jet transport plane.
 Designing of a complex engineered system such as an electrical power generating station or a
petrochemical plant.
The emphasis of this course is a product design because it is an area in which many engineers will
apply their design skills.
Importance of the Engineering Design Process:

Goods or services are basis for an organization’s existence. A company’s growth and survival
depends on the profits earned by the company through its products and services. In a highly
competitive market, engineering design process becomes very important owing to following factors:
100
development
Conceptual
Design
Percentage of product cost committed
Market
Cost committed
80
Manufacturing
Product
60
Design
40
Product use
Cost incurred
20
0
Time  non linear 
 Only a small fraction of the cost to produce a product (approximately 5%) is involved with
the design process, while the remaining 95% of cost is consumed by the materials, capital
and labour to manufacture the product. If the design proves to be faulty just before the
product goes to market, it will cost a great deal of money to correct the problem.
VANI Publications Engineering Design Process
 One of the aspect of quality is to incorporate within the product, the performance by the
customer that are truly derived by the customer who purchases the product. The old concept
of product quality was that it is achieved by inspecting the product as it come of the
production line. Today we realize that true quality is designed into the product.
 Another important area where engineering design determines product competitiveness is
product cycle time. Cycle time refers to the development time required to bring a new
product to market. Not only does the reduced cycle time increase the marketability of a
product, but it reduces the cost of product developments. Furthermore, the longer a product is
available for sale, the more sales and profits there will be.
Types of Designs
Engineering design can be undertaken for many different reasons, and it may take different forms.
 Original design or innovative design: This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy. A
truly original design involves invention. Successful original design’s occur rarely, but when
they occur, they disrupt and overtake existing markets.
 Adaptive design: This form of design occurs when a known solution is applied to satisfy a
different need a completely new application is produced.
 Redesign: This type of design is employed much more frequently. In this, engineering
design is employed to improve an existing design. It is obtain accomplished without any
change in the working principle or concept of original design.
 Select design: Most designs employ standard components such as bearings, small motors or
pumps that are supplied by vendors specialization in their manufacture and sale. Therefore,
in this case the design task contains of selecting the components with the needed
performance, quality and cost from the catalogs of potential vendors.
 Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving the appeal of a product to the
human senses, especially its visual appeal, While this type of design is more artistic than
engineering, it is a vital aspect of many kinds of design.
DESIGN METHOD VERSUS SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
D efine the problem
G ather
W hite pertinent
Information
conclusion
S C IEN T IFIC
M ET H O D
C onstruct
Analyse a
results hypothesis
C onduct
exp erim ents
While scientists study how nature works, engineers create new things, such as products, websites,
environments, and experience. As engineers and scientists have different objectives, they follow
different processes in their work. Scientists perform experiments using scientific method; whereas,
engineers follow the creativity based engineering design process.
Science is concerned with creating knowledge about naturally occurring phenomenon and objects.
While design is concerned with creating knowledge about phenomena and object of artificial.
Artificial objects are those made by humans (or by art) rather than nature.
STEPS IN ENGINNERING DESIGN PROCESS

The steps used for solving Design problems are:
1. Define the problem
2. Gather Pertinent information
3. Generate Multiple Solutions
4. Analyze and Select a solution
5. Test and implement the solution
1.Define the problem
5.Test & 2.Gather

Im plem ent pertinent
the Information
Solution
ENGINEERING
DESIGN
PROCESS
3.Generate
4.Analyze
M ultiple
and
Select a Solutions
Solution
Conduct
exp eriments
DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN PROCESS
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Define Problem Gather Concept Evaluate &

Information Generation Select concept
Problem statement Internet Creativity methods Decision making
Benchmarking Patents Brainstorming Selection criteria
Product dissection Technical articles Beyond Brainstorming Pugh Chart
Houseof Quality Trade journals Random Input Tech Decision matrix
PDS Consultants Synectics AHP
Concept map EVAD
EMBODIMENT DESIGN
Product Configuration Parametric

Architecture Design Design
Arrangement of Preliminary selection of Robust design
physical elements materials & manufacturing DFM, DFA, DFE
Modularity processes Tolerances
Modelling
Sizing of parts
Detail design
Engineering drawings
Finalize PDS
The steps mentioned in previous article can be broken down further to what we call as description of
design process or morphology of design. Figure given above shows the various activities that make
up the first three phases of design; conceptual design, embodiment design, and details design. This
eight step set of design activities is representation of the basic design process.
Phase-I: Conceptual Design

Conceptual Design is an umbrella term given to all forms of non-aesthetic design management
disciplines. It is an early phase of the design process, in which the broad outlines of function and
forms are articulated. It includes the design of interactions, experiences, processes and strategies. It
involves an understanding of people’s needs – and how to meet them with products, services, and
processes. Common artifacts of conceptual design are concept sketches and models.
The following are the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual design:
 Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand the
customers needs and to communicate them to the design team.
 Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes what has
to be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer. This involves analysis of
competitive products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of constrains
and trade-offs. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for linking customer
needs with design requirements. A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a
product design specification (PDS).
 Gathering information: Engineering design presents special requirements over engineering
research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information.
 Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that
potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with
efficient information gathering are the key activities.
 Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single
preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires several
interaction.
 Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept has
been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of design
parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters and to living with trade-offs
between cost and performance.
 Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design review
will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable and that it
is economically worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product-development schedule.
This is needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to identify the
resources in people, equipment, and money needed to complete the project.
Phase-II: Embodiment Design

The embodiment process is the bridge between the conceptual stage of the design process and the
detail design stage. A more detailed analysis of the selected concepts is undertaken in the
embodiment stage of the design process. Subject covered include a definitive layout, preliminary
form design (component shapes and materials), preliminary production information (design for
manufacture and assembly), materials and process selection and industrial design. However, the
main aim is to establish concept development employed. The input to the embodiment stage is often
little more than an outline sketch and associated project controlling documentation, such as
calculations, required dimension and tolerances and suggested materials and manufacturing
processes. It also includes appearance, shape, style and size. Materials and process details are not
included in this stage. Embodiment design is not solely the achieving of technical solutions but also
creating useful products, which satisfy and appeal to the users. This design phase is sometimes
called as preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks-product
architecture. Configuration design and parametric design.
 Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall design
system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of
the design are to be arranged and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design.
 Configuration design of parts and components: Parts are made up of features like holes,
ribs, splines, and curves. Configuring a part means to determine what features will be present
and how those features are to be arranged in space relative to each other. While modeling and
simultation may be performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only
approximate sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specify
about materials and manufacturing is given here. The generation of a physical model of the
part with rapid prototyping processes may be appropriate.
 Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration
of the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the
material and manufacturing processes are also established it this has not been done
previously. An important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and
system for design robustness. Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs
under variable conditions in its service environment. Parametric design also deals with
determining the aspects of the design that could lead to failure. Another important
consideration in parametric design is to design in such a way that manufacturability is
enhanced.
Phase-III: Detail Design
Detailed design of the system is the last design activity before implementation begins. The hardest
design problems must be addressed by the detailed design or the design is not complete. The detailed
design is still an abstraction as compared to source code, but should be detailed enough to ensure
that translation to source is a precise mapping instead of a rough interpretation. This is the phase
where the design is refined and plans, specifications and estimates are created. Detailed design will
conclude outputs such as 2D and 3D models, cost build up estimates, procurement plans etc. This
phase is where the full cost of the project is identified. In the detail design phase the following
activities are completed and documents are prepared:
 Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-
generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models.
 Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is
submitted. All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the
building and testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished.
 Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials
for all assemblies will be completed.
 A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual
design phase, will be prepared.
 Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be
made.
 Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the
design information on the manufacturing.
Phase-IV: Planning for Manufacture

A great deal of detail planning must be done to provide for the production of the design. A method
of manufacture must be established for each component in the system. As a usual first step, a
process sheet is created; it contains a sequential list of all manufacturing operations that must be
performed on the component. The information on the process sheet makes possible the estimation of
in material or a basic change in the design. Close interaction with manufacturing, industrial,
materials, and mechanical engineers is important at this step.
The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following.
 Designing specialized tools and fixtures
 Specifying the production plant that will be used (or designing a new plant) and laying out
the production lines.
 Planning the work schedules and inventory controls (production control)
 Planning the quality assurance system
 Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each operation.
 Establishing the system of information flow necessary to control the manufacturing
operation.
All of these tasks are generally considered to fall within industrial or manufacturing engineering.
Phase-V: Planning for Distribution

The economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketing the product. If
it is a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and video media, but
highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical activity supported by
specialized sales brochers, performance test data, and technically trained sales engineers.
Phase-VI: Planning for Use

The use of the product by the consumer is all important, and considerations of how the consumer
will react to the product pervade all step of the design process. The following specific topics can be
damnified as being important user-oriented concerns in the design process; ease of maintenance,
durability, reliability, product safety, convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic
appeal, and economy of operation. Obviously, these consumer oriented issues must be considered in
the design process at its very beginning. They are not issues to be treated as after afterthoughts.
Phase-VII: Planning for Retirement of Product

The final step in the design process is the disposal of the product when it has reached the end of its
useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear to the point at which the
design can no longer function, or it may be determined by technological obsolescence, in which a
competing design performs the products functions either better or cheaper. In consumer products, it
may come about through changes in fashion or taste.
SEQUENTIAL AND CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

Traditional engineering, also known as Sequential Engineering, is the process of marketing,
engineering design, manufacturing, testing and production where each stage of the development
process is carried out separately, and the next stage cannot start until the previous stage is finished.
Therefore, the information flow is only in one direction and it is not until the end of the chain that
occurs changes and corrections can be relayed to the start of the sequence, causing estimated costs to
be under predicted.
This can cause many problems; such as time consumption due to many modifications being made as
each stage does not take into account the next. This method is hardly used today, as the concept of
Concurrent Engineering is more efficient.
Concurrent Engineering brings together multidisciplinary teams, in which product developers from
different functions work together and in parallel with the intention of getting things right as quickly
as possible, and as early as possible.
Sometimes, only design engineers and manufacturing engineers are involved in Concurrent
Engineering. In other cases, the cross-functional teams include representatives from purchasing,
marketing, production, quality assurance, the field and other functional groups. Sometimes
customers and suppliers are also included in the team. In the Concurrent Engineering approach to
development, input is obtained from as many functional areas as possible before the specifications
are finalized.
Concurrent Engineering provides benefits such as reduced product development time, reduced
design rework, reduced product development cost and improved communications.
Concurrent Engineering is greatly facilitated by the use of computer aided engineering. Concurrent
engineering is a team based approach in which all aspects of the product development process are
represented on a closely communicating team. Team members perform their jobs in an overlapping
and concurrent manner so as to minimize the time for product development. A computer database in
the form of a solid model that can be accessed by all members of the design team.
Computer aided engineering became a reality when the power of the PC work station, and later the
laptop PC, became great enough at an acceptable cost to free the design engineer from the
limitations of the mainframe computer. Brining the computing power of the mainframe computer to
the desktop of the design engineer has created great opportunities for more creative, reliable, and
cost-effective designs.
Example: 1
Consider the following steps which are used while solving the design problems:
1. Analyze and select optimum solution
2. Identify the problem and gather pertinent information
3. Test and implement the solution
4. Generate multiple solutions
What is the correct sequence of order for the design process?
(a) 2, 1, 4 and 3 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 2 (c) 2, 4, 1 and 3 (d) 1, 4, 2 and 3
ESE 2017 Prelims Questions:

01. Concurrent engineering is implemented by involving a cross-functional for design, production,
testing and operational work
(a) During the project execution (b) Long before the project execution
(c) Towards the end of the project execution (d) After completion of the project execution
Ans: (b)
Unit Problem Definition and
2 Information Gathering
INTRODUCTION
This chapter emphasizes the customer satisfaction aspect of problem definition, an approach not
always taken in engineering design. This view turns the design problem definition process into the
identification of what outcome the customer or end user of the product wants to achieve. Therefore,
in product development, the problem definition process is mainly the need identification step. The
need identification methods in this chapter draw heavily on processes introduced and proven
effective by the total quality management (TQM) movement. TQM emphasizes customer
satisfaction.
The chapter end by proposing an outline of the product design specification (PDS), which serves as
the governing documents for the product design. A design team must generate a starting PDS at this
point in the design process to guide its design generation. However, the PDS is an evolving
document that will not be finalized until the detail design phase of the PDP Process.
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH ON CUSTOMER NEEDS

A problem can be regarded as a different between the actual situation and the desired situation.
This means that in order to identify a problem the team know where it is meant to be and have a
clear understanding of where it currently is in relation to the perceived problem. The Team Purpose,
the Team Performance Plan and the Operational Plan can be used to identify where the team should
be. If an organized and structured planning process has been followed then the desired position and
performance of the team should be clear. However, when a problem arises it is always worthwhile to
involve the team members in identifying and understanding the gap between the actual situation and
the desired situation. This helps to ensure that all team members understand that a problem exists
and that they are an integral part in rectifying the situation.
In this step it is important to clearly describe and document what you and the team consider the
problem to be. This helps to ensure that agreement is reached as to the problem and provides a
starting point for resolving the problem. Describing the problem also ensures that any confusion
about the problem is identified and resolved.
Gathering Information from Customers: It is the customer’s desires that ordinary drive the
development of the product, not the engineer’s vision of what the customer should want. Information
on the customer’s needs is obtained through a variety of channels.
Interviews with customers: Active marketing and sales forces should be continuously meeting with
current and potential customers. Some corporation have account teams whose responsibility is to
visit key customer accounts to probe for problem areas and to cultivate and maintain friendly
contact. They report information to current product strengths and weakness that will be helpful in
product upgrades. An even better approach is for the design team to interview single customers in
the service environment where the product will be used.
Focus groups: A focus group is a moderate discussion with 6 to 12 customers or targeted customers
of a product. The moderate is a facilitator who use prepared questions to guide the discussion about
the merits and disadvantages of the product. Often the focus group occurs in a room with a one way
window that provides for videotaping of the discussion. In both the interviews and the focus groups
it is important to record the customer’s response in his or her own words. All interpretation is
withheld until the analyses of results.
Customer complaints: A sure way to learn about needs for product improvement is from customer
complaints. These may be recorded by communications (by telephone, letter or email) to a customer
information department, service centre or warranty department, or a return centre at a larger retail
outlet. Third party internet websites can be another source of customer input on customer
satisfaction with a product. Purchase sites often include customer rating information. Savvy
marketing department monitor these sites for information on their products and competing product.
Warranty data: Product service centres and warranty departments are a rich and important source
of data on the quality of an existing product. Statistics on warranty claims can pinpoint design
defects.
Customer survey: A written questionnaire is best used for gaining opinions about the redesign of
existing products or new products that are well understood by the public. (Innovative new products
are better explored with interviews or focus groups). Other common reasons for conducting a survey
are to identify or prioritize problems and to assess whether an implemented solution to a problem
was successful. A survey can be done by main, e-mail, telephone or in person.
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT
Information gathered from customers and research on products from market literature and
experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs and wants. These are the
VANI Publications Problem Definition and Information Gathering
needs that form the ends user’s opinion about the quality of a product. As odd as it may seem,
customers may not express all their requirements of a product when they are interviewed. If a feature
has become standard on a product (e.g., a remote control on a TV) it is still a need but no longer
excites the end user, and they may forget to mention it. To understand how that can happen and how
the omissions can be mitigated, it is necessary to reflect on how customers perceive “needs”.
From a global viewpoint, we should recognize that there is a hierarchy of human needs that motivate
individuals in general.
 Physiological needs such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter and exercise. These constitute the
basic needs of the body, and until they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the
individual’s behavior.
 Safety and security needs which include protection against danger, deprivation, and threat.
When the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become dominant.
 Social needs for love and esteem by others. These needs include belonging to groups, group
identity and social acceptance.
 Psychological needs for self-esteem and self-respect and for accomplishment and
recognition.
 Self-fulfillment needs for a realization of one’s full potential through self-development,
creativity and self-expression.
As each need in this hierarchy is satisfied, the emphasis shifts to the next higher need. Our design
problem should be related to the basic human needs, some of which may be so obvious that in our
modern technological society they are taken for granted. However, within each basic need there is a
hierarchy of problem situation. As the type-I problem situations are solved, we move to the solution
of higher-level problems within each category of basic need. It is characteristics of our advanced
affluent society that, as we move toward the solution of type-II and III problem situations, the
perception of the need by society as a whole becomes less universal.
Differentiating Views of Customer Requirements

From a design team point of view, the customer requirements fit into a broader picture of the PDF
requirements, which include product performance, time to market, cost, arid quality.
 Performance deals with what the design should do when it is completed and in operation.
Design teams do not blindly adopt the customer requirements set determined thus far.
However, that set is the foundation used by the design team. Other factors may include
requirements by internal customers (e.g., manufacturing) or large retail distributors.
 The time dimension includes all time aspects of the design. Currently, much effort is being
given to reducing the PDP cycle time, also known as the time to market, for new products.
For many consumer products, the first to market with a great product captures the market.
 Cost pertains to all monetary aspects of the design. It is a paramount consideration of the
design team. When all other customer requirements are roughly equal, cost determines most
customer’s buying decisions. From the design team’s point of view, cost is a result of many
design decisions and most often be used to make trade-offs among features and deadlines.
 Quality is a complex characteristic with many aspects and definitions. A good definition of
quality for the design team is the totality of features and characteristic of a product or service
that bear on its ability of satisfy stated or implied needs.
A more inclusive customer requirements than the four listed above is value. Value is the worth of a
product of service. It can be expressed by the function provided divided by the cost, or the quality
provided divided by the cost. Studies of large, successful companies have shown that the return on
investment correlated with high market share and high quality.
According to Joseph Juran, the term quality of a part (or product or component) should refer to the
product features that meet customer’s needs and satisfaction, and to avoidance from deficiencies that
would minimize the chance of failure of the part.
Dimensions Description
Does the product perform to its standards? Does the product provide the
Performance
intended service?
What additional benefits may be added to the product? Will there be any
Features
tangible or non-tangible benefit?
Is the product consistent? Will it perform well over its lifetime and perform
Reliability
consistently?
Durability How durable is the product? Will it last with daily use?
Conformance Does your product meet with any agreed internal and national specifications?
Serviceability Is the product easy to service?
Aesthetics Is the product appealing to the eye?
What sort of quality perception does the marketing team want to convey in the
Perceived Quality
marketing message? Will price charged reflect the quality of the product?
Classifying Customer Requirements
Not all customer requirements are equal. This essentially means that customer requirements (or their
baseline level of Joseph Juran’s dimensions for a quality product) have different values for different
people.
The design team must identify those requirements that are most important to the success of the
product in its target market and must ensure that those requirements and the needs they meet for the
customers are satisfied by the product.
A Kano diagram is a good tool to visually partition customer requirements into categories that will
allow for their prioritization. Kano recognized that there are four levels of customer requirements.
High satisfaction
Delighted
2
Performance/linear
Exciters anddelighters
3
Absent
Quality for performance 1
not achieved Threshold/basic
 must haves 
Low satisfaction
Disgusted
1. Expecters: These are the basic attributes that the one would expect to see in the product, i.e.,
standard feature. Expecters are frequently easy to measure and are used often in benchmarking.
2. Spokens: These are the specific features that customers say they want in the product. Because
the customer defines the product in terms of these attributes, the designer must be willing to
provide them to satisfy the customer.
3. Unspokens: These are product attributes the customer does not generally talk about, but they
remain important to him or her. They cannot be ignored. They may be attributes the customer
simply forgot to mention or was unwilling to talk about or simply does not realize he or she
wants. It takes great skill on the part of the design team to identify the unspoken requirements.
4. Exciters: Often called deligheters, these are product features that make the product unique an
distinguish it from the competition. Note that the absence of an exciter will not make customers
unhappy, since they do not know that is missing.
ESTABLISHING THE ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS

Establishing the engineering characteristics is a critical step toward writing the product design
specification. The process of identifying the needs that a product must fill is a complicated
undertaking. Earlier sections of this chapter focused on gathering and understanding the total picture
of what the customer wants from a product. A major challenge of this step is to hear and record the
fullness of customer ideas without applying assumptions.
Just knowing what a customer or end user wants from a product is not sufficient for generating
designs. The design process only proceeds into concept generation once the product is so well
described that it meets with the approval of groups of technical and business discipline specialists
and managers. The description fashioned for the approval to start design generation must be a set of
all known design parameters, constraints and variables. This set is comprised of solution neutral
specifications, meaning that the specification at this time should not be so complete as to suggest a
single concept or class of concepts.
Customers cannot describe the product they want in engineering characteristics because they lack
the knowledge base and expertise. Engineering and design professionals are able to describe
products in solution neutral for because they can imagine the physical parts and components that
create specific behaviors.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a process for measuring a company’s operations against the best practices
of companies both inside and outside of their industry.
Benchmarking operates most effectively on a quid pro quo basis as an exchange of
information between companies that are not direct competitors but can learn from each
other’s business operations. Other sources for discovering best practices include business
partners (e.g., a major supplier to your company) business in the same supply chain (e.g.
automobile manufacturing suppliers). Companies in collaborative and cooperative groups, or
industry consultants. Sometimes trade or professional associations can facilitate
benchmarking exchanges. More often, it requires good contracts and offering information
from your own company that may seem useful to the companies you benchmark.
Competitive Performance Benchmarking
Competitive performance benchmarking involves testing a company’s product against the best in
class that can be found in the current market place. It is an important step for making comparisons in
the design and manufacturing of products. Benchmarking is used to develop performance data
needed to ser functional expectations for new products and to classify competition in the
marketplace. Competitive performance benchmarking compares the performance of company’s
product to the market’s leading products. Benchmarking is a logical starting point in determining
engineering characteristic for a product.
Reverse Engineering
A process similar to but more narrow than benchmarking is reverse engineering. Reverse
engineering is another name for product dissection. In its most unsavory embodiment, reverse
engineering is done for the sole purpose of copying a product. Reverse engineering gives a snapshot
of how other designers have combined parts to meet customer needs.
Product dissection entails the dismantling of a product to determine the selection and arrangement of
component parts and gain insight about how the product made The “teardown” of a product is often
a part of product benchmarking, but without the intent of copying the design. However, the
collection of this type of benchmark information provides a better understanding of the solutions
selected by the competition.
Engineers do reverse engineering to discover information that they cannot access any other way. The
best information about a product is the complete product development file. This would include the
product design specification and all other detail design document. Reverse engineering can show a
design team what the competition has done, but it will not explain why the choices were made.
Designers doing reverse engineering should be careful not to assume that they are seeing the best
design of their competition. Factors other than creating the best performance influence all design
processes and are not captured in the physical description of the product.
QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD)
Quality Function Deployment (QFD), often referred to as listening to the voice of the customer, is a
structured method for translating customer requirements into appropriate engineering characteristics
for each stage of product development and production. It is a way to develop a design aimed at
satisfying the consumer and translate the consumer’s demands into design targets and major quality
assurance points to be used throughout the production stage.
Traditional quality systems focus on reducing negative quality. (Are there any defects? Is our service
poor?) QFD is different because it looks for customer requirements and maximized positive quality
that creates value. (Is the product fun and easy to use?)
QFD can be used in product development, business, site and test planning, and problem solving. It is
used in the aerospace, manufacturing, software and IT, defense, government, healthcare and service
industries.
The QFD Matrix: The QFD matrix has typically two parts:
1. The horizontal part, which contains customer information. It lists the customer’s needs and
wants and determines their relative importance. It also lists customer feedback and complaints.
2. The vertical part, which contains technical information that responds to customer input. It
translates customer needs and wants into language that can be measured, examines the
relationship between customer and technical requirements and contains competitive technical
data the targets or goals set by a company to achieve competitiveness
Room3
Co 
relationships
Improvement
Direction
Units for ECs
Room  2
Engineering
Characteristics
Room  1 Importance Room  4 Customer
customer competitve
Rating Re lationships evaluations
Requirements
Room  5
Column weights
Room  7
Technical
Assessments
Room  8
Target Values
The target value – the level of performance that needs to be achieved to meet the perceived
outcome of an organization’s QFD project is determined by comparing the customers evaluations to
the competitive technical assessments. The co-relationships of the technical requirements are then
examined. The objective is to locate any requirements that conflict with each other.
Other sections can be added to the matrix depending on a company’s needs and the services it
provides.
Benefits of QFD: There are several benefits to using QFD. Besides requiring fewer resources than
other quality tools, it can
 Improve a company’s processes, products or services
 Produce a faster outcome than other methods can.
 Give definition to the design process
 Help a team stay focused
 Allow for easy management and peer review of design activities.
 Help present the information graphically
 Leave the team well positioned in case it needs to improve upon its results for future
processes, products or services.
PRODUCT DESIGN SPECIFICATION

The product design specification (PDS) is a document created during the problem definition activity
very early in the design process. It details the requirements that must be met in order for the product
or process to be successful. The document lays the groundwork for all engineering designs activities
and ensures that all relevant factors are accounted for and all stakeholders are heard from
Guidelines for writing a PDS:
 Start writing your PDS early in the design process, typically as soon as you have established
engineering requirements and done sufficient research.
 The PDS is a living document, that is, it will get larger as more about the design is known.
That being said, you should not change existing specifications unless a major design change
is encountered.
 Remember, the PDS represents what you are trying to achieve, you should NEVER change it
to what has already been achieved.
 Write a PDF in list format, not as an essay.
 Quantify your partners. Use target goals. So not “Light Weight” but rather “weight to be less
than 3 kilograms”. If you are unsure of a specific parameter, estimate a value and adjust your
PDF at a later date.
GATHERING INFORMATION
The need for information permeates the entire engineering design process design process. By placing
the Gathering information step between the Problem Definition and Concept Generation steps, we
are emphasizing the critical need for information to achieve a creative concept solution. The
gathering of design information is not a trivial task. It requires knowledge of a wide spectrum of
information sources. These sources are, in increasing order of specificity
 The World Wide Web, and its access to digital database.
 Business catalogs and other trade literature
 Government technical reports and business data
 Published technical literature, including trade magazines
 Network of professional friends, aided by e-mail.
 Network of professional colleagues at work
 Corporate consultants
When starting to define a problem and develop a specification the first flood of information will
occur in a random manner. It is essential; therefore, that everything is recorded irrespective of
whether or not the relevance of the information is immediately recognized. The list of questions and
answers should subsequently be examined, organized under broad headings and expanded as thought
appropriate. In effect, initial thoughts and information should be recorded in an organized manner.
Continuous Information Gathering

The average designer devotes 10% of their time to searching for information. Searching for
information is a necessary evil although regarded as the major nonproductive part of a designer’s
working hours. The aim therefore must be to carry out the information seeking task as efficiently as
is possible.
There must be a clear identification of the purpose of the search and the type of information which is
required. Then the search is carried out, information located and obtained. The next stage is
extremely important. A search will often identify many potential sources of information and an
inevitable consequence is that at least some of this information will not prove relevant to the
problem at hand. This information should be discarded. It is essential that all information is filled for
easy retrieval and highlighting potentially interesting areas will greatly assist this retrieval process.
Any professional person should ensure that they keep up to date with developments in their sphere
of interest. This is particularly true for scientific and technical disciplines since these subject areas
develop rapidly. However, the problems faced by a design engineer can be so diverse that it is
impossible to read all the relevant literature. Therefore, the designer must optimize reading time and
be as efficient as possible.
The source of information most useful in tackling a particular problem are impossible to predict.
They will vary with the depth of knowledge and experience of the engineering designer concerned,
with the timescale of the project and the amount of data provided in the design brief or PDS. The list
of sources following should not be considered as comprehensive since there are an almost infinite
number of such sources.
A note should be made of all sources of information searched even if the result is that no relevant
information is found. This will prevent a future repeat of the exercise. Often a zero result is as
valuable as a positive result since the major problem with any search is confidence that all avenues
of investigation have been followed.
INFORMATION GATHERING FOR A PARTICULAR PDS
The information required cannot easily be categorized but fails mainly under the following broad
headings.
Context
Specifications
Design Brief Cusomer 's needs Confidentiality
Performance Competition Copyright
Market Patents Financial
Comnpany Security
Environment Documentation
Information Required
for Specification
Company Development
Requirements History
Procedures Technology base
Resources Faults
Investment Development plan
The Design Brief
Within this document it is necessary to outline the four broad categories of requirements.
 Performance requirements such as loads, speeds and strength.
 Market requirements such as whether the product is targeted at mass markets, a group of
specific people, individuals or a single customer.
 Company requirements such as the use of in-house or external resources and the use of
specific processes. It is inevitable that some overlap occurs in the categories of information
search. Company requirements are usually contained in the brief but often require more
detailed attention for a PDS.
 Environmental requirements such as noise levels, emissions and recyclability.
Context
In examining the context of the product answers are sought to questions such as:
 Do national or international specifications already exist?
 Are the customers external or internal and who are they?
 Will anyone else read the PDS and do they require different information?
 Are you fully aware of the customer’s needs?
 Do you have up to date knowledge of competitor’s products?
 Are there any patents restricting product development?
Confidentiality
The nature of the information to be included in the PDS may dictate certain levels of confidentiality.
Again, answers to a series of questions such as those listed should be sought.
 Is the information required available or confidential?
 Are there copyright issues?
 Are there matters of financial confidentiality?
 Are there matters of national or organizational security that may be relevant?
 Are there company procedures with respect to the documentation of such information?
Product Development
It is an advantage to have knowledge of the product history, such as previous failures or particularly
successful features. Questions which should be considered include:
 In the history of the product or similar product is there knowledge of:
 Faults which have occurred?
 The causes of faults?
 Manufacturing or assembly difficulties?
 Is knowledge of current technological capabilities of the required level?
 Is the product development programme clearly explained and understood?
Company Requirements
Again, the definition of any specific company requirements is best accomplished by attempting to
answer a series of questions such as
 Are there any company procedures for writing specifications?
 Are there adequate company resources in terms of:
 Land?
 Buildings?
 Plant and equipment?
 Is the manpower available adequate in terms of levels of expertise and training?
 Is the level of financial investment and revenue linked to the project adequate?
 What is the expected financial or added value on this investment?
 Is a list of materials currently stocked and traditionally used available?
 Is it likely external suppliers will be used?
Sources of Design Information

Just as design requires a variety of types of information, so there is a variety of sources in which to
find this information. The different types of design information required are given in Table 2.2.
Various sources of information are given in Table 2.3.
Surveys and feedback

Customer
Marketing data
Specs and drawings for previous versions the product. Similar
Related Designs
designs of competitors (reverse engineering)
Technical reports
Analysis methods Specialized computer programs, for example, finite element
analysis
Performance in past designs (failure analysis)
Materials
Properties
Capability of processes
Capacity analysis
Manufacturing
Manufacturing sources
Assembly methods
Cost history
Cost
Current material and manufacturing costs
Availability and quality of vendors
Standard components
Size and technical data
ISO
Technical standards ASTM
Company specific
Performance based
Governmental regulations
Safety
Maintenance/service feedback
Life cycle issues
Warranty data
Table 2.2 Types of Design Information
Dictionaries and encyclopedias

Engineering handbooks
Libraries
Texts and monographs
Periodicals (technical journals and magazines and newspapers)
Internet A massive depository of information
Technical reports
Databases
Government
Search engines
Laws and Regulations
Engineering professional Technical journals and news magazines
societies and trade Technical conference proceedings
associations Codes and standards in some cases
Patents, both national and international
Intellectual property Copyrights
Trademarks
Buildup of knowledge through work experience and study
Contacts with colleagues
Personal network of professionals
Personal activities
Contacts with suppliers and vendors
Attendance at conferences, trade shows, exhibitions
Visits to other companies
Direct involvement
Customers Surveys
Feedback from warranty payments and returned products
Table 2.3. Sources of Design Information
Note that these lists are not exhaustive as there can be infinite number of sources
Unit
3 Introduction
INTRODUCTION:
Engineering drawing is a graphical language used by engineers and other technical person associated
with the engineering profession. The purpose of engineering drawing is to convey graphically the
ideas and information necessary for the construction or analysis of machines, structures and system.
The profile of number of objects consists of various types of curves. This chapter deals with
various types of curves which are commonly used in engineering practice as shown below.
1. Conic sections 2. Cycloidal curves 3. Involute
4. Evolutes 5. Spirals 6. Helix
We shall now discuss the above in details with reference to their construction and applications.
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS:
DRAWING BOARD:
Drawing board is rectangular in shape and is made of well seasoned pine wood about 25mm thick.
Left edge of the board is used as the working edge, on which T-square is made to slide. It should
therefore, be perfectly straight.
Table 1: Standard size of drawing board (IS 1444 : 1989)
Designation Dimensions in mm (LxB) Use of recommended drawing sheet
B0 1500 x1000 A0
B1 1000 x 700 A1
B2 700 x 500 A2
B3 500 x 350 A3
T-SQUARE:
It is used for drawing horizontal lines. It can also be used as a base for set-squares.
SET-SQUARES:
They are used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal lines (T-square is used for
horizontal lines). Two forms of set-squares are in general use .they are triangular in shape with one
corner in each, a right angle. The 300- 600 set-square of 250mm length and 450set-square of 200mm
length.
VANI Publications Drawing
30
45
45 90 60 90
PROTRACTOR:
This is made of celluloid. Protractor will be either semicircular or circular. It is used to set up and
measure any given angle.
COMPASS:
Compass is used to draw circles and arch. Large is used for diameter greater than 50mm and small
Compass for diameter less than 50mm.
DIVIDER:
It is used to divide the line or curves into equal parts and to transfer the lengths from one place to
another.
FRENCH CURVES:
It is used to draw a smooth curves of varying radii which cannot be drawn with a compass.
MINI DRAFTER:
Drafting machine combines all the function of T-square, set-square, protractor and scales.
DRAWING PENCILS:
Drawing pencils are graded and designated by the letters as 2B,HB,2H which is marked at one of its
ends.
 HB grade pencil is medium soft. The letter “H” denotes hardness and the letter “B” denotes
softness
 Pencils of grade HB, B, 2B, 3B, 4B etc are in the increasing order of softness and brightness.
 Pencils of grade 5H, 4H, 3H, 2H, H etc are in the decreasing order of hardness and brightness.
 The lead of a pencil can be sharpened in two different forms.
I. Conical point
II. Chisel edge
 The conical point is used in sketch work and for lettering etc. For making conical end the pencil
should be rotated between the thumb and fingers, while rubbing the lead with sand paper.
 Chisel edge is used for long thin line of uniform thickness can be easily drawn and hence, it is
suitable for drawing work. Chisel edge is prepared by rubbing the lead on a sand paper block,
making it flat, first on one side and then on the other by turning the pencil through a half circle.
Conical point Chisel edge
DRAWING SHEETS: (IS 10711 : 2001)

Drawing sheets are of three types:
I. ISO-A TYPE SHEET:
Surface area of A0 size is 1m2. Successive format sizes (A0 to A5) are obtained by halving along the
length or doubling along the width. The areas of the two sizes are in the ratio 1:2. The ratio of sides
i.e., x:y=1:√2(where x is shorter side)
ISO International Paper Size Standard – A Series
A4 A4
210  297
mm A2
A3 420  594mm
290  420mm A0
8411189mm
A1
594  841mm
II. SPECIAL ELONGATED SHEET:
When a sheet of greater length is needed then this type of sheet is used. These is obtained by
extending the shorter side of ISO-A series to the length that is multiples of the shorter sides of the
chosen basic format.
III. EXCEPTIONAL ELONGATED SHEET:

When a very large or extra elongated sheet is essential then this sheet is used. These sizes are
obtained by extending the shorter sides of a format of ISO-A series to length that are multiple of the
short sides of the chosen basic format.
IV. SHEET LAYOUT:

The layout of the drawing on a drawing sheet should be done in such a manner as to make its
reading easy and speedy. As a standard practice sufficient margins are to be provided on all sides of
the drawing sheet. The drawing sheet should have drawing space and title page. A typical layout of
a drawing sheet is shown in the figure below:
TRIMMED EDGE
FILING 1 2 3 4
MARGIN
A A BORDER
20mm min .
B B 20mm min .
For A0
C 20mm min . C
REFERENCE
GRID
D TITLE BLOCK D
FRAME 1 2 3 4
Borders:
A minimum of 10 mm space left all around in between the trimmed edges of the sheet.
Filing margin:
Minimum 20 mm space left on the left hand side with border included. This provided for taking
perforations.
Grid reference system:

This is provided on all sizes of industrial drawing sheets for easy location of drawing within the
frame. The length and the width of the frames are divided into even number of divisions and labeled
using numerals or capital letters. Number of divisions for a particular sheet depends on complexity
of the drawing. The grids along the horizontal edges are labeled in numerals where as grids along
vertical edges are labeled using capital letters. The length of each grids can be between 25 mm and
75 mm. Numbering and lettering start from the corner of the sheet opposite to the title box and are
repeated on the opposite sides. they are written upright. Repetition of letters or numbers like AA,
BB, etc., if they exceed that of the alphabets. For first year engineering students grid references need
not be followed.
Title box:
An important feature on every drawing sheet. This is located at the bottom right hand corner of
every sheet and provides the technical and administrative details of the drawing. The title box is
divided into two zones
a. Identification zone: In this zone the details like the identification number or part number, Title
of the drawing, legal owner of the drawing, etc. are to be mentioned.
b. Additional information zone: Here indicative items lime symbols indicting the system of
projection, scale used, etc., the technical items lime method of surface texture, tolerances, etc.,
and other administrative items are to be mentioned.
3. LINES:
Lines are one important aspect of technical drawing. Lines are always used to construct meaningful
drawings. Various types of lines are used to construct drawing, each line used in some specific
sense. Lines are drawn following standard conventions mentioned in BIS (SP46:2003). A line may
be curved, straight, continuous, segmented. It may be drawn as thin or thick. A few basic types of
lines widely used in drawings are shown in Table.
Illustration Application
Thick Outlines, visible edges, surface boundaries of
objects, margin lines
Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines
Continuous thin
leader or pointer lines, construction lines,
boarder lines
Continuous thin wavy Short break lines or irregular boundary lines-
drawn freehand
Continuous thin with zig-zag Long break lines
Short dashes, gap 1, length 3mm

Invisible or interior surfaces
Center lines, locus lines

Short dashes
Alternate long and short dashes in a proportion
of 6:1
Long chain thick at end and thin else where
Cutting plane lines
4. SCALES:
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (Eg. Building,
machines, etc.,) some are very small (wrist watch, electronic devices, etc.,). There is a need to
reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some objects can be drawn to their actual
size. The proportion by which the drawing of an object is enlarged or reduced is called the scale of
the drawing.
Definition: A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.
The different types of scales used so that object can be accommodated on drawing sheet and can
comfortably be drawn and read are as following:
I. FULL SIZE SCALE:
If we show the actual length of an object on a drawing, then the scale used is full size scale.
Designation of full size scale- Scale 1 : 1.
II. REDUCING SCALE:
If we reduce the actual length of an object so as to accommodate that object on drawing, then the
scale used is called Reducing scale. Such scales are used for the preparation of drawings of large
machine parts, buildings, architectural drawings, etc.
Designation of reducing scale- Scale 1 : x.(eg: scale 1 : 20 represents size on drawing is reduced by
20 times of actual size)
III. INCREASING OR ENLARGEING SCALE:

Drawing of instruments, watches, etc., are made larger than their real size. These are said to be
drawn on a enlarging scale.
Designation of enlarging scale : Scale x : 1. (eg: 20 : 1 represents size on drawing is increased by 20
times of actual size)
TABLE: BIS Recommended Scales
FULL SIZE SCALES 1:1
1:2
1:5 1 : 10
1 : 20
Reducing scales 1 : 50 1 : 100
1 : 200
1 : Y (Y>1) 1 : 500 1 : 1000
1 : 2000
1 : 5000 1 : 10000
ENLARGING
50 : 1
SCALES 20 : 1
5:1 10 1
X : 1 (X>1) 2:1
Representative fraction (R.F.):

R.F is the ratio of the length of the object on the drawing sheet to the actual length of the object.
Length of an object on the drawing
R.F   in same units 
Actuall ength of the object
When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1 meter length of the object.
1cm 1cm 1
R.F   
1m 1100cm 100
Length of scale = RF  Maximum distance to be represented
For full size scale, R.F = 1, For reduce scale, R.F < 1, For enlarged scale, R.F > 1.
TYPES OF SCALES:
I. Engineers scales: The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual dimension
of the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).
II. Graphical scales: Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the shrinkage of the
engineer’s scale when the drawing becomes old.
TYPES OF GRAPHICAL SCALES:
1. Plain scale: A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equals parts or units,
the first of which is subdivided into smaller parts. Plain scales represent either two units or a unit
and its subdivision.
Example: Construct a plain scale of RF = 1:4, to show centimeters and long enough to measure up
to 5 decimeters.
Sol: R.F. = ¼
1. Length of the scale = R.F. × max. length = ¼ × 5 dm = 12.5 cm.
2. Draw a line 12.5 cm long and divide it in to 5 equal divisions, each representing 1 dm.
3. Mark 0 at the end of the first division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end of each subsequent division to
its right.
4. Divide the first division into 10 equal sub-divisions, each representing 1 cm.
5. Mark cm to the left of 0 as shown.
6. Draw the scale as a rectangle of small width (about 3 mm) instead of only a line.
7. Draw the division lines showing decimeters throughout the width of the scale.
8. Draw thick and dark horizontal lines in the middle of all alternate divisions and sub-divisions.
9. Below the scale, print DECIMETERS on the right hand side, CENTIMERTERS on the left hand
side, and R.F. in the middle.
3.7dm
10 5 0 1 2 3 4
CENTIMETERS 1 DECIMETERS
R.F. 
4
2. Diagonal scale: A diagonal scale is used when very minute distances such as 0.1 mm etc . are to
be accurately measured or when measurement are required in three units. for example dm, cm
and mm or yard, foot and inch.
Example: Construct a Diagonal scale of RF = 3:200 showing meters, decimeters and centimeters.
The scale should measure up to 6 meters. Show a distance of 4.56 meters.
Sol:
 Length of the scale = (3/200) x 6 m = 9 cm
 Draw a line AB = 9 cm. Divide it in to 6 equal parts.
Divide the first part A0 into 10 equal divisions.

 At A draw a perpendicular and step-off along it 10 equal divisions, ending at D.
 Complete the rectangle ABCD.
 Draw perpendiculars at meter-divisions i.e. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
 Draw horizontal lines through the division points on AD. Join D with the end of the first
division along A0 (i.e. 9).
 Through the remaining points i.e. 8, 7, 6, … draw lines // to D9.
 PQ = 4.56 meters
D FE
C
CENTIMETERS
9
4.56m
5
1
A 10 8 6 4 2 0 3 4 5
B
1 2
DECIMETERS 3 METERS
R.F. 
200
3. VERNIER SCALE: The vernier scale is a linear measuring instrument for measuring the
fractional parts of the smallest division of the main scale. It consists of two parts, a fixed scale
called main scale and a movable scale called vernier scale.
4. Comparative or corresponding scales: Scales having same representative fraction but
graduated to read different units are called comparative scales. These are used when it is
required to make measurements in one units system from a drawing in another unit system of
measurement.
5. Scale of chords: the scale of chords is used to set out or measure angles when a protractor is not
available.
6. LETTERING:
Lettering is used for writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, scales and other details on a drawing.
Typical lettering features used for engineering drawing is shown in figure below. The following
rules are to be followed in lettering. The letter sizes generally recommended for various items are
shown in Table 1.
 Essential features of lettering – legibility, uniformity, ease, rapidity, and suitability for
microfilming/photocopying/any other photographic processes
 No ornamental and embellishing style of letter
 Plain letters and numerals which are clearly distinguishable from each other in order to avoid
any confusion even in case of slight mutilations
The Indian standard followed for lettering is BIS: 9609
 Single stroke lettering for use in engineering drawing – width of the stem of the letters and
numerals will be uniformly thick equal to thickness of lines produced by the tip of the pencil.
 Single stroke does not mean – entire letter written without lifting the pencil/pen.
 Single stroke letters are of two types:
I. Vertical II. Inclined.
Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 750with the horizontal.
Lettering types generally used for creating a drawing are
 Lettering A – Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts
 Lettering B – Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts
Table 2 and Table 3 indicates the specifications for Type A and Type B letters.
Heights of Letters and Numerals:

1. Height of the capital letters is equal to the height of the numerals used in dimensioning.
2. Height of letters and numerals – different for different purposes.
Table 1: The letter sizes recommended for various items
S.No. Item Size (mm)
1 Name of the company 10, 14, 20
2 Drawing numbers, letters denoting 10, 14
section planes
3 Title of the drawing 7, 10
4 Sub-titles and heading 5, 7

Dimensioning, Notes, Schedules,
5 3.5, 7
Material List
6 Alteration entries and tolerances 3, 5
Table 2. Specifications of A -Type Lettering

Specification Value Size (mm)
Capital letter height h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Lowercase letter height A=(5/7)h - 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
Thickness of lines B=(1/14)h 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4
Spacing between characters C=(1/7)h 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8
Min. Spacing between words D=(3/7)h 1.05 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4
Min. Spacing between

E=(10/7)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
baselines
Table 3. Specifications of B -Type Lettering

Specification Value Size (mm)
Capital letter height h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Lowercase letter height A=(5/7)h - 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
Thickness of lines B=(1/14)h 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2
Spacing between characters C=(1/7)h 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4
Min. Spacing between words D=(3/7)h 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4 12
Min. Spacing between

E=(10/7)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28
baselines
7. DIMENSIONING:
Every drawing, whether a scale drawing or a freehand drawing, besides showing the true shape of an
object, must supply its exact length breadth, height, sizes and positions of holes etc. Supplying this
information on a drawing is called dimensioning.
TYPE OF DIMENSIONS:
Two types of dimensions needed on a drawing are:
I. Size or Functional dimensions:
This dimension indicates sizes, length, breath, height, depth, diameter, etc.
II. Location or Datum dimensions:
This type of dimensions show locations or exact positions of various constructional details
within the object.
ELEMENTS OF DIMENSIONING:
I. DIMENSION LINE:
These are thin continuous lines used to indicate the measurement. The measurement is denoted in
fig. and placed near the middle of the dimension lines.
Dimension Value
Leader 15
Arrowhead
R30
Dimension
60
Line
30
22.5 Projection line

90
20
Projection line
II. PROJECTION or EXTENSION LINE:
These are also a thin continuous lines drawn in extension of outline. It extends by about 3mm
beyond the dimension line.
III. LEADER or POINTER LINES:
These are the lines referring to a feature and notes. These are thin continuous line and terminated by
arrowheads or dots. Notes and figures are written above the extended dimension lines. They should
not be parallel to adjacent dimension or projection lines where confusion arise. Leaders are never
drawn vertical, horizontal, curved or freehand. Usually they are drawn at any convenient angle but
not less than 300.
2 HOLES
10 2 HOLES
10
20
20
50 50
Leader inclined greater than 30° Leader inclined Less than 30°
(a) Correct (b) Incorrect
IV. ARROW HEADS:

The common types of arrowhead recommended by B.I.S are shown in fig (4a). These are used to
terminate the dimension lines. It is preferable to use filled arrowheads in engineering drawings with
its length about three times the depth/width as shown in fig (4b). Normally length of arrowheads is
3mm for small drawing and 4 to 5mm for large drawings.
Open 90°
Depth arrowhead x
Open 30°
Closed blank
Closed filled Length of arrowhead 3x
Oblique
fig.(4a) fig.(4b)
PLACING OF DIMENSIONS:
The two systems of placing dimensions are:
I) Aligned system
II) Unidirectional system.
I. ALIGNED SYSTEM:
In this system the dimension is placed perpendicular to the dimension line in such a way that it may
be read from the bottom edge or the right-hand edge of the drawing sheet. The dimensions should be
placed near the middle and above, but clear of the dimension line.
20
40
50
II. UNIDIRECTIONAL SYSTEM:

In this system all dimension are so placed that they can be read from the bottom edge of the drawing
sheet. The dimension lines are broken near the middle for inserting the dimensions. In this system
there is no restriction in controlling the direction of dimension lines. This system is mainly used on
large drawings. eg, aircrafts, automobiles etc. Where it is inconvenient to read dimensions from the
right-hand side.
20
20 20 20
20 20
40
20 20
20 20
20 20 20
50
ARRANGEMENT OF DIMENSIONS:
I. CHAIN DIMENSIONING:
Chains of dimensions should only be used when the possible accumulation of tolerances do not
endanger the functional requirement of the part.
15 15
20 25 35 25 15 15 5 30 25 20
Chain dimensions
8. PARALLEL DIMENSIONING:
This method of dimensioning is used when a number of dimension lines are spaced out parallel one
to another. Dimensions should be staggered, when number of parallel dimensions is more.
30
15
30
15
20 5
45 35
80 60
105 80
Parallel dimensions
9. Superimposed running dimensioning:
This is a simplified parallel dimensioning method and is used when there are space limitations and
when no legibility problems would occur. The origin is indicated by a small circle of approximately
3mm diameter.
105
20
80
45
20
35
0
55
30
75
50
0
15
30
10. COMBINED DIMENSIONING:

This dimensioning method results from simultaneous use of the above two methods.
Combined dimension
11. DIMENSIONING BY COORDINATES:
This method is useful when dimension are to shown in tabular form. Where coordinate of object is
taken into consideration.
X Y 
1 2 3 40
1 30 30
Y
2 90 40 20
3 160 30 40
X
Dimension by coordinates
12. RULES OF DIMENSIONING:

1. Every dimension must be given, but should not given more than once.
2. Dimension are placed in such a way that its use is shown clearly.
3. Dimensioning should be done so completely that further changes are not required.
4. Mark the dimensions outside the view.
5. A centre line or an outline cannot be used as dimension line.
6. Dimension line should never cross any other drawing line.
7. In dimensioning aligned system is recommended.
8. A arc is dimensioned by it radius symbol “R” and a circle by it diameter symbol “Ø”.
9. If in a hatched portion of drawing dimensioning is need to be done then hatching line should not
cut the dimension text.
13. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION:
Geometrical constructions deals with plane figures such as lines, angles, triangles quadrilaterals,
polygons, circles etc.
ANGLES:
An angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint,
called the vertex of the angle.
ANGLES > 180°
ACUTE OBTUSE RIGHT REFLEX
0
I. If the angle between two straight line is less than 90 then it is called acute angle.
II. If the angle between two straight line is greater than 900 then it is called obtuse angle.
III. If the angle between two straight line is equal to 900 then it is called right angle.
IV. If the angle between two straight line is greater than 1800 then it is called reflex angle.
POLYGONS:
Polygons are two dimensional shapes. They are made up of straight lines and the shape is closed (all
the line connect up). When all the angles and sides are equal the it is called regular polygon
otherwise irregular polygon.
In regular polygons
a) Sum of exterior angle is 3600 and interior angle is 1800 x (n-2)
b) Each interior and exterior angle is 1800 x (n-2/n) and 3600/n respectively.
Triangle: (3 sides)
Types of triangle:
 An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length with all angles measuring 60° .
 An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length.
 A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths.
 Triangles that do not have an angle measuring 90° are called oblique triangles.
TRIANGLES
EQUILATERAL ISOSCELES SCALENE

EQUIANGULAER RIGHT
QUADRILATERALS: (4 Sides)
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS:
 In square all sides are equal, opposite sides are parallel and angle between the sides is 900.
 In rectangular opposite sides are equal and parallel and angle between them is 900.
 In rhombus all sides equal, opposite sides are parallel and angle is ≠ 900.
 In rhomboid or parallelogram opposite sides are equal and parallel but angle is ≠ 900.
 In trapezoid two sides are parallel and base angle is equal.
 In trapezium only two sides are parallel.
QUADRILATERALS
SQUARE RECTANGLE RHOMBUS RHOMBOID TRAPEZOID TRAPEZIUM

PARALLELOGRAMS
Other regular polygons include

I. Pentagon (5 sides) IV. Octagon (8 sides)
II. Hexagon (6 sides) V. Nonagon (9 sides)
III. Heptagon (7 sides) VI. Decagon (10 sides)
REGULAR POLYGONS
PENTAGON HEXAGON HEPTAGON OCTAGON NONAGON DECAGON
14. CURVES:
Conic curves:
Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a right circular cone. e.g. Parabola, hyperbola and
ellipse. Right circular cone is a cone that has a circular base and the axis is inclined at 900 to the base
and passes through the centre of the base. Figure 1. Shows a right cone and the various conic curves
that can be obtained from a cone by sectioning the cone at various conditions.
Vertex
Altitude Axis
Circle Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

Right Cone
Figure 1.
CONIC:
Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance from a
fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant.
 Fixed point is called Focus
 Fixed line is called Directrix

Directrices
Minor axis
Focal Parameter
Major axis
linear Eccentricity
Foci
Figure 2 Directrices and Foci

Dis tan ce of the po int from the focus
Eccentricity 
Dis tan ce of the point from the directrix
If eccentricity,
I) e < 1 ellipse
II) e = 1 parabola
III) e > 1 hyperbola
Eg. When e=1/2, the curve is an Ellipse, when e=1, it is a parabola and when e=2, it is a hyperbola.
e=∞
e=2
e=1
e  0.5
M
M
Ellipse
Hyperbola Parabola
Figure 3: hyperbola, parabola & ellipse
ELLIPSE:
A curve traced by a point, moving in a plane such that the sum of its distances from two fixed points
is always the same. Elliptical shape is used in construction of arches, bridges, dams, elliptical gears
of textile machines etc.
4 C
E 1 G
F 2 H
A B
O
M I
L K
D
Ellipse
Use of elliptical curves is made in arches, bridges, dams, monuments, man holes, glands and
x 2 y2
stuffing-boxes etc. Mathematically an ellipse can be described by equation   1 . Here ‘a’
a 2 b2
and ‘b’ are half the length of major and minor axes of the ellipse and x and y co-ordinates.
1. General method of construction of an ellipse:
Example: To construct an ellipse when the distance of the focus from the directrix is equal to
2
50mm and eccentricity is .
3
Sol:
1. Draw any vertical line AB as directrix.
2. At any point C on it, draw the axis perpendicular to the AB (directrix).
3. Mark a focus F on the axis such that CF = 50mm.
4. Divide CF into 5 equal divisions (sum of numerator and denominator of the eccentricity).
5. Mark the vertex V on the third division-point from C.
VF 2
Thus, eccentricity, e  
VC 3
6. A scale may now be constructed on the axis (as explained below), which will directly give the
distances in the required ratio.
7. At V, draw a perpendicular VE equal to VF. Draw a line joining C and E.
VE VF 2
Thus, in triangle CVE,   .
VC VC 3
8. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to meet CE-product at 1 .
9. With centre F and radius equal to 1  1, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular through 1 at
points P1 and P1 .
These are the points on the ellipse, because the distance of P1 from AB is equal to C1 ,
P1F  1  1
1  1 VF 2
And   .
C1 VC 3
Similarly, mark points 2, 3 etc. On the axis and obtain points P2 and , P2 P3 and P3 etc.
10. Draw the ellipse through these points. It is a closed curve having two foci and two directrices.
DIRECTIX 3 DIRECTIX
A A
50 2 P
1 P2 3
E P1
V 1 2 3 F V  AXIS C 
C
M
90
P1
TANGENT
P2
P P3
NORMAL B
B T
N
Directrix and focus
2. Construction of ellipse by other methods:
Ellipse is also defines as a curve traced out by a point, moving in the same plane as and in such a
way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is always the same.
1. Each of the two fixed points is called the focus.
2. The line passing through the two foci and terminated by the curve, is called the major axis.
3. The line bisecting the major axis at right angles and terminated by the curve, is called the
minor axis.
Conjugate axes: Those axes are called conjugate axes when they are parallel to the tangents drawn
at their extremities.
In the figure below, AB is the major axis, CD the minor axis and F1 and F2 are the foci. The foci are
equidistant from the centre O.
The points A, P, C etc. are on the curve and hence, according to the definition,
 AF1  AF2    PF1  PF2    CF1  CF2  etc.
But  AF1  AF2   AB.  PF1  PF2   AB, the major axis.
Therefore, the sum of the distance of any point on the curve from the two foci is equal to the major
axis.
Again,  CF1  CF2   AB.
1
But CF1  CF2 CF1  CF2  AB.
2
Hence, the distance of the ends of the minor axis from the foci is equal to half the major axis.
N
T
Q C
P
S MINOR AXIS
A B
F1 O F2
M
D
MAJOR AXIS
Conjugate axes
Example: To construct an ellipse, given the major and minor axes.
The ellipse is drawn by, first determining a number of points through which it is known to pass and
then, drawing a smooth curve through them, either freehand or with a French curve. Larger the
number of points, more accurate the curve will be.
Method – I: Arcs of circle method:
C
P1 P1
A1
B1
1 2 3
A B
F1 O F2
A1 B1
P1 P1
Fig. Arc of Circle method

1. Draw a line AB equal to the major axis and a line CD equal to the minor axis, bisecting each
other at right angles at O.
2. With centre C and radius equal to half AB (i.e., AO) draw arcs cutting AB at F1 and F2 , the foci
of the ellipse.
3. Mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. on AB.
4. With centres F1 and F2 and radius equal to A1 , draw arcs on both sides of AB.
5. With same centres and radius equal to B1, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs at four points
marked P1 .
6. Similarly, with radii A2 and B2, A3 and B3 etc. obtain more points.
7. Draw a smooth curve through these points. This curve is the required ellipse.
Method – II: Concentric circles method:
3
2
1 C
P2 2
P1 1
A B
O
Fig. Concentric Circle method
1. Draw the major axis AB and the minor axis CD intersecting each other at O.
2. With centre O and diameters AB and CD respectively, draw two circles.
3. Divide the major-axis-circle into a number of equal divisions, say 12 and mark points 1, 2 etc. as
shown.
4. Draw lines joining these points with the centre O and cutting the minor-axis-circle at points 1 ,
2 etc.
5. Through point 1 on the major-axis-circle, draw a line parallel to CD, the minor axis.
6. Through point 1 on the major-axis-circle, draw a line parallel to AB, the major axis. The point
P1 , where these two lines intersect is on the required ellipse.
7. Repeat the construction through all the points. Draw the ellipse through A, P1 , P2 ... etc.
Method – III: Loop of the thread method:

C
P
A B
F1 O F2
D
Fig. Loop of thread method
This is practical application of the first method.

1. Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting at O. Locate the foci F1 and F2 .
2. Insert a pin at each focus-point and tie a piece of thread in the form of a loop around the pins, in
such a way that the pencil point when placed in the loop (keeping the thread right), is just on the
end C of the minor axis.
3. Move the pencil around the foci, maintaining an even tension in the thread throughout and obtain
the ellipse.
It is evident that PF1  PF2  CF1  CF2 etc.
Method – IV: Oblong method:
C
E P3 F
3 P2 Y P5
2
1 1 2 3
A O B
P11
H D G
Fig. Oblong method
1. Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting each other at O.
2. Construct the oblong EFGH having its sides equal to the two axes.
3. Divide the semi-major-axis AO into a number of equal parts, say 4, and AE into the same
number of equal parts, numbering them from A as shown.
4. Draw lines joining 1, 2 and 3 with C.
5. From D, draw lines through 1, 2 and 3 intersecting C1 , C2 and C3 at points P1 , P2 and P3
respectively.
6. Draw the curve through A, P1 ....C. It will be one quarter of the ellipse.
7. Complete the curve by the same construction in each of the three remaining quadrants.
As the curve is symmetrical about the two axes, points in the remaining quadrants may be
located by drawing perpendiculars and horizontals from P1 , P2 etc. and making each of them of
equal length on both the sides of the two axes.
For example, P2 x  xP11 and P2 y  yP5 .
An ellipse can be inscribed within a parallelogram by using the above method as shown in fig.
R
P
Q
S
Lines PQ and RS, joining the mid-points of the opposite sides of the parallelogram are called
conjugate axes.
Method – V: Trammel method:
P Q R
C
R
P
O Q
A B
Q
R
P
D
Fig. Trammel method
1. Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting each other at O. Along the edge of a strip of paper
which may be used as a trammel, mark PQ equal to half the minor axis and PR equal to the half
the major axis.
2. Place the trammel so that R is on the minor axis CD and Q on the major axis AB. Then P will be
on the required ellipse. By moving the trammel to new positions, always keeping R on CD and Q
on AB, obtain other points. Draw the ellipse through these points.
Example: ABC is a triangle such that AB = 100mm, AC = 80mm and BC = 60mm. Draw an
ellipse passing through points A, B and C.
C
P S
80 mm 60 mm
A O
1 2 3 4 B
1 100 mm
2
3
4
Q D R
1. Draw horizontal line AB = 100mm. Take A as centre draw an arc of 80mm. Similarly B as
centre and the radius equal to 60mm, draw the arc such that it intersects previously drawn arc at
the point C. Join ABC to complete triangle.
2. Mark the mid point of AB such that OA = OB = 50mm. Join OC and extend CO such that CO =
OD.
3. Draw parallel lines from C and D to the line AB. Similarly draw parallel lines from A and B to
the line CD and complete the rhombus (PQRS).
4. Divide AO into convenient number of equal parts A1 = 12 = 23 = 34 = 4O and AQ to same
number of equal parts A1  1 2  23  34  4Q. Join C2, C3, C4 and extend it to intersect
D2, D3, D4 respective. Draw smooth curve passing through all intersection.
5. Complete the ellipse by above method for the remaining part.
3. Normal and tangent to an ellipse: The normal to an ellipse at any point on it bisects the
angle made by lines joining that point with the foci.
The tangent to the ellipse at any point is perpendicular to the normal at that point.
Example: To draw a normal and a tangent to the ellipse at a point Q on it.

Join Q with the foci F1 and F2 .
1. Draw a line NM bisecting F1QF2 . NM is the normal to the ellipse.
2. Draw a line ST through Q and perpendicular to NM. ST is the tangent to the ellipse at the point
Q.
Example: To draw a curve parallel to an ellipse and at distance R from it.
This may be drawn by two methods:
(a) A large number of arcs of radius equal to the required distance R, with centres on the ellipse,
may be described. The curve drawn touching these arcs will be parallel to the ellipse.
(b) It may also be obtained by drawing a number of normals to the ellipse, making them equal to
the required distance R and then drawing a smooth curve through their ends.
Example: To find the major axis and minor axis of an ellipse whose conjugate axes and angle
between them are given.
C R
P
 O Q
D E
S
Conjugate axes PQ and RS, and the angle  between them are given.
1. Draw the two axes intersecting each other at O.
2. Complete the parallelogram and inscribe the ellipse in it is as described in example-2, method
(4)
3. With O as centre and OR as radius, draw the semi-circle cutting the ellipse at a point E.
4. Draw the line RE.
5. Through O draw a line parallel to RE and cutting the ellipse at points C and D. CD is the minor
axis.
6. Through O, draw a line perpendicular to CD and cutting the ellipse at points A and B. AB is the
major axis.
Example: To find the centre, major axis and minor axis of a given ellipse.
C 3 F
1 E
S
Q
A B
O
P
R
4
H G
D 2
1. Draw any two chords 1-2 and 3-4 parallel to each other.
2. Find their mid-points P and Q, and draw a line passing through them, cutting the ellipse at point
R and S. Bisect the line RS in the point O which is the centre of the ellipse.
With O as centre and any convenient radius, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in points E, F, G and H.
Complete the rectangle EFGH. Through O, draw a line parallel to EF cutting the ellipse in points A
and B. Again through O, draw a line parallel to FG cutting the ellipse at points C and D. AB and CD
are respectively the major axis and the minor axis.
14.3 PARABOLA:
A parabola is obtained when a section plane, parallel to one of the generators cuts the cone.
A xis
C utting plane parallel
to the side or element P
P Focus
V F Parabola
Plane makes sam e D irectrix

angle as the
elem ents
Applications:
Suspension bridges, telescopic mirrors, a beam of uniform strength in design applications, the
trajectory of the weightless flight.
Light Rays Light Rays
Light source Eye piece
Search light Mirror Telescope Mirror

Zero g Parabola
Zero g Parabola Zero g

Weightless flight trajectory Load
Beam of uniform strength
Use of parabolic curves is made in arches, bridges, sound reflectors, light reflectors etc.
Mathematically a parabola can be described by an equation y2  4ax or x 2  4ay
1. General method of construction of a parabola:

Example: To construct a parabola, when the distane of the focus from the directrix is 50mm.
A
P3
N
P P2
P1
M

90
V 1 2 3
C F D
T
P1
P2
P3
B
Fig. Directrix and focus
1. Draw the directric AB and the axis CD.
2. Mark focus F on CD, 50mm from C.
3. Bisect CF in V vertex (because eccentricity = 1).
4. Mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. on the axis and through them, draw perpendiculars to it.
5. With centre F and radius equao to C1, draw arcs cutting the perpendicular through 1 at P1 and
P1
6. Similarly, locate points P2 and P2 , P3 and P3 etc. on both the sides of the axis.
7. Draw a smooth curve through these points. This curve is the required parabola. It is an open
curve.
Example: To find the axis of a given parabola.
D Q
B
G
H
E F
X O y
P
1. Draw any two chords AB and CD across the parabola, parallel to each other and any distance
apart.
2. Bisect AB and CD in points E and F respectively and draw a line GH passing through them. The
line GH will be parallel to the axis.
3. Draw a chord PQ, perpendicular to GH.
4. Bisect PQ in the point O and through it draw a line XY parallel to GH. Then XY is required axis
of the parabola.
Example: To find the focus and the directrix of a parabola whose axis is given.
C
B O V F A
D
1. Mark any point P on the parabola and draw a perpendicular PA to the axis. Mark a point B on
the axis such that BV = VA.
2. Draw a line joining B with P.
3. Draw a perpendicular bisector EF of BP, intersecting the axis at a point F. Then F is the focus of
the parabola.
4. Mark a point O on the axis such that OV = VF. Through O, draw a line CD perpendicular to the
axis. Then CD is the directrix of the parabola.
2. Construction of parabola by other methods:
Method – I: Rectangle method
D F C
P3
3 P2
2
P1 P1
O
1
A 1 2 3 E B
Rectangle method
Example: To construct a parabola given the base and the axis.
1. Draw the base AB.
2. At its mid-point E, draw the axis EF at right angles to AB.
3. Construct a rectangle ABCD, making side BC equal to EF.
4. Divide AE and CD into the same number of equal parts and name them as shown (starting from
A)
5. Draw lines joining F with points 1, 2 and 3. Through 1, 2 and 3 , draw perpendicular to AB
intersecting F1, F2 and F3 at points P1 , P2 and P3 respectively.
6. Draw a curve through A, P1 , P2 etc. It will be a half parabola.
Repeat the same construction in the other half of the rectangle to complete the parabola. Or, locate
the points by drawing lines through the points P1 , P2 etc. Parallel to the base and making each of
them of equal length on both the sides of EF, e.g. P1O  OP1 . AB and EF are called the base and the
axis respectively of the parabola.
C
P5
F P4
P P3
P2
P
D P1
P
5
P B
4
3
P
2 E
5
4
1 3
2
1
A Parallelogram method
Method – I: Tangent method:

O
7 1
6 2
5 3
4 4
3 5
2 6
1 7
A E B
Tangent method
1. Draw the base AB and the axis EF. (These are taken different from those in method-I).
2. Produce EF to O so that EF = FO.
3. Join O with A and B. Divide lines OA and OB into the same numbers of equal parts.
4. Mark the division-points as shown in the figure.
5. Draw lines joining 1 with 1, 2 with 2 etc. Draw a curve starting from A and tangent to lines
1  1, 2  2 etc. This curve is the required parabola.
HYPERBOLA:
A Hyperbola is obtained when a section plane, parallel or inclined to the axis cuts the cone on one
side of the axis. A Rectangular Hyperbola is obtained when a section, parallel to the axis cuts the
cone on one side of the axis.
Plane makessmaller angle with
axis than do the elements
Use of hyperbolical curves is made in cooling towers, water channels etc.

Rectangular Hyperbola: It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that the product
of its distances from two fixed lines at right angles to each other is a constant. The fixed lines are
called asymptotes.
This curve graphically represents the Boyle’s Law, viz. P  V  a, P = pressure, V = Volume and a
is constant. It is also useful in design of water channels.
General method of construction of a hyperbola:

Mathematically, we can describe a hyperbola by
x 2 y2
 1
a 2 b2
Example: Construct a hyperbola, when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 65mm and
3
eccentricity is .
2
A
3
2 P3
1
P2
T E
P1
V F D
C 1 2 3
90
M
P1
P P2
N
P3
B
1. Draw the directrix AB and the axis CD.
2. Mark the focus F on CD and 65mm from C.
3. Divide CF into 5 equal divisions and mark V the vertex, on the second division from C.
VF 3
Thus, eccentricity  
VC 2
3
To construct the scale for the ratio draw a line VE perpendicular to CD such that VE = VF.
2
Join C with E.
VE VF 3
Thus, in triangle CVE,   .
VC VC 2
4. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to meet CE-produced at 1 .
5. With centre F and radius equal to 1 1 , draw arcs intersecting the perpendicular through 1 at P1
and P1
6. Similarly, mark a number of points 2, 3 etc. and obtain points P2 and P2 , P3 and P3 etc.
7. Draw the hyperbola through these points.
Example: To draw a hyperbola when its foci and vertices are given, and to locate its asymptotes.
RP A A
P2
123
FV O V1 F1
S
P2 P2
A A
1. Draw a horizontal line as axis and on it, mark the given foci F and F1 , and vertices V and V1 .
2. Mark any number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. to the right of F1 .
3. With F and F1 as centres and radius, say V2 , draw four arcs.
4. With the same centres and radius V1 2, draw four more arcs intersecting the first four arcs at
points P2 . Then these points lie on the hyperbola.
5. Repeat the process with the same centres and radii V1 and V11, V3 and V1 3 etc. Draw the
required hyperbola through the points thus obtained.
6. With FF1 as diameter, draw a circle.
7. Through the vertices V and V1 , draw lines perpendicular to the axis, cutting the circle at four
points A. From O, the centre of the circle, draw lines passing through points A. These lines are
the required asymptotes.
Example: To locate the directrix and asymptotes of a hyperbola when its axis and foci are given.
From the focus F1 , draw a perpendicular to the axis intersecting the hyperbola at a point A.
C
R
A
E
F O B V1 F1
G
S
D
1. Draw a line joining A with the other focus F. Draw the bisector of  FAF1 , cutting the axis at a
point B.
2. Through B, draw a line CD perpendicular to the axis. CD is the required directrix.
3. With O the mid-point of FF1 as centre and OV1 as radius, draw a circle cutting CD at points E
and G.
4. Lines drawn from O and passing through E and G are the required asymptotes.
5. The asymptotes will also pass through the points of intersection (R and S) between the circle of
radius OF1 and the vertical through V1 .
Example: To draw a rectangular hyperbola, given the position of a point P on it.

B E
P6 6
6 P 1 2 3 4 5
C D
1 P1
2′ P2
P3
3′ P4
4′ P5
5′
O A
F
1. Draw lines OA and OB at right angles to each other.

2. Mark the position of the point P.
3. Through P, draw lines CD and EF parallel to OA and OB respectively.
4. Along PD, mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. not necessarily equidistant.
5. Draw lines O1, O2 etc. cutting PF at points 1, 2 etc.
6. Through point 1, draw a line parallel to OB and through 1 , draw a line parallel to OA,
intersecting each other at a point P1 .
7. Obtain other points in the same manner.
For locating the points, say P6 , to the left of P, the line O6 should be extended to meet PE at 6 .
Draw the hyperbola through the points P6 , P, P1 etc.
A hyperbola, through a given point situated between two lines making any angle between them, can
similarly be drawn, as shown in figure.
Tangents and Normal to Conics:

1. General Method:
The common rule for drawing tangents and normals:
When a tangent at any point on the curve is produced to meet the directrix, the line joining the focus
with this meeting point will be at right angles to the line joining the focus with the point of contact.
The normal to the curve at any point is perpendicular to the tangent at that point.
Example: To draw a tangent at any point P on the conics.

1. Join P with F.
2. From F, draw a line perpendicular to PF to meet AB at T.
3. Draw a line through T and P. This line is the tangent to the curve.
4. Through P, draw a line NM perpendicular to TP. NM is the normal to the curve.
2. Other methods of drawing tangents to conics:

Method-I:
Example: To draw a tangent to an ellipse at any point P on it.
1. With O, the centre of the ellipse as centre, and one half the major axis as radius, draw a circle.
2. From P, draw a line parallel to the minor axis, cutting the circle at a point Q.
S C
P
R A O
3. Draw a tangent to the circle at the point Q cutting the extended major axis at a point R.
From R, draw a line RS passing through P. RS is the required tangent to the ellipse.
Method-II: When an axis of parabola is given.

Example: To draw a tangent to a parabola at any point P on it.
1. From P, draw a perpendicular PA to the axis, intersecting it at a point A.
P
B V A
Mark a point B on the axis such that BV  VA . Draw a line from B passing through P.
Then this line is the required tangent.
2. Through P, draw a line PQ parallel to the axis.
S
D
P C x
x Q
A B
R
V
Draw two lines AB and CD parallel to, equidistant from and on opposite sides of PQ, and cutting
the parabola at points A and C. Draw a line joining A with C.
Through P, draw a line RS parallel to AC. RS is the required tangent.
Method-III: When the focus and the directrix are given.

A S
P
E
V F
B
1. From P draw a line PE perpendicular to the directrix AB, meeting it at a point E.
2. Draw a line joining P with the focus F.
3. Draw the bisector RS of angle EPF.
Then RS is the required tangent.
Example: To draw a tangent to a hyperbola at a point P on it when the axis and the foci are given.
Draw lines joining P with foci F and F1 . Draw the bisector RS of  FPF1 . RS is the required tangent
to the hyperbola.
SPIRALS:
A spiral is a curve traced by a point moving along a line in one direction, while the line is rotating
in a plane about one of its ends or any point on it.
(OR)
It is the locus of a point which moves around a centre, called the pole, while moving towards or
away from the centre.
Eg: Turbine casing, spiral casings. Etc
The point which generates the curve is called the generating point or tracing point.The point will
move along a line called the radius vector while the line itself rotates about one of its end point.
Types of spirals in engineering application:
I) Archimedean Spiral: The curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that its movement
towards or away from the pole is uniform with the increase in the vectorial angle from the starting
line.
II) Logarithmic Spiral: The ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles is
always constant. i.e. the values of the vectorial angles are in arithmetic progression and the
corresponding values of radius vectors are in geometric progression.
Roulettes:
Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling contact of one curve or line on another curve or
line. There are various types of roulettes. The most common types of roulettes used in engineering
practice are: Cycloids, trochoids, and Involutes. Assume a wheel is rolling along a surface without
slipping. Trace the locus of a point on the wheel. Depending on the position of the point and the
geometry of the surface on which the wheel rolls , different curves are obtained.
Cycloid:
Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along a straight
line. It can be described by an equation,
y  a 1  cos   or x  a    sin  
Example: To construct a cycloid, given the diameter of the generating circle.

1. With centre C and given radius R, draw a circle. Let P be the generating point.
2. Draw a line PA tangential to and equal to the circumference of the circle.
3. Divide the circle and the line PA into the same number of equal parts, and mark the division-
points as shown.
4. Through C, draw a line CB parallel and equal to PA.
5. Draw perpendicular at points 1, 2 etc. cutting CB at points C1 , C2 etc.
6 P6 S
7 5′
N
4′
8 R
C9 C10 T
R C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 M B
9 3′ P9
10 P1 P2 2′
1′
11
P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O 8 9 10 11 A
Cycloid
Assume that the circle starts rolling to the right. When point 1 coincides with 1, centre C will
move to C1 . In this position of the circle, the generating point P will have moved to position P1 on
the circle, at a distance equal to P1 from point 1. It is evident that P1 lies on the horizontal line
through 1 and at a distance R from C1 .
Similarly, P2 will lie on the horizontal line through 2 and at the distance R from C2 .
Construction:
6. Through the points 1, 2 etc. draw lines parallel to PA.
7. With centres C1, C2 etc. and radius equal to R, radius of generating circle, draw arcs cutting the
lines through 1, 2 etc. at points P1 , P2 etc. respectively.
Normal and tangent to a cycloid curve: The rule for drawing a normal to all cycloidal
curves:
The normal at any point on a cycloidal curve will pass through the corresponding point of
contact between the generating circle and the directing line or circle.
The tangent at any point is perpendicular to the normal at that point.
Example: To draw a normal and a tangent to a cycloid at a given point N on it.
1. With centre N and radius equal to R, draw an arc cutting CB at M.
2. Through M, draw a line MO perpendicular to the directing line PA and cutting it at O.
O is the point of contact and M is the position of the centre of the generating circle, when the
generating point P is at N.
3. Draw a line through N and O. This line is the required normal.
4. Through N, draw a line ST at right angles to NO. ST is the tangent to the cycloid.
Example: A thin circular disc of 50mm diameter is allowed to roll without slipping from upper
edge of sloping plank which is inclined at 15 with the horizontal plane. Draw the curve traced by
the point on the circumference of the disc.
6 7
5 8
B6 B4 4 9
B5 O1
O O 2 3
B7
O O5 O 4 3 B2
B1
10
B8 O 6
O 7 2 11
O O10 O9 8
O12 11 1 B
B9 4  3 2
5
B10 8 7 6 15
10 9
11′
A
1. Draw a line AB of length 157mm  i.e., D  at angle of 15 with the horizontal.
2. Draw a circle of 50mm diameter at upper edge B as shown and divide the circumference of the
circle in twelve equal parts. Name 1, 2, 3, 4 to 11. Draw parallel lines from 1, 2, 3, 4 to 11 to the
AB. Take B as generating point on the circumference.
3. Draw a parallel line from the centre of circle O to line AB and equal to length of AB. Divide this
line in 12 parts. Name O1 to O12 as shown.
4. As the disc rolls from position B, the centre of disc simultaneously moves from O to O1 . Draw
an arc with radius as 25mm and centre as O1 to intersect the line drawn from the point 1 parallel
to AB. Mark intersection point as B1 . This point is on the cycloid.

5. Similarly draw arc from the points O 2 to O12 such that it intersects each line drawn from 2 to
11 respectively. Join the points by smooth curve. This curve is the cycloid.
14.8 Epicycloid and Hypocycloid:

The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping along
another circle outside it, is called an epicycloids. The epicycloids can be represented mathematically
by
ab 
x   a  b  cos   a cos  ,
 a 
ab 
y   a  b  sin   a sin  
 a 
Where a is the radius of rolling circle.
When the circle rolls along another circle inside it, the curve is called a hypocycloid. It can be
represented by mathematically x  a cos3 , y  a sin 3  .
Example: To draw an epicycloids and hypocycloid, given the generating and directing circles of
radii r and R respectively.
Epicycloid: With centre O and radius R, draw the directing circle (only a part of it may be drawn).
Draw a radius OP and produce it to C, so that CP = r.
T
P6
N
S r
C3 C6
P3 3′ D C9
6 C1
r P9
C 1′ M
P1
g B
P
R A
O
Epicycloid
With C as centre, draw the generating circle. Let P be the generating point.
In one revolution of the generating circle, the point P will move to a point A, so that the arc PA is
equal to the circumference of the generating circle.
The position of A may be located by calculating the angle subtended by the arc PA at centre O,
by the formula,
POA arc PC 2r r
  
360 circumference of directing circle 2R R
r
POA  360
R
1. Set-off this angle and obtain the position of A.
2. With centre O and radius equal to OC, draw an arc intersecting OA-produced at B. This arc CB
is the locus of the centre C.
3. Divide CB and the generating circle into twelve equal parts.
4. With centre O, describe arcs through points 1, 2,3 etc.
5. With centres C1, C 2 etc. and radius equal to r, draw arcs cutting the arcs through 1, 2 etc. at
points P1 , P2 etc.
Draw the required epicycloids through the points P, P1, P2 ........A.
Hypocycloid: The method for drawing the hypocycloid is same as for epicycloids. Note that the
centre C of the generating circle is inside the directing circle.
M
1′
3 C6 D
P P1 A
C3 C9 P9
r
C1
P6 T
B
C N
S
R
9 6

O
Hypocycloid
When the diameter of the rolling circle is half the diameter of the directing circle, the
hypocycloid is a straight line and is a diameter of the directing circle.
C6
3′
C3 C9
1′
C1 180
6 A
P P1 P3 C P6 O P9
R
r
9 Hypocycloid
Normal and tangent to an epicycloids and a hypocycloid:

Example: To draw a normal and a tangent to an epicycloids and a hypocycloid at a point N in each
of them.
1. With centre N and radius equal to r, draw an arc cutting the locus of the centre C at a point D.
2. Draw a line through O and D, cutting the directing circle at M.
3. Draw a line through N and M. This line is the normal. Draw a line ST through N and at right
angles to NM. ST is the tangent.
Trochoid :
Trochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to a circle, within or outside its circumference, as the
circle rolls along a straight line.
When the point is within the circle, the curve is called an inferior trochoid and when outside the
cirlcle, it is termed a superior trochoid.
Example: To draw a trochoid, given the rolling circle and the generating point.
Inferior Trochoid:
Let Q be the point within the circle and at a distance R1 from the centre C.
1. Draw the circle and mark a point Q on the line CP and at a distance R1 from C.
2. Draw a tangent PA equal to the circumference of the circle and a line CB equal and parallel to
PA.
3. Divide the circle and the line CB into 12 equal parts.
Method-I: Determine the positions P1 , P2 etc. for the cycloid as shown in example-20. Draw lines
C1P1, C2 P2 etc. With centres C1 , C 2 etc. and radius equal to R1 , draw arcs cutting C1P1, C2 P2 etc.
at points Q1 , Q 2 etc. respectively.
Draw a curve through these points. This curve is the inferior trochoid.
SUPERIOR S6
6 P6
Q6
S3 Q3 C3 C6 P9 B
9 C P3 C9 Q9 S9
R1 Q
3 INFERIOR
2
Q Q1 1′
R2
S1 P A
S Trochoids
Method-II: With centre C and radius equal to R1, draw a circle and divide it into 12 equal parts.
Through the division-points, draw lines parallel to PA. With centres C1, C 2 etc. and radius
equal to R1, draw arcs to cut the lines through 1, 2 etc. at points Q1 , Q 2 etc. Draw the trochoid
through these points.
Q6
6′
R C B
R C C Q C C Q9
9
R Q
Q 2
Q 1
A
Inferior
Superior Trochoid:
Let S be the point outside circumference of the circle and at a distance R 2 from the centre.
6 S6
R
S3 C3 C6 C9
R B
9
R C S9 S3
S
2
S1 1 A
S S 12
Superior trochoid
Method – I: Adopt the same method as method-I used for inferior trochoid. Point S will lie on the
line CP-produced, at distance R 2 from C. Points S1 , S2 etc. are obtained by cutting the lines C1P1 
produced, C2 P2 -produced etc. with arcs drawn with centres C1, C 2 etc. and radius equal to R 2 .
S,S1 ,S2 etc. are the points on the superior trochoid.
Method-II: Same as method-II for inferior trochoid. Note that the radius of the circle is equal to
R 2 . A loop is formed when the circle rolls for more than one revolution.
Involute:
The involute is a curve traced out by an end of a piece of thread unwound from a circle or a polygon,
the thread being kept tight. It may also be defined as a curve traced out by a point in a straight line
which rolls without slipping along a circle or a polygon. Involute of a circle is used as teeth profile
of gear wheel. Mathematically it can be described by x  r cos   r sin , y  r sin   r cos  .
Where ‘r’ is the radius of a circle.
Example: To draw an involute of a given circle.

With centre C, draw the given circle. Let P be the starting point, i.e., the end of the thread.
Suppose the thread to be partly unwound, say upto a point 1. P will move to a position P1 such
that 1P1 is tangent to the circle and is equal to the arc 1P. P1 will be a point on the involute.
Construction:
1. Draw a line PQ, tangent to the circle and equal to the circumference of the circle.
2. Divide PQ and the circle into 12 equal parts.
3. Draw tangents at points 1, 2, 3 etc. and mark on them points P1, P2 , P3 etc. such that
1P1  P1, 2P2  P2,3P3  P3 etc.
Draw the involute through the points P, P1 , P2 .......etc.
Normal and tangent to an involute:

The normal to an involute of a circle is tangent to that circle.
Example: To draw a normal and a tangent to the involute of a circle at a point N on it.
P9
S
T
P6 6
C R
3 9
2 M
P
1
P1 1 2 3 6 9 Q
P3 P2
Fig. Involute
1. Draw a line joining C with N.
2. With CN as diameter describe a semi-circle cutting the circle at M.
3. Draw a line through N and M. This line is the normal. Draw line ST, perpendicular to NM and
passing through N. ST is the tangent to the involute.
Example: To draw an involute of a given square.

Let ABCD be the given square.
1. With centre A and radius AD, draw an arc to cut the line BA – produced at a point P1.
2. With centre B and radius BP1  i.e., BA  AD  draw an arc to cut the line CB – produced at a
point P2 . Similarly, with centres C and D and radii CP2  i.e., CB  BA  AD  and DP3
 i.e., DC  CB  BA  AD  perimeter  respectively, draw arcs to cut DC – produced at a point

P3 and AD – produced at a point P4 .
The curve thus obtained is the involute of the square.
Example: Trace the paths of the ends of a straight line AP, 100mm long, when it rolls, without
slipping, on a semi-circle having its diameter AB, 75mm long. (Assume the line AP to tangent to the
semi-circle in the starting position).
A
P3 A5
P
5 P1
4
P2
3
P2 B
C 2 3
2 4
A P4 1 1 5
D
A2 P P5
P1 A1
A O B
1. Draw the semi-circle and divide it into six equal parts.

2. Draw the line AP and mark points 1, 2 etc. such that A1 = arc A1 , A2  arc A2 etc. The last
division 5P will be a shorter length. On the semi-circle, mark a point P such that 5P  5P.
3. At points 1, 2 etc. draw tangents and on them, mark points P1 , P2 etc. such that
1P1  1P, 2P2  2P... and 5P5  5P6  5P . Similarly, mark points A1 , A 2 etc. Such that
A11  A1 , A 2 2  A 2 ..... and AP  AP. Draw the required curves through points P, P1..... and
P, and through points A, A1..... and A.
If AP is an inelastic string with the end A attached to the semi-circle, the end P will trace out
the same curve PP when the string is wound round the semi-circle.
P3
P2
P1
6
P6
9 P P14
1
A 1 2 P12 6 9 12 14 P
Above fig shows the curve out by the end of a thread which is longer than the circumference of
the circle on which it is wound.
Note that the tangent 1P1  1P, 2P2  2P etc. and lastly 2P  2P14  14P
Evolutes:
APB is a given curve. O is the centre of a circle draw through three points C, P and D on this curve.
If the points C and D are moved to converge towards P, until they are indefinitely close together,
then in the limit, the circle becomes the circle of curvature of the curve APB at P. The centre O of
the circle of curvature lies on the normal to the curve at P. This centre is called the centre of
curvature at P. The locus of the centre of curvature of a curve is called the evolute of the curve. A
curve has only one evolute.
Archemedian Spiral:
It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that its movement towards or away from the
pole is uniform with the increase of the vectorial angle from the starting line.
The use of this curve is made in teeth profiles of helical gears, profiles of cams etc.
1
Example: To construct an Archemedian spiral of 1 convolutions, given the greatest and the
2
shortest radii.
Let O be the pole, OP the greatest radius and OQ the shortest radius.
1
1. With centre O and radius equal to OP, draw a circle. OP revolves around O for 1 revolutions.
2
During this period, P moves towards O, the distance equal to (OP-OQ) i.e., QP.
1
2. Divide the angular movements of OP, viz 1 revolutions i.e., 540 , and the line QP into the
2
same number of equal parts, say 18 (one revolution divided into 12 equal parts).
When the line OP moves through one division, i.e., 30 the point P will move towards O by a
distance equal to one division of QP to a point P1
3. To obtain points systematically draw arcs with centre O and radii O1, O2, O3 etc. intersecting
lines O1, O2, O3 etc. at points P1, P2 , P3 etc. respectively.
In one revolution, P will reach the 12th division along QP and in the next half revolution it will
be at the point PQ on the line 18  O.
4. Draw a curve through points P, P1, P2 , PQ . This curve is the required Archemedian spiral.
Normal and tangent to an Archemedian Spiral: The normal to an Archemedian spiral at any
point is the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle having the other two sides equal in length to the
radius vector at that point and the constant of the curve respectively.
The constant of the curve is equal to the difference between the lengths of any two radii
divided by the circular measure of the angle between them.
OP and OP3 are two radii making 90 angle between them. In circular measure in radian,
 OP  OP3
90   1.57 . Threfore, the constant of the curve, C 
2 1.57
Example: To draw a normal to the Archemedian spiral at a point N on it.

1. Draw the radius vector NO.
2. Draw a line OM equal in length to the constant of the curve C and perpendicular to NO.
3. Draw the line NM which is the normal to the spiral.
4. Through N, draw a line ST perpendicular to NM. ST is the tangent to the spiral.
3,15
P3 
P2 2
P1 1
P15
S
M
P6 PQ  P129
6,18
O Q 15 6 321 P
N
T P9
9
Fig. Archemedian Spiral
Example: A link 225mm long, swings on a pivot O from its vertical position of rest to the right
through an angle of 75 and returns to its initial position at uniform velocity. During that period, a
point P moving at uniform speed along the centre line of the link from a point at a distance of 25 mm
from O, reaches the end of the link. Draw the locus of the point P.
O
P P4
1
P1 B
2 P2 P3
P5
3
4
P6 3,5
5
6
7 P7 2, 6
A 1, 7 
1. Draw a vertical line OA, 225 mm long.

2. With centre O and radius equal to OA, draw an arc.
3. Draw a line OB making AOB equal to 75 and cutting the arc at B.
4. Mark a point P along OA and at a distance of 25mm from O.
5. Divide the angular movement of the link and the line PA into the same number of equal parts.
The end A of the link moves to B and returns to its original position. Hence, the arc AB must be
divided into four equal parts.
6. With centre O and radii O1, O2, O3 etc., draw arcs intersecting lines O1, O2, O3 etc. at points.
P1, P2 , P3 etc. respectively. Draw a curve through P, P1.....P4 .....A. This curve is the locus of the
point P.
Logarithmic or Equiangular Spiral:

In a logarithmic spiral, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles
is always constant. In other words the values of vectorial angles are in arithmetical progression and
the corresponding values of radius vectors are in geometrical progression.
The logarithmic spiral is also known as equiangular spiral because of its property that the
angle which the tangent at any point on the curve makes with the radius vector at that point is
constant.
Example: To construct a logarithmic spiral of one convolution, given the length of the shortest
radius and the ratio of the lengths of radius vectors enclosing an angle .
10
Assume the shortest radius be 1cm long,  equal to 30 and the ratio .
9
The lengths of radius vectors are determined from the scale which is constructed as shown
below.
P3
P2
P1

T P6
O P P12 Q
 R B
12
N 6
3
D1
P9 A E1 3 6 C
i   ii 
1. Draw lines AB and AC making an angle of 30 between them.
2. On AB, mark AD, 1cm long. On AC, mark a point E such that
10 10
AE  1cm  cm
9 9
3. Draw a line joining D with E.
4. With centre A and radius AE, draw an arc cutting AB at a point 1. Through 1, draw a line 1  1
parallel to DE and cutting AC at 1 . Again, with centre A and radius A1 draw an arc cutting AB
at 2. Through 2, draw a line 2  2 parallel to DE and cutting AC at 2 . Repeat the construction
and obtain points 3, 4 .......12. A1, A2 etc. are the lengths of consecutive radius vectors.
5. Draw a horizontal line OQ and on it, mark OP, 1cm long. Through O, draw radial lines making
30 angles between two consecutive lines. These are the radius vectors.
6. Mark points P1, P2 ......P12 on consecutive radius vectors such that OP1  A1, OP2  A2 .........
OP12  A12 .
7. Draw a smooth curve through P1 , P2 .....P12 . This curve is the required logarithmic spiral.
The equation to the logarithmic spiral is r  a  where r is the radius vector,  is the vectorial angle
and a is a constant.
Hence, log r   log a.
If   0, log r  O r  1.
 10 10 10 
When   30  radians, r 1  log  log a
6 9 9 9 6
6 10
i.e., log a  log a  1.22
 9
Helix:
Helix is defined as a curve, generated by a point, moving around the surface of a right circular
cylinder or a right circular cone in such a way that, its axial advance, i.e., its movement in the
direction of the axis of the cylinder or the cone is uniform with its movement around the surface of
the cylinder or the cone.
The axial advance of the point during one complete revolution is called the pitch of the helix.
If the pitch is say 20mm and the point starts upwards from the base of the cylinder, in one-fourth of
a revolution, the point will move up a distance of 5mm from the base. We shall now learn in the
articles to follow.
1. A method of drawing a helical curve
2. Helical springs
3. Screw threads
4. Helix upon a cone
A method of Drawing a Helical Curve:
Example: To draw a helix of one convolution, given the pitch and the diameter of the cylinder.
Also to develop the surface of the cylinder showing the helix in it.
D D
P12
12 P12
P9 P9
9
P6
PITC
6 P6
P3
3 P P1
1 P1 9 3 
P1 3 6 P 1 3 6 9 12
10 9 8
11 7
P 6
1 5
2 4
3
i   ii 
1. Draw the projections of the cylinder. Divide the circle (in top view) into any number of equal
parts.
2. Mark a length P  12 equal to the given pitch, along a vertical side of the rectangle in the front
view and divide it into the same number of equal parts.
3. Assume the point P to move upwards and in anti-clockwise direction.
When it has moved through 30 around the circle, it will have moved up by one division. To
locate this position, draw a vertical line through the point 1 and a horizontal line through the
point 1 , both intersecting each other at a point P1 , which will be on the helix.
4. Obtain other points in the same manner and draw the helix through them.
The portion of the curve from P6 to P12 will be on the back side of the cylinder and hence it will
not be visible.
Figure shows the development of the surface of the cylinder. The helix is seen as a straight line and
is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle having base equal to the circumference of the circle and
the vertical side equal to the pitch of the helix. The angle  which it makes with the base, is called
pitch
the helix angle. The helix angle can be expressed as tan  
circumference of the circle
QUESTIONS:
1. To draw smooth curves of any nature the instrument used is.
a) French curve b) compass c) drafter d) set square
2. A device which can serve the purpose of set-square, t-square, protractor, scale.
a) drafter b) divider c) compass d) French surve
3. An area of sheet size A0 is

a) 1m2 b) 0.5m2 c) 0.75m2 d) 0.25m2
4. An area of sheet size A2 is

a) 1m2 b) 0.5m2 c) 0.75m2 d) 0.25m2
5. Which of the following drawing sheet sizes represent the A1 drawing sheet
a) 841x594mm b) 594x420mm c) 1189x841mm d) 297x210mm
6. A series of paper has length to width ratio
a) 3:1 b) √2:1 c) √3:2 d) 2:1
7. The inclination of letters as recommended by BIS is

a) 700 b) 750 c) 600 d) 900
8. The dimension fig for diameter of a circle should be

a) Preceded by the symbol “Ø” b) preceded by the symbol “D”
c) Surffixed by the symbol “D” d) Surffixed by the symbol “Ø”
9. Centre line are drawn as

a) Continuous narrow line b) dashed narrow line
c) long dashed dotted double dotted narrow line
d) long dashed dotted narrow lines
10. Which of the following pencile leads is hardest.

a) HB b) B c) H d) 2B
11. The internal angle of a hexagon is

a) 1080 b) 720 c) 1200 d) 1100
12. Octagon consist of how many sides

a) 5 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8
13. To drawing a building on a drawing sheet the scale adopted is

a) enlarged scale b) full size scale c) reduced scale d) none
ESE 2017 QUESTION

14. The locus traced by a point moving along a pendulum from one end to another, when the pendulum
oscillates is
a) A spiral b) An involute c) A cycloid d) A helix
15. If the radius of a generating circle which is moving inside the directing circle is half of the radius of
the directing circle the curve generated by a point on the circumference of the generating circle is.
a) A circle b) An ellipse c) a straight line d) a spiral.
16. A cone is resting with its base on H.P. A section plane parallel to V.P cuts the cone. The section is
some distance away from the centre and does not pass through the apex. The true shape of the
section is
a) Hyperbola b) Rectangular hyperbola c) parabola d) rectangular parabola
Fill in the Blanks:

01. When a cone is cut by planes at different angles, the curves of intersection are called ________
02. When the plane makes the same angle with the axis as do the generators, the curve is a ______
03. When the plane is perpendicular to the axis, the curve is a __________
04. When the plane is parallel to the axis, the curve is a _________
05. When the plane makes an angle with the axis greater than what do the generators, the curve is a
_____
06. A conic is a locus of a point moving in such a way that the ratio of its distance from the ______ and
its distance from the ________ is always constant. This ratio is called the __________. It is _______
in case of parabola, ________ in case of hyperbola and ___________ in case of ellipse.
07. In a conic the line passing through the fixed point and perpendicular to the fixed line is called the
_____
08. The vertex is the point at which the ________ cuts the _________.
09. The sum of the distances of any point on the ____________ from its two foci is always the same and
equal to the _____________
10. The distance of the ends of the _______ of an ellipse from the _______ is equal to half the _______
11. In a ________ _________ the product of the distances of any point on it from two fixed lines at
right angles to each other is always constant. The fixed lines are called _______
12. Curves generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle rolling along a fixed line or circle
are called _________ ___________
13. The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, rolling along another circle inside it,
is called a __________
14. The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling along a straight line is called
a __________
15. The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling along another circle outside
it, is called __________
16. The curve generated by a point fixed to a circle outside its circumference, as it rolls along a straight
line is called ____________ ___________
17. The curve generated by a point fixed to a circle inside its circumference, as it rolls along a circle
inside it, is called ____________ __________
18. The curve generated by a point fixed to a circle outside its circumference as it rolls along a circle
outside it, is called ________ ___________
19. The curve traced out by a point on a straight line which rolls, without slipping, along a circle or a
polygon is called _________
20. The curve traced out by a point moving in a plane in one direction, towards a fixed point while
moving around it is called a ________
21. The line joining any point on the spiral with the pole is called ___________
22. In ______ _________ the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles is
always constant.
key:
1)a 2)a 3)a 4)d 5)a 6)b 7)b 8)a 9)d 10)c 11)c 12)d 13)c 14)a 15)c 16)b
Fill in the blanks
1 Conics 2 Parabola 3 Circle
Focus, Directrix, Eccentricity,

4 Hyperbola 5 Ellipse 6 Equal to 1, Greater than 1,
Smaller than 1
7 Axis 8 Conic, Axis 9 Ellipse, Major Axis
Minor axis, Focus, Rectangular, Hyperbola,

10 11 12 Cycloidal, Curves
Major axis Asymptotes
13 Hypocycloid 14 Cycloid 15 Epicycloid
16 Superior, Trochoid 17 Inferior, Hypotrochoid 18 Superior, Epitrochoid
19 Involute 20 Spiral 21 Radius vector
22 Logarithmic, Spiral
Unit
4 Orthographic Projection
INTRODUCTION:
In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-D
media. The 3-D object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called “projection”. The image
obtained by projection is known as a “view”. All projection theory are based on two variables
a) Projector or line of sight
b) Plane of projection.
 The transparent plane on which the projections are drawn is known plane of projection.
 The lines or rays drawn from the object to the plane are called projectors.
Plane of
Pr ojection
Object
Lines of sight
 Pr ojectors 
View
TYPES OF PROJECTIONS:
a) Pictorial projections: The projection in which the description of the object is completely
understood in one view is known as pictorial projection. This projection give an immediate
understanding of shape and details of object, but not its true size or dimension. Different types of
pictorial projection are
I) isometric projection
II) Oblique projection
III) Perspective projection.
Isometric projection gives true shape of the object, while other two projection do not.
VANI Publications Orthographic Projection
b) ORTHORGRAPHIC PROJECTION:
“ORTHO” means “RIGHT ANGLE”. When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic projection
and the object is represented by two or more views.
top
front side
ORTHOGRAPHICPROJECTION
FOUR QUADRANTS:
The orthographic projection are obtained on two principal planes (also called as reference plane)
having negligible thickness namely vertical plane (V.P) and horizontal plane (H.P). The principal
planes are perpendicular to each other and they divide the space into four quadrants. They are
usually called angles.
ABOVE
V.P.
A ALWAYS
FIRST QUADRANT
B TO BE OPENED
ABOVE H.P
BEHIND V.P. y 90
2nd
1st QUAD ABOVE H.P
x IN FRONT V.P
3rd QUAD H.P.
BELOW H.P. 4th

BEHIND V.P. BELOW H.P.
IN FRONT V.P FRONT
B
A
 Horizontal plane (H.P): The plane which is placed horizontally is known as horizontal plane.
 Vertical plane (V.P): The plane which is placed vertically and perpendicular to horizontal plane is
known as vertical plane
 Ground line: The line of intersection of two principal plane (V.P and H.P) ia called ground line or
reference line.
 Front view: when the view of an objected is projected on vertical plane (V.P) then view is called
front view (F.V) or Elevation.
 Top view: when the view of an objected is projected on horizontal plane (H.P) then view is called
top view (T.V) or Plan.
 Profile plane (P.P): The plane perpendicular to both the principle plane( V.P & H.P) are called
profile plane. When some feature of an object which is on it left or to it right cannot be shown in top
and front view then it is show in profile plane. The plane on the right end of principle plane is called
right profile plane .similarly the plane on left end is called left profile plane.
 Side view: the view of an object drawn by observing it either from left hand side or right hand side
on a profile plane is called side view.
 Auxiliary plane (A.P): The plane, which is placed at any angle to the reference plane is called
auxiliary plan.
 Auxiliary vertical plan: The plane which is placed at right angle to the reference plane is called
auxiliary vertical plane.
 Auxiliary view: projection on an auxiliary plane is called auxiliary view. Side view is a special case
of auxiliary view.
PROJECTION METHODS:
Universally either the 1st angle projection or 3rd angle projection methods is followed for obtaining
engineering drawings. 2nd and 4thangle projection is avoided as it complex and create confusion.
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION:

 The object lies in front of V.P and above H.P.
 The object lies between observer and plane of projection.
 The top view is drawn below the front view.
 Left side view is placed at right side of the front view.
 Right side view is placed at left side of the front view.
 Back view is placed left or right side of the front view as per convenience.
Bottom View
Right View Front View Left View Rear View
Top View
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

Third angle projection:
 The object lies in behind the V.P and below H.P.
 The plane of projection lies between object and observer.
 The top view is drawn above the front view.
 Bottom view is placed below the front view.
 Left side view is placed at left side of the front view.
 Right side view is placed at right side of the front view.
 Back view is placed left or right side of the front view as per convenience.
Top View
Rear View Left View Front View Right View
Bottom View
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
Reference Line:
Studying the projections independently, it can be seen that while considering the front view, which
is the view as seen from the front, the H.P. coincides with the line xy. In other words, xy represents
the H.P.
V.P.
Y
H.P.
X H.P.
FRONT V.P.
FRONT
H.P.
V.P.
X Y
FRONT VIEW
FRONT VIEW
X Y V.P.
H.P.
FIRST  ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD  ANGLE PROJECTION
Similarly, while considering the top view, which is the view obtained by looking from above, the
same line xy represents the V.P. Hence, when the two projections are drawn in correct relationship
with each other xy represents both the H.P. and the V.P. This line xy is called the reference line. The
squares or rectangles for individual planes are thus unnecessary and are therefore discarded.
ABOVE
ABOVE
V.P.
Y
H.P.
H.P.
V.P.
V.P.
X Y H.P.
TOP VIEW TOP VIEW
H.P. X Y
V.P.
FIRST  ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD  ANGLE PROJECTION
Further, in first-angle projection method, the H.P. is always assumed to be so placed as to coincide
with the ground on or above which the object is situated. Hence, in this method, the line xy is also
the line for the ground.
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW
X Y X Y
TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW

G L
i   ii 
In third-angle projection method, the H.P. is assumed to be placed above the object. The object
may be situated on or above the ground. Hence, in this method, the line xy does not represent the
ground. The line for the ground, denoted by letters GL, may be drawn parallel to xy and below the
front view.
In brief, when an object is situated on the ground, in first-angle projection method, the bottom of
its front view will coincide with xy; in third-angle projection method, it will coincide with GL, while
xy will be above the front view and parallel to Ground line.
Symbol of projection
The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw the two
sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal the left view is drawn.
Frustrum of a cone
LEFT VIEW
FRONT VIEW LEFT VIEW LEFT VIEW FRONT VIEW

FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION PICTORIAL VIEW THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
QUESTIONS:
1. The top view of an object is projected on the
a) Vertical plane b) horizontal plane c) auxiliary plane d) profile plane
2. Projection of an object shown by 3 views is called.

a) Orthographic b) isometric c) perspective d) oblique
3. In an orthographic projection the elevation is obtain on a plane is called
a) Vertical b) profile c) horizontal d) auxiliary
4. In orthographic projection, the xy line is known as

a) Vertical line b) horizontal line c) reference line d) straight line
5. In orthographic views, the height dimension of an object is seen in

a) front top and side b) front and side c)front and top d) top and side
6. In third angle projection method, the relative positions of the object, plane of projection and
observer are
a) plane of projection is placed in between b) object is placed in between
c) observer is placed in between d) may be placed in any order
7. BIS recommends the following projection for orthographic projection

a) Second angle b) first angle c) third angle d) fourth angle
8. In first angle projection method, the relative position of an object, plane and observer are
a) plane of projection is placed in between b) object is placed in between
c) observer is placed in between d) may be placed in any order
9. In first angle projection system, right hand side view of an object is drawn
a) above the elevation b) below the elevation
c) left of the elevation d) right of the elevation
10. For the object shown in fig. Select the front view.
a  b c d 
Fill in the Blanks:
01. In ____________ projection, the ___________ are perpendicular to the _______ of projection.
02. In first-angle projection method,

(a) The __________ comes between the ______ and the ____________
(b) The __________ view is always ________ the ___________ view.
03. In third-angle projection method,

(a) The __________ comes between the ______ and the ____________.
(b) The _________ view is always _________ the ____________ view.
KEY:
1) b 2) a 3) a 4) c 5) c 6) a 7) b 8) b 9) c 10) b
Fill in the Blanks:

01. Orthographic, Projectors, Plane
02. (a) Object, Observer, Plane
(b) Top, Below, Front
03. (a) Plane, Object, Observer
(b) Top, Above, Front
Unit
5 Projection of Points
INTRODUCTION:
A point is geometrical element which has no dimension and is represented by dot. The position of
point is define with respect to its distance from three principle plane (V.P, H.P and P.P).
1. Projection of a point in the first quadrant:

Point A is 30mm above H.P and 80 mm in front of V.P. draw it projections.
Solution:
 Point A is 80mm in front of V.P. Aa is the projector perpendicular to H.P. a is top view of A and it is
80mm in front of reference line.
 Point A is 30mm above H.P. Aa' is the projector perpendicular to V.P. a' is the front view of A and it
is 30mm above reference line.
 To convert the pictorial view into orthographic projection rotate H.P. about reference line by 900 in
clockwise direction. After rotation, the first quadrant is opened out and the H.P occupies the position
vertically below V.P. also the point a on H.P will trace a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and a
occupies the position just below O.
V.P.
V.P.
a 80
Y A a
30
0
30
H.P.
X a X Y
80
a H.P.
a
H.P.
2. Projection of a point in the second quadrant:

Point B is 60mm above H.P. and 80mm behind V.P draw its projections.
VANI Publications Projection of Points
Solution:
 Point B is 80mm behind V.P. Bb is the projector perpendicular to H.P. b is top view of B and it is
80mm behind reference line.
 Point B is 60mm above H.P. Bb' is the projector perpendicular to V.P. b' is the front view of B and it
is 60mm above reference line.
clockwise direction. After rotation H.P. coincides with V.P and both the front and top views are seen
above reference line. also the point b on H.P will trace a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and b
occupies the above O.
b
V.P.
B
80 b
60
80
b
60
H.P. b
Y
X Y
0
3. Projection of a point in the third quadrant:

A point C is 85mm below HP and 60mm behind VP. Draw its projections.
Solution:
 Point C is 60mm behind V.P. Cc is the projector perpendicular to H.P. c is top view of B and it is
60mm behind reference line.
 Point C is 85mm below H.P. Cc' is the projector perpendicular to V.P. c' is the front view of C and it
is 85mm below reference line.
To convert the pictorial view into orthographic projection rotate H.P. about reference line by 900 in
clockwise direction. After rotation the third quadrant is opened out and the H.P occupies the position
vertically above V.P. also the point c on H.P will trace a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and c
occupies the above O.
C
H.P.
60
H.P. C
C V.P.
Y X Y
H.P.
O
85
X 85
C
V.P.
60 C
C
4. Projection of a point in the fourth quadrant:

A point B is 85mm below HP and 60mm front of VP. Draw its projections.
Solution:
 Point B is 60mm in front of V.P. Bb is the projector perpendicular to H.P. b is top view of B and it is
60mm front of reference line.
 Point B is 85mm below H.P. Bb' is the projector perpendicular to V.P. b' is the front view of B and it
is 85mm below reference line.
clockwise direction. After rotation H.P. coincides with V.P and both the front and top views are
seen below reference line. also the point b on H.P will trace a quadrant of a circle with O as centre
and b occupies the below O.
Y
X Y
X H.P. 60
b
80
b 80
b
b
B
V.P.
60
5. PROJECTION WHEN POINT IS ON HP:

A point E is on HP at a distance of 45mm from reference line.
Solution:
 Point E is 45mm in front of VP and top view of “e” lies HP only in front of reference line.
 Since the point lie on HP its front view lies on reference line .
clockwise direction. After rotation, HP coincides with VP and both front view and top view are seen
below reference line.
V.P.
V.P. e
X Y
Y H.P.
O 45
e 45
H.P.
X e
E
e
e
6. PROJECTION WHEN POINT IS ON HP:

A point ‘F’ is on VP at a distance of 45mm from reference line.
Solution:
 Since the point lie on VP its top view lies on reference line
 Point F is 45mm in above of reference line and front view of “f” lies VP only.
clockwise direction. After rotation, HP coincides with VP and both front view and top view are seen
below reference line.
f
V.P.
45
f F V.P.
X H.P. Y
45 Y f
f
O
X
H.P.
7. Projection on auxiliary plane: Sometime projections of object on the principal (H.P and V.P)
are insufficient. In such situation, another projection plane perpendicular to the principal planes is
taken. This plane is known as auxiliary plane. The projection on the auxiliary plane is known as side
view or side elevation.
X1 LEFT SIDE
AUXILIAR Y VE RT ICAL PLANE
 A.V.P.
A.V.P
V.P.
SHOREST
q DISTANCE q
Y
Q
q
H.P.
The A.V.P. can be also taken right side also. For more details on projection on auxiliary plane.
QUESTIONS:
1. The line joining the front and top view of a point is called
a) Projector b) reference line c) locus d) connector
2. A point whose elevation and plan are above xy is situated in

a) First angle b) second angle c) third angle d) fourth angle
3. A point lying in the HP, has its top view above xy. Its front view is
a) on xy b) above xy c) before xy d) any of these
4. A point is 20mm below HP and 30mm behind VP its top view is

a) 20mm below xy b) 30mm below xy c) 20mm above xy d) 30mm above xy
5. A point whose elevation is above the reference line is probably situated in

a) first angle b) second angle c) vertical plane d) any of these
6. If both the front and top view of a point lie on the same side of the reference line, the point is
situated in which of the following angles
a) first or second b)first or third c) second or fourth d) third or fourth
7. The front view of a point is 40mm above xy and the top view is 50mm below xy the point is
a) 40mm above HP b) 40mm below HP c) 50mm above HP d) 50mm below HP
8. State the position of a point the front view of which lies on the reference line and the top view is
40mm above it.
a) 40mm above HP and in the VP b) 40mm behind VP and in the HP
c) 40mm below HP and in the VP d) 40mm in front of VP and in the HP
9. State the position of a point the top view of which lies on the reference line and the front view is
30mm below it.
a) 30mm above HP and in the VP b) 30mm behind VP and in the HP
c) 30mm below HP and in the VP d) 30mm in front of VP and in the HP
10. If both the front and top view of a point lie on the opposite side of the reference line, the point is
situated in which of the following angles
a) First or second b) First or third c) Second or fourth d) Third or fourth
KEY:
1) a 2) b 3) a 4) d 5) d 6) c 7) a 8) b 9) c 10) b
Unit
6 Projection of Lines
INTRODUCTION:
A straight line is a shortest distance between two point which has length, direction but no
thickness. The projection of a straight line are drawn by joining the respective projection of its end
points. The actual length of a line is called TRUE LENGTH and it is denoted by T.L.
True inclination:
It is the actual inclination of the line which is in space.
Apparent length:
It is the projection length of the line .when the line is inclined to the plane. Apparent length is
always less than the true length.
Apparent inclination:
It is the inclination of the apparent length of the line or projected length of the line on the plane.
The position of a straight line may also be described with respect to the two reference planes it may be:
1. Parallel to one or both the planes.
2. Contained by one or both the planes.
3. Perpendicular to one of the planes.
4. Inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
5. Inclined to both the planes.
6. Projections of lines inclined to both the planes
7. Line contained by a plane perpendicular to both the reference planes.
8. True length of a straight line and its inclinations with the reference planes.
9. Traces of a line.
10. Methods of determining traces of a line.
11. Traces of a line, the projections of which are perpendicular to xy.
12. Positions of traces of a line.
1. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to other:

A line AB of length 45mm which is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Point A is 50mm above
HP and 30 mm in front of VP. Point B is 5mm above HP. Draw the projection of line AB.
Solution:
VANI Publications Projection of lines
Draw the xy line as the reference line and draw a projector at any point on xy line.
Front view: (to get front view look from the front) point B is 5mm above HP. So mark b' 5mm
above xy line and the point A is 50mm above HP. So mark a' 45mm above b' on the same projector.
Top view: (to get top view look from the top) Line AB is 30 mm in front of VP. So mark the point
“a” 30mm below xy line. When the line AB is looked from the top point A is visible but point B is
not visible. Top view of point A and B coincide. The top view of the invisible point B is represented
within brackets as (b).
T.V.
a
V.P.
30mm 45mm
a
A
V.P. b
45mm 5mm
Y
b X Y
b B 30mm
X a  b H.P. a  b
F.V.
2. Parallel to both the plane:

A line AB is 40mm long is parallel to both the plane. The line is 50mm above HP and 25mm in front
of VP. Draw its projection.
Solution:
Front view: (to get front view look from the front)
The line AB is 50mm above HP i.e., the point A is 50mm above HP. mark a' at a distance of 50mm
above xy line. the line AB is parallel to both the planes front view will be in true length and parallel
to xy line, such that a'b'=AB=40mm=true length.
Top view: (to get top view look from the top)
The line AB ia also parallel to VP and 25mm in front of VP. Mark “point a” at a distance of 25mm
below xy line. The top view is also in true length and parallel to xy line. Draw “ab” parallel to xy
such that ab=AB=40mm=true length.
a b
V.P. 50
b
a B Y V.P.
X Y
H.P.
25
25 A
H.P. a
50
b
X 40
a 40
3. Parallel to one plane and inclined to other:

A line AB is 30mm long is parallel to VP and inclined at an angle of 450 to HP. The end A is 20mm
above HP and 25mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of the line.
Solution:
Front view: (to get front view look from the front)
The line AB is 20mm above HP i.e., the point A is 20mm above HP. mark a' at a distance of 20mm
above xy line. the line AB is parallel to VP the front view will be in true length and inclined to xy
line at an angle 450, draw a line a'b' of length 30mm from point a' (which is 20mm above HP)
inclined at an angle of 450 to xy line. such that a'b'=AB=30mm=true length.
Top view: (to get top view look from the top)
Since the line is inclined to HP its projection on HP i.e., the top view will in reduced length.
The line AB is parallel to VP and 25mm in front of VP. Mark “point a” at a distance of 25mm below
xy line. From b' draw a projector to intersect the horizontal line drawn from point “a”. Mark the
intersection point as point b. The ab is the top view of AB.
b
30mm
V.P.
45
b a
B 20
Y
V.P.
 X Y
a H.P. H.P.
 25
b
25 A a b
20 a
• Draw the projection of a straight line AB of length 30mm parallel to HP and inclined at an angle
of 300 to VP. The end A is 20mm above HP and 10mm in front of VP.
Solution:
Top view:
Point A is 20mm above HP. So mark a' 20mm above xy line. Point A is 10mm in front of VP so
mark point a 10mm below xy line.as AB line is parallel to HP and inclined at an angle of 300 to VP
ab will be equal to true length AB and inclined to an angle of 300 to xy line. therefore from point a
draw a line ab of length 30mm inclined at an angle of 300to xy line .ab=30mm=true length.
Front view:
Since the line is inclined to VP it projection on VP i.e., front view will be in reduced length. From b
draw a projector to intersect the horizontal line at b' which is drawn from a'. a'b' is the front view of
AB.
a b
b
V.P. 20
a
A B V.P.
10 X Y
H.P.
20 b 10
a
a 30
H.P.
30mm
b
4. Projection of line contained to one plane and parallel to other:

A line AB is 40mm long lying on HP and parallel to VP at a distance of 20mm. Draw the
projections.
Sol: Draw the xy line as the reference line and draw a projector at any point on xy line.
Front view:
The line AB is parallel to VP. The front view will be true length and coincide with xy line. Draw a
line a'b' on xy line.
Top view:
Line AB lies on HP and parallel to VP and 20mm in front of VP. Draw ab parallel to xy line at
distance 20mm. True length =ab=40mm.
V.P.
a b V.P.
X Y
H.P.
b
H.P. 20
b B
a
a 40 a b
A 40
20
4.1 A line AB is 30mm long lying on VP and parallel to HP at a distance of 20mm. Draw the projections
Front view:
The line AB is parallel to HP. The front view will be true length and it is marked above xy line.
Draw a line a'b' above xy line at a distance 20mm from xy line.
Top view:
Line AB lies on VP. The top view will be true length and coincide with xy line. Draw line ab on xy
line.
V.P.
a b
b
a 30
Y 20
20 b H.P.
V.P.
X a Y
a H.P. b
X
30
5. Projection of a line contained in one plane and inclined to another.

5.1 A line AB is 40mm long lying on HP and inclined to VP at an angle of 450 the point A of the line is
20mm in front of VP. Draw the projection.
Top view:
Line AB lies on HP. Point A is 20mm in front of VP so mark point a 20mm below xy line. As the
line AB lies on HP and inclined to VP at an angle of 450 . ab will be equal to true lengthof a line.
Therefore from point a draw a line ab of length 40mm inclined at an angle of 450 to xy line. The line
is top view of line AB and ab=40mm=true length.
Front view:
Since the line AB is inclined to VP. The front view will be reduce length and coincide with xy line.
draw a projector from point a on xy line and mark that point as a' now similarly draw a projector
from point b on xy line and mark that point as b'. From point a' draw a line connecting point b'. The
line a'b' are the front view of AB line.
5.2 A line AB is 50mm long lying on VP and inclined to HP at an angle of 300 the point A of the line is
20mm above HP. Draw the projection.
Front view:
The line AB lies on VP and incline to HP at an angle of 300. The front view will be true length and
the point a' is marked 20mm above the xy line. Draw a line a'b' of length 50mm from point a'
inclined at an angle of 300. The line a'b' is the front view of line AB. a'b'=50mm=true length.
Top view:
Since the line AB is inclined to HP and lies on VP. Its projection on HP i.e., the top view will be
reduced length and coincide with xy line. draw a projector from point a' on xy line and mark that
point as point a. Similarly draw a projector from point b' on xy line and mark that point as b. draw a
line from point a connecting point b. The line ab is the top view of the line AB.
6. Projection of a line contained in both the plane.

6.1 Draw a projection of a line of length 60mm lying on both HP and VP.
Front view:
The line AB lies on VP and HP the front view will be true length and coincide with xy and its end
points are marked as a'b' and it of length 60mm.
Top view:
Top view will also be the true length and coincide with xy line and its end points are marked as ab.
7. Projection of line inclined to both the planes.

When a line is inclined to both HP and VP, the apparent inclination of the line to both the
projection planes will be different from the actual inclinations. Similarly the projected length of the
lines on to the planes will not be the same as the true length of the line.
The following notation will be used for the inclinations and length of the lines.
Actual inclinations are θ degrees to HP and φ degrees to VP.
Apparent Inclinations are a and b to HP and VP respectively.
The Apparent Lengths of line AB are ab and a΄b΄in the top view and front view respectively
7.1 A line PQ of length 70mm is inclined at an angle of 450 to HP and 300 to VP. The point P is 20mm
above HP and 30mm in front of VP. Draw its projections.
Sol:
 Since the line is a inclined line its projection will be of reduced length and the projector of point P
on VP i.e., front view will be p'. Mark a point p' 20mm above xy line and draw a line p'q1' of length
70mm inclined at an angle 450 and from point p' draw a horizontal straight line p'q2' parallel to xy
line. at point q1' draw the horizontal line parallel to xy line (known as locus line of q').
 The projector of point P on HP i.e., top view will be p. Mark point p 30mm below xy line and draw a
line pq2 of length 70mm inclined at an angle of 300and from point p draw a horizontal straight line
parallel to xy line. at point q2 draw the horizontal straight line (known as locus line of q)
 From the point q2 draw a projector on the line p'q2' and draw an arc with p'q2'as radius and p' as
centre to meet the locus of line q' and the point where this arc meet the locus line mark it as q'. Join
p'q' to represent the front view of the line PQ and α is the projected line inclination.
 From the point q1' draw a projector on the line pq1 and draw an arc with pq1 as radius and p as centre
to meet the locus of line q and the point where this arc meet the locus line mark it as q. Join pq to
represent the top view of the line PQ and β is the projected line inclination.
Locus line of q
q q1
a b
Locus arc of q
45
P  q2
20
X Y
O O1
30
q1
P  30
Locus arc of q
c q q2 d
Locus line of q
Here
I) Α > 450
II) Β > 300
III) Neither the front view nor top view represent true length.
8. Methods to find true length and true inclination:

I) Rotating line method:
Make each view parallel to xy line and project the other view from it.
8.1 A line AB of length 70mm has it point A 10mm above HP and 15mm in front of VP point B is 50
mm above HP and 40mm in front of VP. Find the true length and true inclination of the line AB with
HP and VP.
Sol:
 Mark point a' 10mm above xy line and 15mm below xy line. draw second projector at adistance of
70mm from projector of A, mark b' 50mm above xy line and b 40mm below xy line on the second
projector. join a'b' and ab.
 Through b' draw the locus of b'. With a as centreabd ab as radius draw an arc to intersect the
horizontal line drawn from a at b2.
 From b2 draw a projector to intersect the locus of b' at b2'. Join a'b2'= true length=85mm
Locus of b b b2
85
50
  28
b1
10
X
15 70
b2
  17 40
85 b b1
Locus of b
II) Trapezoid method:

Rotate the line about its projections till it lies in HP or VP
 In fig 1 ab is the top view and a'b' is the front view.
 In the trapezoid ABb'a', a'A and b'B are equal to ao 1 and bo2 respectively and also perpendicular to
a'b'.
 Also the angle between AB and a'b' is Ø.
 Assume that the trapezoid is rotated about a'b' until it lies in the VP.
 In fig 2 this trapezoid is obtained by drawing perpendicular to a'b', i.e., a'A2=ao1, b'B2=bo2 and then
joining A2B2. Now A2B2 is the true length of AB its inclination with a'b' is equal to Ø.
 Similarly the trapezoid abBA may be assumed to be rotated about ab as axis, untul it lies in HP. In
fig 2 this trapezoid is obtained by erecting perpendicular to ab, i.e., aA1=a'o1 and bB1=b'o2 and then
joining A1B1.
A1B1= true length
Inclination of A1B1 with ab=ϴ
B1
b
B1 b
A1
B a

a O2 X Y
O1 O2
 O1 A
 a
a
b
b
i   ii 
Traces of a line:
When a line is inclined to a plane. The point at which the line or line produced meets the plane is
called its trace.
 The point of intersection of the line or line produced with HP is called horizontal trace(HT).
 The point of intersection of the line or line produced with VP is called vertical trace(VT).
9.1 Trace of a line parallel to both the plane.
40
s
SY r s
20
r X Y
R s 15
r s
X NO TRACE
r
9.2 Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other
 Trace of line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP
c
V.P.
CD parallel to V.P.
c  No V.T. 25
c
d
Y 10
X Y
d
20
D
HT, c  d  c  d  , HT
X NO V.T.
H.P.
 Trace of a line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP
V.P. PQ parallel to H.P.

NO HT
P  q  VT
P  q  VT 20
Q Y
X Y
10
q
q P
X 25
P
H.P. P
NO HT
9.2 Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other
 Horizontal trace of line AB which is in lined HP and parallel to VP.
b
b 40
B
a 35
Y h 15
X Y
20
a
A H.T. a b
b
h NO V.T.
X a
H.T.
 Vertical trace of line AB which is inclined to VP and parallel to HP.
m V.T. l m
Y
20
X Y
l V 5
V.T L M l 35
m
X V l
40
m
NO HT
9.3 Traces of a line inclined to both the planes:
b
b
PP
B
V.P.
0 a 0
a v h
X Y
h A 0
V b
a
H H
V
a 0
V H.P.
PL
In this case both horizontal trace (H) and Vertical Trace (V) of the line AB lie below XY line.
Questions:
1. If a line is inclined at 450to the HP and 300 to the VP, its front view inclined at an angle of
a) 300 to xy line b) 450 to xy line c) both 300 and 450 d) greater than 450
0 0
2. If a line is inclined at 30 to the HP and 60 to the VP, its front view and top view are inclined at an
angle of
a) 300 and 600 to xy line respectively b) 600 and 300 to xy line respectively
c) both at 900 to xy line d) both greater than 300 but less tha 900
3. If the apparent and the true inclinations of a line with HP are equal, the line is
a) parallel to VP b) parallel to HP
c) parallel to profile plane d) inclined to both reference plane
4. If a line is parallel to both HP and VP, it true length will be seen in

a) front view b)top view c) side view d) both front and top views
5. The point at which the line intersects the HP extended if necessary, is known as
a) horizontal trace b) vertical trace c) profile trace d) horizontal plane
6. Horizontal trace of a line exist when the line is

a) inclined to HP b) perpendicular to VP c) parallel to HP d) perpendicular to PP
7. If top view of a line is a point, its front view is

a) parallel to xy and of true length b) perpendicular to xy and of true length
c) parallel to xy and of apparent length d) perpendicular to xy and of apparent length
8. If the front view of a line is parallel to xy line its true length is shown in
a) top view b)front view c) side view d) both front and top view
9. If the front and top views of a line are inclined at 300 and 450 to the reference line, the true
inclination of the line with HP will be
a) 450 b) 300 c) less than 300 d) less than 450
10. For a line situated in the first angle, which of the following statements is not correct
a) HT lies above xy and VT lies below XY b) HT and VT may lie above xy
c) HT and VT may lie below XY d) HT lies below xy and VT lies above xy
11. If both the front and top views of a line are perpendicular to the reference line, the true inclination of
the line with HP and VP may be respectively.
a) 150 and 750 b) 300 and 600 c) both 450 d) any of these
ESE QUESTION
12. If a line is inclined to Vertical Plane and parallel to Horizontal Plane, then which of the following
statements is always correct?
(a) True Length = Plane Length (b) True Length = elevation Length
(c) True Length < Plane Length (d) Vertical Trace of the line is above the XY plane
KEY:
1) d 2)c 3)b 4)d 5)a 6)a 7)b 8)a 9)c 10)a 11)d 12)a
Unit
7 Projection of Auxiliary Planes

Introduction:
Two views of an object, viz. the front view and the top view (projected on the principal planes of
projection), are sometimes not sufficient to convey all the information regarding the object.
Additional views, called auxiliary views, are therefore, projected on other planes known as auxiliary
planes. These views are often found necessary in technical drawings. Auxiliary views may also be
used for determining.
(i) The true length of a line.
(ii) The point-view of a line.
(iii) The edge-view of a plane.
(iv) The true size and form of a plane etc.
They are thus very useful in finding solutions of problems in practical solid geometry. This chapter
deals with the following topics.
1. Types of auxiliary planes and views.
2. Projection of a point on an auxiliary plane.
3. Projections of lines and planes by the use of auxiliary planes.
4. To determine true length of a line.
5. To obtain point-view of a line and edge-view of a plane.
6. To determine true shape of a plane figure.
Topics of Auxiliary Planes and Views:
Auxiliary planes are of two types:
(i) Auxiliary vertical plane or A.V.P., and
(ii) Auxiliary inclined plane or A.I.P.
1. Auxiliary vertical plane is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P. Projection on an
A.V.P. is called auxiliary front view.
2. Auxiliary inclined plane is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P. Projection on an
A.I.P. is called auxiliary top view.
The orthographic views of the auxiliary projections are drawn by rotating the auxiliary plane about
that principal plane to which it is perpendicular.
VANI Publications Engineering Drawing
Projection of a point on an auxiliary inclined plane:
A point P is situated above the H.P. and in front of the V.P. A.I.P. is an auxiliary inclined plane
making an angle  with the H.P. It meets the V.P. at right angles and in a line x1 y1 .
p and p are respectively the front view and the top view of the point P. p1 is the auxiliary top
view obtained by drawing the projector Pp1 perpendicular to the A.I.P. It can be seen that p1o1 (the
distance of the auxiliary top view p1 from x1 y1 )  po (the distance of the top view p from xy)  Pp
(the distance of the point P from the V.P.).
y1
y1 y1
V.P.p p
V.P. A.I.P.
p
O1 o1 o1
P x1  p1 p1
p1
x o y x  y
y o
X1 A.I.P. x1
90
X
O  p p
p
H.P.
H.P.
The H.P. and the A.I.P are then rotated about the V.P. to which they are perpendicular. x1 y1 , the
line of intersection between the V.P. and the A.I.P. makes the angle  with xy. The line joining the
front view p and the auxiliary top view p1 is at right angles to x1 y1 and intersects it at o1 . Note
that p1o1  po.
To draw the orthographic views, draw xy and mark p and p. Draw x1 y1 making the angle  with
xy.
y2
p3 x3
p2
o3 o2
x4 p y1
o4 o1
p4 p1 
y3    x2
x o y
y4 x1
p
VANI Publications Projection of Auxiliary Planes
Through the front view p, draw a projector pp1 perpendicular to and intersecting x1 y1 at o1 and
such that p1o1  po. p1 is the required auxiliary front view.

In this case also, the new reference line can drawn in four different positions as shown in fig. by
lines x1 y1 , x 2 y 2 etc., each inclined at  to xy. All the top views are projected from the front view
p and their distances from their respective reference lines are equal, i.e., p1o1  p 2 o 2 ...  po .
If the inclination of the V.P. is increased so that   90 , the A.V.P. will be perpendicular to both
the planes. Similarly, if the inclination of the A.I.P. with the H.P. is increased so that   90, it will
also be perpendicular to both the H.P. and the V.P. This plane is called the profile plane (P.P). It
may be rotated about any one of the two principal planes. The view on this plane can, therefore, be
projected from either the top view or the front view and named accordingly.
3. Projection of a point on an auxiliary plane perpendicular to both the principal

planes:
In figure, A is a point. P.P. is an auxiliary plane perpendicular to the H.P. and the V.P. a1 is the
auxiliary view projected on the P.P. It can be seen that a1o 2  a o  Aa (the distance of A from the
H.P.). Also a1o1  ao  Aa (the distance of A from the V.P.)
Figure shows the P.P. rotated about the V.P. a1 lies on the projector drawn through the front view
a  and perpendicular to the line of intersecting between the V.P. and the P.P.
y1 y1
V.P. P.P.
90
V.P. o1 a a1 a a1
a P.P. O1 O1
A 90
X X
O X1 y O
O O2 X1
a 90
H.P. a
H.P. a
i   ii   iii 
It is thus projected from the front view and hence, called the auxiliary top view. In technical
drawings, this view is generally termed a the side view, end view or end view. Note that a1o1  ao.
Note that, when seen from the left, the new reference line and the side view are placed to the right
of the front view. When seen from the right, they would be placed to the left of the front view. Thus,
the view seen from any side of the front view is placed on its other side.
V.P.
a a
x1 y X1
X X y
O o
90
a1
a o2 a o2 a1
H.P. P.P.
y1 y1
i   
ii
Figure shows the P.P. rotated about the H.P. The view on the P.P. now lies on the projector drawn
through the top view a. Hence, it is called the auxiliary front view. In this case, a1 o2  a o.
The orthographic views in both cases are self-explanatory.
General Conclusions:
1. The auxiliary top view of a point lies on a line drawn through the front view, perpendicular to
the new reference line  x1y1  and at a distance from it, equal to the distance of the first top view
from its own reference line  xy  .
2. The auxiliary front view of a point lies on a line drawn through the top view, perpendicular to
the new reference line  x1y1  and at a distance from it, equal to the distance of the first view
from its own reference line  xy  .
3. The distances of all the front views of the same point (projected from the same top view) from
their respective reference lines are equal.
4. The distances of all the top views of the same point (projected from the same front view) from
their respective reference lines are equal.
Projection of lines and planes by the use of Auxiliary planes:

Projections of lines and planes at given inclinations to one or both the planes may also be obtained
by the use of auxiliary planes. The method adopted is called the alternation or change-of-reference-
line method.
VANI Publications Projection of Auxiliary Planes
The line, in its initial position, is assumed to be parallel to both the planes of projection. Then,
instead of making the line inclined to one of the planes, an auxiliary plane inclined to the line is
assumed, i.e., a new reference line is drawn and the view is projected on it.
In case of a plane, it is kept parallel to one of the planes of projection in the initial stage, the
required views being obtained by projecting it on new reference lines.
To determine true Length of a line:

We have seen that the true length of a line and its inclination with the planes of projection can be
determined by making each of its projections parallel to xy.
Instead of changing the position of the projection, that of the plane may be altered, i.e. a new
reference line representing an auxiliary plane may be drawn parallel to the projection. The auxiliary
projection on that reference line will show the true length and true inclination of the line with the
other plane.
Example: The projections of a line AB are given. To determine its true length and true inclinations
with the reference planes.
Let ab a b be the projections of AB.
a1
b X1 
b1
a
X y
y1
a
y2
b
x2 
a1
b1
1. Draw a reference line x1 y1 to represent an A.V.P parallel to ab, the top view.
2. Project the auxiliary front view a1 b1 which is the true length of AB.  is its inclination with the
H.P.
3. Similarly, draw x 2 y 2 parallel to the front view a b and project the auxiliary top view a 1b1 . It is
the true length of AB and  is its true inclination with the V.P.
To obtain point-view of a line and Edge-view of a plane:
We have seen that when a line is perpendicular to a reference plane, its projection on that plane is
a point, while its projection on the other reference plane shows its true length. In other words, the
projection of the view of a line showing its true length, on an auxiliary plane perpendicular to that
view will be a point.
Similarly, a plane will be seen as a line, when it is projected on a plane, perpendicular to the true
length of any one of its elements. The projection of the line-view or edge-view of a plane on an
auxiliary plane parallel to it, will show the true shape and size of the plane.
Uses of the point-view of a line and edge-view of a plane on auxiliary planes are illustrated.
Example: The projections of a line PQ are given. Determine
(i) The distance of its mid-point from xy, and
(ii) The shortest distance of the line from xy.
Let pq and pq  be the given projections of PQ.
(i) Draw a new reference line x1 y1 perpendicular to xy and project the side view p1 q1 on it.
When considering the side view, x1 y1 is the edge-view of the V.P. and xy is that of the H.P.
The point o is the side view or the point-view of the line of intersection of the V.P. and the
H.P. i.e., x1 y1 and xy. The line joining any point on p1 q1 , with o will show the shortest
distance of that point from xy.
(ii) Find the mid-point a 1 of p1 q1 and join it with o. oa1 is the distance of the mid-point of PQ
from xy.
(iii) From o, draw a line ob perpendicular to p1 q1 . Ob is the shortest distance of PQ from xy. It
will be perpendicular to both PQ and xy.
b2
q Q q1 q y1 q1
a a1 b1
a1 b x a c
y
a 30
b p p1
90 y1
A 90 p1
p o y o
x o c
q b1
q b a1
P a a
p b
p x1
x1
Unit
8 Projection of Planes
1. Introduction:
A plane is a 2D surface having length and breadth with negligible thickness. A plane can be in
triangular shape, square, pentagonal, hexagonal and circular shape etc.
2. Traces of planes:
A plane, extended if necessary, will meet the reference planes in lines unless it is parallel to any one
of them. These lines are called traces of plane.
 Vertical trace(VT): vertical trace of a plane is the line in which the plane meets the VP.
 Horizontal trace (HT): horizontal trace of a plane is the line in which the plane meets th HP.
3. Types of planes:
Planes may be divided into two main types:
I. Perpendicular plane:
The planes which are perpendicular to one or both the reference planes are called perpendicular plane. These
are further sub-divided into three types
a) Perpendicular to both the reference plane.
b) Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to other.
c) Perpendicular to one plane and inclined to another.
II. Oblique plane:
The planes which are inclined to both the reference planes are called oblique planes.
4. Projection of planes:
4.1 Projection of a plane perpendicular to both the reference planes.
b  c  
VT
b  c   a   d
C
VT
B VP
a   d  X Y
HP
D
c d 
A
X c d  H.P. HT
HT b a 
b a 
VANI Publications Projection of Planes
Front view:
Edge AB is seen in true length. It is also above and perpendicular to the HP. So draw its front view
a'b' above and perpendicular to xy. Edge DC is hidden by AB and its front view d'c' coincides with
a'b'. So mark the front view as (d')(c').
Top view:
Edge BC is seen in true length. It is also in front of and perpendicular to the VP. So draw its top
view bc below and perpendicular to xy. Look at the front viewin the direction of arrow a and d' are
hidden. So in top view mark them as (a) and (d).
HT and VT:
 Extend the plane to meet the HP. The extension coincides with the top view. So top view bc(a)(d)
itself is the HT.
 Extend the plane to meet the VP. The extension coincides with the front view a'b'(d')(c') which itself
is the VT.
4.2 Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane and parallel to another.

b q
C NO V.T.
V.T.
V.T. b
a a
D B
q
Q
p r
c A
r x y
b c
d d
p R H.T.
p r
a q
r
P
q
a b
p NO H.T.
a) Plane, perpendicular to the HP and parallel to VP (fig i)

A triangle PQR is perpendicular to the HP and is parallel to the VP. Its HT is parallel to xy. It has no
VT.
The front view p'q'r' shows the exact shape and size of the triangle. The top view pqr is a line
parallel to xy. It coincides with the HT.
b) Plane, perpendicular to VP and parallel to the HP. Fig(ii)
A square ABCD is perpendicular to the VP and parallel to the HP. Its VT is parallel to xy. It has no
HT.
The top view abcd shows the true shape and true size of the square. The front view a'b' is a line,
parallel to xy. It coincides with the VT.
4.3 Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane and inclined to another.

a) Plane, perpendicular to the HP and inclined to the VP.
a b

B
V.T. V.T.
a
d c
c C y
x
d  
D b H.T. b
a
a
A square ABCD is perpendicular to HP and inclined at an angle Ø to the VP. Its VT is perpendicular
to xy. Its HT is inclined at Ø to xy.
Its top view ab is a line inclined at Ø to xy. The front view a'b'c'd' is smaller then ABCD.
b) Plane, perpendicular to the VP and inclined to the HP.

A square ABCD is perpendicular to VP and inclined at an angle ϴ to the HP. Its HT is perpendicular
to xy. Its VT makes the angle ϴ with xy. Its front view a'b' is a line inclined at ϴ to xy. It top view
abcd is a rectangle which is small than the square ABCD.
a
V.T.
V.T. b
a b
D 
C 
x y
H.T.
c B
 d C
a b
H.T.
a
a
b
Projections of Oblique Planes:
When a plane has its surface inclined to one plane and an edge or a diameter or a diagonal parallel to
that plane and inclined to the other plane, its projections are drawn in three stages.
1. If the surface of the plane is inclined to the H.P. and an edge (or a diameter or a diagonal) is parallel
to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.,
(i) In the initial position the plane is assumed to be parallel to the H.P. and an edge perpendicular to the
V.P.
(ii) It is then tilted so as to make the required angle with the H.P. As already explained, its front view in
this position will be a line, while its top view will be smaller in size.
(iii) In the final position, when the plane is turned to the required inclination with the V.P., only the
position of the top view will change. Its shape and size will not be affected. In the final front view,
the corresponding distances of all the corners from xy will remain the same as in the second front
view.
If and edge is in the H.P. or on the ground, in the initial position, the plane is assumed to be lying in
the H.P. or on the ground, with the edge perpendicular to the V.P. If a corner is in the H.P. or on the
ground, the line joining that corner with the centre of the plane is kept parallel to the V.P.
2. Similarly, if the surface of the plane is inclined to the V.P. and an edge (or a diameter or a diagonal)
is parallel to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.
(i) In the initial position, the plane is assumed to be parallel to the V.P. and an edge perpendicular to the
H.P.
(ii) It is then tilted so as to make the required angle with the V.P. Its top view in this position will be a
line, while its front view will be smaller in size.
(iii) When the plane is turned to the required inclination with the H.P. only the position of the front view
will change. Its shape and size will not be affected. In the final top view, the corresponding distances
of all the corners from xy will remain the same as in the second top view.
If an edge is in the V.P., in the initial position, the plane is assumed to be lying in the V.P. with an
edge perpendicular to the H.P. If a corner is in the V.P. the line joining that corner with centre of the
plane is kept parallel to the H.P.
Example: A square ABCD of 50mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at
30 to the H.P. and the diagonal BD inclined at 45 to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
c c1
b b1
d1
x a b c a 30 y
a1 45
d d1
a1 d1
a c a1 c1
b1 c1
b b1
i  ii   iii 
In the initial stage, assume the square to be lying in the H.P. with AC parallel to the V.P.
1. Draw the top view and the front view. When the square titled about the corner A so that AC makes
30 angle with the H.P., BD remains perpendicular to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
2. Draw the second front view with a c inclined at to 30 xy, keeping a  or c in xy. Project the
second top view. The square may now be turned so that BD makes 45 angle with the V.P. and
remains parallel to the H.P. Only the position of the top view will change. Its shape and size will
remain the same.
3. Reproduce the top view so that b1d1 is inclined at 45 to xy. Project the final front view upwards
from this top view and horizontally from the second front view.
Example: A rectangular plane surface of size L  W is positioned in the first quadrant and is
inclined at an angle of 60 with the H.P. and 30 with the V.P. Draw its projections.
b a1 b1
c
a b a  60 d1 c1

d c d
x c1 30 y
d c d1 c1
d1
W b1
a b a1 b1
a1
L
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3
1. The plane is first assumed to be parallel to H.P. with its shorter edge perpendicular to V.P. IN this
position, true shape and size of the plane is given by its projection on H.P. The front view will be a
true line parallel to the reference line xy.
2. Rotate the front view projection by 60 (the angle of inclination of plane with H.P.) as shown in
step 2 of fig. Draw vertical lines from the ends of line a d  and bc to intersect horizontal lines
drawn from the top view abcd (step 1) at points b1 , c1 , d1 and a1 . Join a1b1c1d1 to obtain the top view
of the plane in this inclined position.
3. Now rotate the edge d1c1 of the top view (step 2) by 30 (the angle of inclination of plane with
V.P.) and reproduce it as shown in step 3 of the fig. Draw projections from a1 , b1 , c1 and d1 to
intersect the horizontal projections from a d  and bc to get the points a1 , b1 , c1 and d1 . Join the
lines a1 b1 c1 d1 to obtain the final front view of the given plane surface.
Example: Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm side, having one of its sides in the
H.P. and inclined at 60 to the V.P., and its surface making an angle of 45 with the H.P.
1. Draw the hexagon in the top view with one side perpendicular to xy. Project the front view a c in
xy.
2. Draw a c inclined at 45 to xy keeping a  or c in xy and project the second top view.
3. Reproduce this top view making a1f1 inclined at 60 to xy and project the final front view.
c c1 d1
b b1
e1
a b c a 45 y
x
e a1 f1
e1
f1 e1
d
f d1 60
f1
d1
a1
a c a1 c1
b b1 b1 c1
i   ii   iii 
Example: Draw the projections of a circle of 50mm diameter resting in the H.P. on a point A on the
circumference, its plane inclined at 45 to the H.P. and
(a) The top view of the diameter AB making 30 angle with the V.P.
(b) The diameter AB making 30 angle with the V.P.
b1 b1
b f1 f1
f , g g1
g1 c1
c,d d1 c1 d1
e, h  45 e1 h1 e1 h1
a  e, h  c,d f , g b a  y
x
c c1 a1 a1
h g h1 g1
h1 c1 h1
a1 a1 c1
a a1 b1 g1
b 30 30
 g1
e1 e1
e f e1 f1 b1
s
d d1 b3 b2
d1 f1 d1
f1
i   ii   iii   iv 
Draw the projections of the circle with A in the H.P. and its plane inclined at 45 to the H.P. and
perpendicular to the V.P.
(a) In the second top view, the line a1b1 is the top view of the diameter AB. Reproduce this top view so
that a1b1 makes 30 angle with xy. Project the required front view.
(b) If the diameter AB, which makes 45 angle with the H.P., is inclined at 30 to the V.P. also, its top
view a1b1 will make an angle greater than 30 with xy. This apparent angle of inclination is
determined as described below.
Draw any line a1b 2 equal to AB and inclined at 30 to xy. With a1 as centre and radius equal to the
top view of AB, viz. a1b1 , draw an arc cutting rs (the path of B in the top view) at b3 . Draw the line
joining a1 with b3 , and around it, reproduce the second top view. Project the final front view. It is
evident that a1b3 is inclined to xy at an angle  which is greater than 30 .
Example: A circular plate of negligible thickness and 50mm diameter appears as an ellipse in the
front view, having its major axis 50mm long and minor axis 30mm long. Draw its top view when the
major axis of the ellipse is horizontal.
As the plate is seen as an ellipse in the front view, its surface must be inclined to the V.P.
b b1
c c1 d1
d
c b a
a
d a1
x y
c c1
b1
b a1 b1 c1

a d1
a1
d d1
 ii   iii 
i
Fig. Third-angle Projection
1. Therefore, assume it to be parallel to the V.P. and draw its front view and the top view.
2. Turn the line ab so that its length in the front view becomes 30 mm, and project the front view. It
will be an ellipse whose major axis is vertical.
3. Reproduce this view so that the major axis c1 d1 is horizontal, and project the required top view.
Questions:
1. If a thin set square is kept perpendicular to both the horizontal and vertical planes, its true shape is
seen in
a) HP b) VP c) PP d) auxiliary inclined plane
2. Planes which are inclined to both the horizontal and vertical plane are called
a) Oblique plane b)profile planes c)auxiliary planes d)none of these
3. If a thin rectangular plate of 60mm and 30mm sides in inclined at an angle of 600 to the HP its top
view may be
a) Square of 60mm sides b) Square of 30mm sides
c) Rectangle of 60mm and 45mm sides d) rectangle of 45mm and 30mm sides
4. In multi-view orthographic projection, the front view of a circular plane may be
a) Circle b) ellipse c) straight line d) any of these
5. If both front and top views of a plane are straight lines the true shape will lie on
a) HP b) VP c) PP d) any of these
6. If a circle plane is inclined at 300with the HP and 600 with VP its side view will be
a) Ellipse b) straight line c) circle d) true shape
KEY:
1) c 2) a 3) b 4) d 5) c 6) b
Unit
9 Projection of Solids
INTRODUCTION:
An object having three dimensions, i.e., length, breadth and thickness or height is called a solid. To
represent a solid in the orthographic projection, at least two views are necessary, in front view length
and height is represented. In top view length and breadth is represented.
Solids are classified under two main headings
 Polyhedron
 Solids of revolution
A regular polyhedron is solid bounded only by plane surfaces (faces). Its faces are formed by regular
polygons of same size and all dihedral angles are equal to one another. When faces of a polyhedron
are not formed by equal identical faces, they may be classified into prisms and pyramids.
Tetrahedron four equalequilateral Cube/hexahedron 6equalsquare Octahedron 8equalequilateral

triangular faces faces triangular faces
Dodecahedron 12equal regular pentagonalfaces Icosahedron 20equalequilateral triangular faces
Prism:
Prisms are polyhedron formed by two equal parallel regular polygon, end faces connected by side
faces which are either rectangles or parallelograms.
Axis Base Base edge Rectangular face Longer face Inclined Axis
Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal Rectangular Oblique
Prism Prism Prism Prism Prism Prism
 When the prism is placed vertically on one of its end faces, the end face on which the prism rests is
called the base. The vertical side faces are the lateral faces.
 Base edge is the sides of the end faces.
 The imaginary line connecting the end faces is called axis.
 The edges connecting the respective corners of the two end faces is called longer edge or lateral
edge. The longer edge of a square prism.
 Right prism – A prism whose axis is perpendicular to its end face is called as a right prism .Prisms
are named according to the shape of their end faces, i.e, if end faces are triangular, prism is called a
triangular prism.
 Oblique prism: It is the prism in which the axis is inclined to its base.
Lateral Face
Axis Longer Face

Base Base Edge
Pyramids
Pyramid is a polyhedron formed by a plane surface as its base and a number of triangles as its side
faces, all meeting at a point, called vertex or apex.
VANI Publications Projection of Solids
Axis – the imaginary line connecting the apex and the center of the base.
Inclined/slant faces – inclined triangular side faces.
Inclined/slant/longer edges – the edges which connect the apex and the base corners.
Right pyramid – when the axis of the pyramid is perpendicular to its base.
Oblique pyramid – when the axis of the pyramid is inclined to its base.
Apex
Slant edges
Axis Faces
Base Edges of base Corners

a b  c d
Solids of revolution:
When some of the plane figures are revolved about one of their sides – solids of revolution is
generated some of the solids of revolution are:
1) Cylinder: when a rectangle is revolved about one of its sides, the other parallel side generates a
cylinder.
2) Cone: when a right triangle is revolved about one of its sides, the hypotenuse of the right
triangle generates a cone.
3) Oblique solid: Solid whose axis is inclined to its base is called oblique solid.
4) Sphere: when a semi-circle is revolved about one of its diameter, a sphere is generated..
5) Frustums of solids – when the solids are cut by cutting planes parallel to base, the lower portion
of the solids (without their top portions) is called frustum of these solids.
Fig. Frustum of a cone
6) Truncated of solids – when prisms, pyramids, cylinders are cut by cutting planes not parallel to
base, the lower portion of the solids (without their top portions) is called truncated of these
solids.
Fig. Truncated of Solids

Projection of solids in Simple Positions:
A solid in simple position may have its axis perpendicular to one reference plane or parallel to both.
When the axis is perpendicular to one reference plane, it is parallel to the other. Also, when the axis
of a solid is perpendicular to a plane, its base will be parallel to that plane. We have already seen that
when a plane is parallel to a reference plane, its projection on that plane shows its true shape and
size.
Therefore, the projection of a solid on the plane to which its axis is perpendicular will show the
true shape and size of its base.
Hence, when the axis is perpendicular to the ground, i.e. to the H.P., the top view should be drawn
first and the front view projected from it.
When the axis is perpendicular to the V.P., beginning should be made with the front view. The top
view should then be projected from it.
When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P., neither the top view nor the front view will
show the actual shape of the base. In this case, the projection of the solid on an auxiliary plane
perpendicular to both the planes, viz. The side view must be drawn first. The front view and the top
view are then projected from the side view. The projections in such cases may also be drawn in two
stages.
Axis of the solid perpendicular to HP
When the solid is placed with the base on HP and in front of VP, in the top view, the base will be
projected in its true shape. Hence, when the base of the solid is on HP, the top view is drawn first
and then the front view and the side views are projected from it. Figure shows a cylinder and a cone
with its axis perpendicular to HP. There is only one position in which a cylinder or a cone may be
placed with its base on HP.
 O
Base
Base
on HP on HP
VP
VP X HP  O1  Y
X Y
HP  O1  Front View
Front view
Top View
Top View Cone
Cylinder
Example: Draw the projections of a triangular prism, base 40mm side and axis 50mm long,
resting on one of its bases on the H.P. with a vertical face perpendicular to the V.P.
a c
c b
V.P.
a
B C
d e f y
f A x
b
X d e
F
E f c
D H.P. a
d
1. As the axis is perpendicular to the ground i.e. the H.P. begin with the top view. It will be an
equilateral triangle of sides 40mm long, with one of its sides perpendicular to xy. Name the
corners as shown, thus completing the top view. The corners d, e and f are hidden and coincide
with the top corners a, b and c respectively.
2. Project the front view, which will be a rectangle. Name the corners. The line be coincides with
a d  .
Front view and top view of a cylinder and cone
For prisms, there are 4 positions it may be placed with its base on HP. These positions are
a b  o  c a  o  b  c   a  o   b c a  o  c  b
Base
on HP
VP
X b1 Y
HP a1 b1  O1  c1 a1  O1  b1  c1  a1  o1  b1 c1 a1 c1  o 
1

a  a1  c  c1  c  c1  c  c1  c  c1 
O   O1  a  a1  o  o1  a  a1 
o  o1 
a  a1  b  b1  Axis
b  b1  b  b1  b  b1 
Rectangular Face Rectangular Face Rectangular Face
Perpendicular to VP Inclined at  to VP Equally inclined to VP
Rectangular Face
Parallel to VP
There are 4 positions in which pyramids may be placed with its base on HP
o o o o
BASE APEX
ON HP AXIS
VP
X Y
HP a  b  o1  c a  o1  b  c   a   o1  b c a c  o1  b

a c c c c
o  o1  a
o  o1  a o  o1 
Base Edge
Parallel to VP b b a b
b
Base Edge Base Edge inclined Base edge Equally
Perpendicular to VP At  to VP Inclined to VP
Fig. Projections of a triangular Pyramid resting on its base on HP with different positions
Projections of a solid with the axis perpendicular to VP

When a solid is placed with its axis perpendicular to VP, the base of the solid will always be
perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Hence in the front view, base will be projected in true
shape. Therefore, when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to VP, the front view is drawn first and
then the top and side views are drawn from it. When a cylinder rests on HP with its axis
perpendicular to VP, one of its generators will be on HP.
Figure shows the Front view and Top view of a cylinder and cone resting on HP with their axes
perpendicular to VP. In this case one of the points on the circumference of the base will be on XY.
Generator on HP Po int on the Base on HP
O   O1 
O   O1 
X VP Y X VP Y
HP  O1  HP
 O1 
Cylinder Cone
Front view and Top view of a cylinder and cone

Prism may be placed with their axis perpendicular to VP in three different positions.
Longer Edgeon HP Longer Edgeon HP
Rectangular faceon HP
b  b1  b  b1  b  b1  c  c1 
c  c1 
o  o1  o  o1 
a   a1  c  c1 
o  o1  a   a1  a   a1  d   d1 
d   d1 
VP   
X e  e1 
HP e  e1  d   d1  e  e1 
 e1  b1  o1   d1  b1  e1   o1  c1  d1  b1  e1  o1  c1  d1 
a1 c1 a1 a1
a1
a e b o  d c a b e  o  c d a b  e  o  c d
Example: A square pyramid, base 40m side and axis 65mm long, has its base in the V.P. One
edge of the base is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and a corner contained by that edge is on the
H.P. Draw its projections.
b
B b
V.P. a
o
A y c
a
a b 30 c
X y
D d
d O
X a
0
H.P.
o
1. Draw a square in the front view with the corner d in xy and the side de inclined at 30 to it.
Locate the centre o and join it with the corners of the square.
2. Project down all the corners in xy (because the base is in the V.P.). Mark the apex o on the
projector through o . Draw lines for the slant edges and complete the top view.
Projections of a pentagonal prism resting on HP and axis perpendicular to VP with

different positions.
Pyramid may be placed with their axis perpendicular to VP in three different positions.
Corner of the
Base Edge Base on HP Corner on HP With two Base
on HP Edges Equally Inclined to HP
b b
b c
c
a c a o  o1   o1 
o  o1  a o d
d 
VP  
X HP e d e e
Y
 
e b  o1  d c b  e  o1  c d
a a a b  e   o1  c d
o o o
Axis Parallel to both the H.P. and V.P.:
Example: A triangular prism, base 40mm side and height 65mm is resting on the H.P. on one
of its rectangular faces with the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
b1 e b
e1
o1 P o
a f1 c1 
c a y
x 1 d1 d f 
f c
eP o
b
d a
As the axis is parallel to both the planes, begin with the side view.
1. Draw an equilateral triangle representing the side view, with one side in xy.
2. Project the front view horizontally from this triangle.
3. Project down the top view from the front view and the side view, as shown
This problem can also be solved in two stages as explained in the next article.
Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes and parallel
to the other:
When a solid has its axis inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, its projections are drawn in
two stages.
1. In the initial stage, the solid is assumed to be in simple position, i.e. its axis perpendicular to one
of the planes.
If the axis is to be inclined to the ground, i.e. the H.P., it is assumed to be perpendicular to
the H.P. in the initial stage. Similarly, if the axis is to be inclined to the V.P., it is kept
perpendicular to the V.P. in the initial stage.
Moreover
(i) If the solid has an edge of its base parallel to the H.P. or in the H.P. or on the ground, that
edge should be kept perpendicular to the V.P., if the edge of the base is parallel to the
V.P. or in the V.P., it should be kept perpendicular to the H.P.
(ii) If the solid has a corner of its base in the H.P. or on the ground, the sides of the base
containing that corner is in the V.P., they should be kept equally inclined to the H.P.
2. Having drawn the projections of the solid in its simple position, the final projections may be
obtained by one of the following two methods.
(i) Alternation of position: The position of one of the views is altered as required and the other
view projected from it.
(ii) Alternation of reference line or auxiliary plane: A new reference line is drawn according
to the required conditions, to represent an auxiliary plane and the final view projected on it.
In the first method, the reproduction of a view accurately in the altered position is likely to take
considerable time, specially, when the solid has curved surfaces or adopt the second method.
Sufficient care must however be taken in transferring the distances of various points from their
respective reference lines.
After determining the positions of all the points for the corners in the final view, difficulty is often
felt in completing the view correctly. The following sequence for joining the corners may be
adopted:
(a) Draw the lines for the edges of the visible base. The base, which (compared to the other base) is
further away from xy in one view, will be fully visible in the other view.
(b) Draw the lines for the longer edges. The lines which pass through the figure of the visible base
should be dashed lines.
(c) Draw the lines for the edges of the other base.
It should always be remembered that, when two lines representing the edges cross each other, one
of them must be hidden and should therefore be drawn as a dashed line.
Axis inclined to the V.P. and Parallel to the H.P.

Example: Draw the projections of a cylinder 75mm diameter and 100mm long, lying on the
ground with its axis inclined at 30° to the V.P. and parallel to the ground.
Adopt the same methods as in the previous problem. The ellipses for the ends should be joined by
common tangents. Note that half of the ellipse for the hidden base will be drawn as dashed line.
b b1 41
41 71 c a 1 c1 11

y1 a 71
30
x y
11 101 d d1 101
1 30
b1 c1 4 7
1 10
4
10
a 1 d1 a
7
X1 b
a b c c
Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
The projections of a solid with its axis inclined to both the planes are drawn in three stages;
1. Simple position
2. Axis inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
3. Final position.
The second and final positions may be obtained either by the alternation of the position of the solid,
i.e. the views, or by the alternation of reference lines.
Example: Draw the projections of a cone, base 45mm diameter and axis 50mm long, when its
is resting on the ground on a point on its base circle with (a) the axis making an angle of 30°
with the H.P. and 45° with the V.P. (b) the axis making an angle of 30° with the H.P. and its
top view making 45° with the V.P.
O
O O 1 O 1
11 11
1
10  p 1
4 p 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
4 1 4 1
p  10 30
X y
1 4 7 7 7 1 7 1
10 1 01
1 01 1 01
11
11
7
1 O p1 71 O1
11 p1 p1
45 45
41 71 71
 41
4 41
O1
O1 O2
1. Draw the top view and the front view of the cone with the base on the ground.
2. Tilt the front view so that the axis makes 30 angle with xy. Project the second top view.
(a) In order that the axis may make an angle of 45 with the V.P. let us determine the apparent
angle of inclination which the top view of the axis, viz. o1p1 should make with xy and which will
be greater than 45 .
3. Mark any point p1 below xy. Draw a line p1o2 equal to the true length of the axis, viz, op, and
inclined at 45 to xy. With p1 as centre4 and radius equal to p1o1 (the length of the top view of
the axis) draw an arc cutting the locus of o 2 at o1 . Then  is the apparent angle of inclination
and is greater than 45 . Around p1o1 as axis, reproduce the second top view and project the final
front view as shown.
Note that the base of the cone is not visible in the front view because it is nearer xy in the top
view.
(b) When the top view of the axis is to make 45 angle with the V.P., it is evident that p1o1
should be inclined at 45 to xy. Hence, reproduce the top view accordingly and project the
required front view.
Projection of Spheres:
The projection of a sphere in any position on any plane is always a circle whose diameter is equal to
the diameter of the sphere. This circle represents the contour of the sphere.
o
x y
A flat circular surface is formed when a sphere is cut by a plane. A hemisphere (i.e., a sphere cut
by a plane passing through its centre) has a flat circular face of diameter equal to that of the sphere.
When it is placed on the ground on its flat face, its front view is a semi-circle, while its top view is
a circle.
When the flat face is inclined to the H.P. or the ground and is perpendicular to the V.P. it is seen
as an ellipse (partly hidden) in the top view, while the contour of the hemisphere is shown by the arc
of the circle drawn with radius equal to that of the sphere.
7
O
4
O
x y
1 4 7 1
10 101
O o1
1 7 11 71
4 41
i  ii 
Fig. Shows the projections of a sphere, a small portion of which is cut off by a plane. Its flat face
is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P. An ellipse is seen in the front view within the
circle for the sphere.
4 41
1 O 7 O1
71
11
x 10 101 y
O O
7
4
1 4 7
1
When the flat face of a cut sphere is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P., its
projections can be drawn as described.
Example: A vertical cylindrical disc of thickness 10mm and diameter 50mm is resting on the
ground. A vertical frustum of pentagonal pyramid, having bottom of 20mm sides, top face of
40mm sides with 60mm height is resting on the top surface of the disc so that axes of the both
solids coincide. Take one of sides of the base of pentagon is perpendicular to V.P. Draw the
projections of combined solid when the axis of combined solids is inclined to 30° with the H.P.
O
40
a  8 7 f  6 e x1
b 1 2 3 c 4 5d
15
q u t
x y
p r s
o1
35
f f1 e1
71 61 51
7 t
a d1
8 6 e u1 81 1
5 y1 a1 11 s1 41
20
1 35 21 31
b1 c1
4 p1
2 d
b 3
q1 r1
c
1. Draw the top view of frustum of pyramid (pentagon) keeping one of the sides perpendicular to
xy as shown.
2. Project the front view marking height of cylindrical disc and frustum of the pyramid 10mm and
60mm respectively.
3. Draw a line at angle of 30 with xy. (As axis is inclined with H.P., its inclination observed in
the front view).
4. Reproduce the front view considering inclined line as axes of the combined solids.
5. Draw the vertical projectors from various points of the front view.
6. Draw horizontal projectors to intersect respective vertical projectors. Obtain the auxiliary top
view as shown.
Questions:
1. A prism is cut by a plane parallel to its base removing the top portion, the remaining bottom portion
is known as
a) Frustum b) section c) truncated d) pyramid
2. A pyramid is cut by a plane not parallel to its base removing the top portion, the remaining bottom
portion is known as
a) Frustum b) section c) truncated d) prism
3. The regular polyhedral solid having minimum number of faces is

a) Tetrahedron b) square prism c) triangular prism d) cube
4. Among the following solids, a regular polyhedron is

a) cube b) sphere c) square pyramid d) square prism
5. Number of faces in a dodecahedron are

a) 12 b) 16 c) 14 d) 20
6. Number of faces in a icosahedron are

a) 12 b) 16 c) 14 d) 20
7. The number of stages that are necessary to get the projections of a solid having it axis inclined to
one reference plane and parallel to another
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
8. An orthographic view of a hemisphere may appear as

a) Circle b) rectangular hyperbola c) hyperbola d) parabola
9. The number of stages that are necessary to get the projections of a solid having it axis inclined to
both the reference planes
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
10. A cube is resting on HP with one of the diagonal perpendicular to it. The top view will appear as
a) Square b) hexagon c) rectangle d) irregular hexagon
ESE Questions
11. If a thread is wound around a cone starting from a point on the base, and brought back to the same
point, then the shortest possible length of the thread is equal to the :
(a) Diameter of the base of the cone (b) Slant height of the cone
(c) Largest chord of the development sector
(d) Length of the perpendicular from a corner of the development sector to the opposite edge
12. If a square pyramid is freely suspended from one of the corners of its base, then the imaginary line
joining that corner with the centre of gravity of the pyramid will be
(a) Inclined at 60° with the vertical (b) Inclined at 45° with the vertical
(c) Inclined at 30° with the vertical (d) Vertical
Key:
1) a 2) c 3) c 4) a 5) a 6) d 7) b 8) a 9) c 10) a 11) c 12) d
ESE Solution:
11) Largest chord of the development sector
Unit
10 Section of Solids
Introduction:
The hidden features of an object are shown by dotted line in their projected views. But when such
features are many this hidden line makes the views more complicated and confuse to interpret. In
such cases it is necessary to imagine the object as being cut through the planes. The imaginary plane
is known as a section plane or a cutting plane.
Section Planes: Section planes are generally perpendicular planes. They may be perpendicular to
one of the reference planes and either perpendicular, parallel or inclined to the other plane. They are
usually described by their traces. It is important to remember that the projection of a section plane,
on the plane to which it is perpendicular, is a straight line. This line will be parallel, perpendicular or
inclined to xy, depending upon the section plane being parallel, perpendicular or inclined
respectively to the other reference plane.
As per latest B.I.S. convention (SP: 46-2003), the cutting-plane line should be drawn as shown in
fig. Which is reproduced here in fig. for ready reference.
THICK THIN THICK
 a  PARALLEL CUTTING PLANE
THICK
THIN
THICK
 b  INCLINED CUTTING PLANE
THICK
THIN
THICK THIN THICK
THICK THIN THICK
THIN THICK
THICK THIN THICK

 c  CUTTING PLANE AT CHANGING POSITION
Sections:
The projection of the section on the reference plane to which the section plane is perpendicular, will
be a straight line coinciding with the section plane is perpendicular, will be a straight line coinciding
with the trace of the section plane on it. Its projection on the other plane to which it is inclined is
called apparent section.
True shape of a section:

The projection of the section on a plane parallel to the section plane will show the true shape of the
section. Thus, when the section plane is parallel to HP the true shape of the section will be seen in
section top view. When it is parallel to VP the true shape will be visible in the sectional front view.
But when the section plane is inclined, the section has to be projected on an auxiliary plane parallel
to the section, to obtain its true shape.
In this chapter sections of different solids are explained in stages by means of typical problems as
follows.
1. Sections of prisms
2. Sections of pyramids
3. Sections of cylinders
4. Sections of cones
5. Sections of spheres
Sections of Prisms:
These are illustrated according to the position of the section plane with reference to the principal
planes as follows.
1. Section plane parallel to the V.P.
2. Section plane parallel to the H.P.
3. Section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the H.P.
4. Section plane perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.
Section plane parallel to VP:

Consider a cube of 35mm sides resting on the HP on one of its faces with a vertical face inclined at
450 to VP it is cut by a section plane parallel to VP and away from the axis and further away from
the VP. Draw it sectional front and top view.
VANI Publications Section of Solids
a 1 b 2
c
a
35
X s VP
Y
P 4 45 q 3 r HP
d
a
a P r c
4 3 10
H 1 2
a
35 b
 As the section plane is parallel to the VP it is perpendicular to the HP hence the section will be
seen as a line in the top view coinciding with HT of the section plane.
 Name the points at which the edges are cut i.e., ab at 1, bc at 2, rq at 3 and qp at 4
 Project these points on the corresponding edges in the front view and join them in proper order.
 As the section plane is parallel to the VP figure 1'2'3'4' in the front view, shows the true shape of
the section.
I) In case of pyramids follow the same steps to get sectional views.

II) When a cylinder is cut by a section plane parallel to the axis, the true shape of the section is a
rectangle, the sides of which are respectively equal to the length of the axis and the length of the
section plane within the cylinder. When the section plane contains the axis, the rectangle will be of
the maximum size.
III) When a cone is cut by a section plane parallel to VP and away from axis, the true shape of the
sectional view is a rectangular hyperbola. If the section plane passing through the apex of the cone
then the true shape of the section view is isosceles triangle.
IV) When the sphere is cut by a section plane parallel to VP, the true shape of the section seen in the
front view is a circle. The width of section at any point is equal to the length of the chord.
Sectional plane parallel to the HP:

A triangular prism, is lying on the HP. On one of its rectangular faces with its axis inclined to VP it
is cut by a horizontal section plane at a distance above the ground. Draw its front view and sectional
top view.
a d
1 2 4 3 T
V
x
b c e f y
e
4
d
3
b
f
l
a
2
c
 As the section is horizontal, i.e., parallel to HP it is perpendicular to VP. Hence, the section will
be seen as a line in the front view, coinciding with the VT of the section plane.
 Name in correct sequence, points at which the edges are cut i.e., a'b' at 1', a'c' at 2', d'f' at 3' and
d'e' at 4'.
 Project these points on the corresponding lines in the top view and complete the sectional top
view by joining them in proper order.
 As the sectional plane is parallel to HP, the figure 1 2 3 4 in top view is the true shape of the
section.

II) When a cylinder is cut by a section plan parallel to the base, the true shape of the section is a circle
of the section is a circle of same diameter.
III) When the cone is cut by a section plane parallel to the base. The true shape of the section is shown
by the circle in the top view.
IV) When a sphere is cut by a plane, the true shape of the section is always a circle.
Section plane perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP.

A cube resting on HP is cut by a section plane, inclined to VP and perpendicular to HP, so that the
face which makes angle with VP is cut into two halves. Draw the sectional front view, top view and
true shape of the section.
 The section will be seen as a line in the top view coinciding with the HT of the section plane
 Name the corners at which the four edges are cut and project them in front view. As the section
plane is inclined to VP. The front view of the section i.e.,1'2'3'4' does not reveal its true shape.
Only the vertical line show true length, while the true lengths of the horizontal lines are seen in
the top view. The true shape of the section will be seen when it is projected on an auxiliary
vertical plane, parallel to the section plane.
 Therefore, draw a new reference line x1 y1 parallel to HT and project the section on it. The
distances of the points from x1 y1 should be taken equal to their corresponding distances from xy
in the front view. Thus 4'' and 3'' will be on x1 y1. 1''4'' and 2''3'' will be rqual to 1'4' and 2'3'
respectively. Complete the rectangle 1''2''3''4'' which is the true shape of the section and draw
section line in it.
a 1 d 2 b c
x y
e  4 h 3 f  g
d
H h
x1
1 4
g c
4
a e
1 3f
3 2 b
T
y1
2
II) When a cylinder is cut by a section plan inclined to the VP, the true shape of the section is a
rectangle.
Section plane perpendicular to the VP and inclined to the HP:

A cube resting on HP is cut by a section plane, inclined to HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw the
sectional front view, top view and true shape of the section. Project another top view on an auxiliary
plane, parallel to the section plane.
21
31
11 T
41 2 b  c
e
4
y1
b
x v  y
e h f g
d1 11 c1
d4 3
x h1
g c 21 b
1
a
1
11
e1 f1
2 f
b
 The section will be seen as a line in the front view. Draw a line VT in front view, inclined to XY
and passing through the top end of the axis. It cut four edges i.e., a'e' at 1', a'b' at 2', c'd' at 3', and
d'h' at 4'.
 Project the top view of the section i.e., the figure 1234. It does not show the true shape of the
section, as the section plane is inclined to HP. To determne the true shape, an auxiliary top view
of the section should be projected on an AIP parallel to the section plane.
 Assuming the new reference line for the AIP to coincide with the VT. Project the true shape of
the section as shown by quadrilateral 11213141. The distances of all the points from the VT
should be taken equal to their corresponding distances from xy in top view. Eg: 111' = e'1, 414 =
h'4 etc.
 To project an auxiliary sectional top view of the cube, draw a new reference line x1 y1, parallel to
VT. The whole cube may first be projected and the point for the section may then be projected in
the corresponding line for the edges. Join these points in correct sequence and obtain the
required top view.
Sections of Pyramids:
The following cases are discussed in details.
1. Section plane parallel to the base of the pyramid.
4. Section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.
Section plane parallel to the base of the pyramid:
Example: A pentagonal pyramid, base 30mm side and axis 65mm long, has its base
horizontal and an edge of the base parallel to the V.P. A horizontal section plane cuts it at a
distance of 25mm above the base. Draw its front view and sectional top view.
O
15 2 4 3
V T
x y
a e e b d d c
5 4
1 o
a 3 c
2
b
(i) Draw the projections of the pyramid in the required position and show a line V.T. for the
section plane, parallel to the 25mm above the base. All the five slant edges are cut.
(ii) Project the points at which they are cut, on the corresponding edges in the top view. The
point 2 cannot be projected directly as the line ob is perpendicular to xy. But it is quite
evident from the projections of other points that the lines of the section in the top view, viz.
3-4, 4-5, and 5-1 are parallel to the edges of the base in their respective faces and that the
points 1, 3, 4 and 5 are equidistant from o.
(iii) Hence, line 1-2 also will be parallel to ab and o2 will be equal to o1, o3, etc. Therefore, with
o as centre and radius o1, draw an arc cutting ob at a point 2 which will be the projection of
2 . Complete the sectional top view in which the true shape of the section, viz. The pentagon
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 is also seen.
(iv) Hence, when a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its base, the true shape of the section will
be a figure, similar to the base; the sides of the section will be parallel to the edges of the
base in the respective faces and the corners of the section will be equidistant from the axis.
Section plane parallel to the V.P.
Example: A triangular pyramid, having base 40mm side and axis 50mm long, is lying on the H.P.
on one of its faces, with the axis parallel to the V.P. A section plane, parallel to the V.P. cuts the
pyramid at a distance of 6mm from the axis. Draw its sectional front view and the top view.
(i) Draw the projections of the pyramid in the required position and show a line H.T. (for the
cutting plane) in the top view parallel to xy and 6mm from the axis.
(ii) Project points 1, 2 and 3 (at which the edges are cut) on corresponding edges in the front
view and join them. Figure 1, 2, 3 shows the true shape of the section.
o
a
2
o y
x 1 3
a
c
a O a O
H T
1 2 3
b
Section plane perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.

Example: A square pyramid, base 40mm side and axis 65 mm long, has its base on the H.P. and all
the edges of the base equally inclined to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the
V.P., inclined at 45° to the H.P. and bisecting the axis. Draw its sectional top view, sectional side
view and true shape of the section.
(i) Draw the projections of the pyramid in the required position. The section plane will be seen
as a line in the front view. Hence, draw a line V.T. through the mid-point of the axis and
inclined at 45 to xy. Name in correct sequence the points at which the four edges are cut
and project them in the top view. Here also, points 2 and 4 cannot be projected directly.
Hence, assume a horizontal section through 2 and draw a line parallel to the base, cutting
o a at 21 . Project 21 to 21 on oa in the top view. From 21 draw a line parallel to ab and
cutting ob at 2 and ob at 4. Complete the section 1 2 3 3 4 by joining the points and draw
section lines in it.
(ii) Assuming the V.T. to be the new reference line, draw the true shape of the section. Project
the side view from the two views. The removed portion of the pyramid may be shown by
thin and faint lines.
21 31 y1
o o
T
41
3 32
2 42
11 21 22
4
45 12
x y
a b c d a b
V d
a 21 o 3
1 c
2
b
x1
Section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.

Example: A pentagonal pyramid has its base on the H.P. and the edge of the base nearer the V.P.,
parallel to it. A vertical section plane, inclined at 45° to the V.P., cuts the pyramid at a distance of
6mm from the axis. Draw the top view, sectional front view and the auxiliary front view on an
A.V.P. parallel to the section plane. Base of the pyramid 30mm side; axis 50mm long.
O
3
2 21
o
3
y
2 d 1
1 y
4 xa  e b  d  4 c
c
e
b
1
x1 a T
e d
4
o 3
a 21 c
2
1
H b
The section plane will be seen as a line in the top view. It is to be at a distance of 6mm from the axis.
(i) Hence, draw a circle with o as centre and radius equal to 6mm.
(ii) Draw a line H.T., tangent to this circle and inclined at 45 to xy. It can be drawn in four
different positions, of which any one may be selected.
(iii) Project points 1, 2 etc. from the top view to the corresponding edges in the front view. Here
again, point 2 cannot be projected directly. The process shown in problem 14-11 must be
reversed. With centre o and radius o2 draw an arc cutting any one of the slant edges, say oc
at 21 . Project 21 to 21 on oc .
(iv) Through 21 , draw a line parallel to the base, cutting ob  at 2 . Then 2 is the required point.
Complete the view. It will show the apparent section.
(v) Draw a reference line x1 y1 parallel to the H.T. and project an auxiliary sectional front view
which will show the true shape of the section also.
Section of Cylinders:
We shall now learn the following three cases. They are
1. Section plane parallel to the base
2. Section plane parallel to the axis.
3. Section plane inclined to the base.
1. Section plane parallel to the base:
When a cylinder is cut by a section plane parallel to the base, the true shape of the section is a circle
of the same diameter.
2. Section Plane parallel to the axis:
When a cylinder is cut by a section plane parallel to the axis, the true shape of the section is a
rectangle, the sides of which are respectively equal to the length of the axis and the length of the
section plane within the cylinder. When the section plane contains the axis, the rectangle will be of
the maximum size.
1 2
1
x y
4 3
4
2
4
1
3
3
2
Section plane inclined to the base:
Example: A cylinder of 40mm diameter, 60mm height and having its axis vertical, is cut by a
section plane, perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45° to the H.P. and intersecting the axis 32mm
above the base. Draw its front view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the
section.
g
d1
c1 x1
b1 T
12 3 4 7 10 4
d 1211 10 g
a c f  g
b ee f1
1
d d1 d
d1
c 
b  c1 c1 c
a  b 45 b1 a b
1
x 1211 10 7 y
V 1 2 3 4 7 10 1112 1 2 34
c1 d1
b1
a g
b
c
d y1
i   ii 
As the cylinder has no edges, a number of lines representing the generators may be assumed on its
curved surface by dividing the base-circle into, say 12 equal parts.
(i) Name the points at which these lines are cut by the V.T. In the top view, these points lie on
the circle and hence, the same circle is the top view of the section. The width of the section at
any point, say c, will be equal to the length of the chord cc1 in the top view.
(ii) The true shape of the section may be drawn around the centre line ag drawn parallel to V.T.
as shown. It is an ellipse the major axis of which is equal to the length of the section plane
viz. ag, and the minor axis equal to the diameter of the cylinder viz. dd1 .
(iii) Project the sectional side view as shown. The section will be seen as a circle because the
section plane makes 45 angle with xy.
Sections of Cones:
This is discussed in details as follows:
1. Section plane parallel to the base of the cone.
2. Section plane passing through the apex of the cone.
3. Section plane inclined to the base of the cone at an angle smaller than the angle of inclination of
the generators with the base.
4. Section plane parallel to a generator of the cone.
5. Section plane inclined to the base of the cone at an angle greater than the angle of inclination of
the generators with the base.
1. Section plane parallel to the base of the cone:

The cone resting on the H.P. on its base is cut by a section plane parallel to the base. The true shape
of the section is shown by the circle in the top view, whose diameter is equal to the length of the
section viz. a a  . The width of the section at any point, say b, is equal to the length of the chord
bb1
Example: To locate the position in the top view of any given point p in the front view of the
above cone.
Method-I:
(i) Through p , draw a line rr parallel to the base.
(ii) With o as centre and diameter equal to rr , draw a circle in the top view.
(iii) Project p to points p and p1 on this circle. P is the top view of p. p1 is the top view of
another point p1 on the back side of the cone and coinciding with p . The chord pp1 shows
the width of the horizontal section of the cone at the point p . This method may be called the
circle method.
o o
r p r 
a  b a T
V
q
s s
x y
1 7  1 7
b1
p1
1 a a 7 1 s o 7
b q p
i  ii 
Method-II:
When the position of a point in the top view say q is given, its front view v can be determined by
reversing the above process.
(i) With centre o and radius oq, draw a circle cutting the horizontal centre line at s.
(ii) Through s, draw a projector cutting the slant side o1 at s .
(iii) Draw the line ss parallel to the base, intersecting a projector through q at the required point
q .
Section plane passing through the apex of the cone:

Example: A cone, diameter of base 50mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on the H.P. It
is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 75° to the H.P. and passing through
the apex. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true shape of the section.
Draw the projections of the cone and on it, show the line V.T. for the section plane.
Mark a number of points a, b etc. on the V.T. and project them to points a, b etc. in the top view by
the circle method. It will be found that these points lie on a straight line through o.
Thus, od is the top view of the line or generator od  and triangle odd1 is the top view of the section.
width of the section at any point b on the section is the line bb1 , obtained by projecting b on this
triangle. This method is called the generator method.
Project the true shape of the section. It is an isosceles triangle, the base of which is equal to the
length of the chord on the base-circle and the altitude is equal to the length of the section plane
within the cone.
T
o
o o
b1 a a1
b
bb1 p
d1
cc1
d d  d q
x 1 y
r s
d1 r1
V b1 p1
o o
b p
q s
d r
 i  ii 
Example: To determine by generator method, the position in the top view of a given point p
in the front view of the above cone.
Draw the line op and produce it to cut the base at r . Project r to points r and r1 on the
base-circle in the top view. Draw lines or and or1 . Thus, or is the top view of the generator or  ,
and or1 respectively. Thus, p is the top view of p , and p1 is the top view of another point on the
other side of the cone and coinciding with p . The line pp1 is the width of the horizon-section of
the cone at p .
The position in the front view of any point in the top view, say q, may be determined by
reversing the process. Draw the line oq and produce it to cut the base-circle at s. Project s to s
on the base in the front view. Join o with s . Through, q, draw a projector to cut os at the
required point q .
Sectional views of cones may be obtained by applying any one of the above two methods
for locating the positions of points. The generator method is more suitable particularly when the
cone is in inclined positions.
Section plane inclined to the base of the cone at an angle smaller than the angle
of inclination of the generators with the base:
Example: A cone, base 75mm diameter and axis 80mm long is resting on its base on the H.P. It is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45° to the H.P. and cutting the axis at a
point 35mm from the apex. Draw its front view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true
shape of the section.
Draw a line V.T. in the required position in the front view of the cone. The positions of points on
this line and the width of section at each point can be determined by one of the methods explained in
problem 14-21 and problem 14-23 and as described below.
(i) Generator Method:
(a) Divide the base-circle into a number of equal parts. Draw lines (i.e., generators) joining these
points with o. Project these points on the line representing the base in the front view.
(b) Draw lines o2 , o3 etc. cutting the line for the section at points b, c etc. Project these points
on the corresponding lines in the top view. For example, point b1 on the o2 , also represents
point b1 on o  12 which coincides with o  12 . Therefore, project b to b on o 2 and to b1 on
o  12 . b and b1 are the points on the section (in the top view).
(c) Similarly, obtain other points. Point d  cannot be projected directly. Hence, the same method as
in case of pyramids should be employed to determine the positions d and d1 , as shown. In
addition to these, two more points for the maximum width of the section at its centre should also
be obtained. Mark m, the mid-point of the section and obtain the points m and m1 . Draw a
smooth curve through these points.
(d) The true shape of the section may be obtained on the V.T. as a new reference line of
symmetrically around the centre line ag, drawn parallel to the V.T. as shown. It is an ellipse
whose major axis is equal to the length of the section and minor axis equal to the width of the
section at its centre.
Draw the sectional side view by projecting the points on corresponding generators, as shown.
i
d1 g x1
m1 o o
b1 T
d g g
m d d
d1 d1
a
b m m1 m
m1
b b
a  b1 b1
45 a
V
x 12 y
1 2 4
10 7 10 12 1 2 4
12 b m1 d
1 1
1 a o g 7
2 b m d
3
4
y1
 ii 
(ii) Circle Method:
(a) Divide the line of section into a number of equal parts. Determine the width of section at, and the
position of each division-point in the top view by the circle method. For example, through c,
draw a line cc parallel to the base.
(b) With o as centre and radius equal to half of cc , draw an arc. Project c to c and c1 on this arc.
Then c and c1 are the required points. The straight line joining c and c1 will be the width of the
section at c .
(c) Similarly, obtain all other points and draw a smooth curve through them. This curve will show
the apparent section. The maximum width of the section will be at the mid-point e . It is shown
in the top view by the length of the chord joining e and e1 .
(d) Draw a reference line x1 y1 parallel to the V.T. and project the true shape of the section. In the
figure, the auxiliary sectional top view of the truncated cone is shown. It shows the true shape of
the section.
The sectional side view (not shown in the figure) may be obtained by projecting all the division-
points horizontally and then marking the width of the section at each point, symmetrically around
the axis of the cone.
o
T
j
e
c cc c
1
a
V
x y y1
c1 e1
o
e1
a
x1 c1
c
e
e
a
c
Section plane parallel to a generator of the cone:
Example: The cone is same position as in problem 14-24, is cut by a section plane perpendicular to
the V.P. and parallel to and 12mm away from one of its end generators. Draw its front view,
sectional top view and true shape of the section.
(i) Draw a line V.T. (for the section plane) parallel to and 12mm away from the generator o1 .
(ii) Draw the twelve generators in the top view and project them to the front view. All the
generators except o1 , o2 and o  12 are cut by the section plane. Project the points at
which they are cut, to the corresponding generators in the top view. The width of the section
at the point where the base is cut will be the chord aa1 . Draw a curve through a...f... a1 . The
figure enclosed between aa1 and the curve is the apparent section.
(iii) Obtain the true shape of the section as explained in the previous problem. It will be a
parabola.
f
c1 T
o
c
b1 f
c
b
a1
b
a
x y
1 a 410 7
a1
V b1
c1
1 f 7
c
a b
i   ii  4
Section plane inclined to the base of the cone at an angle greater than the angle of
inclination of the generators with the base:
Example: A cone, base 45mm diameter and axis 55 mm long is resting on the H.P. on its base. It is
cut by a section plane, perpendicular to both the H.P. and the V.P. and 6mm away from the axis.
Draw its front view, top view and sectional side view.
The section will be seen as a line, perpendicular to xy, in both the front view and top view. The
side view will show the true shape of the section. The width of the section at any point, say c , will
be equal to cc1 obtained by the circle method.
(i) Draw the side view of the cone.
(ii) Project the points (on the section) in the side view taking the widths from the top view. For
example, through c draw a horizontal line. Mark on it points c and c
1 equidistant from
and on both sides of the axis so that cc1  cc1 .

(iii) Draw a curve through the points thus obtained. It will be a hyperbola.
Fig. shows the views obtained by the generator method.
o y1 o 
g g
c c1
b b1 c
1 c
a  a1 y
x
x1 a
1 a 
ISOMETRIC VIEW
a1 o x1 o
c1
a a
g o
c c1 c1 c
c
a
 i   d
x 12 11 1  10 d1 12 y
12 3d 4 7 1 2 d4
10
11 d
12 c1
a o
1 7
c
2
3
d 4 y1
 ii 
Sections of Spheres
These are discussed in detail as under.
1. Section plane parallel to the H.P.
4. Section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.
1. Section plane parallel to the H.P.: When a sphere is cut by a plane, the true shape of the
section is always a circle.
The sphere in figure is cut by a horizontal section plane. The true shape of the section (seen in
the top view) is a circle of diameter a a  . The width of the section at any point say b, is equal to
the length of the chord bb.
a b a
x y
a a
2. Section plane parallel to the V.P.: When the sphere is cut by a section plane parallel to the
V.P., the true shape of the section, seen in the front view, is a circle of diameter cc. The width of
section at any point d is equal to the length of the chord d d  .
d
c c
x d y
c d c
3. Section plane perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.:

Example: A sphere of 50mm diameter is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the V.P., inclined
at 45° to the H.P. and at a distance of 10mm from its centre. Draw the sectional top view and true
shape of the section.
Draw a line (for the section plane) inclined at 45 to xy and tangent to the circle of 10mm radius
drawn with o as centre. Mark a number of points on this line.
c1
a1
a c1
g1
c
o
g
x y
c
a o g
Method I:
(i) Find the width of section at each point in the top view as shown in fig. For example, the
chord cc is the width of section at the point c .
(ii) Draw a curve through the points thus obtained. It will be an ellipse. The true shape of the
section will be a circle of diameter ag .
Method-II:
It is known that the true shape of the section is a circle of diameter equal to ag. The width of
section at any point say c is equal to the chord c1c1 on this circle. Therefore, project c to points c
in the top view so that cc  c1c1 . Similarly, obtain other points and draw the ellipse through them.
Figure shows the sectional front view and true shape of the section when the section plane is
vertical and inclined to the V.P.
c
a g
c
x y
a
c
c1
g
a1
c1 g1
Section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.:

Example: The projections of a hemisphere 50mm diameter, placed centrally on the top of a frustum
of a hexagonal pyramid, base 32mm side, top 20mm side and axis 50mm long are given. Draw the
sectional front view when the vertical section plane H.T. inclined at 45° to the V.P. and 10mm from
the axis, cuts them. Also draw the true shapes of the sections of both the solids.
c b
o
d
p
a q
x y
p r
H r q
s c
p
d s c
d
b
a b a
Fig. Third angle Projection
The widths of the section of the sphere at various points are obtained from the semi-circle drawn in
the top view.
Questions:
1) A cylinder resting on HP is cut by a section plane parallel to VP. The true shape of the section is
a) circle b) parabola c) rectangle d) ellipse
2) A cylinder resting on HP is cut by a section plane parallel to HP. The true shape of the section is
a ) circle b) parabola c) hyperbola d) ellipse
3) A square prism axis is perpendicular to VP, a sectional plane cut the prism parallel to VP. The true
shape of the section is
a) ellipse b) square c) rectangle d) hyperbola
4) A circular cone with its axis perpendicular to HP is cut by a section plane parallel to base of cone.
The true shape of the section is
a) circle b) parabola c) rectangle d) ellipse
5) A circular cone with its axis perpendicular to HP is cut by a section plane passing through the apex
of the cone. The true shape of the section is
a) circle b) parabola c) isosceles triangle d) ellipse
6) A circular cone with its axis perpendicular to HP is cut by a section plane inclined tothe base of the
cone at angle smaller than the angle of inclination of the generators with the base . The true shape of
the section is
7) A circular cone with its axis perpendicular to HP is cut by a section plane parallel to a generator of
the cone. The true shape of the section is
8) A circular cone with its axis perpendicular to HP is cut by a section plane inclined to the base of the
cone at angle greater than the angle of inclination of the generators with the base. The true shape of
the section is
a) hyperbola b) parabola c) isosceles triangle d) ellipse
ESE QUESTIONS:
9) A pentagonal prism is lying on HP on one of its rectangular faces. When it is cut by a section plane,
the largest possible section thereof has
a) Five edges b) Six edges c) Seven edges d) Eight edges
10) A cone is resting with its base on HP. A section plane parallel to VP cuts the cone. The section plane
is some distance away from the centre and does not pass through the apex. The true shape of the
section is
a) Hyperbola b) Rectangular Hyperbola c) Parabola d) Rectangular Parabola
KEY:
1) c 2)a 3)b 4)a 5)c 6)d 7)b 8)a 9)c 10)b
ESE solutions:
9) Front base edges = 2(c-d, d-e)
Rare base edges = 2(1-2, 1-5)
Longer edges = 3(2-b, 5-e, 3-c)
Total 7 edges
10) A Rectangular Hyperbola is obtained when a section, parallel to the axis cuts the cone on one side
of the axis.
Unit
11 Development of Surfaces
Introduction:
A development is the unfold or unrolled flat or plane figure of a 3-D object. It is also called a pattern
where the plane may show the true size of each area of the object. When the pattern is cut, it can be
rolled or folded back into the original object.
The knowledge of development of surfaces is essential in many industries such as automobile,

aircraft, ship building, packaging and sheet-metal work. In construction of boilers, bins, process-
vessels, hoppers, funnels, chimneys etc., the plates are marked and cut according to the
developments which, when folded, form the desired objects. The form of the sheet obtained by
laying all the outer surfaces of the solid with suitable allowances for the joints is known as pattern.
Only the surfaces of polyhedral (such as prisms and pyramids) and single-curved surfaces (as of
cones and cylinders) can be accurately developed. Warped and double-curved surfaces are
undevelopable. These can however be approximately developed by dividing them up into a number
of parts.
This chapter deals with the following topics:
1. Methods of development
2. Developments of lateral surfaces of right solids
3. Development of transition pieces
4. Spheres (approximate method).
VANI Publications Development of surfaces
Types of development
There are three major types of development.
1. Parallel line development: In this parallel lines are used to construct the expanded pattern of each
three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a series of parallel lines to determine
the shape of a pattern.
2. Radial line development: In this, lines radiating from a central point to construct the expanded
pattern of each three-dimensional shape is used. These shapes each form part of a cone and lines
radiating from the vertex of the cone generate the expanded pattern of the curved surface as shown
in the following explorations.
3. Triangulation method: This is generally used for polyhedron, single curved surfaces, and warped
surfaces.
4. Approximate development: In this, the shapes obtained are only approximate. After joining, the
part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape
 a  Prism  b  Cylinder  c  Pyramid

 Parallel line development   Parallel line development   Radial line development 
 d  Cone  e  Sphere  f  Tetrahedron

 Radial line development   Approximate development   Triangular development 
A true development is one in which no stretching or distortion of the surfaces occurs and every
surface of the development is the same size and shape as the corresponding surface on the 3-D
object. e.g. polyhedrons and single curved surfaces.
In figure, polyhedrons are composed entirely of plane surfaces that can be flattened true size onto a
plane in a connected sequence, where as single curved surfaces are composed of consecutive pairs of
straight-line elements in the same plane which is obtained for a cone.
Polyhedron Polyhedron Single Curved Surfaces
An approximate development is one in which stretching or distortion occurs in the process of

creating the development. The resulting flat surfaces are not the same size and shape as the
corresponding surfaces on the 3-D object. Wrapped surfaces do not produce true developments,
because pairs of consecutive straight-line elements do not form a plane. Also double-curved
surfaces, such as a sphere do not produce true developments, because they do not contain any
straight lines.
Development of Lateral Surfaces of Right Solids:

The methods of drawing developments of surfaces of various solids are explained by means of the
following typical problems. Only the lateral surfaces of the solids (except the cube) have been
developed. The ends or bases have been omitted. They can be easily incorporated if required.
CUBE:
The development of the surface of a cube consists of six equal squares, the length of the side of the
squares being equal to the length of the edge of the cube.
Example: Draw the development of the surface of the part P of the cube, the front view of
which is shown in fig.
Name all the corners of the cube and also the points at which the edges are cut.
1. Draw the stretch-out lines A-A and E-E directly in line with the front view, and assuming the
cube to be whole, draw four squares for the vertical faces, one square for the top and another for
the bottom as shown in fig.
D 3 C
C
3
B
2 a 2 b A 2 B C 3 D A
C
3 c
1 1
1 45 4 1
E G 4 P
4
H e f E F G H E
30
H A 2  a 2
Isometric View and
H C3  c3
G
30  4  120
 i  Cube  ii  Development of Cube
2. Name all the corners. Draw a horizontal line through 1 to cut AE at 1 and DH at 4. a  b is the
true length of the edge. Hence, mark a point 2 on AB and 3 on CD such that A 2  a  2 and
C3  c 3 . Mark the point 3 on CD in the top square also.
3. Draw lines 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-1, and complete the development as shown. Keep lines for the
removed portion, viz. A1, A2, 3D, D4 and DA thin and fainter.
PRISMS:
Development of the lateral surface of a prism consists of the same number of rectangles in contact as
the number of the sides of the base of the prism. One side of the rectangle is equal to the length of
the axis and the other side equal to the length of the side of the base.
Example: Draw the development of the lateral surface of the part P of the pentagonal prism
shown in fig.
4 4 4
20 3 3
5 3
40 5 5
P 2
1 2
C 45 1
A 1 1
B c d 
a  b e  A B C D E A
Isometric View
20  5  100
20
 i  Pentagonal Pr ism  ii  Development of Pr ism

Name the corners of the prism and the points at which the edges are cut.
1. Draw the development assuming the prism to be whole. It is made up of five equal rectangles.
2. Draw horizontal lines through points 1, 2 etc. to cut the lines for the corresponding edges in the
development at points 1, 2 etc.
3. Draw lines joining these points and complete the development as shown.
CYLINDERS:
The development of the lateral surface of a cylinder is a rectangle having one side equal to the
circumference of its base-circle and the other equal to its length.
Example: Develop the lateral surface of the truncated cylinder shown in fig.
1. Divide the circle in the top view into twelve equal parts. Project the division points to the front
view and draw the generators. Mark points a , b and b1 , c and c1 etc. in which the generators
are cut.
2. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the whole cylinder along with the generators. The
length of the line 1-1 is equal to  D (circumference of the circle). This length can also be
marked approximately by stepping of with a bow divider, twelve divisions, each equal to the
chord-length ab. (The length thus obtained is about 1% shorter than the exact length; but this is
permitted in drawing work.)
3. Draw horizontal lines through points a , b and b1 etc. to cut the corresponding generators in
points A, B and B1 etc. Draw a smooth curve through the points thus obtained. The figure 1-A-
A-1 is the required development.
a A B1 A
A B
C1 b
b1 c C C1
c1
C
60
3 12 10 15
4 7 1 2 3 4
Isometric View c1 7 1 2 3 4 7 10 12 1
b1 10  D  141.3
a 1 7
b D   45
c 4
 i  Truncated Cylinder  ii  Development of Cylinder
PYRAMIDS:
The development of the lateral surface of a pyramid consists of a number of equal isosceles triangles
in contact. The base and the sides of each triangle are respectively equal to the edge of the base and
slant edge of the pyramid.
Note: The true length of a slant edge of a pyramid can be measured from the front view, if the top
view of that edge is parallel to xy; and it can be measured from the top view, if the slant edge is
parallel to xy in the front view.
Method of drawing the development of the lateral surface of a pyramid:

1. With any point O as centre and radius equal to the true length of the slant edge of the pyramid,
draw an arc of the circle. With radius equal to the true length of the side of the base, step-off (on
this arc) the same number of divisions as the number of sides of the base.
2. Draw lines joining the division-points with each other in correct sequence and also with the
centre for the arc. The figure thus formed (excluding the arc) is the development of the lateral
surface of the pyramid.
Example: Draw the development of the lateral surface of the part P of the triangular pyramid
shown in fig. The line o1 in the front view is the true length of the slant edge because it is
parallel to xy in the top view. The true length of the side of the base is seen in the top view.
C
B
O
A
20
b  b 1 2
40 
a  30 C
Isometric View
P
3 O
1 2
3 A B C A
1 1
1 0 30
2 3
2 o1  O1
 i  Triangular  ii  Development of
Pyramid Triangular Pyramid
1. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the whole pyramid as explained above. On O1
mark a point A such that OA  oa  . o2 (with which o3 coincides) is not the true length of the
slant edge.
2. Hence, through b, draw a line parallel to the base and cutting o a  at b . ob is the true length
of ob as well as oc . Mark a point B in O2 and C in O3 such that OB  OC  ob .
3. Draw lines AB, BC and CA and complete the required development as shown. Keep the arc and
the lines for the removed part fainter.
O
C
D
o A B
4
2
40 a  b
1
P 20 Isometric View
3 O
A A
11 1 2 1 1
30
4 B D
3 C
d c
11 2
4
a b 3
1 2 o11  O1 oa   OA
 i  Square Frustum  ii  Development of
Pyramid Pyramid
CONE:
The development of the curved surface of a cone is a sector of a circle, the radius and the length of
the arc of which are respectively equal to the slant height and the circumference of the base-circle of
the cone.
Example: Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone shown in fig.
O
o
35
70
A
R c c 12 B
c1 45
35 b 1 4
b 2
a b1 Isometric View
12 10 O
R
1 2 3 4 7 ob 
10
A 
12 A
1 B B1 1
2
1 7 12
2
4 10
60
4 7
 i  Truncated Cone  ii  Development of Truncated Cone
Assuming the cone to be whole, let us draw its development.
1. Draw the base-circle in the top view and divide it into twelve equal parts.
2. With any point O as centre and radius equal to o1 or o7 , draw an arc of the circle. The length
of this arc should be equal to the circumference of the base circle. This can be determined in two
ways.
3. Calculate the subtended angle  by the formula,
radius of the base circle
  360
slant height
Cut-off the arc so that it subtends the angle  at the centre and divide it into twelve equal parts.
4. Step-off with a bow-divider, twelve equal divisions on the arc, each equal to one of the divisions
of the base-circle.
(This will give an approximate length of the circumference. Note that the base-circle
should not be divided into less than twelve equal parts.)
5. Join the division-points with O, thus completing the development of the whole cone with twelve
generators shown in it.
6. The truncated portion of the cone may be deducted from this development by marking the
positions of points at which generators are cut and then drawing a curve through them. For
example, generators o2 and o12 in the front view are cut at points b and b1 which coincide
with each other. The true length of ob may be obtained by drawing a line through b, parallel
to the base and cutting o7 at b . Then ob is the true length of ob .
7. Mark points B and B1 on generators O2 and O-12 respectively, such that OB  OB1  ob .
Locate all points in the same way and draw a smooth curve through them. The figure enclosed
this curve and the arc is the development of the truncated cone.
Example: Draw the development of the lateral surface of the part P of the cone shown in fig.
o O
O R65
138.5
F 30 f F
c c 1 C C1 1
60 65
c1 B
2 B1 12
b b b P A A1
1 3
6010 11
4 10
A 1 7
2 7
a 2A  12A1  2a
A1 3
R 25 4
Isometric View  ii  Development of Cone
 i  Cone
Draw the development as explained in problem 15-22. For the points at which the base of the cone is
cut, mark points A and A1 on the arcs 2-3 and 11-12 respectively, such that A2  A1  12  a2.
Draw the curve passing through the points A, B, C etc. The figure enclosed between this curve and
the arc A  A1 is the required development.
Development of Transition Pieces:

Pipes are used in many industries to convey hot or cold fluids. When two different sizes and shapes
of pipes are joined using special pipe joint which is known as transition piece. In most cases,
transition pieces are composed of plane surfaces and conical surfaces, the latter being developed by
triangulation. The procedure of development of few transition pieces is illustrated in the following
problems.
Example: In air-conditioning system a rectangular duct of 100mm × 50mm connects another

rectangular duct of 50mm × 25mm through the transition piece as shown in figure. Neglecting
thickness of a metal sheet, develop the lateral surface of the transition piece as shown in figure.
25 50
s o
p
q
a
60 p
c r  q
p s
100 b q
50 s
Isometric View 60
d c O r
a
b b
q
d c
s
o p
25 50
b1
p q
a
50
100
 i  Re c tan gular Duct  ii  Development of Duct

The transition piece is a frustum of a rectangular pyramid.
1. Determine the position of the apex of the pyramid by extending a p and bq as shown. None of
the lines in the front view shows the true length of the slant edge. Therefore, draw the top view
and make any slant line parallel to xy and determine its true length ob .
2. With O as centre and radius ob, draw an arc and obtain the development of a whole pyramid
as shown.
3. With O as centre and radius oq, draw an arc cutting oa, ob, oc at points p, q, etc. respectively.
Join them in sequence and complete the development as shown.
SPHERES (Approximate Method)
The surface of a sphere can be approximately developed by dividing it into a number of parts. The
divisions may be made in two different ways:
(i) In zones
(ii) In lunes
A zone is a portion of the sphere enclosed between two planes perpendicular to the axis. A lune is
the portion between two planes which contain the axis of the sphere.
(1) Zone Method: Figure shows the top half of a sphere divided into four zones of equal width. By
joining the points P, Q, R etc. by straight lines, each zone becomes a cone frustum, except the upper-
most zone which becomes a cone of small altitude.
4
1
7
C
c1
10
b
S a1 1
R B
C
Q
7
D
P
10
1 7
A
B
C
4
Zone Method
Developments of these cone frusta and the upper cone will give the development of the half
sphere. For example, take the zone C. It is a frustum of a cone whose vertex is at c1 . The surface of
this frustum is shown developed in the front view. The length of the divisions on the arc is obtained
from the top view. All the zones can be developed in the same manner.
(2) Lune Method: A sphere may be divided into twelve lunes, one of which is shown in the front
view in figure. The semi-circle qr is the top view of the centre line of that lune. It is evident that the
length of the lune is equal to the length of the arc qr and its maximum width is equal to gh.
Divide the semi-circle into a number of equal parts say 8 and project the division points on the
front view to points 1, 2 etc. With q as centre and radii equal to q1 , q2 and q3 , draw arcs ab,
cd and ef which will show the widths of the lune at points 1 and 7, 2 and 6, and 3 and 5 respectively.
Draw a line QR equal to the length of the arc qr. This may be obtained by stepping-off eight
divisions, each equal to the chord-length q1.
Draw perpendiculars at each division-point and make AB and MN equal to ab at points 1 and 7.
CD and KL. Equal to cd at points 2 and 6 etc. Draw smooth curves through points Q, A, C etc. The
figure thus obtained will be the approximate development of one-twelth of the surface of the sphere.
Development of surfaces of some more solids cut by different planes, and solids with holes cut or
drilled through them are treated.
eg C E G I
a c A
K M
1 2 3 4 Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 R
q B N
b d D L
f h F H J
QR  arc q r  117.75
Development of Single Lune
r
7
6
5
3
75
2
q 1
ESE Questions:
1) If the development of the lateral surface of a cone is a semicircle, then :
a) The slant height of the cone < diameter of the base of the cone
b) The slant height of the cone > diameter of the base of the cone
c) The slant height of the cone = diameter of the base of the cone
d) The slant height of the cone = radius of the base of the cone
2) Which one of the following statements is correct in the development of lateral surfaces of solids?
a) The development of a right cone is a triangle
b) Triangulation is the recommended method in the development of a prism
c) The development of the lateral surface of a right circular cylinder is a rectangle
d) The elements of an elliptical cone are equal in length
KEY:
1) c 2) c
Solution:
1. ϴ= x3600
If l=2r=d
ϴ= × °
Then ϴ=1800
The slant height of the cone = diameter of the base of the cone.
Unit
12 Safety and its Importance

INTRODUCTION
In general terms, safety means freedom or protection from harm, danger, hazard, risk, accident,
injury or damage. In an industrial context, it means the minimization of contact between human and
hazard and is predominantly concerned with the prevention of physical harm (injury) to persons
or/and property. Industrial safety is that condition of enterprise operations in which, by controlling
hazards and risks, accident free production is achieved.
Safety is defined as a positive, organized activity or program based on knowledge of the reaction
between man and his working environment, which aids business enterprise by minimizing death,
losses caused by injuries, health impairment, fires, explosion and other occupational accidents.
Safety is opposite (antonym) of danger, Freedom from hazards represents absolute safety, but this
is an ideal, which is seldom realized. Safety is rather a matter of protection from hazards.
Safety is a situation with acceptable risks. Thus safety means to bring or keep the hazard level,
below permissible safe level. It includes safety, health and environment (SHE or HSE) protection
including protection of property.
NEED FOR SAFETY

The benefits of maintaining a safe work environment are many, but first and foremost. “It’s the right
thing to do”. Companies that employ workers must work towards keeping the workplace safe. Job-
related injuries are something that responsible employers avoid. They take the time and use
company resources to make sure that the people who come to work each day are safe. Employers
should send their workers home in the same condition they came in.
When a workplace is safe, workers feel more comfortable and confident when they are in that
environment productivity gets a boost, and profit margins follow suit. Absenteeism also drops when
employers take steps to implement an effective safety program.
Investing in a good safety program brings with it other benefits too. When employees feel safe in
the workplace, they can focus on serving the company’s customers properly. Customers are quite
prepared to move on to another company they feel will be able to help them in a timelier manner if
they are not getting the level of attention that they deserve. Therefore, a feeling of safety of
employees has an indirect effect on company’s profitability.
VANI Publications Safety and its importance
Companies have been bankrupted by legel claims when defending themselves against torts
alleging wrongful injury or death; the legel fees, alone, can total more than a million dollars.
Workplace injuries and the resulting litigation and insurance cost increases are often preventable,
unnecessary expenses. They are terribly distracting and demoralizing to a work place.
Workplace safety is important because it:

 Protect employees and the employer from death or injury.
 Teaches workers how to work in a safe environment.
 Helps everyone feel safe and happy.
 Teaches the workers to pay attention to their surroundings
 Protects companies from law suits, citations and fines.
The formal safety program is a set of written documents that describe a company’s safety policies,
priorities, and responsibilities. The program is designed to bring structure and consistency into a
firm’s accident prevention efforts.
Terminology
Safety Rules:
A list of specific Safe Work Practices must be established for the safety of each individual and all
coworkers. These “conditions of employment: can prevent accidents during production; but workers
and companies often tend to forget them, unless they are enforced.
Specific Written Programs:

Central and State laws also require that critical jobsite hazards must be controlled through specific
written programs and extra employee training.
These include programs in Confined Space Entry, Lock out/Tag out, Fall Protection, Scaffolding
Safety, Hazardous Materials, etc. Strict procedures are necessary to prevent exposures, fatalities or
serious injuries, and must be followed to the letter.
Employees must have an overall safety program including relative site specific safety information
where applicable. The safety training program should cover topics such as:
 Accident prevention and safety promotion
 Safety compliance
 Accident and emergency response
 Personal protective equipment
 Safety practices
 Equipment and machinery
 Chemical and hazardous materials safety
 Workplace hazards
 Employee involvement
Benefits of a Training Program: An effective training program can reduce the number of injuries
and deaths, property damage, legel liability, illness, worker’s compensation claims, and missed time
from work.
Safety training classes help establish a safety culture in which employees themselves help promote
proper safety procedures while on the job. It is important that all the employees be properly trained
and embrace the importance of workplace safety.
Accident: It is an unplanned even that results in personal injury or property damge.
Incident: An unplanned even that does not result in personal injury but may result in property
damage or is worthy of recording.
Near Miss: The accident, incident, or event that did not happen, but would have happened except
for the luck of the draw. They can be the result of individual action, established process or
procedure, maintenance failure, and a few others.
Hazard:
Any facility, location, equipment, tool, job, task, or action that presents a potential of serious injury
or death to any employee. Serious injuries are those that result in time loss (beyond the three-day
grace period) and/or hospitalization beyond an emergency room visit. In other words, a hazard is the
potential or harm. In practical terms, a hazard often is associated with a condition or activity that, if
left uncontrolled, can result in an injury or illness. The hazards can be classified in the following
categories:
Safety Hazards: These are the most common and will be present in most workplaces at one time
or another. They include unsafe conditions that can cause injury, illness and death.
Safety Hazards include:
 Spills on floors or tripping hazards, such as blocked aisles or cords running across the floor.
 Working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds, roofs, or any raised work area.
 Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts: guards removed or moving parts that a
worker can accidentally touch.
 Electrical hazards like frayed cords, missing ground pins, improper wiring.
 Confined spaces
 Machinery-related hazards (lockout/tagout, boiler safety, forklifts, etc.)
Biological Hazards: Associated with working with animals, people, or infectious plant materials.
Work in schools, day care facilities, colleges and universities, hospitals, laboratories, emergency
response, nursing homes, outdoor occupations, etc. may expose you to biological hazards. Types of
things you may be exposed to include.
 Blood and other body fluids
 Fung/mold
 Bacteria and viruses
 Plants
 Insect bites
 Animal and bird droppings
Physical Hazards: Are factors within the environment that can harm the body without necessarily
touching it. Physical Hazards include:
 Radiation including ionizing, non-ionizing (EMF’s microwaves, radiowaves, etc.)
 High exposure to sunlight/ultraviolet rays
 Temperature extremes – hot and cold
 Constant loud noise.
Ergonomic Hazards: Occur when the type of work, body positions and working conditions put
strain on your body. They are the hardest to spot since you don’t always immediately notice the
strain on your body or the harm that these hazards pose. Short-term exposure may result in “sore
muscles” the next day or in the days following exposure, but long-term exposure can result in
serious long-term illness.
Ergonomic Hazards include:
 Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs
 Frequent lifting
 Poor posture
 Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive.
 Repeating the same movements over and over.
 Having to use too much force, especially if you have to do it frequently.
 Vibration.
Chemical Hazards: Are present when a worker is exposed to any chemical preparation in the
workplace in any form (solid, liquid or gas). Some are safer than others, but to some workers who
are more sensitive to chemicals, even common solutions can cause illness, skin irritation, or
breathing problems.
Beware of:
 Liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids, solvents – ESPECIALLY if chemicals are in an
unlabeled container.
 Vapors and fumes that came from welding or exposure to solvents.
 Gases like acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and helium.
 Flammable materials like gasoline, solvents, and explosive chemicals.
 Presticides.
Psychosocial Hazards: Hazards or stressors that cause stress (short-term effects) and strain (long-
term effects). These are the hazards associated with workplace issues such as workload, lack of
control and/or respect, etc. Examples of Psychosocial hazards include:
 Workload demands
 Workplace violence
 Intensity and/or pace
 Respect (or lack of)
 Flexibility
 Control or say about things
 Social support/relations
 Sexual harassment
Risk: It is related to hazards, it is the potential of harm or loss (generally economic) and its impact
to the company or individual from a potential hazard. The term risk is usually associated with
medical conditions or exposure and is therefore centered on the health impact to employees.
Risk Calculation: The risk imposed by some particular hazard can be taken as increasing.
1. With the likelihood that the hazardous event will actually occur.
2. With exposure to that event, and
3. With possible consequence of that event.
For risk calculations, numerical values are assigned to each of these three factors. Then an overall
risk score is computed as the product of these separate factors. The numerical values, although
arbitrarily chosen, are self-consistent and together they provide a realistic but relative score for the
overall risk.
Standards & Quality Practices in
Production, Construction,
maintenance and services
Index
1 Introduction 620 – 627
2 Quality Cost 628 – 632
3 Quality Philosophy 633 – 647
4 Service Quality 648 – 655
5 Tools of Quality Control 656 – 673
6 Continuous Improvement Techniques 674 – 687
7 Maintenance 688 – 696
8 ISO and TQM 697 – 708
9 Construction Quality Management 709 – 713

Unit
1 Introduction
STANDARDS AND QUALITY PRACTICES :  Prescriptive or specification codes: These codes
specify requirements in terms of specific details
Designing to Codes and Standards:
and leave no discretion to the designer.
Even though design is a creative process, many of the
designs are repetitive or adoptive. Due to this repetitive STANDARD: A standard is a generally agreed-upon
nature, several benefits in cost and time saving are set of procedures, criteria, dimensions, materials, or
available if the best practices of these designs are parts. Engineering standards may describe the
documented in the form of codes and standards and dimensions and sizes of small parts like Nuts and bolts,
made available to all. the minimum properties of materials, or an agreed-
upon procedure to measure a property like young's
Important advantages of designing with codes
modulus.
and standards are
Standards may be prepared at individual companies /
 It makes the best practices available to all, thus
group of companies / state / National / International
ensuring efficiency and safety.
level.
 The cost of design and products will reduce.
International organization for standardization (ISO) in
 It promotes interchangeability and compatibility
Geneva, Switzerland, reviews, approves and do
(with respect to other countries and other design
publication of various standards.
teams).
Three Categories of Design Standards:
CODE:
 Performance Standards: For products like seat
A code is a collection of laws and rules that assists a
belts, auto crash safety etc.,
government agency in meeting its obligation to protect
 Test method Standards: Methods for measuring
the general welfare by preventing damage to property
properties like electrical resistivity, thermal
or injury or loss of life to persons.
conductivity, yield stress, young's modulus,
A form of code is government regulations. Codes are viscocity etc.,
issued by government agencies (National / Ex: American society for testing and materials
International / State) (ASTM)
Example: OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Act)  Codes of Practice: These give design methods for
Two broad forms of Codes: repetitive technical problems.
 Performance codes: These are in terms of the Ex: American society of Mechanical Engineers
specific requirement that is expected to achieved, (ASME)
however the method to achieve the result is not

specified.
Standards Vs Specifications: This definition of ‘quality’ is given by Philip
These are some times used interchangeably. In fact, Crosby. Here the requirements may go beyond the
standards refer to generalized situation where as customer’s stated needs. The customer
specifications refer to specialized situations.
himself/herself may not be fully aware of his/her
Standards Vs Codes: needs or the customer may not be aware that such a
kind of product or service exists which is better
 Codes tell the designers what to do and when and
suited to fulfil his/her requirements.
under what circumstances to do it. Codes are legal
 Predictable degree of uniformity – Deming
requirements, as in codes for buildings and fire
 Loss to society – Taguchi
safety.
 Degree of excellence
 Standards tell the designers how to do it and are
 Degree of preference
usually considered as recommendations that do not  Quality is customer satisfaction.
have the force of law.  Quality is a dynamic state associated with
 Codes often incorporate national standards into products, services, people, processes, and
them by reference, and in this way standards environments that meets or exceeds expectations
become legally enforceable. and helps produce superior value – Goetsch and
Davis
Practice :  Totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on
 To do something again and again in order to its ability to satisfy stated & implied needs – ISO
become better at it such as production, (International Organization for standardization)
construction, maintenance and services.
Quality is defined by the customer, and as such will
 To do (something) regularly or constantly as an
change over time, often in unpredictable ways. It is
ordinary part of your life.
associated with creating customer value. A customer is
 The customary, habitual, or expected procedure or
anyone who is affected by service, product or process.
way of doing of something
A quality good or service meets or exceeds the whole
Examples:
range of customer expectations, some of which may be
 ‘We have been effective in changing cultural unspoken. A product is output of a process. The three
practices in businesses’. categories of products are goods, software and service.
 ‘With the help of scanning technology and
Quality has many facets as described hereafter:
just-in-time inventory systems, businesses
 Meeting or exceeding customer requirements now
changed their practices.’
and in the future.
 Quality is the integrity in delivering what a
QUALITY :
customer has a legitimate right to expect in view of
Definition of Quality what was promised at the time of the agreement or
 Fitness for intended use – Juran
purchase.
 Conformance to specifications – Crosby
VANI Publications Quality and Standards
 Quality is meeting or exceeding customer’s  Customer service: The treatment received by
expectations. customers before, during and after.
 Quality is the single most important force, leading  Safety: How well the product protects users before,
to organizational success and, company, growth in during and after use.
the national and international markets.  Durability: The length of time or amount of use
 Quality is a measure of how closely a good or before the product or service need to be repaired or
service conforms to the predefined standards or replaced.
specifications.
Vital Characteristics of Quality
 Quality is everyone’s concern, it is job one.
Security Maintainability Reliability
 Quality can be described as doing the right thing,
doing it the right way, doing it at the right time, Product
doing it right the first time and doing it right every quality
time.
Transportability Functionality Safety
 Quality is a critical factor in strategic performance.
Fig: Determinates of product quality
 Quality is what the customers want; it is not what
the company.
Dimensions of Service Quality with respect
 Quality has become the most powerful corporate
change agent of our time and perhaps the single to manufacturing industries and service
most important managerial demand facing many industries :
companies today.
Service industries : Service characteristics are
 Quality means meeting customer’s (agreed)  Accuracy
requirements, formal and informal, and stated and  Timelines
implied, first time and every time at the lowest  Completeness
cost.  Friendliness and courtesy
 Anticipating customer needs
The Dimensions of Product Quality  Knowledge of server
 Esthetics
 Performance: How well the product or service
 Reputation
performs the customer’s intended use. For
example, the speed of a laser printer.
Freedom from deficiencies
 Features: The special characteristics that appeal to
customers. For example, power steering and Product Service
central locking system in an automobile.
Service free of
Product free of defects
 Reliability: The ability of a product to perform a errors during
and errors at delivery,
specified level of performance for a defined period original and future
during use, and during
of time. service
servicing
 Serviceability: The speed, cost and convenience of transactions
repairs and maintenance. Sales, billing, and
Sales, billing, and other
other business
 Appearances: The effect on human senses such as business processes free
processes free of
the look, feel, taste, smell, or sound. of errors
errors
Quality Parameters : used efficiently, but it does not serve the purpose for
Quality is a composite of three parameters: Quality of which it is intended to be used, it is not supposed to be
having good quality.
design, Quality of conformance and Quality of use.
(i) Quality of design: It is the extent to which the Benefits of Quality :
design reflects a product or service that satisfies Some of benefits of Quality
customer needs and expectations. All the 1. Good reputation
necessary characteristics should be designed into 2. More satisfied customers
3. Increase income of establishments
the product or service at the outset.
4. No complaints
(ii) Quality of conformance : It is the extent to which
5. No penalties
the product or service conforms to the design
6. Good work environment
standard.
According to ISO-9001 -2008 the benefits of
(iii) Quality of use : It is the extent by which the user quality are:
is able to secure continuity of use from the 1. Increased Revenue
product or service. Products needs to have a low 2. Employee moral
cost of ownership, be safe and reliable, 3. Increased Efficiency
maintainable in use and easy to use. 4. International Recognition
5. Factual Approach to decision making
Principle of Three F’s :
Impact of Poor Quality :
Three ‘F’s are Fit, Form and Function: This is a
 Product fails – e.g. a breakdown or unexpected
conventional and orthodox definition of ‘quality’ wear and tear
which is basically conformed to a product satisfying  Product does not perform as promised (or what the
the need for the required dimensions, fitment, required customer thought was promised!)
 Product is delivered late
form and aesthetics.
 Poor customer service
Fitness for use: According to Dr. Juran, a product or  Lost customers (expensive to replace – and they
service is considered to be of good quality if it is fit may tell others about their bad experience)
 Cost of reworking or remaking product
enough for the intended use, i.e. it can be used
 Costs of replacements or refunds
satisfactorily.  Wasted materials
Conformance to requirements: This definition of Quality -The changing business Conditions
‘quality’ is given by Philip Crosby. Here the
1. Competition: In the past, higher quality
requirements may go beyond the customer’s stated
usually meant the need to pay a higher price.
needs. The customer himself/herself may not be fully Today, customers can obtain high quality and
aware of his/her needs or the customer may not be low prices simultaneously.
aware that such a kind of product or service exists 2. Changing customer: Some companies are
which is better suited to fulfil his/her requirements.
entering industrial or consumer markets for the
Fitness for purpose: The product or service should first time. For example, a manufacturer of small
serve the purpose for which it is used. If the product is
agricultural tractors for the individual farmer is 1. Goods: eg: automobiles, circuit boards, reagent
now making engine blocks for a major chemicals,
automotive manufacturer. 2. Software: eg: a computer program, a report, an
3. Changing product mix: For example, a instruction.
computer manufacturer has shifted from 3. Service: eg: banking, insurance, transportation.
primarily low – volume, high – price mix to a
Service also includes support activities within
mix that includes high volume and low price.
companies, e.g., employee benefits, plant
4. Product complexity: As systems have become maintenance, secretarial support.
more complex, the reliability requirements for
suppliers of components have become more Quality Characteristics:
stringent. Quality characteristics can be grouped into various
5. Higher levels of customer expectation: species such as :
Higher expectations, spawned by  Structural: eg., length, frequency, viscosity.
competition, take many forms. Another form  Attribute : eg., good or bad , accept or reject, red or
of higher expectation is improved quality of white,
service both before and after the sale.  Sensory: e.g., taste, beauty.
 Time-oriented: e.g., reliability, maintainability.
CUSTOMER: A customer is anyone who is  Commercial : e.g., warranty
impacted by the product or process.  Ethical: e.g., courtesy, honesty.
 The quality function is the entire collection of
1. External customers : These include not only
activities through which we achieve fitness for use,
ultimate users but also intermediate processors, as
no matter where these activities are performed
well as merchants. Other customers are not
purchasers but have some connection to the Big ‘Q’ and Little ‘q’
product, eg: government regulatory bodies. Big Q and Little q is a term coined by Dr Juran and is
2. Internal customers: Include not only other key in fully understanding quality. It contrasts the
difference between managing for quality in all aspects
divisions of a company that are provided with
of business process, products and services which is Big
components for an assembly but others that are Q. While little q relates to a much more limited
affected, Eg: Purchasing Department that receives capacity. Big Q is about a broad, strategic and complex
an engineering specification for procurement. perspective and little q is about a micro aspect an
operational issue such as quality control. Simply put
PRODUCT: little q sees just a tiny piece of the picture and Big Q
A “Product” is the output of any process. sees the whole picture.
Three categories of products can be

identified :
Content of Content of  Understand my customer requirements, and

Topic
big ‘Q’ little ‘q’ agree on and document my deliverables
All products,  Reduce defects and variations in my output
good, and  Measure my output quality from my customer
Manufactured
Product services, perspective
goods
whether for Continuous Improvement Practices :
sale or not Universal processes for managing quality includes
Processes quality planning, quality control and quality
All process; improvement as given below.
directly
manufacturing
Processes related to
support;
manufacture Quality Quality Quality
business, etc planning control improvement
of goods
Establish Choose
All industries; quality control Prove the need
manufacturing; goals subjects
service, Choose
Industries government, Manufacturing Identify Identify
units of
etc., whether customers projects
measure
for profit or Discover
not Organize
customer Set goals
projects teams
needs
Responsibility for quality lies with Develop
Create a Diagnose the
product
customer, owner and supplier features
sensor causes
(i) As a good customer: Provide
 Agree on and document my requirements with Develop Measure remedies,
process actual prove that the
my suppler features performance remedies are
 Return defective inputs to my supplier effective
Establish
promptly and tactfully process Deal with
Interpret the
 Feedback input quality data to my supplier controls, resistance to
difference
transfer to change
operations
(ii) As a Good process owner or user : Take action
Control to hold
 Learn and apply the tools of quality – teach on the
the gains
difference
others
 Continuously improve. My process – reduce
defects, cycle time & know benchmarks
 Document and display. My process, defect
levels and CI projects
(iii) As a good supplier :

Two views of Quality: Practice Questions
Internal view External view 01. Identify the product quality characteristic from the
Compare product to following:
Compare product to
competition and to
Specification 1. Operability
the best
Get product accepted Provide satisfaction 2. Safety
at inspection over product life 3. Weight
Meet customer
Prevent plant and field The right statements are
needs on goods and
defects
services (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Concentrate on
Cover all functions (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
manufacturing
Use customer –
Use internal quality
based quality
measures 02. Identify the service quality characteristic from the
measures
View quality as a View quality as a following:
technical issue business issue
1. Credibility
Efforts coordinated by Efforts directed by
quality manager upper management 2. Accuracy
3. Flammability
The right statements are
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
03. Quality is defined as loss to society by

(a) Crosby (b) Deming
(c) Taguchi (d) Juran
04. The quality characteristics maintainability is

(a) Structural in nature
(b) Sensory in nature
(c) Time oriented
(d) Commercial
05. Honesty is
(a) Commercial quality characteristics
(b) Sensory quality characteristics
(c) Ethical quality characteristics
(d) Time oriented quality characteristics
06. Content of little Q is 2. Choose units of measure
(a) All products, good and services, whether for 3. Organize project teams
sale or not
Codes:
(b) All process; manufacturing support; business,
P Q R
etc.
(a) 1 2 3
(c) All industries manufacturing; service,
(b) 1 3 2
government, etc., whether for profit or not
(c) 3 1 2
(d) Manufactured goods
(d) 2 3 1
07. Content of big Q is

11. Statement (I): Quality is a composite of three
(a) All products, good and services, whether for
parameters: quality of design, quality of
sale or not
conformance and quality of use.
(b) Processes directly related to manufacture of
Statement (II): Products or services that do not
goods
posses the right features and characteristics
(c) Manufacturing
either by design or by construction are products
(d) Manufactured goods
of poor quality.
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
08. External view of quality
individually true and Statement (II) is the
(a) Compare product to specification
correct explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Get product accepted at inspection
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(c) Prevent plant and field defects
individually true but statement (II) is not the
(d) Meet customer needs on goods and services
correct explanation of statement (I)
09. Internal view of quality (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(a) Use customer – based quality measures (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
(b) Cover all functions
(c) Efforts directed by upper management
(d) View quality as a technical issue
Answers
1 D 2 A 3 C 4 C 5 C
10. Match the following:
6 D 7 A 8 D 9 D 10 A
List – I
(P) Quality planning 11 b
(Q) Quality control
(R) Quality improvement
List – II
1. Establish quality of goods
Unit
2 Quality Cost
Categories of Quality Cost:  Quality audits: costs of evaluating the execution
of activities in the overall quality plan
 Supplier quality evaluation: costs of
QUALITY COSTS evaluating supplier quality activities prior to
supplier selection, auditing the activities during the
Cost of conformance contract, and carrying out associated efforts with
Cost of non conformance
suppliers
 Training: costs of preparing and conducting
Prevention Appraisal Internal External quality – related training programs (as in the case
cost cost Failure costs Failure costs of appraisal costs, some of this work may be done
by personnel who are not on the payroll of the
Total cost of quality
quality department; the decisive criterion is again
the type of work, not the name of the department
= Cost of conformance + Non-conformance performing the work.
(failure cost)
(ii) Appraisal Costs :
Cost of conformance These are the costs incurred in determining the
= Prevention cost + Appraisal cost degree of conformance to quality requirements.
Examples are:
Cost of non-conformance
 Incoming inspection and testing: costs of
= Internal failure cost + External
determining the quality of purchased product,
failure cost whether by inspection on receipt, by inspection at
the source, or by surveillance
COST OF CONFORMANCE:  In- process inspection and testing: costs of in-
process evaluation of conformance to requirements
(i) Prevention Costs:
 Final inspection and testing: costs of
These are costs incurred in keeping failure and
evaluation of conformance to requirement for
appraisal costs to a minimum. Examples are:
product acceptance
 Quality planning: The broad array of
 Product quality audits costs of performing
activities which collectively create the overall
quality audits on in-process or finished products
quality plan and the numerous specialized
plans: also, the preparation of procedures
 Maintaining accuracy of testing equipment
needed to communicated these plans to all costs of keeping measuring instruments and
concerned equipment in calibration
 New – product review: costs of reliability  Inspection and testing of materials and
engineering and other quality related services: costs of material and suppliers in
activities associated with the launching of inspection and testing work (e.g. X-ray film) and
services (e.g., electric power) where significant
new designs
 Process control: costs of in-process inspection  Evaluation of stock: costs of testing products in
and testing to determine the status of the process field storage or in stock to evaluate degradation
rather than product acceptance
VANI Publications Quality Costs
COST OF NON-CONFORMANCE :  Complaint adjustment: costs of investigation
(i) Internal Failure Costs: and adjustment of justified complaints attributable
These are costs associated with defects (errors, non to defective product or installation
conformance, etc) that are found prior to transfer  Returned material: costs associated with receipt
of the product to the customer. They are costs that and replacement of defective product received
would disappear if no defects existed in the from the field
product before shipment. Examples are:
 Allowances: costs of concessions made to
 Scrap: the labor, material, and (usually) overhead customers due to substandard product being
on defective products that cannot economically be accepted by the customer as is or to conforming
repaired. The titles are numerous – scrap, spoilage, product that does not meet fitness – for – use
defectives, waste, etc. specifications.
 Rework: the cost of correcting defectives to make
them conform to specifications Economic Models of Quality of Conformance:
 Failure analysis: costs of analyzing The model in figure (a) represent the conditions which
prevailed widely during much of the twentieth century.
nonconforming product to determine causes
“Appraisal plus prevention” consisted of much
 Scrap and rework supplies: costs of scrap and appraisal and little prevention.
rework due to nonconforming product received
Cost per good unit of product

from suppliers.
 One hundred percent sorting inspection: Total
costs of finding defective units in products lots quality
which contain unacceptably high levels of Failure costs
defectives costs
 Reinspection and retesting: costs of
reinspection and retesting of products that have Costs of appraisal
plus prevention
undergone rework or other revision
 Avoidable process losses: costs of losses that
0 Quality of conformance,% 100
occur even with conforming product – for
example, overfill of containers (going to (b). Emerging Process
customers) due to excessive variability in filling
and measuring equipment
Cost per good unit of product
T0 T0
 Downgrading: the difference between the Total
Quality costs  
normal selling price and the reduced price due to
quality reasons
Failure
costs
(ii) External Failure Costs:
These are costs associated with defects that are
Costs of appraisal
found after product is shipped to the customer. plus prevention
These costs would also disappear if there were no
defects. Examples are: 0 100
Quality of conformance,%
 Warranty charges: costs involved in replacing
or making repairs to products that are still within (a). Traditional Process
the warranty period
1. Failure costs: These equal zero when the 3. The sum of curves 1 and 2: This third curve
product is 100 percent good, and rise to infinity is marked “ total ” and represents the total cost of
when the product is 100 percent defective. (Note quality per good unit of product.
that the vertical scale is cost per good unit of The model in figure (b) represents conditions as they
product. At 100 percent defective, the number of evolved in the late twentieth century. Priorities on
good units is zero, and hence the cost per good prevention became higher.
unit is infinity)
2. Costs of appraisal plus prevention : These
costs are zero at 100 percent defective and rise as
perfection is approached. However, the amount
of rise differs for the two models.
Total Quality Cost Curve Analysis
Total cost of quality

Cost
Minimum
Failure cost Prevention +

appraisal cost
100% Quality level 0%

Defects Defects
Cost versus quality level - classic view
(adapted from Brown & Kane 1984)
Total Quality Cost Curve
Optimum
Zone of improvement Zone of high appraisal

projects Zone of indifference costs
Failure costs 50% Failure costs < 40%
Failure costs > 70%
Prevention < 10% Prevention10% Appraisal > 50%
If no profitable Study cost per defect

Find breakthrough projects can be found, detected; verify validity of
projects; pursue shift emphasis to standards; reduce inspection;
control try audit of decisions
100% defective Quality of conformance 100% good
VANI Publications Quality Costs
Hidden Quality Costs Practice Questions

There are also costs incurred that may result in
understating the costs of poor quality. These “hidden” 01. Internal failure cost is
costs include: (a) Rework
 Potential lost sales. One attempt to partially (b) Complaint adjustment
measure this hidden cost is to estimate the (c) Product quality audits
percentage of signed orders that are canceled and (d) New product review
convert this percentage to sales dollars.
02. External failure cost is
 Costs of redesign due to quality reasons
(a) Warranty charges
 Costs of changing manufacturing processes due to
(b) Scrap
inability to meet quality requirements
(c) Final inspection and testing
 Costs of software changes due to quality reasons
(d) Training
 Costs include in standards because history shows
that a certain level of defects is inevitable and 03. Appraisal cost is
allowances should be included in standards (a) Inspection and testing of materials and
 Extra manufacturing costs due to defects. These services
include additional costs for space, inventory (b) Quality audits
charges, and overtime (c) Allowances
 Scrap not reported. This may mean scrap that is (d) Downgrading
never reported because of fear of reprisals, or scrap 04. Prevention cost is
that is charged to a general ledger account without (a) Quality planning
an identification as scrap. (b) Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
 Excess process costs for acceptable product (c) Returned material
(d) Reinspection and retesting
05. Hidden quality cost is

(a) Quality audits
(b) Product Quality audits
(c) Potential Lost sales
(d) Failure analysis
06.
Total quality
cost curve Optimum
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Zone 1 Corresponds to
(a) High failure costs (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(b) High appraisal costs individually true but statement (II) is not the
(c) Zone indifference correct explanation of statement (I)
(d) Quality of conformance (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
07. Statement (I): yield losses are a common
phenomenon in process industry like paper,
cement etc.
Answers
Statement (II): Yield loss is a internal failure
cost. 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 C
6 A 7 b
Unit
3 Quality Philosophy
DEMING's QUALITY PHILOSOPHY Deming’s Point 1:
 Deming’s philosophy emphasizes the role of Create and publish to all employees a statement of the
management. aims and purposes of the company or other
 The idea is to plan for the long run and provide a organization. The management must demonstrate
course of action for the short run. constantly their commitment to this statement.
 Demonstrated that an improvement in quality
 In addition to constancy of purpose, there
inevitably leads to increased capacity and greater
should be a consistency of purpose.
productivity.
 “Doing your best is not good enough. You have
 Deming’s approach is not a “quick fix” but rather a
to know what to do. Then do your best.
plan of action to achieve long-term goals.
 Deming’s fundamental ideas require the
Deming’s Point 2:
understanding and use of statistical tools and a
change is management attitude. Learn the new philosophy, top management
and everybody.
The following four components comprise the basis for
what Deming called the system of profound
Deming’s Point 3:
knowledge. Understand the purpose of inspection, for
improvement of processes and reduction of cost.
1. Knowledge of the system and the theory of
 Quality has to be designed into the product; it
optimization.
cannot be inspected into it.
2. Knowledge of the theory of variation.
Deming’s Point 4:
All processes exhibit variability, the causes of
End the practice of awarding business on the
which are two types: special causes and common
basis of price tag alone.
causes. Special causes of variation are external to
the system. Deming’s Point 5:
3. Exposure to the theory of knowledge. Improve constantly and forever the system of
Information, by itself, is not knowledge. production and service.
Knowledge is evidenced by the ability to make
Deming’s Point 6:
predications
Institute training
4. Knowledge of psychology managing people well
requires knowledge of psychology because it
Deming’s Point 7:
helps us understand the behaviour and Teach and Institute leadership
interactions of people, and also the interactions of Deming’s Point 8:

people with their work environment.
Drive out fear. Create trust. Create a climate
for innovation.
Deming’s Point 9: Deming’s Deadly Diseases
Optimize toward the aims and purposes of the  Management by visible figures only
company the efforts of teams, groups, staff  Performance appraisal by the numbers
areas.  A short-term orientation
 Mobility of management
Deming’s Point 10:
Eliminate exhortations for the workforce. Four absolutes of Quality Management :
 Numerical goals such as a 10% improvement in  Definition of quality: Quality means conformance
productivity set arbitrarily by management have a to requirements.
demoralizing effect. Rather than serving to  System for achievement of quality: The rational
motivate, such standards have the opposite effect approach is prevention of defects.
on morale and productivity.  Performance standard: The only performance
standard is zero defects.
Deming’s Point 11:  Measurement: The performance measurement is
(a) Eliminate numerical quotas for production. the cost of quality. In fact, Crosby emphasizes the
Instead, learn and institute methods for costs of unquality such as scrap, rework, service,
improvement. inventory, inspection, and tests.
(b) Eliminate M.B.O. [management by
objectives]. Instead, learn the capabilities of PHILIP. B. CROSBY - 14-STEP PLAN FOR
processes, and how to improve them. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT:
 Work standards are typically established by
A 14-Step Plan discussed here to help implement a
someone other than those who perform the
quality improvement program.
particular job in question. They are based on
1. Management commitment. For quality
quantity without regard to quality. According to
improvement to take place, commitment must start
Deming setting such work standards guarantees
at the top. The emphasis on defect prevention has
inefficiency and increases costs. As such,
to be communicated, and a quality policy that
numerical quotas actually promote the production
states the individual performance requirements
of nonconforming items.
needed to match customer requirements must be
Deming’s Point 12: developed.
Remove barriers that rob people of pride of
2. Quality improvement team. Representatives
workmanship. from each department or division form the quality
improvement team. These individual serve as
Deming’s Point 13:
spokespersons for each group they represent. They
Encourage education and self-improvement for are responsible for ensuring that suggested
everyone. operations are brought to action. This team brings
 Deming’s philosophy is based on long-term, all the necessary tools together.
continuous process improvement. 3. Quality measurement. Measurement is necessary
Deming’s Point 14: to determine the status of quality for each activity.
Take action to accomplish the transformation. It identifies the areas where corrective action is
VANI Publications Quality Philosophy
needed and where quality improvement efforts should originate on one day. This ensures a
should be directed. uniform understanding of the concept for
everyone. Management has the responsibility of
4. Cost of quality evaluation. The cost of quality
explaining the program to the employees, and they
(or rather unquality) indicates where corrective
should describe the day as signifying a “new
action and quality improvement will result in
attitude.” Management must foster this type of
savings for the company. A study to determine
quality culture in the organization.
these costs should be conducted through the
10. Goal setting. Employees, in conjunction with
comptroller’s office, with the categories tat
their supervisors, should set specific measurable
comprise quality costs precisely defined. This
goals. These could be 30, 60, or 90-day goals.
study establishes a measure of management’s
This process creates a favorable attitude for
performance.
people to ultimately achieve their own goal.
5. Quality awareness. The results of the cost of
11. Error cause removal. The employees are asked to
non-quality should be shared with all employees,
including service and administrative people. identify reasons that prevent them from meeting
Getting everybody involved with quality facilitates the zero defects goal is not to make suggestions
a quality attitude. but to list the problems. It is the task for the
appropriate functional group to come up with
6. Corrective action. Open communication and
procedures for removing these problems.
active discussion of problems creates feasible
solutions. Furthermore, such discussion also Reporting problems should be done quickly. An
exposes other problems not identified previously environment of mutual trust is necessary so that
and thus determines procedures to eliminate them. both groups work together to eliminate the
Attempts to resolve problems should be made as problems.
they arise. 12. Recognition. Award programs should be based on
7. Ad hoc committee for the zero defects recognition rather than money and should identify
program. The concept of zero defects must be those employees who have either met or
communicated clearly to all employees; everyone exceeded their goals or have excelled in other
must understand that the achievement of such a ways. Such programs will encourage the
goal is the company’s objective. This committee participation of every-one in the quality program.
gives credibility to the quality program and
13. Quality councils. Chairpersons, team leaders, and
demonstrates the commitment of top management.
professionals associated with the quality program
8. Supervisor training. All levels of management should meet on a regular basis to keep everyone
must be made aware of the steps of the quality up to date on progress. These meetings create
improvement program. Also, they must be trained
new ideas for further improvement of quality.
so they can explain the program to the employees.
This ensures the propagation of the quality 14. Do it over again. The whole process of quality
concepts from the chief executive officers to the improvement is continuous. It repeats again and
hourly worker. again as the quality philosophy becomes
9. Zero defects (ZD) day. The philosophy of zero ingrained.
defects should be established companywide and
JOSEPH M. JURAN’S PHILOSOPHY 1. Identify the customer-both external and internal.
Joseph. M. Juran's believes that management has to He stresses the importance of identifying the
adopt a unified approach to quality. Quality is defined customer. In cases where the output from one
as “fitness for use.” The focus here is on the needs of department flows to another, the customer is
considered internal.
the customer.
2. Determine customer needs. Long-term survival of
Quality Trilogy Process the company is contingent upon meeting the
Planning needs of the customer
3. Develop product features that respond to
customer needs. With customer satisfaction as the
utmost objective, the product or service should be
Control Improvement signed to meet the customer requirements. As
customer needs change, the product should be
Juran’s Quality Trilogy
redesigned to conform to these changes.
 The quality trilogy process starts with quality 4. Establish quality goals that meet the needs of
planning at various levels of the organization, each customers and suppliers alike, and do so at a
of which has a distinct goal.
minimum combined cost. This point embraces the
 At the upper management level, planning is termed
concept of the extended process involving the
strategic quality management. Broad quality goals
are established. A structured is selected in which vendors and customers as well as the
management chooses a plan of action and allocates organization. Pursuit of individual or
resources to achieve the goals. departmental goals should be avoided. The total
 Planning at the middle management level is termed cost from an organizational point of view should
operational quality management. Departmental be minimized, and corresponding goals should be
goals consistent with strategic goals are
determined.
established.
 At the workforce level, planning involves a clear 5. Develop a process that can produce the needed
assignment to each worker. Each worker is made product features. A product is designed based on
aware of how his or her individual goal contributes a knowledge of customer needs. This step deals
to departmental goals. with the manufacturing process of that product.
The next phase of the trilogy process is quality Methods must be developed, and adequate
improvement, which deals with the continuous equipment must be available to make the product
improvement of the product and the process. This match its design specifications.
phase is also called the quality breakthrough 6. Prove process capability. The task here is to
sequence. Such improvements usually require an establish whether the given process is adequate
action on the part of upper and middle management. for making a product that will conform to the
They deal with actions such as creating a new design, design specifications. This task may require
changing methods or procedures of manufacturing, and analyzing output from a stable process is labelled
investing in new equipment. as capable.
Quality Planning :
Quality Control (QC) : met every time Juran’s definition of quality---fitness of
According to ISO, quality control is defined as a set of a product for its intended use---seems to incorporate
activities or techniques whose purpose is to ensure that the customer the most. His definition explicitly relates
all quality requirements are being met. to meeting the needs of the customer.
o Choose control subjects. Management Commitment :
o Choose units of measurement. All three philosophies stress the importance of top
o Establish measurement. management commitment. Deming’s first and second
o Establish standards of performance. points define the task of management. Crosby’s
o Measure actual performance. philosophy is focus on creation of quality culture.
o Interpret the difference (actual versus Juran’s quality planning control and improvement
standard). process seeks management support at all levels.
o Take action on the difference.
Strategic Approach to a Quality System
Quality Improvement : Deming’s strategy for top management involves their
 Prove the need improvement. pursuing the first 13 points and creating a structure to
 Identify specific projects for improvement. continually promote the 13 points in a never ending
 Organize to guide the projects. cycle of improvement. Crosby’s approach to quality
 Organize for diagnosis – for discovery of causes. improvement is sequenced. His second step calls for
 Find the causes. the creation of quality improvement teams. Under
 Provide remedies. Juran’s philosophy, a quality council guides the quality
 Prove that the remedies are effective under improvement process.
operating conditions. Measurement of Quality
 Provide control mechanisms to hold the gains. All three philosophies view quality as a measurable
Three Philosophies (Deming’s / Crosby’s / entity, although in varying degrees.
Juran’s) compared : Never ending Process of Improvement

These philosophies share a belief in the never ending
Definition of Quality :
process of improvement.
Deming’s definition deals with a predictable
uniformity of the product. His emphasis on the use of Education and Training
statistical process control charts is reflected in this Fundamental to quality improvement is the availability
definition. Deming’s concern about the quality of the of an adequate supply of people who are educated in
product is reflected in the quality of the process, which the philosophy and technical aspects of quality.
is the focal point of his philosophy.
Eliminating the Causes of Problems
Crosby defines quality as conformance to
requirements. Here, requirements are based on In Deming’s approach, special causes refer to problems
customer needs. Crosby’s performance to that arise because something unusual has occurred, and
requirements. Here, requirements are based on common causes refer to problems that are inherent to
customer needs. Crosby’s performance standard of the system.
zero defects implies that the set requirements should be

Juran’s approach is similar to Deming’s. In his view, The seven major criteria for the award are
special causes create sporadic problems and common 1. Leadership: Leadership system, values,
causes create chronic problems. Juran provides detailed expectations, and public responsibilities.
guidelines for identifying sporadic problems. Crosby,
2. Strategic Planning: The effectiveness of strategic
of course, suggests a course of action for error cause
and business planning and deployment of plans,
removal in his eleventh step, whereby employees
focusing on performance requirements;
identify reasons for non-conformance.
3. Customer and Market focus: How the company
Goal Setting
determines customer and market requirements
Deming was careful to point out that arbitrarily
and achieves customer satisfaction.
established numerical goals should be avoided. He
asserted that such goals impede, rather than hasten, the 4. Information Analysis: The effectiveness of
implementation of total quality are unacceptable By information systems to support customer-driven
emphasizing the never ending quality improvement performance excellence and marketplace success;
process, Deming saw no need for short-term goals. On 5. Human Resource Focus: The success of efforts to
the other hand, both Crosby and Juran call for setting realize the full potential of the workforce to
goals. Crosby’s tenth point deals with goals setting; create a high-performance organization;
employees (with guidance from their supervisors) are 6. Process Management: The effectiveness of
asked to set measurable goals for even short-term systems and processes for assuring the quality of
periods such as 30, 60 or 90 days. Juran recommends products and services;
an annual quality improvement program with specified
7. Business Results: Performance results and
goals.
competitive benchmarking in customer
Structural Plan
satisfaction, financials, human resources,
Deming’s 14-point plan emphasizes using statistical
suppliers, and operations.
tools at all levels. Essentially a bottom-up approach,
the process is first brought into a state of statistical  Customer satisfaction underpins these seven
control (using control charts) and ten improved. criteria. Criterion 7, business results, is given the
Crosby, on the other hand, takes a top-down approach. most weight in selecting winners.
He suggests changing the management culture as one  The Baldrige award has focused attention on the
of the first steps in his plan. Once the new culture is importance of quality and the operations factors
ingrained, a plan for managing the transition is created. that must be improved to achieve excellence. The
Finally, Juran emphasizes quality improvement efforts required to implement a quality program
through a project-by-project approach. His concept is usually pay off.
most applicable to middle management.
The supplier assessment will therefore need to be in
MALCOLM BALDRIGE NATIONAL several parts.
QUALITY AWARD
Technical assessment : This would check the
The application and four-stage review process for the
products, processes or services to establish they are
Baldrige award is rigorous, but often the process helps
what the supplier claims them to be. Assessment of
companies define what quality means for them.
design and production capability may be carried out at may be carried out at this stage either to ISO 9000 or
this stage or be held until the pre-qualification stage the customer’s standards.
when specific contracts are being considered.
Financial assessment : This would check the credit
Quality system assessment : This would check the
rating, insurance risk, stability, etc
certification status of the quality system, verifying that
Ethical assessment : This would check probity,
any certification was properly accredited. For non-ISO
conformance with professional standards and codes.
9000 registered suppliers, a quality system assessment
Criteria used by Interested Parties to Judge Organization Effectiveness :
Interested parties Effectiveness criteria

Owner Financial return
Employees Job satisfaction, pay and conditions and quality of leadership
Customers Quality of products and services

Contribution to the community - jobs, support for other traders in the community –
Community
care for the local environment
Suppliers Satisfactory mutual trading
Investors Value of shares
Government Compliance with legislation
MALCOLM BALDRIGE AWARD IN 1994

Examination Categories/Items 1994 Point Value
1. Leadership
1.1. Senior Executive Leadership 45
95
1.2. Management for Quality 25
1.3. Public Responsibility and Corporate Citizenship 25
2. Information and Analysis 75
2.1. Scope and Management of Quality and Performance. Data and Information 15
2.2. Competitive Comparisons and Benchmarking 20
2.3. Analysis and Uses of Company-Level Data 40
3. Strategic Quality Planning 60
3.1. Strategic Quality and Company Performance Planning Process 35
3.2. Quality and Performance Plans 25
4. Human Resource Development and Management 150
4.1. Human Resource Planning and Management 20
4.2. Employee Involvement 40
4.3. Employee Education and Training 40
4.4. Employee Performance and Recognition 25
4.5. Employee Well-Being and Satisfaction 25
5. Management of Process Quality 140
40
5.1. Design and Introduction of Quality Products and Services 35
5.2. Process Management: Product & Service Production & Delivery Processes 30
5.3. Process Management: Business and Support Service Processes 20
5.4. Supplier Quality 15
5.5. Quality Assessment
6. Quality and Operation Results 180
6.1. Product and Service Quality Result 70
6.2. Company Operational Result, 50
6.3. Business and Support Service Results 25
6.4. Supplier Quality Results 35
7. Customer Focus and Satisfaction 300
7.1. Customer Expectations: Current and Future 35
7.2. Customer Relationship Management 65
7.3. Commitment to Customers 15
7.4. Customer Satisfaction Determination 30
7.5. Customer Satisfaction Results 85
7.6. Customer Satisfaction Comparison 70
Total Points 1000

Examination Categories/Items 1996 Point Value
1. Leadership
1.1. Senior Executive Leadership 45
90
1.2. Leadership System and Organization 25
1.3. Public Responsibility and Corporate Citizenship 20
2. Information and Analysis 75
2.1. Management of Information and Data 20
2.2. Competitive Comparisons and Benchmarking 15
2.3. Analysis and Uses of Company-Level Data 40
3. Strategic Planning 55
3.1. Strategy Development 35
3.2. Strategy Deployment 20
4. Human Resource Development and Management 140
4.1. Human Resource Planning and Evaluation 20
4.2. High performance Work Systems 45
4.3. Employee Education, Training and Development 50
5. Process Management 140
5.1. Design and Introduction of Products and Services 40
5.2. Process Management: Product and Service, Production and Delivery 40
5.3. Process Management: Support-Services 30
5.4. Management of Supplier Performance 30
6. Business Results 250
6.1. Product and Quality Service Results 75
6.2. Company Operational and Financial Results 110
6.3. Human Resource Results 35
6.4. Supplier Performance Results 30
7. Customer Focus and Satisfaction 250
7.1. Customer and Market Knowledge 30
7.2. Customer Relationship Management 30
7.3. Customer Satisfaction Determination 30
Total Points 1000
Point Value
Examination Categories/Items 1997
1. Leadership
1.1. Leadership System 80 110
1.2. Company Responsibility and Citizenship 30
2. Strategic Planning
3.1. Strategy Development Process 40 80
3.2. Company Strategy 40
3. Customer and Market Focus
3.1. Customer and Market knowledge 40 80
3.2. Customer Satisfaction and Relationship Enhancement 40
4. Information and Analysis
4.1. Selection and Use of Information and Data 25
80
4.2. Selection and Use of Comparative Information and Data 15
4.3. Analysis and Review of Company Performance 40
5. Human Resource Development and Management
5.1. Work Systems 40
100
5.2. Employee Education, Training and Development 30
6. Process Management
6.1. Management of Product and Service Process 60
100
6.2. Management of Support Process 20
6.3. Management of Supplier and Partnering Process 20
7. Business Results
7.2. Financial and Market Results 130
450
7.3. Human Resource Results 35
7.4. Supplier and Partner Results 25
7.5. Company Specific Results 130
Total Points 1000
Guidelines for Rajiv Gandhi National review and revision to ensure continuous
Quality Award improvement.
There are nine items under which this award is judged. 6. Customer Satisfaction (200 points): This
Out of these, customer satisfaction (200 points), incorporates the company’s achievements and
business results (150 points), and processes (140 projections in terms of customer satisfaction.
points) score, higher weightages. 7. Employees Satisfaction (90 points): This
1. Leadership (100 points): This incorporates incorporates company’s success in satisfying the
top Management’s behaviour and personal needs and expectations of its employees.
involvement in leader’s quality management
8. Impact on Society (60 points): This
function and efforts in driving the company
incorporates company’s success in satisfying the
towards total quality.
needs and expectations of the community at large,
2. Policies and, strategies (80 points): This e.g. Company’s approach to:
incorporates the company’s mission, values, (i) Quality of life;
vision and strategies related to total quality and (ii) The environment; and
customer focus. (iii) The preservation of resources.
3. Human Resource Management (90 points):
This incorporates the management of the 9. Business Results (150 points): This
company’s employees with a view to develop and incorporates company’s success in achieving its
realize their full potential to continuously planned business performance and in satisfying
improve organizational development. the needs and expectations of its stakeholders.
4. Resources (90 points): This incorporates the
management’s utilization and preservation of
resources (financial, information, material) and
application of technology towards continuous
business improvement.
5. Process (140 points): This incorporates the
management of all the value adding activities
within the company including identification,
Comparison of Different Quality Awards
Rajiv
Gandhi
Baldrige Award European Quality
Topic Deming Prize (1951) (DP) National
(1987) (MBNQA) Award (1992) (EQA)
Quality
Award
Statistical Quality Control Customer Satisfaction
Primary Customer, people and Same as
(Conformance to and quality (Customer
Focus consumer perception EQA
specifications) driven quality)
Leadership Information Leadership Policies and
Policy and Objectives
and Analysis Strategic Strategies Human
Organisation and Operation
quality planning, Resource management
Education and Extension Data
Grading Human Resource Resource, Process Same as
Gathering/Reporting Analysis
Criteria Utilisation Quality Customer Satisfaction EQA
Standardisation Control
Assurance Quality Employees Satisfaction
Quality Assurance Effects
Results Customer Impact or Society
Future Plans
Satisfaction Business Results
Instituting Western European
Japan USA India
Country Countries
Quality of corporate Same as
Importance Management of quality Quality of management
leadership EQA
Maximum of two per
Winner All Firms meeting Standard
Category
Essentially large
Essentially Manufacturing Manufacturing Service Same as
Organisation Manufacturing firms
(Private/Public) and Small Business EQA
(Private/public)
Disseminating Company wide Customer satisfaction,
Customer Satisfaction
Quality Control and Total Benchmarking or
Relations with Same as
Purpose Quality Control, Continuous Competitive
Community Employee EQA
Improvement, Relations with Comparison Self-
Satisfaction
Suppliers Appraised
Grading
One Year Six Months One Year One Year
time
Relationship between Policies and Practices :
Corporate Policy Defines the overall intentions of the organization

regarding its purpose and mission
Policies
Operational Policies Defines the strategy and boundary conditions
for business and work processes
Defines the actions and decisions required to control

Control Procedures
the flow of product / information through the
processes as work is done upon it. They invoke
standards, guides and operating procedures.
Guides
Provide guidance in
implementing policies,
procedures or standards
Operating
procedures
Practices Specify how particular tasks
should be conducted
Standards
Specify acceptance criteria for products,
information, processes and services
Reference
documents
Provide data for use in carrying out
actions and making decisions
Comparison between ISO 9000 and Business Excellence Principles :

Business Excellence Concepts ISO 9000 principles
Customer focus Customer focus
The customer is the final arbiter of product and service Organizations depend on their customers and
quality and customer loyalty, retention and market share therefore should understand current and future
gain are best optimized through a clear focus on the needs customer needs, meet customer requirements and
of current and potential customers strive to exceed customer expectations.
Leadership and constancy of purpose Leadership
The behaviour of an organization’s leaders creates a clarity Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction for
and unity of purpose within the organization and an the organization. They should create and maintain the
environment in which the organization and its people can internal environment in which people can become
excel fully involved in achieving the organization’s
objectives.
People development and involvement Involvement of people
The full potential of an organizations people is best People at all levels the essence of an organization and
released through shared values and a culture of trust and their full involvement enables their abilities to be
empowerment, which encourages the involvement of used for the organizations benefit.
everyone
Management by processes and facts Process approach
Organizations perform more effectively when all A desired result is achieved more efficiently when
interrelated activities are understood and systematically related resources and activities are managed as a
managed and decisions concerning current operations and process.
planned improvements are made using reliable information Factual approach to decision making
that includes stakeholder perceptions. Effective decisions are based on the analysis of data
and information
System approach
Identifying, understanding and managing interrelated
processes as a system contributes to the organizations
effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its
objectives
Continuous learning, innovation and improvement Continual improvement

Organizational performance is maximized when it is based Continual improvement of the organization’s overall
on the management and sharing of knowledge within a performance should be a permanent objective of the
culture of continuous learning, innovation and organization.
improvement
Partnership development Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
An organization works more effectively when it has An organisation and its suppliers are interdependent
mutually beneficial relationships, built on trust, sharing of and a mutually beneficial relationship enhances the
knowledge and integration with its partners. ability of both to create value.
Public responsibility There is no equivalent principle in ISO 9000
The long-term interest of the organization and its people however, ISO 9004 clause 5.2.2 stresses that the
are best served by adopting an ethical approach and success of the organization depends on understanding
exceeding the expectations and regulations of the and considering current and future needs and
community at large. expectations of the interested parties.
Results orientation There is no equivalent principle in ISO 9000
Excellence is dependent upon balancing and satisfying the however, ISO 9004 clause 5.2.2 does recommend that
needs of all relevant stakeholders. the organization should identify its interested parties
and maintain a balanced response to their needs and
expectations.
(a) W. Edward Deming

Practice Questions
(b) Joseph M. Juran
(c) Philip B. Crosby
01. Deming philosophy emphasizes
(d) Taiichi Ohno
1. Role of management
2. Short term 06. Quality improvement through a project by project
3. High productivity approach is given by
4. Change in management attitude (a) W. Edward Deming
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (b) Joseph M. Juran
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4 (c) Philip B. Crosby
(d) Taiichi Ohno
02. Deming’s deadly diseases are 07. Financial return is a criteria used to judge
1. Management by visual figures only effectiveness of
2. Performance appraisal by the numbers (a) Owner
3. Long term orientation (b) Employee
4. Mobility of management (c) Customer
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (d) Community
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
08. Effectiveness criteria quality of production
03. Trilogy concept of quality is given by
services is used to judge the effectiveness of
(a) Customer
(b) Joseph M. Juran
(b) Supplier
(c) Government
(d) Taiichi Ohno
(d) Community
09. Match the following in the light of the interested
04. Top down approach to quality is given by
party and effectiveness criteria
List – I
(b) Joseph M. Juran
(P) Community
(Q) Suppliers
(d) Taiichi Ohno
(R) Investors
(S) Government
05. Bottom up approach is given by
List – II (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
1. Compliance with legislation individually true and Statement (II) is the
2. Contribution to the community – jobs, support correct explanation of Statement (I)
for other traders in the community – care for (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
the local environment individually true but statement (II) is not the
3. Value of shares correct explanation of statement (I)
4. Satisfactory mutual trading (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Codes:
P Q R S
12. Statement (I): Quality is the inherent worth or
(a) 2 4 3 1
features of a product, as assessed by the
(b) 2 3 4 1
individual who owns or uses it.
(c) 3 2 4 1
Statement (II): Japanese industry was introduced
(d) 3 2 1 4
to statistical quality control by an American
named Edwards Deming.
10. Malcolm Baldrige Award in 1994 highest
13. Statement (I): The quality function deployment
weightage is given for
(QFD) tool is used to Identity the need and
(a) Human resource development and
transform into measurable design targets.
management
Statement (II): Who, What, How much, and
(b) Management of process quality
such questions and answers will lead to definition
(c) Quality and operation results
of need in QFD.
(d) Customer focus and satisfaction
Answers
11. Which among the following is business
excellence concept ?
(a) Process approach 1 C 2 D 3 B 4 A 5 C
(b) Continuous learning, innovation and 6 B 7 A 8 B 9 A 10 B
improvement
11 B 12 B 13 a
(c) System approach
(d) Factual approach to decision making
Directions:
The following items consists of two statements;
one labeled as Statement I and the other as
Statement II. You have to select the answers to
these items using the codes given below:
Codes:
Unit
4 Service Quality
 Service has been defined as “a social act, which welfare services, legal services, health services and
takes place in direct contact between the customer so on.
and representatives of the service company”. A  Some service industries provide a tangible product
service might be as simple as handling a complaint and an intangible component that affects customer
or as complex as a home mortgage. satisfaction.
 The service is often created and delivered at the  Certain service functions are found in both the
same time. Inspecting quality is very limited. manufacturing and service sectors. For instance,
 Human element is inherently included in service. after-sales services, warranty replacement, repairs
under guarantee clauses, etc.
Service
Measures  Eight dimensions of servqual (Service quality),
provided
Line availability, call with each contributing to a set of requirements.
Telephone out response time, time
to reply to complaints Function: The primary required performance of
Time to reply to the service
complaints, supply
Water Features: The expected performance (bells and
connection time, water
quality whistles of the service)
Class size, percentage Conformance: The satisfaction based in requirements
Education of pupils achieving pass
that have been set
grades
Checklist of service quality : Reliability: The confidence of the service in
R-A-T-E-R relationship to time
Serviceability: The ability to service if something
 Responsiveness
 Assurance goes wrong
 Tangible Aesthetics: The experience itself as it relates to
 Empathy the senses
 Reliability Perception: The reputation of quality
HOW DO WE DEFINE SERVICE SECTOR? Difference Between Goods and Services
 It is extremely difficult to define pure goods or a According to Theodore Levitt, “There are no such
pure service. A pure good implies that the things as service industries. There are only industries
customer obtains benefit from the goods alone, whose service components are greater or less than
without any added value from service; those of other industries. Everybody is in service”.
concurrently, a pure service assumes that there is
no ‘goods’ element to the service, which the Five categories of offer can be distinguished:
customer receives. In reality, most services contain (i) Pure tangible good
some goods element.
 Pure service organisations include education, (ii) Tangible good with accompanying services
banking, insurance, defence, municipal services, (iii) Hybrid
(iv) Major service with accompanying minor goods (v) Pure service
and services
The following table summarizes some of the important differences mentioned above:
Differences in manufacturing and services sector
Manufacturing Sector Service Sector
Service consists of tangible and intangible

Product is tangible
components
Back orders are possible Services cannot be stored
Producer or the company is the only party involved in Producer and consumer are both involved in the
the making of the product delivery of service
Product can be resold Services cannot be resold

The consumer need not provide formal specifications.
Customer usually provides formal specifications for the In fact, in monopolies involving public utilities, such
product as electricity, gas, telephone etc. federal and state laws
dictate the requirements
Customer satisfaction is difficult to quantify because a
Customer acceptance of the product is easily
behavioural component associated with the delivery of
quantifiable
the service is involved
Ownership of a product changes hands at a specific Rendering of a service takes place over an interval of
point of time. time.
Techniques for Determining Customer Needs 3. In-the-field leadership style:

 Face-to-face programme 4. Integrity:
 Correspondence Dimensions of
service Quality:
 Toll-free hotlines External
Word of Personal Past
 Surveys  Tangibles mouth needs experience
communic
 Reliability ations
 Tools for Tracking and Measuring Customer
 Responsiveness
Satisfaction  Competence
 Courtesy Expected
 Complaint and suggestion systems
 Credibility service Perceived
 Customer satisfaction surveys  Security service
 Access Perceived quality
 Ghost shopping
 Communication service
 Lost customer analysis  Understanding
the customer Summary of the exploratory study
 Identifying Service Failures conducted in four service sectors
Characteristics of Service Leaders
Original 10 dimensions for SERVQUAL
1. Service vision:
evaluating service quality dimensions
2. High standards:
Tangibles Tangibles
VANI Publications Service Quality
Reliability Reliability  Freedom from danger, risks, or doubt.
Responsiveness Responsiveness Feeling of delight and satisfaction
Competence Assurance
(5) Empathy:
Courtesy Assurance
 Caring, individualized attention the firm
Credibility Assurance
provides its customers. Attitude resolving
Security Assurance
amicably customer’s problems (tactful during
Access Empathy
service recovery).
Communication Empathy
 Approachability and ease of contact.
Understanding the customer Empathy
 Keeping customers informed in a language
Service Quality Management that they can understand and listen.
(From Customer’s Point of View)
(6) Service product(outcome of service/core service):
The dimensions defined in the service quality model  The content of service
are as follows:  The intensity and depth of service
(Operational definition of the terms)  The diversity and range of services
(1) Tangibles (Facilities) :
(7) Social responsibility:
 Appearance of physical facilities, equipment,
 Equal treatment stemming from the belief
etc.
that everyone should be treated alike. A
 Well-dressed personnel (neat, clean and
social responsibility characterized by
professional appearance)
‘deserving service’ to people belonging to all
 Visually appealing signs, advertisement strata of the society (e.g. concessions to
boards, and other facilities economically and socially downtrodden
 Proper housekeeping. people, needy ones, etc.).
(2) Reliability : (8) Service delivery :
 The interest the service provider shows in  Standardized, simplified and structured
solving customers problems. delivery processes so that the service delivery
 The right delivery of service first time and times are minimum and without any
every time. bureaucratic hassles.
 The ability to perform the promised service
Critical Dimensions of TQS :
dependably and accurately.
(a) The following five factors are prerequisites
(3) Responsiveness :
for effective implementation of Total
 Ability to communicate provision of services Quality Service (Operational definition of
as per desired schedule the terms)
 Providing prompt and timely service
(1) Top management leadership and
(4) Assurance :
commitment:
 Politeness, respect, consideration, and
friendliness of contact personnel (procedural  The allocation of adequate resources and
skill and convivial skill). time for continuous improvement efforts
 The effort to remove the root causes of  The recognition and encouragement for
problems achievements in quality.
 The commitment to energize and simulate an  The willingness to devise strategies to
organization to improve service improve employee satisfaction.
performance. (8) Involvement and Empowerment of
(2) Customer focus: Employees:
 The consideration of customer focus as the  Authority and operational independence for
driving force behind day-to-day operations. the employees to achieve results.
 The willingness to provide prompt services  Encouraging the employees to voice heir
to the customers. opinions, criticisms and feedback on
(3) Organizational culture: organizational functioning and performance.

(9) Benchmarking::
 The realization of the employees at all levels
that the real purpose of their existence is  Benchmarking the services and processes
‘service to customers’. with respect to other companies.
 The overcoming of relationships among the  Benchmarking the service recovery process
employees. with respect to other companies.
 The facilitation of fast decision-making and (10) Services capes (Physical Environment and
quick response to customers requirements. Facilities):
(4) Employee commitment:  The employees will have a pleasant and neat
 Provide services right the first time and appearance.
every time.  The ambient conditions such as temperature,
 Give individual and caring attention as much ventilation, noise, odour, etc. prevailing in
as possible to the customers by having the the organizational premises will be
customers’ best interests at heart. comfortable to customers as well as
(5) Continuous improvement: employees.
 The belief that ‘continuous improvement’
results in a competitive advantage. (11) Good Relations with union:
 The emphasis on continuous improvement  Clearly defined role played by the
in all operations and at all levels. employees’ union in establishing the policies
(b) The following nine factors are essential and strategies of the organization.
for effective implementation of Total  Employees’ union’s co-operation and
Quality Service (Operational definition of support for the drive for improved customer
the terms) focus and service quality in the organization.
(6) Training of personnel: (12) Social responsibility:
 The ability to link education and training of  Lead as a corporate citizen, and promote
employees to its long-term plans and ethical conduct in everything you do.
 Equal treatment to all customers, stemming
strategies.
from the belief that everyone should be
(7) Employee satisfaction: treated alike.
 Sense of public responsibility among  Does not measure service outcome perceptions.
employees (in terms of being punctual,
regular, sincere and without going on Conceptual Model of Service Quality
strikes).
Word of mouth Personal Past
(13) Process management: communication experiences
needs
 Integrating customer feedback in the design
of standardized, simplified and foolproof Expected
operational procedures and processes. service
 Coordinating activities among different Gap 5
Perceived
departments / branches during the service
service
development processes. CUSTOMER
MARKETER External
(14) Supplier involvement: Service delivery
(pre and post communications
 Evaluate supplier performance with specified Gap 1
Gap 4 to customers
contact)
requirements / parameters through mutually Gap 3
agreed plans. 4
 Involvement of the suppliers in establishing Translations of
perceptions into service
quality and punctuality requirements. Quality specifications
Measuring Service Quality : Gap 2
Value = Results – Expectations Management perceptions of
The equation further modifies to : customers expectations
Value = I (E – P)
Where,
I = Importance to the customer, The Servqual Gaps
P = Perception, Gap Definitions Measures
E = Expectation
1 Customers’ Use of good Customer
expectations versus Relationship
Advantages of SERVQUAL
 Enables assessing service quality from the management Management
customer’s perspective perceptions Techniques to profile
 We can track customer expectations and & know customer’s
perceptions over time, together with the expectations, tastes and
discrepancies between them.
needs
 Servqual enables comparison to competitors on
2 Management Managers need to
common aspects.
 We can assess the expectations and perceptions perceptions versus make sure the
of internal customers – e.g. other departments or service organization is
services we deal with. specifications defining the level of
Disadvantages of SERVQUAL service they believe is
 The uniform applicability of the method for all needed.
service sectors is difficult.
3 Service Managers need to audit
 The use of expectations in measuring service
specifications versus the customer
quality has currently come under a lot of
criticism. service delivery experience that their
organization currently
delivers in order to
make sure it lives up to
the expected level.
4 Service delivery Use of good
versus external communication skills
communication and avoid ambiguous
or fraudulent terms to
confuse or mislead the
customer.
5 The discrepancy Application of all the
between customer above measures to
expectations and make sure the service
their perceptions of delivered meets the
the service delivered expectations of the
customer.
Criticisms to SERVQUAL
 It has been criticized that SERVQUAL’s 5
dimensions (RATER) are not universals, and that
the model fails to draw on established economic,
statistical and psychological theory.
 There is little evidence that customers assess
service quality in terms of perception /
expectation gaps.
 SERVQUAL focuses on the process of service
delivery, not the outcomes of the service
encounter.
 There is a high degree of Interco relation
between the five RATER dimensions, thus the
scores obtained cannot be exact.
(a) Appearance of physical facility

Practice Questions
(b) Service provider ability to display a
01. A tangible in SERVQUAL is positive moment of truth
(a) proper house keeping (c) Giving good service at reasonable cost
(b) a right delivery of service first time in every without compromise and quality
time (d) Willingness to help customers all the time
(c) content of service
08. Service delivery in Servqual is
(d) politeness
(a) Enhance of technological capabilities
02. Reliability in Servqual is (b) The content of service
(a) Well dressed personnel (c) Freedom from danger, risk or doubt
(b) Ability to provide error free records (d) Providing prompt and timely service
(c) Providing prompt and timely service 09. The recognition and encouragement for
(d) Deserving service achievements in qualities is called
(a) Employee satisfaction
03. Responsiveness in Servqual is (b) Empowerment of employees
(a) classy ambient conditions (c) Training of personnel
(b) the interest service provider shows in (d) Social responsibility
solving customer problems
10. Service innovation in Servqual is called
(c) keeping customers informed in a language
(a) Responsiveness (b) Assurance
they can understand and listen
(c) Reliability (d) Service product
(d) willingness to help customers at all times
11. The GAP – 1 in Servqual is
04. Assurance in Servqual is
(a) management perception GAP
(a) advertisement boards
(b) quality specification GAP
(b) ability to display a positive moment of truth
(c) service delivery GAP
by service provider
(d) market communication GAP
(c) professional requires skill and knowledge
12. The GAP – 2 in Servqual is
to perform the service and offer helpful
(a) perceived service Gap
suggestions
(b) quality specification GAP
(d) effectiveness of customer grievance,
procedures and processors
(d) market communication GAP
05. Empathy in servqual is
(a) enhancement of technological capabilities 13. The GAP – 3 in Servqual is
(b) equal treatment (a) management perception GAP
(c) content of service (b) quality specification GAP
(d) caring and individual attention (c) service delivery GAP
06. Service product in Servqual is (d) market communication GAP
(a) intensity and depth of service 14. The GAP – 4 in Servqual is
(b) availability of service provider at the he is (a) perceived service Gap
time required (b) quality specification GAP
(c) trustworthiness
(d) no bureaucratic hassles
07. Social responsibility in Servqual is (d) market communication GAP
15. The GAP – 5 in Servqual is Statement (II): Equipment based services tend
(a) perceived service GAP to be more controllable than people based
(b) quality specification GAP services.
(d) market communication GAP Answers
16. Use of good communication is a remedy for 1 A 2 B 3 D 4 C 5 D

Servqual is 6 A 7 C 8 A 9 A 10 D
(a) GAP – 1 (b) GAP – 2
11 A 12 B 13 C 14 D 15 A
(c) GAP – 4 (d) GAP – 5
16 C 17 A 18 B 19 B 20 A
17. Use of good customer relationship management
21 d
is a remedy for Servqual is
(a) GAP – 1 (b) GAP – 2
(c) GAP – 4 (d) GAP - 5
18. Make sure the organization is defining a level of

service they believe is needed is a remedy for
Servqual is
(a) GAP – 1 (b) GAP – 2
(c) GAP – 4 (d) GAP - 5
19. Auditing customer experience the organization

delivering to live up to expected level of
Servqual is a remedy for Servqual is
(a) GAP – 1 (b) GAP – 3
(c) GAP – 4 (d) GAP – 5
20. RATER is term used in

(a) SERVQUAL (b) KAIZEN
(c) POKA YOKE (d) SMED
21. Statement (I): Because services are intangible
processes, there are really no satisfactory ways to
measure their quality level.
Unit
5 Tools of Quality Control

Data Analysis Tools : C. Broken fiber board IIII IIII IIII IIII
 The first step in improving the quality of an D. Ragged edges IIII IIII IIII I 36
operation is data collection. IIII II 07
 Data can help uncover operations requiring 50
improvement and the extent of remedial action
Histograms and Bar Charts
needed.
The data from a checklist often can be presented
 There are Nine tools for organizing and presenting
succinctly and clearly with histograms or bar charts.
data to identify areas for quality and performance
improvement: A histogram summarizes data measured on a
(i) Checklists continuous scale, showing the frequency distribution of
(ii) Histograms and Bar charts some quality characteristic (in statistical terms, the
(iii) Pareto charts, central tendency and dispersion of the data). Often the
(iv) Scatter diagrams mean of the data is indicated on the histogram.
(v) Cause-and-effect diagrams
A bar chart is a series of bars representing the
(vi) Graphs
frequency of occurrence of data characteristics
(vii) Control charts
measured on a yes-or-no basis. The bar height
(viii) Flow diagrams
indicates the number of times a particular quality
(ix) Process charts
characteristic was observed.
Checklists
200
 Data collection through the use of a checklist is
often the first step in the analysis of quality 150
problems. 100
 A checklist is a form used to record the frequency
50
of occurrence of certain product or service
characteristics related to quality. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 The characteristics may be measurable on a Fig: Histogram
continuous scale (e.g., weight, diameter, time, or
50
length) or on a yes-or-no basis (e.g., Paint 40
Defects
discoloration, Doors, Rude servers, or too much 30

grease). 20
10
Example: Headliner defects 0
Discourteous Slow Cold Cramped Smoky
Defect Type Tally Total server service dinner tablets air
A. Tears in fabric IIII 4 Fig: Bar Chart Defect Name
B. Discolored fabric III 3
Pareto Charts Scatter Diagrams
 When managers discover several quality problems Sometimes managers suspect but are not sure that a
that need to be addressed, they have to decide certain factor is causing a particular quality problem. A
which should be attacked first. Vilfredo Pareto, a scatter diagram, which is a plot of two variables
nineteenth-century Italian scientist whose showing whether they are related, can be used to verify
statistical work focused on inequalities in data,
or negate the suspicion. Each point on the scatter
proposed that most of an “activity” is caused by
relatively few of its factors. diagram represents one data observation.
For example, the manager of a castings shop may
 In a restaurant quality problem, the activity could
suspect that casting defects are a function of the
be customer complaints and the factor could be
“discourteous waiter.” diameter of the casting.
 For a manufacturer, the activity could be product

y y
defects and a factor could be “missing part.”
 Pareto’s concept, called the 80-20 rule, is that 80
percent of the activity is caused by 20 percent of
the factors. By concentrating on the 20 percent of
the factors (the “vital few”), managers can attack
80 percent of the quality problems. Scatter x Scatter x
diagram diagram
 The few vital factors can be identified with a
Pareto chart, a bar chart on which the factors are
plotted in decreasing order of frequency along the A scatter diagram could be constructed by plotting the
horizontal axis. number of defective castings found for each diameter
 The chart has two vertical axes, the one on the left of casting produced. After the diagram is completed,
showing frequency (as in a histogram) and the one any relationship between diameter and number of
on the right showing the cumulative percentage of defects could be observed.
frequency. The cumulative frequency curve
identifies the few vital factors that warrant Cause-And-Effect-Diagrams
immediate managerial attention  An important aspect of TQM is linking each aspect
(30%, 60%) of quality prized by the customer to the inputs,
60 Cumulative methods, and process steps that build a particular
50 percentage
attribute into the product. One way to identify a
40 design problem that needs to be corrected is to
30 develop a cause-and-effect diagram that relates a
20 key quality problem to its potential causes. First

1 2 3 developed by Kaoru Ishikawa, the diagram helps
10 4 6
5 management trace customer complaints directly to
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 the operations involved. Operations that have no
Fig: Pareto – diagram bearing on a particular defect aren’t shown on the

diagram for that defect.
VANI Publications Tools of Quality Control
 The cause-and-effect diagram sometimes is called Materials People
a fishbone diagram. The main quality problem is Out of specification Training
labelled as the fish’s “head”, the major categories Absenteeism
Not available
Communication Broken
of potential causes as structural “bones,” and the
Machine fiber
likely specific causes as “ribs.” When constructing Humidity board
maintenance
and using a cause-and-effect diagram, an analyst Machine speed
Schedule changes
identifies all the major categories of potential Wrong setup
causes for the quality problem.
Other Process
For example, these might be personnel, machines,
materials, and processes. For each major category,
The analyst then systematically investigates the
the analyst lists all the likely causes of the quality
causes listed on the diagram for each major
problem. For example, under personnel might be
category, updating the chart as new causes
listed “lack of training,” “poor communication,”
become apparent.
and “absenteeism.” Brainstorming helps the
The process of constructing a cause-and-effect
analyst identify and properly classify all suspected
diagram calls management and worker attention
causes.
to the primary factors affecting product or service
quality.
Equipment Personnel
Aircraft late to gate Passenger processing at gate

Other
Mechanical failures Late cabin cleaners
Weather Unavailable cockpit crew
Air traffic delays Late cabin crew Delayed
flight
Poor announcement of departures
Late baggage to aircraft
departures
Late fuel
Weight/balance sheet late
Late food service Delayed check-in procedure
Contractor not provided Waiting for late passengers
With updated schedule
Materials Procedures
Fig: Cause-and-Effect Diagram for flight Departure Delays
Graphs connected by line segments to highlight trends in

 Graphs represent data in a variety of pictorial the data. Line graphs are used in control charts.
formats, such as line graphs and pie charts. Line  Pie charts represent quality factors as slices of a
graphs represent data sequentially with data points pie; the size of each slice is in proportion to the
number of occurrences of the factor. Pie charts are Each of the tools for improving quality may be used
useful for showing data from a group of factors independently, but their power is greatest when they
that can be represented as percentages totalling 100 are used together. In solving a quality problem,
percent. managers often must act as detectives, sifting data to
clarify the issues involved and deducing the causes.
y
The further several quality tools for use when not all
data are available are :
 Relations diagram – used to clarity interrelations in
a complex situation
 Affinity diagram – used to pull ideas from a group
of people and group them into natural relationships
Line Graph x
 Tree diagram – used to show the interrelations
among goals and measures
y  Matrix diagram – used to clarity the relations
between two different factors (e.g., QFD)
 Matrix data analysis diagram – used when the
matrix chart does not provide information in
sufficient detail
 Process decision program chart – used in
operations research
Bar Graph x
 Arrow diagram – used to show steps necessary to
implement a plan (e.g., PERT).
Data Snooping
Distinction between Random and Assignable Causes of variation
Random Assignable
(common causes) (special causes)
Description
Consists of many individual causes Consists of one or just a few individual causes
Any one random causes results in a minute amount of Any one assignable cause can result in a large
variation (but many random causes act together to yield a amount of variation
substantial total).
Example are human variation in setting control dials ; slight Example are operator blunder, a faulty or a
vibration in machines; slight variation in raw material. batch of defective raw material
Interpretation
Random variation cannot economically be eliminated from a Assignable variation can be detected; action to
process eliminate the causes is usually
economically justified.
An observation within the control limits of usually random An observation beyond control limits means
variation means the process should and not be adjusted the process should be investigated and
corrected.
With only random variation, the process is sufficiently stable to With assignable variation present, the process
use sampling procedures to predict the quality of total production is not sufficiently stable to use sampling
or make process optimization studies procedures for prediction.
 Common cause variation is random and therefore The Sources of causes is not unlimited.
adjusting a process on detection of a common Nonconformities are caused by one or more of the
cause will destabilize the process. The cause has to following :
be removed, not the process adjusted.  Deficiency in communication
 When dealing with either common cause or special  Deficiencies in documentation
cause problems the search for the root cause will  Deficiencies in personnel training and motivation
indicate whether the cause is random and likely to  Deficiencies in materials
occur again or a one-off event.  Deficiencies in tools and equipment
 If it is random, only action on the system will  Deficiencies in the operating environment
eliminate it. Comparison of Some Control Charts :
 If it is a one-off event, no action on the system will
prevent its recurrence it just has to be fixed.
Statistical
Average X and range Percent defective (p) Number of defects (c)
measure plotted
Attribute data (number of Attribute data (number of
Type of data
Variable (measured values defective units of product) defects per unit of product)
required General
of a characteristic control of overall fraction Control of overall number
field of application
defective of a process of defects per unit
1. Provides maximum
1. Data required are often
utilization of
already available from
information available Same advantages as p chart
inspection records
Significant but also provides a measure
2. Easily understood by all
advantage 2. Provides detailed in of defectiveness
personnel
formation on process
3. Provides an overall picture
average and variation
of quality
for control of
individual dimension
1. Not understood unless
1. Does not provide detailed
training is provided;
Information for control of
can cause confusion
Significant individual characteristic
between control limits
disadvantages 2. Does not recognize different
and tolerance limits
degrees of defectiveness in
2. Cannot be used with
units of product
go/on go type of data
Any convenient units of
Use given inspection results or
Sample size Usually 4 or 5 product such as 100ft of
samples of 25,50, or 100
wire or one television set
Standard Errors : The standard error of proportion is

The deviation of the simple mean of standard error Standard error of proportion,
of the mean s x can be estimated and controlled, for pq
sp  (Binominal distribution)
it is a function of the sample size, n. n
Standard error or mean, The standard error for c chart
s S c  c (Poisson distribution)
sx  (Normal distribution)
n Control chart for the Mean and Range:
As the sample size approaches the population size,
Step 1:
N, the standard error gets smaller; it is reduced to
Using a pre-selected sampling scheme and sample
zero when the sample size is as large as the
size, record measurements of the selected quality
population.
characteristic on the appropriate forms.
X1  X 2  X 3  X 4  X 5
Sub group number X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X R = Xmax−Xmin
5
1 X1 R1
----- X2 R2
N XN RN
Step 2: where Xi represents the ith observation, n is the sample

For each sample, calculate the sample mean and size, Xmax is the largest observation and Xmin is the
range the following formulas: smallest observation.
n
Step 3:
X
i 1
i Obtain and draw the center line and the trial control
X (n = size of the sample) (Ex: n= 5)
n limits for each chart. For the X  chart , the center
R = Xmax − Xmin line X is given by
N Plot the values of the range on the control chart for
X
i 1
i
range, with the centre line and the control limits drawn.
X
N Determine whether the points are in statistical control.
where N represents the number of sub groups. For the If not, investigate the special causes associated with the
R-chart, the center line R is found from out-of-control points and take appropriate remedial
N action to eliminate special causes.
R i
R i 1 Step 5:
N Delete the out of control point(s) for which remedial
Conceptually, the 3 control limits for the X  chart actions have been taken to remove special causes and
are use the remaining samples to determine the revised
R center line and control limits for the X - and R-charts.
X  3 ; ˆ 
d2
n A2 D3 D4 d2 d3
The control limits for an X  chart are therefore 2 1.880 0 3.268 1.128 0.853
estimated as 3 1.023 0 2.574 1.693 0.888
3 4 0.729 0 2.282 2.059 0.880
UCL, LCL   X 
n 5 0.577 0 2.114 2.326 0.864
3R 6 0.483 0 2.004 2.534 0.848
X
nd 2 7 0.419 0.076 1.924 2.704 0.833
8 0.373 0.136 1.864 2.847 0.820
 
UCL, LCL   X  A 2 R  A2  3  9 0.337 0.184 1.816 2.970 0.808
 d 2 n 
 10 0.308 0.223 1.777 3.078 0.797
The control limits for the R-chart are conceptually
given by R
 s where, s = standard deviation,
(UCLR, LCLR) = R  3 R d2
P chart :
R
 R   d 3 Control chart for attributes on the percentage of
 d2  defectives occurring are based on the binominal
The control limits for the R-chart are estimated as distribution. A p-chart is used when individual items
R are judged acceptable or defective.
UCLR = R  3d 3    D 4 R
 d2  p
p
N
R
LCLR = R  3d 3    D 4 R and p = no. of defectives in sample / sample size
 d2 
N = No. of lots inspected ,
3d 3   3d   n = sample size per lot.
Where, D4 = 1 and D3 = max  0 ; 1  3  
d2  d 2  
  p  1  p 
p 
(n, A2 , D3 , D4 , d2 , d3 values taken from below table) n
Step 4 :
p 1  p   A process is assumed to be out of control if four
Upper control limit, (UCL) = p  3 , out of five consecutive points fall beyond the 1
n
limit on the same side of the center line.
p1  p   A process is assumed to be out of control if nine or
Lower control limit, (LCL) = p  3 ,
n more consecutive points fall to one side of the
‘c’ chart : center line.
Control chart for attributes on the number of defects  A process is assumed to be out of control if there is
per unit are based on Poisson distribution. A c-chart is a run of six or more consecutive points steadily
appropriate when the quality is measured by the increasing or decreasing.
number of defects in a constant unit of output.  Whenever in 7 successive points on the control
c chart, all are on the same side of the central line.
c  Whenever in 11 successive points on the control
N
chart, at least 10 are on the same side of the central
Where, c = cumulative no. of defects,
line.
N = no. of units inspected.
 Whenever in 14 successive points on the control
c  c chart, at least 12 are on the same side of the central
UCL = c  3 c , line.
 Whenever in 17 successive points on the control
LCL = c  3 c chart, at least 14 are on the same side of the central
Some rules for identifying an Out-of-Control line.
Process:  Whenever in 20 successive points on the control
 A process is assumed to be out of control if a chart, at least 16 are on the same side of the central
single points plots outside the control limits. line.
 A process is assumed to out of control if two out of
three consecutive points fall outside the 2
warning limits on the same side of the center line.
Interpretation of Control Charts :
UCL
CL
LCL
Normal Behaviour One point out above One point out below Two points near upperTwo points near lower
(Random causes) Investigate for cause Investigate for cause control. Investigate control. Investigate
of inferior of improvement for cause of inferior for cause of inferior
performance performance performance
UCL
CL
LCL
Run of 5 above central Run of below central Trend in either Erratic behaviour Sudden change in
line. Investigate for line. Investigate for direction 5 points. investigate. level investigate for
cause of sustained cause of sustained Investigate for cause cause.
inferior performance improvement of progressive change
Time Time Time Time Time
SAMPLING : An economic evaluation of these alternatives requires a

Sampling is the technique of evaluating a random comparison of total costs under each of the
portion of the items in a lot for the purpose of alternatives.
accepting or rejecting the entire lot. Let N = number of items in lot
n = number of items in sample
The concept of Acceptance sampling p = proportion defective in lot
Acceptance sampling is the process of evaluating a A = damage cost incurred if a defective slips
portion of the product in a lot for the purpose of through inspection
accepting or rejecting the entire lot. I = inspection cost per item
 The smaller inspection staff is less complex and
less costly to administer
Economic comparison of inspection alternatives
 There is less damage to the product, i.e., handling Alternative cost Total cost
incidental to inspection is itself a source of defects No inspection NpA
 The lot is disposed of in shorter (calendar) time so Sampling nI+(N−n)pA
that scheduling and delivery are improved. 100 % inspection NI
 The problem of monotony and inspector error
induced by 100 percent inspection is minimized At breakeven,
 Rejection (rather than sorting) of nonconforming Total cost of 100% inspection = Total cost of sampling
lots tends to dramatize the quality deficiencies and N I = nI + (N–n)pA
to urge the organization to look for preventive I
(N-n) I = (N-n) p A (or) p =
measures. A
 Proper design of the sampling plan commonly Sampling risks: The operating characteristic
requires study of the actual level of quality curve
required by the user. The resulting knowledge is a Neither sampling nor 100 percent can guarantee that
useful input to the overall quality planning. every defective item in a lot will be found.
Sampling involves a risk that the sampling will not
adequately reflect the conditions in the lot; 100 percent
inspection has the risk that monotony and other factors Operating Characteristic Curve:
will result in inspectors missing some of the defectives. 1.0
Probability of Acceptance
Sampling risks are of two kinds:
1. Good lots can be rejected (the producer's risk).
This risk corresponds to the α risk.
2. Bad lots can be accepted (the consumer's risk). 0.5
This risk corresponds to the β risk.
The OC curve for an attributes plan is a graph of the

percentage defective in a lot versus the probability that
the sampling plan will accept a lot. 0 AQL IQL LQL
1.0 Percent defective
Operating Characteristic Curve

Pa Showing the effective LOT Size :
1.
0 p 1.5%
N=1,000, n =
20,
01. Acceptable quality level (AQL): N=200, n = 20,
Probability of
AQL as "the maximum percent nonconforming 0. c=0

(or the maximum number of nonconformities per N=100, n =
N = 50 20,
hundred units) that, for purposes of sampling
n = 20
inspection, can be considered satisfactory as a c=0
process average". 0
Percent defective
02. Limiting quality level (LQL) or Lot
Designing the sampling plan:
Tolerance Percentage Defective (LTPD) :
 Given  risk and AQL and also  risk and LTPD
This is a definition of unsatisfactory quality.
different values of sample size (n) and acceptance
Different titles are sometimes used to denote an
number (c) can be considered for evaluation.
LQL; for example, in the Dodge-Roming plans,
 Increasing in sample size (n) makes the OC curve
the term "lot tolerance percentage defective
more discriminating between good and bad lots.
(LTPD)" is used.
 If acceptance number (c) is very low the OC curve
03. Indifferent quality level (IQL):
is concave to the origin with relatively high  risk
This is a quality level somewhere between the
and relatively low  risk.
AQL and LQL. It is frequently defined as the
quality level having a probability of acceptance Type A and Type B OC curves:
of 0.5 for a given sampling plan. Type A curve gives the probabilities of acceptance
for various fractions defective as a function of the
lot quality of finite lots.
Type B curve gives the probabilities of acceptance ATI  nPa  N 1  Pa  = n + (N − n)(1 − Pa)
of a lot as a function of product quality, for infinite
ATI
lot size. AFI 
N
Types of sampling plans N = LOT size, n = Sample size,
(i) Single sampling plan Pa = Probability of acceptance
(ii) Double sampling plan Example:
(iii) Multiple sampling plan
N = 1000, n = 100, c = 0, Pa = 0.59,
Single Sampling Plan: nPa = 59.0, N(1−Pa) = 410.0,
ATI = 469.0, AFI = 0.469
 In a single sampling plan, the information obtained
from one sample is used to make a decision to
Double Sampling plan:
accept or reject the lot.
Example:
 There are tow parameters in this sampling plan: the
N = LOT size = 4000
sample size n and the acceptance number c.
n1 = Size of the first sample = 40
 A random sample of size n is selected from a LOT
c1 = Acceptance number for the first sample = 1
of N.
r1 = Rejection number for the first sample = 4
 The number of nonconforming items or
n2 = Size of the second sample = 60
nonconformities in the sample is found and
c2 = Acceptance no. for the second sample = 5
compared to the acceptance number c.
r2 = Rejection number for the second sample = 6
 If the observed number is less than or equal to the
acceptance number, the LOT is accepted.  Initially select a random sample of 40 items from
 If more than c nonconforming items or the LOT of size 5,000.
nonconformities are found in the sample, the LOT  If 1 or fewer nonconforming items are found, the
is rejected. LOT is accepted, but if 4 or more nonconforming
Example: items are found, the LOT is rejected.
LOT size = N = 4,000  If the observed number of nonconforming items is
Sample size = n = 100 2 or 3, a second sample of size 60 is selected.
Acceptance number = c = 2  If the combined number of nonconforming items
 This implies that a random sample of size 100 is to from both samples is less than or equal to 5, the
be selected from a LOT of size 4,000. LOT is accepted; if it is 6 or more, the LOT is
 If 2 or fewer nonconforming items or rejected.
nonconformities are found, the LOT is accepted.
Otherwise, the LOT is rejected.
Average Total Inspection (ATI) – Average
Fraction Inspection (AFI)
Double sampling plan is given in the form of Chart given below.
Inspect a first sample

of n1 pieces
If the number of defects

found in the first sample
Exceeds c1, but

Does not exceed c1 does not exceed c2 Exceeds c2
Inspect a second sample

of n2 pieces
If the number of defects found in the first and

second samples combined
Does not exceed c2

exceed c2
Accept Reject
the lot the lot
Average Total Inspection (ATI) – Average  In multiple or sequential sampling plan a decision
Fraction Inspection (AFI) is made after drawing several samples from the lot
whenever there is a indecision.
ATI = n1Pa(n1) + (n1+n2)P a(n2)+N(1−Pa)
Skip lot sampling :
= n1Pa + n2Pa (n2) + N(1−Pa)
 Under the plan designated SkSP-1, consecutive
where Pa(n1) = probability of acceptance on
lots are 100% inspected until i have been found
the first sample.
free of nonconforming items.
Pa(n2) = probability of acceptance on the
second sample  After words inspection shifts to a portion f of the
Pa = Pa(n1) + Pa(n2) lots received.
ATI  The values of i and f are selected from continuous
AFI = (N = LOT size)
N sampling system tables.
Double or Multiple sampling plan:  This is useful in JIT inventory management.
 Double or multiple sampling plans are used to
reduce inspection cost. Average Outgoing Quality(AOQ) and Average
 With double sampling a decision is made after two Outgoing Quality Limit(AOQL) :
samples are drawn from the lot.  AOQ curve shows the expected quality in all
outgoing LOTs after the rejected LOTs from the
sample have been 100 percent inspected and all N = LOT size
defectives have been removed. n = Sample size
pPA N  n  Pa = Probability of acceptance of LOT
AOQ 
N
p = percent defectives in the LOT submitted AOQ Values for the Sampling Plan :
for inspection. N = 2000, n = 50, c = 2
Average Outgoing
Incoming LOT Probability of LOT Quality
Quality, p Acceptance, Pa pPA  N  n 
AOQ 
N
0.01 0.986 0.0096
0.02 0.920 0.0179
0.03 0.809 0.237
0.04 0.677 0.0264
0.05 0.544 0.0265
0.06 0.0423 0.0247
0.07 0.321 0.0219
0.08 0.238 0.0186
0.09 0.174 0.0153
pPA N  n 
AOQ 
N
0.030
0.028 AOQL 0.01 0.986(2000 - 50)
 = 0.0096
0.026 2000
0.024
0.022 Characteristics of a good acceptance plan:
0.020
0.018  The index (AQL) used to define "quality" should
0.016 reflect the needs of the consumer and producer and
0.014
0.012 not be chosen primarily for statistical convenience.
0.010  The sampling risks should be known in
0.008
0.004 quantitative terms (the OC curve). The producer
0.002 should have adequate protection against the
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.10 rejection of good lots; the consumer should be
0.06
protected against the acceptance of bad lots.
 The plan should minimize the total cost of
Sample Calculation
inspection of all products
N = 2000 ; n = 50
p = 0.01 ; Pa = 0.986
 The plan should make use of other knowledge, 1. The following information must be known for
such as process capability, supplier data and other sampling plan :
information  Acceptable quality level (AQL)
 The plan should have built-in flexibility to reflect  Lot size
changes in lot sizes, quality of product submitted  Type of sampling (single, double, or multiple)
and any other pertinent factors.  Inspection level (usually level II)
 The measurements required by the plan should 2. Knowing the lot size and inspection level, a code
provide information useful in estimating individual letter is obtained from Table.
lot quality and long-run quality 3. Knowing the code letter, AQL and type of
 The plan should be simple to explain and sampling, the sampling plan is read from Table
administer. given below.
Special Inspection Levels General Inspection Levels

Lot or batch size
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 I II III
2–8 A A A A A A B
9 – 15 A A A A A B C
16 – 25 A A B B B C D
26 – 50 A B B C C D E
51 – 90 B B C C C E F
91 – 150 B B C D D F G
151 – 280 B C D E E G H
281 – 500 B C D E F H J
For example, suppose a purchasing agency has Effect of general inspection level:
contracted for a 1.5 percent AQL. Suppose also
that the parts are bought in lots of 1500 pieces. α 1.0
From the table of sample-size code letters, it is Reduced
Probability of Acceptance
found that letter K plans are required for inspection

Normal
level II. Table states the sample size is 125. For
AQL = 1.5, the acceptance number is given as five
and the rejection number as six. This means that Tightened
the entire lot of 1500 articles may be accepted if
five or fewer nonconforming articles are found but
must be rejected if six or more are found. 0 AQL
Per cent nonconforming
Note:
Reduced or Level – I
Normal or Level – II available to the producer and consumer depending
Tightened or Level – III upon the AQL level specified.
1. Normal to Tightened:  Since the AQL does not describe the  risk to the
When normal inspection is in effect, tightened consumer, the MIL – STD – 105 makes it
inspection is instituted when 2 out of 5 consecutive necessary to refer to the operating characteristics
LOTs have been rejected upon original inspection. curves of the various plans to determine what
protection the consumer will have.
2. Tightened to Normal:
Process Capability :
When tightened inspection is in effect, normal
Process capability is the measured, inherent variation
inspection is instituted when 5 consecutive lots are
of the product turned out by a process.
accepted upon original inspection.
 Process: This refers to some unique combination
3. Normal to Reduced: of machine, tools, methods, materials, and people
When normal inspection is in effect, reduced engaged in production. It is often feasible to
inspection is instituted if all of the following separate and quantify the effect of the variables
conditions are satisfied. entering this combination. Such separation can be
(i) Preceding 10 LOTs accepted. illuminating.
(ii) Total nonconforming less than limit number.  Capability : This word is used in the sense of an
(given in table) ability, based on tested performance, to achieve
(iii) Production steady. measurable results.
(iv) Approved by responsible authority.  Measured capability: This refers to the fact that
4. Reduced to normal: process capability is quantified from data which, in
When reduced inspection is in effect, normal turn, are the results of measurement of work
inspection is instituted if all of the following performed by the process.
conditions are satisfied.  Inherent capability : This refers to the product
(i) LOT is rejected. uniformly resulting from a process which is in a
state of statistical control, i.e., in the absence of
(ii) LOT accepted but rejects found to lie time-to-time “drift” or other assignable causes of
between acceptance number and rejection variation. “Instantaneous reproducibility” is a
synonym.
number of plan.
 Product: The measurement is made on the
(ii) Production irregular or other conditions product because it is product variation which is the
warrant. end result.
5. Tightened inspection: Uses of process capability :
On tightened inspection if 10 consecutive LOTs  Predicting the extent of variability that processes
will exhibit. Such capability information, when
are accepted discontinue inspection. provided to designers, provides important
information in setting realistic specification limits.
 Choosing from among competing process that
Military standard 105 (MIL-STD-105) which is most appropriate for the tolerance to be
met. Planning the interrelationship of sequential
 If follows a different technique in that it identifies processes.
sample size and the various levels of protection
 Providing a quantified basis of establishing a If the process is centred at the nominal specification
schedule of periodic process control checks and and follows a normal probability distribution, 99.73
readjustments. percent of production will fall within 3 of the
 Assigning machines to classes of work for which nominal specification.
they are best suited. A measure of the relationship is the capability ratio
 Testing theories of causes of defects during quality Capability ratio,
improvement programs. specificat ion range USL  LSL
 Serving as a basis of specifying the quality
Cp  
Pr ocess capability 6
performance requirements for purchased machines.
Where, USL = upper specification limit,
Process capability =  3 (a total of 6)
LSL = lower specification limit.
Where,  = the standard deviation of the process under
a state of statistical control, i.e., under no drift and no
sudden changes.
Process variability examples :
Total amount Typical actions to be taken
Process Cp outside limits
< 1.0 Heavy process control,

 5.0 %
sorting, rework, etc
1.0 0.3 % Heavy process control,

inspection
Reduced inspection, selected

1.33 64 ppm
use of control charts
Spot checking, selected use of

1.63 1 ppm
control charts
LCL UCL
 Some companies define the process capability ratio The Cpk Capability Index :
as the reciprocal.
 A defect rate of one part per million requires a
capability ratio of about 1.63.
 In all the above cases, the average of the process is
at the midpoint between the specification limits.
 The criticality of many applications and the reality
1.5 +1.5
that the process average will not remain the
midpoint of the specification range suggest that Cp  Process capability, as measured by CP, refers to
should be atleast 1.33. the variation in a process about the average value.
 Dotted curves are off the centring of the process. target value rather than reduction of variability to
 Solid curve is exactly centre meet specifications.
 Cp index measures potential capability, assuming  Study of process potential: In this study, an
that the process average is equal to the midpoint estimate is obtained of what the process can do
of the specification limit and the process is under certain conditions, i.e., variability under
operating in statistical control (solid curve). short-run defined conditions for a process in a
 The average is often not at the midpoint, it is state of statistical control. The Cp index estimates
useful to have a capability index that reflects both the process capability.
variation and the location of the process average.  Study of process performance: In this study, an
Such an index is Cpk (dotted curves). estimate of capability provides a picture of what
 Cpk reflects the current process mean’s proximity the process is doing over an extended period of
to either the upper specification limit (USL) or time. A state of statistical control is also assumed.
lower specification limit (LSL). The Cpk index estimates the capability.
 Cpk is estimated by
 X  LSL USL  X  Practice Questions
Ĉ pk  min  ,
 3 3 
X = central line of the process (centring of the 01. The quality tool used when not all data are
available
process)
(a) Pareto diagram (b) Histogram
 The process aimed at X2 is producing defectives (c) Check sheet (d) Tree diagram
because the aim is off the center, not because of
inherent variation about the aim (Capability). 02. Diagram used to pull ideas from a group of
LCL UCL people and group them to natural relationships is
called
(a) Relations diagram
(b) Affinity diagram
X1 (c) Tree diagram
(d) Program chart
03. Chart used to detect abnormal trends around
X2 control limits is called
(a) Scatter diagram
 If the actual average is equal to the midpoint (b) Pareto diagram
specification range and Cpk = CP. (c) Graph
(d) Control chart
 The higher the value of Cpk, the lower will be the
04. Originator of cause effect diagram
amount of product which is outside specification
(a) Masaski Imai (b) Kaoru Ishikawa
limits. In certifying suppliers, some organizations (c) Sheigo Shingo (d) Taiichi Ohno
use Cpk as one element of certification criteria. 05. Control chart is a
 The capability index can also be calculated (a) Process monitoring tool
around a target value rather than the actual (b) Process control tool
average. This index, called Cpm or the Taguchi (c) Both (a) and (b)
index, focuses on reduction of variation from a (d) None
06. The process mapping is a ______ diagram. 13. Select the correct mean, median and mode for the
(a) Data flow (b) Work flow following sample: 4,5,6,1,1,2,5,7,5
(c) Circular (d) Audit (a) 4, 4, 5 (b) 3, 5, 4
07. Indicate which control chart(s) is the most (c) 4, 3, 5 (d) 4, 5, 5
sensitive for measuring time as data
14. What is the range and standard deviation for the
(a) Np chart
above sample?
(b) X bar R Chart
(a) 2.18, 6 (b) 2.5, 6
(c) P Chart
(c) 3.18, 6 (d) 6, 2.18
(d) Individuals and Moving Range
15. The Cp and Cpk values both turn out to be 1.9.
08. Which one of the characteristics below does not
reflect common cause variation: What does this indicate?
(a) Process is capable
(a) Trend (b) In-Control
(b) Process is capable but not centered
(c) Predictable (d) Stable
(c) Process is highly capable and centered
09. Which Steps should you take when you notice
special causes in a control chart? (d) Process is not capable
(a) Do nothing 16. Statement (I): Jumps in process level is reflected
(b) Continue taking data measurements to in a control chart.
confirm your belief Statement (II): changes in proportions of
(c) Stop and identify the Special Causes
materials or subassemblies coming from different
(d) Stop, identify the special Causes and
eliminate them sources is reflected on mean chart(a) Both
10. Your control chart shows seven consecutive Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
points on one side of the mean. What does this true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation
indicate? of Statement (I)
(a) The process is in-control (within the UCL (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
and LCL) individually true but statement (II) is not the
(b) The process appears to be too table and correct explanation of statement (I)
should be questioned (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
(c) The process needs to be checked for special false
causes (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
(d) The wrong control chart has been selected true
11. The number of data points for a sample is 100. Answers
Indicate the approximate number of classes one
1 D 2 B 3 D 4 B 5 C
needs to use for grouped data?
(a) 10 (b) 5 (c) 20 (d) 100 6 B 7 B 8 A 9 D 10 C
11 A 12 B 13 D 14 D 15 C
12. If the salary of professionals is inversely
proportional to their age, it indicates ________ 16 a
relationship between the two variables?
(a) Positive (b) Negative
(c) No Correlation (d) Linear
Unit
Continuous Improvement Techniques
6
Getting Started With Continuous team then documents the selected process, usually
Improvement by analyzing data sets qualitative goals for
Instilling a philosophy of continuous improvement in improvement; and discusses various ways to
an organization may be a lengthy process, and several achieve the goals. After assessing the benefits and
steps are essential to its eventual success. costs of the alternatives, the team develops a plan
 Train employees in the methods of statistical
with quantifiable measures for improvement.
process control (SPC) and other tools for
improving quality and performance. 2. Do: Data are collected continuously to measure
 Make SPC methods a normal aspect of daily the improvements in the process. Any changes in
operations. the process are documented, and further revisions
 Build work teams and employee involvement. are made as needed.
 Utilize problem-solving tools within the work
teams. 3. Check: The team analyzes the data collected
 Develop a sense of operator ownership in the during the do step to find out how closely the
process. results correspond to the goals set in the plan step.
If major shortcomings exist, the team may have to
List of techniques used for continuous
improvement : re-evaluate the plan or stop the project.
 Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle (Deming wheel) 4. Act: If the results are successful, the team
 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) documents the revised process so that it becomes
 5-S / 5 QE the standard procedure for all who may use it. The
 Zero Defects team may then instruct other employees in the use
 Six Sigma
of the revised process.
 Quality Circle
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) :
 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
 Kaizen Quality Function Development (QFD) is a means of
 Benchmarking translating customer requirements into the appropriate
 SMED (single minute exchange of dies) technical requirements for each stage of product or
service development and production.
Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle (Deming Wheel) :
This approach seeks answers to the following six
Plan
questions.
1. Voice of the customer.
Do What do our customers need and want?
Act
2. Competitive Analysis.
In terms of our customers, how well are we doing
Check relative to our competitors?
1. Plan: The team selects a process (e.g., method, 3. Voice of the Engineer.
machine or policy) that needs improvement. The What technical measures relate to our customers’
needs?
VANI Publications Continuous Improvement Techniques
4. Correlations. Seiton Neatness Set in Simplifyin
What are the relationships between the voice of Order g access
the customer and the voice of the engineer? Seiso Cleaning Shine Sweeping
5. Technical Comparison. Seiketsu Standardizatio Standardize Standardiz
How does our product or service performance n e
compare to that of our competition? Shitsuke Discipline Sustain Self-
Discipline
6. Trade-Offs.
What are the potential technical trade-offs? The QE (5S) are defined with examples as follows:
 The competitive analysis provides a place to start
1. SORT
looking for ways to gain a competitive advantage.
 To sort and systematically discard items that are
 Then the relationships between customer needs and
not needed in the workplace.
engineering attributes need to be specified.
 The QFD approach provides a way to set targets
and debate their effects on product quality. Red Tag Technique:
Engineering uses the data to focus on significant  Red Tags are visual signal that something may
product design features. Marketing uses this input not belong in your target area.
for determining marketing strategies.
2. SET IN ORDER
 An operation uses the information to identify the
 To arrange necessary items in a neat and
process that is crucial to improving product quality
systematic manner so that they can be easily
as perceived by the customer. As a result, QFD
retrieved for use and to return after use.
encourages inter functional communication for
3. SHINE
purpose of improving the quality of products and
 To clean and inspect the workplace thoroughly
services.
so that there is no dirt on the floor, machines
5-S / 5 QE
and equipments.
The Process :
 Means shiny clean. Cleanliness is crucial for
 QE (5S) is a management tool from Japan, that the acceptance of 5S.
focuses on establishing a quality environment in
There are two goals with Shine:
the organization, ensuring adherence to standards
i) The first is to agree on what cleaning standard
and in the process, fosters the spirit of continual
you mutually think is right.
improvement.
ii) The second goal is to document what you need
 It focuses on five management techniques that are
to do to get there.
the foundation for any organization’s competitive
4. STANDARDIZE :
initiative.
 To maintain a high standard of workplace
Japanes Translation Conversio Others organization by keeping everything clean and
e n orderly at all times.
Seiri Organization Sort Sorting  Make up the rules and follow them.
5. SUSTAIN 2. Right time first. Quality should be taken care of at
 To train people to practice the QE (5S) system the very first go rather than solving problems at a
continuously so that it becomes habitual and later stage.
ingrained in the culture of the organization. 3. Quality here is measured in financial terms. One
 Sustain is discipline and discipline should be needs to judge waste, production and revenue in
sustained. Discipline is what will change the terms of money.
future. Even if your schedules are world class, 4. Performance should be judged as per zero defects
it is useless if you do not follow them. theory, i.e. near to perfection. Just being good is
QE is NOT…. not good enough.
a) A housekeeping exercise Six Sigma ( 6 )
b) A way to blame people for defects  Six Sigma's aim is to eliminate waste and
c) A way to force people to do their work. inefficiency, thereby increasing customer
d) A way to make people work harder and faster satisfaction by delivering what the customer is
e) A monthly or yearly flavour e.g. Quality expecting.
Month.  Six Sigma follows a structured methodology, and
The Benefits are ……. has defined roles for the participants.
 Workplace becomes cleaner and better  Six Sigma is a data driven methodology, and
organized. requires accurate data collection for the processes
 Lead-time reduced. being analyzed.
 Changeover time reduced by streamlining  Six Sigma is about putting results on Financial
operations. Statements.
 Breakdowns and minor stops eliminated on  Six Sigma is a business-driven, multi-
production lines. dimensional structured approach for:
o Improving Processes
ZERO DEFECTS – a term coined by Mr. Philip o Lowering Defects
Crosby. Six Sigma adopting it as one of the major o Reducing process variability o Reducing
theories. The concept has also faced a lot of criticism. costs
Many say that there cannot be a state of zero defects o Increasing customer satisfaction
while others have been trying to prove them wrong. o Increased profits
Zero defects are not possible. Zero defects concept is a The word Sigma is a statistical term that measures how
concept of quest for perfection in order to improve far a given process deviates from perfection.
quality. Zero defects theory also closely connects with The central idea behind Six Sigma: If you can measure
“right first time” phrase. how many "defects" you have in a process, you can
Zero defects theory is based on four elements for systematically figure out how to eliminate them and
implementation in real projects. get as close to "zero defects" as possible and
1. Quality is a state of assurance to requirements. specifically it means a failure rate of 3.4 parts per
Therefore, zero defects in project means fulfilling million or 99.9997% perfect.
requirement at that point of time.
Key Concepts of Six Sigma Green Belt
At its core, Six Sigma revolves around a few key A Green Belt is less experienced than a Black Belt but
concepts. is cast in a key role within the team.
 Critical to Quality: Attributes most important to The black belt holder is usually given the role of a
the customer. team leader, the person who is responsible for
 Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer execution and scheduling.
wants. Master Black Belt
 Process Capability: What your process can The Master Black Belt is available to answer
deliver. procedural questions and to resolve the technical issues
 Variation: What the customer sees and feels. that come up.
 Stable Operations: Ensuring consistent, Executive leader must be knowledgeable in the six
predictable processes to improve what the sigma process and assign valued, committed
customer sees and feels. individuals into the champion/ sponsor positions.
 Design for Six Sigma: Designing to meet
Champion /Sponsor decides what needs to be done
customer needs and process capability.
and provides the assistance to the black belts both with
 Our Customers Feel the Variance, Not the Mean.
monetary resources as well as dedicated staff.
So Six Sigma focuses first on reducing process
variation and then on improving the process Six Sigma has Two Key Methodologies :
capability. There is one more methodology called DFSS - Design
Benefits of Six Sigma for Six Sigma. DFSS is a data-driven quality strategy
Six Sigma offers six major benefits that attract for designing or redesigning a product or service from
companies: the ground up.
 Generates sustained success Sometimes a DMAIC project may turn into a DFSS
 Sets a performance goal for everyone project because the process in question requires
complete redesign to bring about the desired degree of
 Enhances value to customers
improvement.
 Accelerates the rate of improvement
 Promotes learning and cross-pollination DMAIC: It refers to a data-driven quality strategy for
 Executes strategic change improving processes. This methodology is used to
improve an existing business process.
There are three key elements of Six Sigma Process
This methodology consists of the following five steps.
Improvement:
Define Measure  Analyze  Improve  Control
 Customers
 Define: Define the problem or project goal that
 Processes
needs to be addressed.
 Employees
 Measure: Measure the problem and process from
Black Belt
which it was produced.
The individual designated as a Black Belt has
 Analyze: Analyze data and process to determine
completed a thorough internal training program and
root cause of defects and opportunities.
has the experience of working on several projects.
 Improve: Improve the process by finding solutions
to fix, diminish, and prevent future problems. Define
 Control: Implement, control, and sustain the
improvement solutions to keep the process on the Verify Six sigma Measure
new course. DMADV
Define
Design Analyse
Control Six sigma Measure

DMAIC DFSS Methodology :
DFSS is a separate and emerging discipline related to
Six Sigma quality processes. This is a systematic
Improve Analyse methodology utilizing tools, training, and
measurements to enable us to design products and
DMADV: It refers to a data-driven quality strategy for processes that meet customer expectations and can be
designing products and processes. This methodology is produced at Six Sigma Quality levels.
used to create new product designs or process designs This methodology can have the following five steps.
in such a way that it results in a more predictable, Define  Identify  Design  Optimize  Verify
mature and defect free performance.  Define: Define what the customers want, or what
This methodology consists of five steps: they do not want.
Define  Measure Analyze Design  Verify  Identify: Identify the customer and the project.
 Define: Define the Problem or Project Goal that  Design: Design a process that meets customers’
needs to be addressed. needs.
 Measure: Measure and determine customers’  Optimize: Determine process capability and
needs and specifications. optimize the design.
 Analyze: Analyze the process to meet the  Verify: Test, verify, and validate the design.
customer needs.
 Design: Design a process that will meet customers’
needs.
 Verify: Verify the design performance and ability
to meet customer needs.
Fraction of area left of LSL: (x)0.40 Fraction of area right of USL:
Original 9.866 10–10
+15shift: 3.191  10–14 Original 9.866 10–10
–1.5shift: 3.398  10–6 +15shift: 3.398  10–6
–1.5shift: 3.191  10–14
0.30
Total fraction beyond 6
Original 1.973 10–9
0.20 +15shift: 3.398  10–6
–1.5shift: 3.398  10–6
LSL 0.10 USL

–=–1 =0
–=–2.5 =–1.5 +=–0.5 –=0.5 =1.5 +=2.5
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
Graph of the normal distribution, which underlies the statistical assumptions of the Six Sigma model. The Greek
letter σ (sigma) marks the distance on the horizontal axis between the mean, µ, and the curve's inflection point. The
greater this distance, the greater is the spread of values encountered. For the dotted curve shown above, µ = 0 and σ
= 1. The upper and lower specification limits (USL and LSL, respectively) are at a distance of 6σ from the mean.
Because of the properties of the normal distribution, values lying that far away from the mean are extremely
unlikely. Even if the mean were to move right or left by 1.5σ at some point in the future (1.5 sigma shift, left and
right curve), there is still a good safety cushion. This is why Six Sigma aims to have processes where the mean is at
least 6σ away from the nearest specification limit.
Process yield at various sigma values:
Sigma % of product meeting Number of nonconformities ppm assuming Short- Long-

requirements per million products 1.5 sigma drift term Cpk term Cpk
1 68.26 317400 697672.15 0.33 −0.17
2 95.45 45500 308770.21 0.67 0.17
3 99.73 2700 66810.63 1.00 0.5
4 99.9937 63 6209.70 1.33 0.83
5 99.999943 0.57 232.67 1.67 1.17
6 99.9999998 0.002 3.4 2.00 1.5
Sigma process will have long term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma
performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that six sigma is a confidence trick.
QUALITY CIRCLE philosophy, which provides self motivation and

Definition: Quality Circle is a small group of 6 to 12 improves work environment. It represents a philosophy
employee doing similar work who voluntarily meet of managing people specially those at the grass root
together on a regular basis to identify improvements in level.
their respective work areas. Concept : The concept of Quality Circle is primarily
based upon recognition of value of the worker as a
Philosophy: Quality Circle is a people – building
human being, as someone who willingly put efforts to
improve the job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience,  A circle, usually consisting of 6-8 members, from
attitude and feelings. the same section.
 Membership of a Quality Circle is voluntary.
Objective: The objectives of Quality Circles are multi-
faced – Change in attitude; self development;  Circle members should meet regularly, ideally
development of team spirit, improvement in once a week, in particular place also in particular
organizational culture.
time.
Organisational Structure:  Circle members select a name for their circle in
The basic structure of a Quality Circle is depicted in the first meeting and elect a leader to conduct the
figure. meetings.
 Members are specially trained in problem solving
TOP and analysis techniques in order to play their role
MANAGEMENT
STEERING effectively.
COMMITTEE
 Circle works on a systematic basis to identify and
FACILITATOR
solve work – related problems for improving
LEADER
MEMBERS quality and productivity not just discussing them.
NON MEMBERS  The management must ensure that solutions are
implemented quickly once they have been
Fig: Organizational Structure of Quality Circle
accepted
Basic Problem Solving Techniques  The management must give appropriate and
The following techniques are most commonly used to proper recognition to solution
analyze and solve work related problems. Conclusion:
 Brain storming. QC followed some ethics, those are:
 Pareto Diagrams.  Criticise ideas, not persons.
 Ishikawa diagram (Fishbone diagram).  The only stupid question is the one that is not
 Cause & Effect Analysis. asked.
 Data Collection.  Everyone in the team is responsible for the team’s
 Data Analysis. progress.
 Be open to other’s ideas.
The tools used for data analysis are:
 Pay, terms of employment and other negotiable
 Tables.
items are excluded.
 Bar Charts.
 Histograms. Failure Mode And Effects Analysis
 Circle graphs.
(Fmea)
 Line graphs.
Definition:
 Scatter grams.
Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is a method
 Control Charts.
designed to :
Key Characteristics of quality circle:  Identify and fully understand potential failure
modes and their causes, and the effects of failure
on the system or end users, for a given product or  interactions between subsystems or with the
process. surrounding environment
 Assess the risk associated with the identified  single-point failures (where a single
failure modes, effects and causes, and prioritize component failure can result in complete
issues for corrective action. failure of the entire system)
 Identify and carry out corrective actions to  functions and relationships that are unique to
address the most serious concerns. the system as a whole (i.e., do not exist at
lower levels) and could cause the overall
An FMEA is an engineering analysis : system not to work as intended
 Done by a cross-functional team of subject matter  human interactions and service
experts.
 That thoroughly analyses product designs or (ii) Design FMEA
manufacturing processes. Analysis is at the subsystem level (made up of
 Finds and corrects weaknesses before the product various components) or component level.
The Focus is on product design-related
gets into the hands of the customer.
deficiencies, with emphasis on
Primary objective of FMEA :  improving the design
The primary objective of an FMEA is to improve the  ensuring product operation is safe and reliable
design during the useful life of the equipment.
 For system FMEAs, the objective is to improve  interfaces between adjacent components.
the design of the system
 For design FMEAs, the objective is to improve (iii) Process FMEA
the design of the subsystem or component. Analysis is at the manufacturing/assembly process
 For process FMEAs, the objective is to improve level.
the design of the manufacturing process. The Focus is on manufacturing related
The three most common types of FMEAs are: deficiencies, with emphasis on
(i) System FMEA  Improving the manufacturing process
(ii) Design FMEA  ensuring the product is built to design
(iii) Process FMEA requirements in a safe manner, with minimal
downtime, scrap and rework.
(i) System FMEA
 manufacturing and assembly operations,
Analysis is at highest-level analysis of an entire
shipping, incoming parts, transporting of
system, made up of various subsystems.
materials, storage, conveyors, tool
The focus is on system-related deficiencies,
maintenance, and labeling.
including
Application of the Design FMEA
 system safety and system integration
As mentioned previously, there is not one single
 interfaces between subsystems or with other
FMEA method.
systems
The following ten steps provide a basic approach that
can be followed in order to conduct a basic FMEA.
Step 1: Identify components and associated functions Elements of Kaizen
Step 2: Identify failure modes  TPM
 Team work
Step 3: Identify effects of the Failure Mode
 Quality circles
Step 4: Determine severity of the Failure mode
 Automation
Step 5: Identify cause(s) of the Failure mode  Labour-man cooperation
Step 6: Determine Probability of occurrence  JIT
 Customer focus
Step 7: Identify Controls
Out of this Foundation, Three Key Factors
Step8: Determine effectiveness of current controls
Arise
Step 9: Calculate Risk Priority Number (RPN)  Elimination of waste (muda)
The probability of detection (effectiveness of  The Kaizen five - S framework
detection controls) (RPN = S  O  D).  Standardization
S = severity rating, WASTE
O = Probability of Occurrence Ratings ,  Overproduction
D = Control Effectiveness Ratings  Overproduction is to manufacture an item before it
In general, the failure modes that have the is actually required.
greatest RPN receive priority for corrective  Just in Time Vs Just in Case
action.
Step 10: Determine actions to reduce risk of failure Excessive lead times, results in high storage costs, and
mode makes it difficult to detect defects
The concept is to schedule and produce only what can
KAIZEN be immediately sold / shipped and improve machine
What does Kaizen mean? changeover/set-up capability.
= KAI = CHANGE Waiting

 Whenever goods are not moving or being
= ZEN = GOOD processed, the waste of waiting occurs.
(FOR THE BETTER)
 Material flow is poor, production runs are too long,
and distances between work centers
= KAIZEN
 Linking processes together so that one feeds
= CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT
directly into the next can dramatically reduce
waiting.
Kaizen
Transporting
 Use Small Teams to Optimize Process
 Transporting product between processes is a cost
Performance by Implementing Incrementing
incursion which adds no value to the product
Incremental Change.
 Excessive movement and handling cause damage
 Apply Intellectual Capital of Team Members
and are an opportunity for quality to deteriorate
Intimate with Process
and it is often hard to determine which processes GEMBAKAIZEN:
should be next to each other.  GEMBA means the place where the products are
 Mapping product flows can make this easier to made, so GEMBAKAIZEN is KAIZEN activities
visualize. that take place in GEMBA.
Inappropriate Processing  GEMBAKAIZEN is to make continuous
 “Using a sledgehammer to crack a nut” improvement at the real place, where the action is
 Many organizations use expensive high precision going on, and that can make your organization
equipment where simpler tools would be sufficient. better.
Unnecessary Inventory Kaizen Blitz

 Work in Progress (WIP), raw materials and A Kaizen Blitz, or rapid improvement, is a focused
finished product are a direct result of activity on a particular process or activity. The basic
overproduction and waiting and this also results in concept is to identify and quickly remove waste.
no income.
Mini Kaizen:
 Excess inventory tends to hide problems on the
It is part of corporate culture. It requires both
plant floor, which must be identified and resolved
conscious and sub-conscious thinking about
in order to improve operating performance.
improvements day by ay and minute by minute on the
 Excess inventory increases lead times, consumes
part of all employees.
productive floor space, delays the identification of
It also requires that these same employees possess the
problems, and inhibits communication.
kills for this type of thinking.
Unnecessary / Excess Motion
Benefits of Kaizen
 This waste is related to ergonomics and is seen in
 Realization of immediate results
all instances of bending, stretching, walking,
lifting, and reaching. These are also health and  Involvement of the workforce
safety issues, which in today’s litigious society are  Incorporation of visual action oriented tasks
becoming more of a problem for organizations.  Once the concept is learned by employees of the
company, this can be an ongoing exercise
Defects  It fosters communication amongst employees
 Quality defects resulting in rework or scrap are a  This involves creative ideas which cost less to the
tremendous cost to organizations. Associated costs organization
include quarantining inventory, re-inspecting,  Employees think from business perspective
rescheduling, and capacity loss.  It will facilitate team concept within the
 In many organizations the total cost of defects is organization
often a significant percentage of total
Benchmarking :
manufacturing cost.
A measurement of the quality of an organization's
 Through employee involvement and Continuous
policies, products, programs, strategies, etc., and their
Process Improvement (CPI), there is a huge
comparison with standard measurements, or similar
opportunity to reduce defects at many facilities.
measurements of its peers.
Objectives of benchmarking:  Standardize improvement for maintenance of
 To determine what and where improvements are critical set-up parameters.
called for  Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) is a
 To analyze how other organizations achieve their philosophy where the target is to reduce all setups
high performance levels to less than ten minutes.
 To use this information to improve performance.  SMED helps achieve lower costs, greater
Types of Benchmarking flexibility, and higher throughput.
 Internal benchmarking  Single Minute Means necessary setup time is
 Benchmarking against the competition counted on a single digit.

 The analysis and implementing of equipment and
 Benchmarking outside the industry
process changes to reduce the setup and
 Functional Benchmarking
changeover time of changing tools in and out of
 Business process benchmarking
machines.
Three Reasons for Benchmarking Competition
 Die exchange is the generic term for removing a
 Stay in business
drill, cutter, punch, mold or die from a machine &
 Delight the customer
replacing it with another type on machines that are
 Become the world-class leader
capable of producing more than one part.
Process of Benchmarking : Four Principles by Shingo for Achieving SMED

 Prepare to benchmark  No matter what the current set-up time may be
 Discover fact (hours, days, weeks, etc.) it is possible to reduce
 Take actions: the set-up time to a single digit value in minutes,
 Monitor and recalibrate i.e. less than ten minutes.
 The reduction in set-up time should be done in
Elements of Benchmarking :
stages and not in one go.
 Direct competitor
 Only a small amount of money should be spent for
 Admired company in the same industry
reducing set-up time at each state.
 Admired company in any industry
 Only through participation of all, can SMED be
 Best of breed on different aspects
attainable.
 Chasing multiple competitors
SMED Process :
SMED (Single Minute Exchange of Dies)  Establish the current changeover time
Why SMED :  Identify all the current tasks being done
 To eliminate the wastes that result from  Identify tasks that can be eliminated
“uncontrolled” processes increasing inventories  Distinguish between internal and external tasks
 Eliminates all unnecessary tasks
and lead times
 Externalise all task that can be external
 To gain control on equipment, material &
 Streamline all internal tasks
inventory
 Establish new changeover time.
 Apply control techniques to eliminate erosion of
improvements. Five Steps to Quick Changeover
(i) Observe the current process
(ii) Differentiate internal & external target value wins high praise from the customer and
(iii) Convert internal into external yields no loss.
(iv) Streamline internal operations
Small deviations yield small losses. However, the
(v) Streamline external operations
losses increase in a nonlinear relationship (say,
Current Changeover Time
quadratic) with larger deviations from the target.
CHANGEOVER Any deviation from the customer target will not yield
the fullest possible customer satisfaction. Losses may
Internal External arise because of such problems as lost opportunities,
No
cost warranty costs, customer complaint costs, and other
tangible and intangible costs.
Low
There is even a loss associated with customer not
cost
praising the product even though they are not unhappy
with it. It is important to get people to praise the
product or service because this affects public
perception of the product and hence of the company.
New effective
changeover time L0 : Old measure of loss function
L1 : New measure of loss function
P : Process performance distribution
Reducing set-up time
 Preset desired settings
P
Loss
 Use quick fasteners

 Use locator pins
 Prevent misalignments L1
 Eliminate tools L0
L0
 Make movements easier L0
Benefits of SMED Lower Customer Upper

 Stockless production which drives capital turnover specification target value specification
rates, limit limit
 Reduction in footprint of processes with reduced Fig: Comparison of old and new
inventory freeing floor space measure of loss function
 Productivity increases or reduced production time
 Elimination of unusable stock from model
Practice Questions
changeovers and demand estimate errors.
 Goods are not lost through deterioration 01. Seiri means
 Ability to mix production gives flexibility
(a) Sustain (b) Standardization
 New attitudes on controllability of work process
(c) Sort (d) Set in order
amongst staff.
02. Seiso means
Variability Reduction and Loss Function
(a) Set in order (b) Shine
(Taguchi)
Following the course set by Deming, Genichi Taguchi (c) Standardization (d) Set in order
of Japan formalized certain loss functions. His 03. Seiton means
approach on the belief that economic loss accrues with (a) Set in order (b) Shine
any deviation from the target value. Achieving the
(c) Sustain (d) Sort
04. Set in Order means 09. Which Role is not traditionally performed by a
(a) Seiton (b) Seiri Green Belt?
(c) Seiso (d) Seiketsu (a) Data Gathering
(b) Analysis
05. Shine means (c) Lead Small Projects
(a) Shitsuke (b) Seiketsu (d) Coach and mentor other Six Sigma
(c) Seiketsu (d) Seiso Practitioners
06. Kaizen concept of continuous improvement is
given by 10. Arrange the Six Sigma Process improvement
(a) Masaaki Imai (b) Kaoru Ishikawa approach in the correct sequence:
(c) Sheigo Shingo (d) Taiichi Ohno 1. Measure 2. Define
3. Control 4. Improve
07. Which of the following statements is/are false? 5. Analyze
1. Fault tree analysis method is used to (a) 2, 5, 1, 4, 3 (b) 1, 2, 5, 4, 3
determine reliability of product (c) 3, 2, 1, 5, 1 (d) 2, 1, 5, 4, 3
2. The goal of Six Sigma is to reduce number of
defects to 2.4 parts per billion 11. A Process is operating at 6 Sigma :
3. Six Sigma is represented by normal (a) We can expect 3.2 defects per million
opportunities
distribution curve
(b) It has a yield of 99.997%
4. Poka Yoke is a policy which prevents
(c) We can expect 3.4 defects per million
occurrence of human errors
opportunities
The right statements are
(d) It has a yield of 99.9967%
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) Only 2 12. LEAN manufacturing is
(a) FAD
08. Six Sigma can best be defined as: (b) Method to reduce labor
(a) A management methodology that uses only (c) Way to improve customer value
(d) Efficiency improvement technique
statistical tools to improve the customer
experience.
13. Father of the just-in-time and Kanban system of
(b) A customer-focused problem solving manufacturing
methodology that uses powerful statistical (a) Taiichi Ohno (b) W.Edward Deming
tools to reduce variation and improve (c) Masaaki Imai (d) Walter Shewart
processes.
(c) A management methodology that is primarily 14. One-piece flow means:
focused on achieving financial results. (a) Batch
(d) A customer-focused problem solving (b) Larger tot size
methodology used exclusively within the (c) One piece moves to the next operation
manufacturing sector (d) Small lot size
15. Customer value is defined as
1. Cost 2. Delivery Answers
3. Reliability 4. Response
The right statements are 1 C 2 B 3 A 4 A 5 D
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
6 A 7 D 8 B 9 D 10 D
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
11 C 12 C 13 A 14 C 15 D
16. Cell is
(a) an amoeba 16 B 17 D 18 A 19 A 20 B
(b) a layout that moves sequential operation
close together
(c) a unit measure
(d) management tool to make workers miserable
17. The five W’s of Root cause analysis are

(a) who, what, where, when, why
(b) what, where, when, who, why
(c) who, who, who, who
(d) why, why, why, why, why
18. Who is attributed for development of SMED?
(a) Sheigo Shingo (b) Goldratt
(c) Masaaki Imai (d) Taiichi Ohno
19. What setup time does SMED aims for?

(a) less than 10 min (b) less than one hour
(c) half a shift (d) full shift
20. Statement (I): Kaizen literally means “change”
(Kai) to become “Good” (zen).
Statement (II): It is a culture of sustained
continuous improvement focusing on eliminating
waste in all systems and processes of an
organization. The Kaizen strategy begins and
ends with people.
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but statement (II) is not the
correct explanation of statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
true
Unit
7 Maintenance
Due to sudden breakdown of machine tools, there is  Maintenance logs that record both the preventive
substantial loss of production due to stoppage of the and corrective maintenance work carried out.
production line as well as rejection of the products.
There are Several Type of Maintenance :
Hence productive maintenance plays a important role
Planned maintenance is maintenance carried out
in improving productivity.
with forethought as to what is to be checked, adjusted,
Effects of Poor Maintenance replaced, etc.
 It is expensive and harmful.
Preventive maintenance is maintenance carried out
 Fixing major machine failures is costlier than the
at predetermined intervals to reduce the probability of
cost of preventive maintenance.
failure or performance degradation.
 When machines are being repaired, the workers are
idle. Corrective maintenance is maintenance carried out
 Production reliability is lost due to machine after a failure has occurred and is intended to restore an
breakdowns, leading to product shortages and late item to a state in which it can perform its required
deliveries. function
 Breakdown wastes capacity. Predictive maintenance is part of planned

 Production is lost due to unplanned shut-downs as preventive maintenance. In order to determine the
a result of machine failures. frequency of checks you need to predict when failure
 Inadequately maintained machines may produce may occur. An example of predictive maintenance is
defective parts. vibration analysis. Sensors can be installed to monitor
vibration and thus give a signal when normal vibration
Maintenance of equipment
levels have been exceeded. This can signal tool wear
 A list of the equipment upon which process
and wear in other parts of the machine in advance of
capability depends is to be identified
the stage where nonconforming product will be
 Specifying maintenance tasks and their frequency
generated.
 A maintenance programme which schedules each
of the maintenance tasks on a calendar year is to be Reactive maintenance is basically the “run it till it
decided breaks” maintenance mode. No actions or efforts are
taken to maintain the equipment as the designer
 Procedures defining how specific maintenance
originally intended to ensure design life is reached.
tasks are to be conducted
 Procedures governing the decommissioning of Breakdown: Failure resulting in the non-availability
plant prior to planned maintenance of an item.
 Procedures governing the commissioning of plant
Downtime: The period of time during which an item
following planned maintenance
is not in a condition to perform its intended function.
 Procedures dealing with the actions required in the
event of equipment malfunction
VANI Publications Maintenance
Emergency Maintenance: Maintenance which is machine’s capability will result in the machine
necessary to put in hand immediately to avoid serious breakdown
consequences. Tero-technology: It is a combination of
History Cards: Record of usages, events and actions management, financial engineering and other practices
as appropriate relating to a particular item. applied to physical assets in pursuit of economic life-
cycle costs: it is concerned with the specification and
Maintenance: A combination of any actions carried
design for reliability and maintainability of all assets,
out to retain an item in, or restore it to, an acceptable
with their installation, commissioning maintenance
condition.
modification and replacement, and with feedback of
Maintenance Programme: A list allocating information of design, performance and costs.
specific maintenance to a specific period.
Maintenance Performance Indices:
Maintenance Planning: Deciding in advance the (i) Maintenance productivity index
jobs, methods, materials, tools, machines, labour, The output of product
timing and time required. =
The cos t of maint enance effort
Maintenance Schedule: A comprehensive list of (ii) Maintenance cost index
maintenance and its incidence.
Maintenance cos t
=  100
Overhaul: A comprehensive examination and Capital cos t
restoration of an item, or major part thereof, to an Downtime hours
acceptable condition.
(iii) Downtime index =  100
Pr oduction hours
Running Maintenance: Maintenance which can be (iv) Waste index
carried out while the item is in service. Quantity of waste produced
=  100
Shutdown Maintenance: Maintenance which can Qunatity of total output
only be carried out when the item is out of service. (v) Breakdown Maintenance Index
Total hours spent on breakdown
Causes of Machine Failures =  100
Total man hours available
The causes of machine failures are enumerated below:
(vi) Level of Maintenance
 Inadequate and irregular preventive maintenance.
Total hours spent on scheduled maintenance
 Overusing and operating machine at excessive =  100
Total man hours available
speeds.
(vii) Inspection of effectiveness
 Improper cleaning of the machines leads to
Standard minutes of work saved on
accumulation of dirt, oil, etc., on the machine parts improved inspection
=
resulting in chemical changes causing erosion and Total s tandard minutes of inspection in carried out
corrosion of the machine part. (viii) Technical Competence Ratio

 Incorrect machine set-up for operation by loading Annualsaving in labour and materialcos ts resulting
from additions or modifications made during the year
with parts beyond the machine’s capacity and =
Total annual maintenance cos t
taking cuts or performing an operation beyond the
Considerable capital savings can be effected by (iv) Errors in Assembly
utilizing work study and value engineering (v) Improper Service Conditions
techniques at the design stage. (vi) Inadequate Maintenance
(ix) Overtime hours Ratio Life Characteristic Pattern :

Overtime hours worked (i) Early Failures
=
Total maint enance man hours (ii) Service Failures
Overtime hours worked is indicative of the failure (iii) Wear-out Failures
of planning. Emergencies should be reduced to a
bare minimum.
RELIABILITY Early
Service Normal wear
Of Failures
Failures
Frequency
“Reliability is the probability of an item performing its Failures out failures
intended function over a given period of time under the
operating conditions encountered”.
It should be observed that the above definition stresses Time
four significant elements, namely: Life Characteristic Curve
1. Probability
2. Intended Function Modes of Failures :
3. Time (i) Catastrophic Failures
4. Operating Conditions (ii) Degradation (Creeping) Failures
(iii) Independent Failures
Failure: (iv) Secondary Failures
An item is considered to have failed under one of three
Reliability:
conditions:
(i) When it becomes completely inoperable, Total number tested = N,
(ii) When it is still operable but is no longer able to No. survived = n,
perform its intended function satisfactorily, No. failed after time ‘t’ = m
(iii) When serious deterioration has made it unreliable R(t) = n / N = n / (n + m)
or unsafe for continued use, thus necessitating its = Reliability after time ‘t’.
immediate removal from service for repair or
F(t) = m / N = m / (m + n)
replacement.
= Failure after time ‘t’.
Causes of Failures:
R(t) + F(t) = 1
(i) Deficiencies in Design:
(a) Engineering efforts and changes in design Determining failure rates:
(b) Upgrading of a part The failure rate (FR) represents (I) a percentage of
(c) Insufficient design criteria failure among the total number of products tested or (2)
(ii) Deficiencies in Material a number of failure per given operating time
(iii) Deficiencies in Processing
number of failures Reliability Improvement:
FR % 
number tested  Improve the design of components
number of failure F  Simplify the design of the system
FR n  
operating time TT  NOT  Improve production techniques
Where F = number of failures  Improve components and the system
TT = total time  Test components and the system
NOT = non-operating time
 Install parallel systems
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): The time
 Perform periodic preventive maintenance
that elapses between one failure and another. This is  Derate components and /or the system
for items which can be repaired,
Application of Weibull Distribution:
1 TT  NOT
m  In 1951, Weibull suggested a simple empirical
 F
expression which represents a great variety of actual
Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) : This is for items
data. The Weibull cumulative distribution function is a
which cannot be repaired. It is the time to failure of the
three parameter distribution function
component. 
 1  t 
t   
1 n f(t) =   e   
t
MTTF    t i   
 n  i 1
Where  = scale parameter, ( > 0)
It is time to failure of the ith component n is the number
 = shape parameter, ( > 0)
of components considered.
 = location parameter ( to +)
Note: MTTF is used where the item is non-repairable,
e.g., fuses, missiles. The various functions are given as :
In useful life the failure rate is constant and the R(t) = Reliability = exp{ [- (t - ) / ]}
probability distribution function is  t 

 
f(s) = eS Ft   Failure Rate  1  e   
t  ; ,   0
t
Z(t) = Failure rate = ( / ) [(t - ) / ]-1
R(t) = 1 e S ds 0 The constants appearing in these expressions
-t -t/m
Reliability after time ‘t’ = R(t) = e = e represent:
m = MTBF = Mean Time between failures.
 = Locating constant defining the starting point or
origin of the distribution. ‘’ can be thought as a
guarantee period in which no failures can occur
Reliability R(t)
or it can be thought of as the minimum life.

 = Scaling constant, stretching the distribution along
the time axis.
 = Shape parameter which decides the shape or
pattern of the failure.
Operating time
Reliability curve
When dealing with failure rates, the Weibull shape Reliability of Components in Parallel:
parameter ‘’, is of special importance as it describes
R1
the mode of failure. For example, if
 < 1, it indicates that the failure rate is a decreasing R2

function of time and is characterised as an early
For parallel circuits the reliability,
failure phase.
Rp = 1(1R1)(1R2)
 = 1, it means the failure rate is constant over time,
as is the case for exponential distribution. This 1 1 1
MTTF = 1   .... . 
indicates the chance failure phase.  2 n
 > 1, it means that the failure rate is increasing  is a constant failure rate of each unit in the
parallel system.
with time and can be characterised as the wear-
out phase. Reliability of Stand by System:
=3.44, the Weibull distribution becomes normal
R
distribution.
When t -  =  in R(t) = Reliability = exp{ [- (t - R
 -(1) -1
) / ] }, then R(t) = e = e = 0.3678 and
F(t) = 1 – R(t) = 0.6322. Stand by Reliability = Rstand by = R(1lnR)
Thus, if the t –  = , then 63.22% of the n 1

MTTF =
population can be expected to fail whatever value 
Where n = No. of stand by systems.
is assigned to ‘’ . For this reason, it is often
referred to as the characteristic life. Availability :
Reliability of Component in Series: Availability has been defined as the probability that a
The reliability of components in series, Rs, is product, when used under given conditions, will
simply the multiplicative sum of the individual perform satisfactorily when called upon. Availability
component reliabilities. considers the operating time of the product and the
time required for repairs. Idle time, during which the
product is not needed, is excluded.
R1 R2 R3 Availability is calculated as the ratio of operating time
to operating time plus downtime. However, downtime
(Reliability of series system) Rs = R1R2. . . .Rn
can be viewed in two ways.
1
MTTF = n 1. Total Downtime:
 i
i 1
This includes the active repair (diagnosis and
repair time), preventive maintenance time and
1
= logistics time (time spent waiting for personnel,
n
spare parts, etc.). When total downtime is used, the
Where n is number of units,  is constant failure
resulting ratio is called operational availability
rate of each unit.
(A0).
2. Active Repair Time:  The expensive items may be considered
The resulting ratio is called intrinsic availability individually to decide whether we should
(Ai). Under certain conditions, availability can be replace now or, if not, when it should be
calculated as reconsidered for replacement.
MTBF  It may be decided whether we should replace
A0 
MTBF  MDT by the same type of item or by different type
MTBF (latest model) of item.
and A i 
MTBF  MTTR
Failure Mechanism of Items:
Where MTBF = mean time between failures The term ‘failure’ has a wider meaning in business
MDT = mean downtime
than what it has in our daily life. There are two kinds
MTTR = mean time to repair
of failure.
This is known as the steady-state formula for
(1) Gradual Failure: The mechanism under this
availability.
category is progressive. That is, as the life of an
The downtime or repair-time distribution is
item increases, its efficiency deteriorates, causing:
exponential.
 Increased expenditure for operating costs,
Replacement
 Decreased productivity of the equipments,
The Replacement problem arises because of the
 Decrease in the value of the equipment, i.e.,
following factors:
the resale of saving value decreases.
 The old item has become in worse condition
and work badly or requires expensive For Example, mechanical items like pistons,
maintenance. bearings, rings etc. Another example is
 The old item has failed due to accident or ‘Automobile tyres’.
otherwise and does not work at all, or the old
(2) Sudden Failure: This type of failure is applicable
item is expected to fail shortly.
to those items that do not deteriorate markedly
 A better or more efficient design of machine or
with service but which ultimately fail after some
equipment has become available in the market.
period of using. The period between installation
and failure is not constant for any particular type of
Thus the problem of replacement is to decide best
equipment but will follow some frequency
policy to determine an age at which the replacement is
distribution which may be progressive,
most economical instead of continuing at increased
retrogressive or random in nature.
cost. The need for replacement arises in many
situations so that different type of decisions may have (i) Progressive failure: Under this mechanism,
to be taken. For example, probability of failure increases with the increase
in the life of an item. For example, electric light
 We may decide whether to wait for complete
bulbs, automobile tubes, etc.
failure of the item (which might cause some
loss), or to replace earlier at the expense of (ii) Retrogressive failure: Certain items have more
higher cost of the item. probability of failure in the beginning of their
life, and as the time passes the chances of failure
become less. That is, the ability of the unit to activities to achieve zero breakdowns and prevents
survive in the initial period of life increases its six big loses, namely
expected life. Industrial equipments with this (1) Breakdown due to equipment failure.
type of distribution of life span is exemplified by
(2) Set-up and adjustment time lost.
air craft engines.
(3) Idling and minor stoppages.
(iii) Random Failure: Under this failure, constant
(4) Reduced speed.
probability of failure is associated with items that
(5) Defects in process and reworks.
fail from random causes such as physical shocks,
not related to age. In such a case, virtually all (6) Start-up loss of yield.
items fail before aging has any effect. For Steps to implement TPM
example, vacuum tubes in air-borne equipment 1. Identify Pilot Area (Bottleneck)
have been shown to fail at a rate independent of 2. Restore equipment to prime operating
the age of the tube. condition (Using 5S & Autonomous
The replacement situations may be placed into four Maintenance)
categories: 3. Start Measuring OEE
(1) Replacement of capital equipment that becomes 4. Address major losses (Using KAIZEN)
worse with time, e.g. machines tools, buses in a 5. Introduce proactive maintenance techniques
transport organization, planes, etc. (Using planned maintenance)
(2) Group replacement of items that fail completely, Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) :
e.g., light bulbs, radio tubes, etc. There are six equipment losses identified within TPM
(3) Problems of mortality and staffing. as said above, that are used to calculate OEE ;
(4) Miscellaneous Problems. (i) Availability
Total Productive Maintenance  Breakdowns
 Total productive maintenance aims to eliminate the  Changeovers
causes of machine failures. (ii) Performance
 Total productive maintenance aims at maximizing  Minor stoppages
the effectiveness of equipment throughout its entire  Reduced speed
life. (iii) Quality yield
 Total productive maintenance involves everyone in  Defects
all the departments and at all levels.  Setup scrap
 Total productive maintenance motivates people for
Availability :
plant maintenance through small group and
Availability takes into account all events that stop
voluntary activities.
planned production.
 Total productive maintenance develops a
Run time
maintenance system. Availability =
Planned production time
 Total productive maintenance provides training in
basic house-keeping, problem solving skills and Run time = Planned production time – Downtime
Downtime is defined as all time where the
Practice Questions
manufacturing process was intended to be running but
was not due to unplanned stops (e.g., breakdowns) or
01. In the network shown below components 1, 2
planned stops (e.g., changeovers). and 3 are similar, with p as reliability of a
Performance component. All components work or fail
independently. The reliability of connectivity of
Performance is the ratio of net run time to run time.
the network between P and Q is
Performance =
ideal cycle time  Total count 
Run time P
P
Ideal cycle time is the minimum cycle time that your
P
process can achieve in optimal circumstances.
Therefore, when it is multiplied by total count the (a) p(1–p)2 (b) p2(2–p)
result in net run time (the minimum possible time to (c) 2p2(1–p) (d) p2(1–p)
produce)
02. All the following terms are similar except
Quality Yield : (a) Breakdown maintenance
Quality yield is the number of parts that successfully (b) Periodic maintenance
(c) Maintenance during overhaul
pass through the manufacturing process the first time
(d) Predictive maintenance
without needing any rework.
good count 03. Two motors, one gear box and two pumps are
Quality  available. One from each category will make a
totalcount
system. The remaining items would be in stand
by. The reliabilities of motor, gear box and pump
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE ) are 0.8607, 0.9231 and 0.7788 respectively. The
system reliability is:
OEE takes into account all loses, resulting in a measure
(a) 0.4148 (b) 0.6187
of truly productive manufacturing time. (c) 0.8895 (d) None of these
OEE = Availability  performance  quality yield
04. Find the reliability of a 3unit parallel system
(or) OEE =
good count  ideal cycle time  with the reliability of units as 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8.
planned production time
(a) 0.964 (b) 0.976
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.8
05. The maintenance department must keep a fleet of

25 trucks in operation. It costs $ 50 a day to own
a truck whether it is used or not. It costs the
organization an average of $ 100 a day for every
truck that breaks down. It takes an average of
one day to return a truck to operation after a
breakdown. Maintenance records indicate the
following probabilities of break downs: 08. A truck owner from his past experience
Number of estimated that the maintenance cost per year of a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
breakdowns truck whose purchase price is Rs. 1,50,000 and
Probability 0.15 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.08 0.02 the resale value of truck will be as follows
How many backup trucks should be purchased to Year 1 2 3 4 5 6

supplement the existing fleet of 25? Maintenance
Costs (Rs. 10 50 20 25 30 40
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 ‘000)
Resale Value
06. Every time a machine breaks down it costs the 130 120 115 105 90 75
(Rs. ‘000)
organization Rs.25000. By performing
Determine at which time it is profitable to
preventive maintenance each week at a cost
replace the truck.
Rs.15000, the organization is protected against
(a) 3 yrs (b) 4 yrs
any major breakdowns. The breakdown records
(c) 5 yrs (d) 6 yrs
on the machine reveal the following.
Number of breakdowns/week 0 1 2 3 4
09. (a) A machine owner finds from his past records
Number of weeks this occurred 25 18 4 2 1
that the costs per year of maintaining a machine
whose purchase price is Rs. 6000 are as given
(a) Preventive maintenance program is lesser below :
economical than breakdown maintenance.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) Preventive maintenance program is more Maintenance
1000 1200 1400 1800 2300 2800
Costs (Rs.)
economical than breakdown maintenance.
Resale Value
3000 1500 750 375 200 200
(c) Preventive maintenance and Breakdown (Rs.)
maintenance programs are equally
economical. Determine at what age is a replacement due?
(a) 3 yrs (b) 4 yrs
(d) can’t say
(c) 5 yrs (d) 6 yrs
07. A firm is considering replacement of a machine

whose cost price is Rs. 12,200; and the scrap Answers
value is Rs. 200. The maintenance costs are
found from experience to be as follows: 1 B 2 A 3 C 4 B 5 B
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 B 7 D 8 B 9 c
Maintenance
200 500 800 1200 1800 2500
Costs (Rs.)
When should the machine be replaced?

(a) 2 years (b) 3 years
(c) 4 years (d) 5 years
Unit
8 ISO & TQM

ISO 9000: The organization
ISO is the International Organisation for
ISO 9000 certification

ISO 9000 standards
Standardization, which is headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland ISO 9000 is a set of written standards,
laying down a quality system. The basic elements of Management
systems is defined through ISO-documentation. system
ISO ensures a uniform system, which is universally
recognized. Through a disciplined documentation of
process, which ISO offers, a customer focused quality
system can be maintained. ISO 9001 is for quality
assurance in design/development production, The body of knowledge on quality management
installation and service.
ISO 9000 focuses on a principle: “document what
The Three Pillars of ISO 9000 you do, and do what you document.” It also relies on
 An organization can sustain and improve its audits to provide assurance that the system is meeting
performance without using ISO 9000 as a standard the standard.
and without using ISO 9000 certification. Remove
In ISO 9000 certification, a “third party registration
the two outer pillars and the organization remains
stable. agency” is accredited to issue a certificate for ISO
9000 standard.
 Another organization may absorb and apply some
knowledge directly from the foundation but require Registration requirement includes a “pre-assessment”
the support of the ISO 9000 standards to help which is then followed by a “registration audit”. At
understanding and application.
both the pre-assessment and the registration audit, are
 A third organization may absorb and apply little comprehensive audit of the organization is performed.
knowledge directly from the foundation and
This certificate typically expires after sometimes say
require both the support of the ISO 9000 standards
three years. Surveillance audits at six months intervals
and ISO 9000 certification to maintain a stable and
robust management system. are needed to maintain the continuity the certificate.
ISO certification is not a one time activity. It requires
continuous pursuation and adherence to the procedures.
Parties related to ISO certifications

First party : A firm which intends to go for ISO
Second party: A customer who audits the first party
Third party : International certifying agency
Benefits of ISO 9000 series
ISO 9000 series provides several tangible and
intangible benefits which are listed below:
VANI Publications ISO and TQM
(a) This gives competitive advantage in the global (f) The customers while making purchases from
market. companies with ISO certificate, need not spend
(b) Consistency in quality, since ISO helps in much on inspection and testing. This will reduce
detecting non – conformity early which makes it the quality cost and lead time.
possible to take corrective action. (g) This will help in increasing productivity.
(c) Documentation of quality procedures adds clarity (h) This will aid to improved morale and involvement
to quality system. of workers.
(d) ISO 9000 ensures adequate and regular quality (i) The level of job satisfaction would be more.
training for all members of the organization.
(e) ISO helps the customers to have cost effective
purchase procedure.
ISO Description
ISO Series Description
It is considered as a road map for use of the other standards in the series. It defines the five key
ISO 9000
quality terms in the ISO terminology.
It specifies a model when two parties require the demonstration of a supplier’s capability to
ISO 9001
design, produce, install, and service a product.
ISO 9002 It specifies a model for quality assurance in production and installation
ISO 9003 It is a model for quality assurance in final inspection and testing.
It provides quality management guidelines for developing and implementing a quality system and
ISO 9004
in determining the extent to which every element is applicable.
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) (iii) Quality is the responsibility of the individual
and the workgroup, not some other group such
Total : Everyone is involved.
as inspection.
Quality : Meeting customers’ (agreed)
requirements at lowest cost, first time, and every (iv) There are two types of quality characteristics as
time. viewed by customers: those that satisfy and
Management : It is owned and led by the those that motivate. Only the latter are strongly
management team top-down. related to repeat sales and a “quality” image.
(v) The first customer for a part or piece of
(i) Quality emphasis extends through market information is usually the next department in the
analysis, design and customer service rather production process (i.e. the internal customer)
than only the production stages of making a
Total Quality Management can be defined as ‘an
product.
organized scientific approach towards continuous
(ii) Quality emphasis is directed towards operations
improvement in quality involving everyone in the
in every department from executives to the
organization covering every function aimed towards
clerical level.
total customer satisfaction’.
Therefore the Goals of TQM are:  Deming’s 14 points for excellence.
 Customer delight / satisfaction in totality:
 Continuous improvement: Joseph M. Juran :
 Total employee involvement and empowerment:  Led quality revolution in Japan post-World War
 Optimization of resources II.
 Do it right the first time  He defined quality as fitness for use by customer.
 Juran’s triology of quality planning, quality
The Eight Building Blocks of TQM : control and quality improvement.
(a) Act always in line with the customer’s needs  Started Juran’s institute in USA.
(b) Develop an internal customer supplier  Introduced cost of poor quality.
relationship
(c) Measure the value added
(d) Do it right the first time
Philip B. Crosby :
(e) Work under the ‘Seven zeros’ Banner : There are
 Started Crosby quality college.
the famous ‘Seven Wastages’ or the ‘Seven
 Created the concept of “zero defect”.
MUDAS’ of the famous Japanese management
 Defined quality as conformance to requirement.
system. The seven zeros are as follows:
 Zero disdain for others Taiichi Ohno :
 Zero stock or inventory  Formulated the flexible manufacturing system
 Zero delay (FMS)
 Zero paper  Father of the just-in-time and Kanban system of
 Zero downtime manufacturing.
 Zero defect  Father of “TPS” or Toyota Production System.
 Zero accident
Sheigo Shingo:
(f) Focus on Prevention.
 Originator of ‘single minute exchange of dies’
(g) Involve all the participants in the organization.
 Introduced the concept of modular
(h) Satisfy all parties at the same time.
manufacturing.
Total Quality Management Pioneers
Kaoru Ishikawa:
Walter Shewart :
 Originator of fish-bone or the cause and effect
 Originator of statistical process control at A&T
diagram.
Bells Lab in 1930.
Masaaki Imai:
W. Edward Deming :
 Popularized the Kaizan concept of continuous
 Led quality revolution in Japan, post-World War
improvement.
II
E. Goldratt:
 Quality is a key competitive advantage.
 Theory of constraints.
 Deming quality award by Japan is the most
prestigious quality award.
ISO 9000 vs TQM  Do what have been written
ISO-9000 is a set of standards and focuses on  Record what is the consistency between things that
documents. It ignores human element. On the contrary, are written and followed.
TQM focuses on developing human elements.  Review what is being done (problem
ISO 9000 TQM identification)
Focus On: Focus on:  Revise (if necessary), all problem/improvement
 Certification  Customer delight areas.
 Product conforms and satisfaction  Start all over again and incorporate improvements
to specification  Total organisation again and again.
 Audits and checks including ‘invisible’ Standards Make up of the ISO 9000 Family
 Key processes and ‘visible’ There are many standards which make up the ISO 9000
 Quality system resources family. These standards are constantly being added and
 External trust  Total Quality revised. Some standards are:
 Visibility of Management
ISO 9000-1:1944 Quality management and quality
capability prior to  Internal and external
assurance standards-Part 1: Guidelines for selection
delivery trust
and use.
 Maintenance of  Leadership
what is documented  Internal customer ISO 9000-2:1993 Quality management and quality
 An assurance to  Human factor assurance standards-Part 2: Generic guidelines for the
external customers  Flexibility and application of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003.
that a quality change management ISO 9000-3:1991 Quality management and quality
system is being  Top management assurance standards-Part-3: Guidelines for the
pursued commitment application of ISO 9001 to the development, supply
 Continuous and maintenance of software.
improvement ISO 9000-4: 1993 Quality management and quality,
It is important to note that TQM and ISO 9000 assurance standards-Part 4: Guide to dependability
standard are not in opposition. One is supporting the program management.
other. The ISO-9000 standard establishes the ISO 9001:1994: Quality system-model for quality
principles for a management system which will assurance in design, development, production,
improve a company’s performance. It provides basic installation and servicing
building block for moving towards TQM. TQM is a
ISO 9002:994: Quality system-model for quality
much bigger concept than ISO. It is a way of life or an
assurance in production, installation and servicing.
approach, which is percolated so that a company is
ISO 9003:1993: Quality system-model for quality
better managed.
assurance in final inspection and test.
A quality system such as ISO can do the followings:
 Discover what is being done ISO 10011-1: 1990 Guidelines for auditing quality
 Write down what is being done system Part-1: Auditing
 Justify what is being done
ISO 10011-2: 1991 Guidelines for auditing quality ISO 9001 is applicable for quality assurance in
system. Part 2: Qualification criteria for quality design/development, production installation and
systems auditors. servicing. Therefore, it is useful:
ISO 10011-3: 1991 Guidelines for auditing quality (a) For the user organisation when design is required
system. Part 3: Management of audit programs. and the product requirements are stated mainly in
ISO 10012-1: 1992 Quality assurance requirements for performance terms, or they need to be
measuring equipment-Par 1: Metrological established, and
confirmation system for measuring equipment. (b) When there is a need to establish confidence in
ISO 10013 Guidelines for developing quality manuals. product conformance which may be attained by
adequate demonstration of a supplier’s
ISO/TR 13425 Guidelines for Selection of statistical
capabilities in design, development, production,
methods in standardization and specification.
installation and servicing.
ISO 8402: 1994 Quality management and quality
assurance-Vocabulary. ISO 9002 applicable for quality assurance in
production, installation and servicing. Therefore, it is
Comparison of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO
useful:
9003 (a) For the user requirement when is focused at the
ISO 9001 and ISO 9002 are quite similar. ISO 9001 is specified requirements for product which may be
selected when the organization carries out the stated in terms of an-established design or
innovative design of products or services, otherwise, specification, and
ISO 9002 is opted. The only differences in the (b) When there is a need to establish the confidence
standards requirements are in section 4.4: “Design in product conformance which may be attained by
Control”. While ISO 9000 has 20 elements, ISO 9001 adequate demonstration of a supplier’s
has 19 and ISO 9003 only 16. Four elements, viz, capabilities in production, installation and
design control, purchasing process control and servicing. ISO 9003 applies in situations when
servicing are covered by ISO 9003. All descriptions of the specified requirement for organisations are
ISO 9001 are valid with ISO 9002 except Section 4.4, stated in terms of quality assurance in final
which is only applicable for ISO 9001 for “design- inspection and test:
control”.
ISO 9004 is applicable for quality management and quality elements guidelines.
 ISO 9001 

 ISO 9002 
 ISO 9003 
Design Procurement Production Installation Servicing

and development
Fig: Cross-reference list of quality system elements
S.no Systems Requirements ISO 9001 ISO 9002 ISO 9003

1. Management responsibilities Present Present Present
2. Quality system Present Present Present
3. Product identification and traceability Present Present Present
4. Inspection status Present Present Present
5. Inspection and testing Present Present Present
6. Inspection measuring and test equipments Present Present Present
7. Control of non-conforming products Present Present Present
8. Handling, storage, packaging and delivery Present Present Present
9. Document control Present Present Present
10. Quality records Present Present Present
11. Training Present Present Present
12. Statistical techniques Present Present Present
13. Internal auditing Present Present Not present
14. Contract review Present Present Not present
15. Purchasing Present Present Not present
16. Process control Present Present Not present
17. Purchaser supplied product Present Present Not present
18. Corrective action Present Present Not present
19. Design control Present Not present Not present
20. Servicing Present Not present Not present
ISO 9000:2000 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

ISO 9000:2000 is a world-class quality management system giving the certified organization, the status of a world-
class organization. It defines the quality chapter-by-chapter and verse-by-verse. In the current globalized and
liberalized era, the ISO 9000:2000 certification has become mandatory for entry into the global as well as the local
markets and getting the firm registered with a reputed organization.
Purpose of the Quality Management System:
Quality Management System

Continual improvement
R S
E Management A
C responsibility C
Q T
U U
U I
S I S
T S
R Measurement, T
O Resource F
E Analysis, O
M management Improvement A M
M C
E E
E T
R N R
I
T Product O
S Product
Input realization N
Output
The Role of QMS in organisational effectiveness
Overview of the ISO 9000:2000 system
ISO 9000:2000, the International Standard on  Quality Improvement: Part of quality management
Quality Management System has defined: focused on increasing the ability to fulfill quality
Definition of Various Quality-Related Terms requirements, i.e. effectiveness and efficiency of
The various quality-related terms are defined as per the QMS.
universally accepted ISO 9000:2000 standard  Effectiveness: A measure of the extent to which
 Quality: Ability of a complete set of realized planned activities are realized and planned results
inherent characteristics of a product, system or achieved.
process to fulfill requirements.  Efficiency: Relationship between the result
 Quality Policy: The overall intensions and achieved and the resources used.
directions of an organization are related to quality  Document: Information and its support medium,
as formally expressed by the top management. Examples: record, specification, drawing, report,
 Quality Management: Coordinated activities to standard (medium can be paper, magnetic,
direct and control an organization. electronic or optional computer disc, photograph or
master sample, or a combination thereof).
 Quality system: A set of interrelated or interacting
elements.  Quality Record: Document stating results achieved
or providing evidence of the activities performed.
 Quality Planning: Part of QMS focused on setting
 The QMS follows a process orientation with
quality objectives and specifying the necessary
Deming’s P-D-C-A cycle.
operational processes and related resources to
 ISO 9000:2000 edition gives a fundamental quality
fulfill the quality objectives.
management system for an organization. The
 Quality Management System: A management
earlier standard ISO 9000 series was first
system is to direct and control an organization with
introduced in 1987 and revised in 1994 and was
regard to quality.
focused on quality assurance system and consisted
 Quality objective: Something sought, or aimed for, of standards–ISO 9000, 9001, 9002, 9003, 9004.
related to quality. Objectives should be specific, The current revision published in December 2000,
measurable and quantifiable. consists of only three standards, i.e. ISO
 Quality control: Part of QMS focused on fulfilling 9000:2000; ISO 9000:2000–Quality Management
quality requirements. System–Fundamentals of Vocabulary; and ISO
 Quality Assurance: Part of QMS focused on 9001:2000 Certification Standard for quality
providing confidence that quality requirements will management systems with a process approach in
be fulfilled. design, development, production, installation and
servicing.
 Customer Satisfaction: A customer’s opinion of
 ISO 9004:2000 gives guidance on a wider range of
the degree to which a transaction has met the
objectives of a quality management system than
customer’s needs and expectations.
does ISO 9001, particularly for continual
 Top Management: A person or group of people
improvement of an organization’s overall
who direct and control an organization at the
performance.
highest level.
 The main improvisation that has been done in ISO
9000:2000 edition compared to the 1994 edition is
Costumer needs and expectations
that the 2000 edition introduced a process
approach to business and organizational working
than the product approach; while the 1994 edition Establish quality policy and quality
was more of a quality assurance system, the 2000 objectives of the organization
edition is a quality management system.
 The ISO 9000 family does not deal with any Determine the processes to achieve
technical specification for a product and is quality objectives
complementary to any technical specifications,
standards or regulations applicable to the Quality control
organization’s product or its services. The
standards in ISO 9000 family are produced and
maintained by technical committee 176 of the Establish documented quality
management system
international standards organization (ISO).
The present Versions of ISO 9001:2000 and

Measure effectiveness of processes
ISO 9004:2000 are Based on Eight Quality towards attaining the quality objectives
Management Principles which Reflect the Best
Management Practices : Reviewing for effectiveness and
efficiency of processes
The current ISO 9000:2000 family has consolidated 20
standards of the 1994 edition to be replaced by four :
 ISO 9000: Quality management systems – Continual Improvement
Fundamentals and vocabulary.
 ISO 9001: Quality management systems –
Requirements. Details of ISO 9001:2000 Certification
 ISO 9004: Quality management systems – Standard
Guidance for performance improvement.  Clause 1: Scope
 ISO 19011: Guidelines for auditing quality and  Clause 2: Normative References
environmental management systems.  Clause 3: Terms and Definitions
The New ISO 9000:2000 is based on eight total quality The main requirement of ISO 9001:2000 is:
management principles as detailed below:  Quality System Requirement:
 Management Responsibility
 Resource Management:
 Product Realization:
 Measurement Analysis and Improvement:
ISO 14000 Standard  Gives leadership to the company
The ISO 14000 standard is related to the quality system  Increased financial advantage due to reduced cost
and high efficiency
with environment concerns. ISO 14001 is standard
entitled “Environmental Management Systems- ISO 14001:1996 ENVIRONMENTAL
Specification”. There is no formal relationship with the MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ISO 9000 family of documents. A central element of The environmental management system should have
the ISO 14001 standard is the “Environmental Policy” commitment from all levels and functions and establish
convincing evidence of conformance to the
which is defined by top management. The
environmental policies, objectives and procedures.
environmental policy is carried out by the organization
to ensure the “environmental protection and related Environmental Policy
policy”.
Important standards of ISO 14000 series are : Planning

Continual
 ISO 14001 - Specification of Environmental Improvement
Implementation and
Management Systems operation
 ISO 14004 - Guideline standard
 ISO 14010 to ISO 14015 - Environmental Auditing Checking and
Corrective action
and Related activities
ISO 14001 : 2015 standards Management review

 ISO 14006 - Guidelines for incorporating
ecodesign The complementary standard for detailed and further
 ISO 14015 - Environmental assessment of sites guidance on the environmental management system is
and organisations the ISO 14004:1996, environmental management
 ISO 14020 - Environmental labels and declarations systems–general guidelines on principles, systems and
 ISO 14031 - Environmental performance supporting techniques. The ISO 14001:1996
evaluation environmental management system is a certification
 ISO 14040 - Life cycle assessment standard.
 ISO 14050 - Vocabulary ISO/TS 16949:2002 (E) (EARLIER

 ISO 14063 - Environmental communication SPECIFICATION QS 9000:1998) – ‘QMS’
 ISO 14064 - Green house gases FOR AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
 ISO 19011 - Guidelines for auditing management There is another popular Quality Management System
systems (QMS) known as QS 9000 which is a derivative of the
Benefits of ISO 14001 ISO 9000:1994 standard.
 Compliance with current and future statutory and This Quality Management System standard is typically
regulatory requirements applicable to the suppliers of the automobile industry.
 Increases confidence of investors
The QMS is divided into two sections. The first section
Practice Questions
is typically the ISO 9000-based requirements. The
second section is the ‘customer-specific requirement’.
01. Which among the following is not a ISO 9000
ISO 22000  Food Safety Management principle
ISO 50000  Energy Management (a) Continuous learning, innovation and
ISO 27000  Information Security Management improvement
(b) Factual approach to decision making
ISO 20121  Event Management
(c) System approach
ISO 45001  Occupational Health and Safety (d) Process approach
ISO 37001  Anti-bribery Management Systems
02. Which among the following is a ISO 9000
Comparisons :
principle
 The 1994 version was primarily aimed at quality
(a) leadership and constancy of purpose
assurance.
(b) people development and involvement
 The 2000 version is aimed at customer satisfaction. (c) continuous learning, innovation and
 The 1994 version required procedures to be improvement
established, documented and maintained. (d) systems approach
 The 2000 version requires processes to achieve
03. Success of an organization depends on
defined objectives.
understanding and considering current and future
 The 1994 version focused on correcting errors.
needs and expectations of interested parties is
 The 2000 version focuses on continual
given in
improvement not only by better control but also by
(a) ISO 9000 (b) ISO 9002
finding better ways of doing things.
(c) ISO 9003 (d) ISO 9004
 The 1994 version required management with
executive responsibility to define its commitment 04. Organization should identify the interested
to quality. parties and maintain a balanced response to the
 The 2000 version requires top management to needs and expectations is emphasized in
(a) ISO 9004 (b) ISO 9002
demonstrate its commitment to developing,
(c) ISO 9003 (d) ISO 9000
implementing and improving a system of
interrelated processes that will enable the 05. A model for quality assurance in production,
installation, servicing and procurement is given
organisation to achieve its objectives.
by
(a) ISO 9000 (b) ISO 9001
(c) ISO 9002 (d) ISO 9003
06. Quality management systems and guidelines for

performance improvement are given in
(a) ISO 9000 (b) ISO 9001
(c) ISO 9003 (d) ISO 9004
07. Purpose of ISO 9000 is
(a) Vehicle for consolidating and (a) 1994 version requires procedure to be
communicating concepts in the field of established documented and maintained
quality management approved by an (b) 2000 version requires procedure to be
international committee. established documented and maintained
(b) Standards to assess organizational ability (c) 2000 version is for quality assurance
(c) Standard to assess customer ability (d) 2000 version focuses on correcting errors
(d) Standards for excellence in maintenance
11. TQM & ISO both focuses on
08. Match the following:
(a) Customer
List – I
(b) Employee
(P) SO 9000 (Q) ISO 9001 (R) ISO 9004
(c) Supplier
List – II (d).All of the above
1. Quality management systems – Guidelines
for performance improvements 12. Statement (I): ISO 9003 has 12 elements
2. Quality management systems - covering final inspection and testing for
Fundamentals and vocabulary laboratories and warehouses.
3. Management systems - Requirements
Codes: Statement (II): Contract review is not present in
P Q R ISO 9003.
(a) 1 2 3 (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(b) 2 3 1 individually true and Statement (II) is the
(c) 1 3 2 correct explanation of Statement (I)
(d) 2 1 3 (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
09. Identify the right statement from the following: individually true but statement (II) is not the
(a) 1994 version was primarily aimed at quality correct explanation of statement (I)
control while 2000 version is for quality (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is
assurance false
(b) 1994 version was aimed at customer (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is
satisfaction while 2000 version is for quality true
control
(c) 1994 version is aimed at quality assurance 13. Total Quality Management (TQM) focuses on
while 2000 version is for customer (a) Employee
satisfaction (b) Customer
(d) 1994 version is aimed at customer (c) Both (a) and (b)
satisfaction while 2000 version is also for (d) None of the above
customer satisfaction
14. TQM approach has relevance to Indian industry
10. Identify the right statement from the following: in context to
1. Customer satisfaction
2. People involvement (a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
3. Policy management (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
The correct answer is (c) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (d) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answers
15. Match the following
List – I 1 A 2 D 3 D 4 A 5 C
(A) Quality approach
6 D 7 A 8 B 9 C 10 A
(B) Pillar of TQM
(C) Need for TQM is due to 11 A 12 B 13 C 14 B 15 a
(D) QM focuses on
List – II
1. Productivity quality – cost -Delivery
2. Continual improvement management
3. Employee
4. Cut throat competition
The correct order is
Unit
Construction Quality Management
9
Introduction: Construction, being different from manufacturing
 Quality of construction is one of the major concern and other industries, has many unique problems.
with most engineering constructions. Some of the major problems identified are
 According to a conservative estimate, the poor  lack of teamwork
quality cost could be as high as 300 % of the cost  poor communication
of construction in the early ages of works in some  inadequate planning and scheduling
of the cases. The reasons for the above problems are:
 Construction quality couldn’t get enough attention  no team-building exercises at the inception of
due to the policy of awarding the project on bid projects
price to the lowest bidder. The lowest bidder tends  lack of understanding of team members
to compromise on quality. The majority of such expectations
contractors tend to neglect complaints of the  little or no team-oriented planning and
customer and produce bad quality of work. scheduling
 Quality is widely recognized as a distinctive The cost of poor quality work
competency that can be adopted to increase Poor quality construction results in:
profitability and market share.  Additional costs and delays to the contractor when
 Total quality in the construction industry can be work has to be redone or repaired.
defined as a measurable process of continuous  A poor reputation for the construction company.
improvement that is focused on the needs and  Additional costs to clients when defects have to be
expectations of the customer. Success requires a repaired later, for increased maintenance costs or
partnership characterized by input, involvement, for disruptions to their operations while defects are
commitment and action from owners, contractors, repaired.
architects, engineers, subcontractors and suppliers  Can cause injury and death if the structure fails.
(Deffenbaugh 1993)
Inspection, Quality control and quality
Factors affecting Construction Quality:
assurance in projects:
 Confusion in design and drawings
Inspection:
 Ambiguous specifications
 Inspection usually involves checking the physical
 Not defining a clear cut quality control appearance of an item against what is required.
methodology
 Activities such as measuring, examining, testing
 Use of improper materials, unskilled workers and
and gauging one or more characteristics of a
improper equipment during construction process product or service and comparing this with
 Limitation of time specified requirements are part of inspection.
 Unfavourable weather conditions
The three common levels of inspection are
VANI Publications Construction Quality Management
1. at the time of receiving the raw materials, The objective of quality assurance examination is to
parts, assemblies and other purchased items. determine the degree of compliance with contract
2. at the time of processing quality standards. A realistic approach is to first
3. final inspection prior to acceptance of establish a minimum quality standard that will be the
product. basics of acceptance or rejection.
Quality Control (QC): The main cause of controversy in quality control is

 ‘Quality Control’ is essentially the activities and delegation of responsibility and authority pertaining to
techniques employed to achieve and maintain the quality assurance.
quality of a product, process, or service. To overcome the problem of responsibility and
 According to ISO, quality control is defined as a authority in quality control, a linear responsibility chart
set of activities or techniques whose purpose is to (LRC) that describes all the persons within the quality
ensure that all quality requirements are being met. control programme, their responsibilities, authority and
 A typical quality control programme would consist interrelationships relative to quality control tasks is
of defining quality standard, defining procedures proposed.
for the measurement of attainment of that standard,
Quality control is the responsibility of the entire
execution of the procedures to determine probable project team (including owner).
attainment or non-attainment of the standard, and
the power to enforce and maintain the defined Quality Assurance (QA):
standard as measured according to the defined According to ISO, quality assurance is defined as a set
procedure. of activities whose purpose is to demonstrate that an
 The quality control is administered by the entity (such as product, processes, person, department
contractors or by the specialist consultants such as and organization) meets all quality requirements. QA
consulting engineers or testing laboratories. activities are carried out in order to inspire the
 Construction quality control entails performing confidence of both customers and managers, that all
inspection, test, measurement and documentation quality requirements are being met.
necessary to check, verify and correct the quality Quality assurance programmes includes the following:
of construction materials and methods.  Establishing the procedure for defining,
 Primary objectives of construction quality control developing and establishing quality standards
are to produce a safe, reliable and durable in design, construction and sometimes the
structure so that the owner gets the best value for operational stages of the structure and/or its
his investment. components
 Establishing the procedure to be used to
Three major quality control methods monitor, test, inspect, measure and perform
commonly used on construction projects are: current and review activities to assure
 Inspection compliance with established quality standards,
 Testing with regard to construction materials, methods
 Sampling and personnel.
 Defining the administrative procedure and divided in three major components - structural,
requirements, organizational relationships and architectural, and mechanical and electrical (M &E)
responsibilities, communications and works.
information patterns, and other management Theses components are further divided into different
activities required to execute, document and subcomponents. The assessment is done primarily
assure attainment of the established quality through on-site testing/inspection prior to
standards. installation/construction, during the
While QA is a construction management process, installation/construction, and after the
QC is a sampling or inspection process. The focus installation/construction.
in quality assurance is on defect prevention, while The CONQUAS score of a building is obtained by
the focus in quality control is on defect detection summing the scores obtained in each of the three main
once the item is constructed. Infact, it can be said components mentioned above.
that quality control is an element of a quality For example, in case of commercial, industrial and
assurance programme. institutional buildings referred to as CAT A, the
CONQUAS - Construction Quality Assessment structural components have a weightage of 25% ,
architectural works have a weightage of 50% and M &
System
E works have a weightage of 20%. The individual
Construction Quality Assessment System
subcomponents under each of the three components are
(CONQUAS) is a standard quality assessment system
also given weightage. The quality of these
introduced by Building and Construction Authority of
subcomponents is assessed against standards. If the
Singapore.
subcomponent complies with the requirements laid out
The system objectively measures constructed works
in the standards, ‘S’ is given against that requirement;
against workmanship standards and specifications. In
else, an ‘X’ is recorded. This process of awarding an
order to measure the project quality, the system uses a
‘S’ or ‘X’ is carried out for all subcomponents, and the
sampling approach to represent the whole project. The
final CONQUAS score is obtained.
samples are distributed as uniformly as possible
The companies with a consistently high CONQUAS
throughout the project, and the number of samples is
score gain competitive advantages and their reputation
dependent on the size of the building. The emphasis in
in the international domestic market also gets better.
this system is on ‘doing it right the first time’.
Once a project has been evaluated and a score Audit:

assigned, there is no re-scoring in the CONQUAS Over Audit is a systematic and independent examination to
the years, the CONQUAS system has gained determine
acceptability as a benchmarking tool across several  Whether quality activities and related results
countries including India. Some Indian companies have comply with planned arrangements;
also got their projects evaluated under CONQUAS.  Whether these arrangements are implemented
effectively and are suitable to achieve objectives;
It includes evaluation of all types of buildings, viz.
and
commercial and industrial, institutional, public housing
and landed housing. For the scoring, the project is
VANI Publications Construction Quality Management
 Whether quality policy is understood and  Good and suitable equipment
implemented properly.  Defined methodology
Benefits of Audit:  Right type of hand tools
 Auditing builds confidence in management.  Neat and tidy workplace
 It also points out to system deficiencies, if any and  Staff productivity: The staff and supervisory
highlights system weaknesses before a potential personnel must be proactive. The usage of
problem occurs. modern methods and equipment leads to better
 It is found to be a convenient framework for quality and productivity.
investigating problems in particular areas. Typical causes of Low Labour Productivity :
 It also guides personnel from other departments to
Worker’s Low Morale:
know how their work affects others.
 Insecurity of employment
 Auditing provides opportunity for interchange of
ideas and hence results in improvement of  Poor working conditions
processes.  Frequent transfers of personnel
 It results in increased motivation for improving  Frequent changes in the scope of work and
performance. methodology of work
 Conflicts between supervisors and workers
Audit Types:
Poor Pre-Work Preparation by Supervisors:
First-party Audit: It is conducted for internal
 Excess workers employed
purposes by, or on behalf of, the organization itself.
 Insufficient instructions
Second-party Audit : It is conducted by customers  Incorrect sequence of work activities
of the organization or by other persons on behalf of the  Shortage of tools and materials etc.
customer. Directional Failures of the Project
Third-party Audit: It is conducted by external Management:
independent organizations, usually accredited, and  Failure to set performance targets
provides certification or registration of conformity with  Failure to make provision for timely resources
requirements such as ISO 9001, etc. support.
Why to Audit ?  Failure to motivate workers.
 This is a compulsory requirement laid down in ISO
9000.
 It helps in determining system conformity against a Practice Questions
quality system standard/procedure.
 Also it helps to determine the system effectiveness
01. Read the following Quality Control methods:
to meet the objectives and provides the auditee
1. Inspection
with information to use in improving the system.
2. Testing
Construction Productivity:
3. Sampling
Productivity is defined as the quantum of production of
The correct method/s used on construction
any work within the estimated cost, with an acceptable
projects is / are
quality standard under the defined duration.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 & 2 only
In relation to the construction industry, the following
(c) 2 & 3 only (d) 1, 2 & 3
factors govern productivity:
 Well-planned work
 Skilled manpower
02. Match the following lists 06. ISO 14064 is for
List – I (a) Green house gases
P. ISO 9000 Q. ISO 9001 (b) Vocabulary
R. ISO 9004 S. ISO 19011 (c) Life cycle assessment
(d) Environmental performance evaluation
List – II
1. Requirement for Quality Management
System 07. Match the following list I to List II
2. Terminology for Quality Management List – I
System P. ISO 14015
3. Auditing Quality and Environmental Q. ISO 14031
Management System R. ISO 14010 to ISO 14015
4. Guidelines considering effectiveness and S. ISO 19011
efficiency of Quality Management System List – II
1. Environmental assessment of sites and
Codes: organizations
P Q R S 2. Environmental performance evaluation
(a) 2 1 3 4 3. Environmental Auditing and Related
(b) 1 2 4 3 activities
(c) 2 1 4 3 4. Guidelines for Auditing Management
(d) 1 2 3 4 Systems
03. “CONQUAS” refers to Codes:
(a) Construction Quality Auditing System P Q R S
(b) Construction Quality Assured (a) 1 2 3 4
(c) Construction Quality Assurance System (b) 3 2 1 4
(d) Construction Quality Assessment System (c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 1 4 3 2
04. Read the following statements
1. Quality Assurance is a construction
management process
2. Quality control is a sampling / inspection Answers
process
3. Quality Assurance focuses on defect 1 D 2 C 3 D 4 D 5 D
prevention
6 A 7 A
4. Quality Control focuses on defect detection
after construction
The correct statements are
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
05. ISO 14006 is for

(a) A guideline standard
(b) Environmental labels and declarations
(c) Vocabulary
(d) Guidelines for incorporating ecodesign
Unit Information & Communication
5 Technologies (ICT)
Components of ICT:
Different Definition of ICT:
Information and communication Technology is ICT has 3 components primarily. They are
the technology which is used to transmit process, (1) Hardware
store create display share (or) exchange the (2) Software
information by means of electronics. (3) Networking.
According to Information Technology The hardware component has physical parts
Association of America (ITAA) ICT is study, where as software has programmers
design development, implementation, support or (programming techniques) content (should be
management of computer based information digital), and technology link (Nano or Neruo)
systems particularly software applications and Networking needs connectivity. To develop
computer hardware. components of ICT so many protocols were
According to UNESCO, ICT is defined as happened, standards are prepared, professionals
“scientific technology and engineering discipline such as IT experts are involved. To use ICT one
and the management technique used in the should know IT basics (or) one should have the
information handling and processing their digital literacy. In case of misuse of ICT the legal
application computers and their interaction with set up is made available in IT act. The following
men and machines and associated social flow chart can clearly give idea of all the
economic and cultural matters. components of ICT
Hardware Software Networking
Physical parts Programmes Connectivity
Protocols Professionals Content
Standords IT experts Digital
IT basics Technololy-link Lega set up
Digital literacy Nano  or  Neuro IT act
Upsides and downsides of ICT: (3) Speed and productivity can be achieved
 
Upside  (or) Advantages: (4) Cutting cost can be minimized
(5) Flexibility and changes can be made
The following advantages are available in ICT. easily
They are
(6) There is technology based control
(1) Process are engineering can be made available
easily
(2) Multi skilling and transparency are
available with ICT
 
Downside  or disadvantages: Technology is the catalyst for development, and
it brings productivity and modernization.
The following are observed as disadvantages of Information and communication Technology
ICT (ICT) is technology of technologies as it
(1) There is effect on privacy facilitates knowledge sharing education and
(2) There is effect on mass employment (As research and supplements, and supports human
work becomes easy to finish, there is less mind with artificial intelligence for example
requirement of employees) computer Aided Systems Engineering (CASE).
(3) Digital divide (There is division of digital Human resources material resources, Technology
and non digital) with ICT such as “Knowledge sharing” and
(4) Complexity (some problems are really “technology transfer” etc all lead to growth and
difficult to solve depending on productivity of technology.
programme based methods)
(5) Some health challenges like effect on Objectives and usages of ICT:
eyes etc. (1) Sunway Taihulight is the fastest super
computer in the world and it is brought
First Digital state in India: by china.
In 2016, Government of India declared kerale as (2) Param Kanchenjunga is the fastest super
the first digital state of India, as kerala has 100% computer of India.
mobile connectivity and 75% internet literacy (3) ICT has objectives such as
kearla has highest record of digital banking, (i) Rights and development of people
Broad band connectivity to panchayats and like RTI, and implementation of people
expanded e-Governance App use. kerala has through
95% tele density and internet covers 60% Digital India programme
population (ii) Computer networks for example
Internet and Intarnet
From ICT to knowledge society: (iii) To connect people through SMS,
Computers need computer operators in order to MMS, e-mail social media services.
digitize the data and for office automation. ICT (iv) e-Governance like e-kranti and
needs IT professionals for information’s sharing national e-Governance plan
and for office networks. Now knowledge society (v) Artificial Intelligence (AI) for
comprises of knowledge scientists knowledge example, in 2016 launches of Betty
services for the development of applications of ROSS, Cozmo robot.
computers and Information & communications
Technology services. Examples of knowledge  Betty is the first Robot office training
networks are my Gov, mobile seva etc. manager which was brought in 2016 by U.K
 ROSS is the world’s first robot lawyer office
Computer Software Networking developed by USA
 Cozmo robot is the Toy robot that responds to
Computer IT Knowledge human behavior and it will be useful for home
operators Professionals Scientists
appliances in future.
Office Office More rights +
automation Networks development Main mobile technologies:
The following 2 technologies are used in GSM
Place of Technology: (Global System of Mobile communication)
VANI Publications Information & Communication Technologies
(1) CDMA Messaging Service Service
(2) TDMA Transmissi sent to message Through
(1) CDMA: (Code Division Multiple Access): on center, then sent to message center
The storage of data is made inside the device recipient via Internet use is
itself. Spread spectrum type of network is used in internet not necessary
CDMA. CDMA technology is in dominant use in Data type Text, picture, Text, yet binary
U.S.A audio (or) video as well
Data limit No Yes
(2) TDMA: (Time Division Multiple Access): Viewing If phone supports Easy to use in
The storage of data takes place in SIM MMS format (or) any mobile
(subscriber Identity Module). The type of else through web
networks used are cells and time division type of browser
networks. Except in USA, TDMA technology is virus Quite likely more unlikely
in dominant use in rest of the world. transmit
SIM-Subscriber Identity Module: E-mails (web linked or POP based):

SIM is smart card with subscriber Identity At start e-mails were sent using Local
Module. The functions of SIM are user identity, Area network then linked with web sites . The In
network authorization, personal security keys, address used in e-mails is @ and information
contact list, stored text messages and services on before and after that e-mails of Post Office
demand. For security purpose from SIM usages, Protocol (POP) are based on ISP (Internet
Personal Identification Number (PIN) and Service Provider) and they are more secure but
personal unlocking key (PUK) are available. less portable As compared to snail mail e-mail
has much high speed and high enriched data
SMS-Short Message Service: carrying capacity. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
There are three stages in SMS They are (SMTP) functions in the process of e-mail. There
is chance of spreading virus more likely. Spam in
(1) Sender sends the text (or) image
e-mail refers to un solicited e-mail.
(2) Short Message Service Centre (SMSC)
works for storage and forward operation
Working process of e-mail:
(3) Receiver receives the text (or) image.
Signaling radio channels (not speech Once the e-mail is sent from computer of e-mail
radio channels) are the channels working sender, the protocol packet (s) of sender’s
in Short Message Service Centre (SMSC) computer connects the information to sender’s
website server which is already connected to e-
The SMS service can be used in simultaneous
mail soft ware, sender’s mail box and recipient
use along with GSM voice Internet data use and
website server. The recipient website server has
fax calls Email to- SMS Gate ways service
connections to e-mail software receiver’s mail
receive e-mail messages and convert them to
box and protocol packet(s) which sends the mail
SMS. Stinging of two or more short messages
to receivers computer (The receiver observes the
together can be done in SMS and this process is
mail through recipient website server, having
known as concatenation.
internet connection. Same is the case with e-mail
sender also. The e-mail sender sends the mail
Comparing MMS and SMS: through sender website server with the help of
Feature MMS SMS internet connection)
stands for Multimedia Short Message
The entire procedure can be shown in flow chart Sequential changes in mobile communication:
as follows Mobile communications have been updated from
1G to 2G, 2G to 3G and 3G to 3G+ and 4G. The
e-Mail Sender technology used in 1G is circuit switching where
Sender's Protocol Website as, in 2G the technology used is packet
Computer Packet  s  Server switching in 3G it is High speed packet access
and in 3G+ and 4G the technology used is
e-Mail Sender's HSPA+ (or) HSPA-E (In HSPA-E,”E” stands for
Software Mail box
Evolution) By shifting from 1G to 2G to 3G ,3G
to 3G+ and 4G multiple input and multiple
e-Mail Recipent output information services are made available
receiver Protocol Website easily and speed and continuity has been
Computer Packet  s  Server enhanced. The mobile technologies used for
speedy input and output processes are FDMA
e-Mail Receiver's (Frequency Division Multiple Access) in 1G,
Software Mail box CDMA and TDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access, Time Division Multiple Access) in 2G,
4G; Wi MAX, LTE: W-CDMA and W-TDMA (widened CDMA
Wi MAX stands for Wireless Micro wave Access widened TDMA) in 3G, OFDM (Orthogonal
(Inter operability), Wi MAX has high speed band Frequency Division Multiplexing) in 3G+ and
width range but not big range. As compared to 4G. The flow chart for sequential changes can be
other networks, there are limits with use of Wi represented as follows.
MAX so Wi MAX is not so popular. 1G 2G 3G 3G+ and 4G
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution. It has
more band width range and having better uses Circut Packet High speed Long Term
compared to other networks. So, LTE is Switching Switching Packet Access Evolution
relatively more popular.  HSPA 
The flow form of information can be represented CDMA W-CDMA
as FDMA and and OFDM
TDMA W-TDMA
What Wi Max LTE
Frequency Code Division Widened Orthogonal
Division Multiple Access -CDMA Frequency
Multiple Access Time Division Widened Division
Wireless Micro Multiple Access -TDMA Multiplexing
Stands for Wave Access Long Term
(Inter Oparatability) Evolution
Different generations of mobiles:
High speed There are four generations of mobiles till now.
Band width More
Range but not that They are 1G,2G 3G and 4G. The feature
big range available in 1G was mobile voice only. Where as
in 2G, the features available were digital voice
Compatibility
with other Limits Better and limited data also. Where as in 3G
networks multimedia feature was available
In 4G, enhanced multimedia feature is available
Now Not Relatively The technology used in 1G was analogue cellular
popular that much more technology. In 2G, TDMA (GSM) and CDMA
technology was used. In 3G enhanced GPRS +
EDGE + HSPA technology was used where as in
4G, combination of LTE & W; MAX technology broad band connection (which provides high
was incorporated. The global roaming was not speed internet) and in 4G, internet services were
allowed in 1G. Where as in 2G, it was allowed provided using ultra broad band (provides higher
and in 3G&4G the global roaming was enhanced. speed than that of 3G) 1G&3G were
There are certain limitations in these mobile commercialized for the first time in Japan 2G
generations. In 1G, there was problem of poor was commercialized for the first time by Finland
security and few services where as in 2G, there and 4G was commercialized for the first time by
was problem of slow internet, where as in 3G south Korea.
IPV4 limits were creating problem and in 4G, the The tabular form of information of different
problem is that 4G, is not in mass use yet. The generations of mobiles can be represented as
internet services available in 1G were nill. In 2G, shown below.
the internet services were narrowed, where as in
3G, the internet services were provided using
1G 2G 3G 4G
stands for First generation second generation Third generation Fourth generation
Wi MAX 2007 LTE
Launched year 1981 1991 2001
2009
Digital voice+ Enhanced
Features Mobile voice Multimedia
Limited data multimedia
Enhanced
TDMA(GSM)+
Technology Analogue cellular GPRS+ LTE+WiMAX
CDMA
EDGE+HSPA
Global roaming No Yes Enhanced Enhanced
Poor security few
Problem slow internet IPV 4 limits Yet not in mass use
services
Internet services No Narrowed Broad band Ultra broad band
First
Japan Finland Japan south korea
commercialized
5G: 5th Generation of mobile communication the chemical and electrical signals of the nervous
is likely to come by the year 2020. 5G uses web4 system. The computer’s artificial intelligence
internet (Web 4 stands for worldwide wireless (AI) understands brain and human senses then
web). It uses Cognitive Radio. Technology translates brain activity into commands using
Dynamic Ad-hoc wireless network. 5G will have wearable devices linked with human thought (or)
IPV 6 expansion and cloud computing Brain waves.
expansion. Note:
(1) Highest average speed of internet is in
Neuro technology: South Korea.
In neuro technology the computer understands (2) Highest internet wire penetration is in
the operator’s thoughts and provides the South Korea
information accordingly. The computer studies
Cloud computing: (2) service level agreements
Cloud computing is defined as online availability (3) capability of manpower
and on demand availability and use of hand ware (4) Data security
and soft ware. In cloud computing multi tenant (5) Legal provisions
and multi network use of hardware and software
IaaS, PaaS and SaaS:
are available. could computing is ICT resource
pooling on cloud. There are 3 types of cloud The purpose of IaaS is to provide virtual
hardware (say server space). The purpose of
computing They are
PaaS is to provide virtual platform user
(1) Infrastructure (IaaS) application where as SaaS provides online
(2) Plat form as service (PaaS) software uses. Examples of IaaS are bandwidth
(3) Soft as service (SaaS) and IP address where as examples of PaaS are
The advantages of cloud computing are as Google App engine and word press whereas
follows. example for SaaS are web mail web analytics
(1) Scalability (It is change of one cloud and net suite. The main focus of IaaS is strange
supporting company to another) and communication as a service where as the
(2) Affordability (Easy to access the data) main focus of IaaS is storage and communication
as a service where as the main focus PaaS is to
(3) Geographic distribution (If number of
provide cloud services for software development
cloud computing projects are being used,
and the focus of SaaS is to provide cloud
then it is said to be geographically
services for soft ware use IaaS leads to online
distributed)
ICT resource allocations where as PaaS leads to
(4) Service orientation web based operating service and middleware.
(5) Easy upgradation SaaS leads to mass use of IT services. These
(6) ICT resource protection differences among the three can be represented
Limitations of cloud computing are as follows in the tabular from as follows.
(1) Internet speed
IaaS PaaS SaaS

stands for Infrastructure as a Service Plat form as a Service Soft ware as a Service
virtual hardware say server virtual platform user
purpose online software uses
space application
Google app engine and word web mail web analytics
Examples Band width and IP address
press and net suite
Main storage and communication as cloud services for software cloud services for
focus a service development software use
online ICT resource web based OS and
leads to mass use of IT services
allocations middleware
Deployment models of clouds: In private cloud, there is single organization with

There are four models of clouds. They are multiple users so, there is better security and
(1) private cloud more self control. But private cloud model is
more expensive. Community cloud model has
(2) community cloud
advantage of community requirements and
(3) public cloud norms. The problem of community cloud model
(4) Hybrid cloud is stability of community group. Public cloud
model has advantage that anybody can take access). So it is difficult to manage the data and
benefit (Since it is external cloud). So, it is not data segregation also takes place. The tabular
that secure. Combination of two or more clouds form of these three cloud modes can be described
make hybrid cloud model. The hybrid cloud as shown below.
model has more diversity (multiple options to
Cloud Model Meaning Advantage Problem

Single organization with Better secure and more self
Private More expensive
multiple users control
Community requirement and Stability of community
Community For any user community
norms group
For open use by general Anybody can take benefit
Public Not that secure
public external cloud
Combination of two or more Data segregation
Hybrid More diversity
clouds management
Meghraj cloud project: Networks came in 4th generation. As the

It was launched in the year 2013. Meghraj cloud distance increases the speed and accuracy of
project provides cloud computing support to obtaining data decreases. LAN is Local Area
government agencies. Meghraj cloud project is Network. MAN is Metropolitan Area Network
for new applications and for migrating existing and WAN is wide Area Network. WAN does
ones. This project can be linked for state clouds not work without internet LAN is more secure.
also. Meghraj cloud project works under single WAN can work with large distances. If no. of
window GI (Government Information) cloud LANs are connected, then it becomes MAN,
service directory. Meghraj cloud project has similarly, if number of MANs are connected,
cloud Management office. Meghraj cloud then it becomes WAN. LAN is used for offices
project is implemented by NIC (National (or) buildings.
Informatics Center). It includes multiple types of Eg: Campus area network. MAN is used
cloud computing support. within city
Eg: City cable network WAN is used within
Types of Networks based on geographical state (or) country
location: Eg: State wide Area Network LAN may not
require internet. But MAN & WAN need
internet.
Feature LAN MAN WAN

Stands for Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network
One or few offices (or) Broader area like any
Usage Expands within a city
buildings state or country
State wide Area
Examples Campus Area Network City cable Network
Network
Size and error rate Small Moderate Largest of three
Advantage Speed City Services Distance
Topologies of Computer Networks:

It refers to the layout of connected devices on a
network or network’s virtual shape. It is study of
mapping of links and nodes of a computer
Network. Topologies include
  
(1) Bus
(2) Star
(3) Ring
(4) Mesh
(5) Tree
(6) Hybrid Star type of topology is costlier than that of
Bus: In this, single back bone cable works as Bus type of topology.
communication medium. The intended device
receives communication but others see it. It is
cheap and easy to install. But it can perform Ring: In Ring type of topology of computer
well only in small network with limited nodes network, computers are connected in closed
(computers). There is no privacy in this loop. Each device has two neighboring nodes
network. It cannot work for large number of (computers), and all messages travel in same
computers. direction (either clock wise or anti clockwise).
There is no data collision in Ring Network.
But if main cable fails then whole network
fails.
Star: In star connection, each node is

connected to hub (or switch or router). Hub
passes signals from one node to other. Star
type of topology of computer network is easy
to expand and manage. Hub reduces network Mesh: In mesh network, each node is
failure. But, if hub fails, whole network fails. connected with each other node. So, data
Hub needs more cable. takes shortest path to reach destination. Due
to dedicated links, there is no traffic problem.
Failure chances in Mesh type of topology of
network are very less. Better privacy exists in
this type of topology of network. But, it is
difficult to install this type of network. It has
high cabling cost and cable needed is of more
length in Mesh type of topology of network.
Tree: Tree type of network combines Bus and
star networks. There is hierarchical
arrangement in tree type of topology of
network. It is useful for linking Universities
and colleges. The expandability is good in
tree type of network. The computers connect
with larger immediate network, but it is
difficult to configure. If backbone breaks,
entire segment goes down.
Hybrid: Hybrid topology of network is combination of two or more networks. It is more flexible, but
more expansive the combinations used in Hybrid type of topology of network is Tree + Tree = Tree,
and Tree uses Bus + Star
Bluetooth and WiFi: is higher than that of Blue tooth. Range of WiFi
These are wireless networking connecting is larger than that of Blue tooth Battery lasts
devices. One primary device and 7 secondary larger in blue tooth (Because, power required is
devices are present in Blue tooth. Speed of WiFi less in Blue tooth). Number of nodes are more in
WiFi. The differences between Blue tooth & follows.
WiFi can be represented in tabular form as
Feature Blue tooth WiFi

Year developed Mid 1990s Beginning of 1990s
Connecting some input and output Connecting some devices + data transfer,
Primary usages
devices + smaller data transfer even video conferencing
Network nodes (no.) Lower Higher
Power Consumption Lower Higher
Speed Lower Higher
Transmit range Lower Higher
LiFi (Light Fidelity): TCP/IP:

It is high speed duplex wireless communication Transmission Control Protocol (or) Internet
technology. It uses visible light communication. Protocol is the protocol of the internet. It uses
Light Fidelity is 100 times faster than WiFi. The client server model and communication is point-
name LiFi is given by Harald Hass. In LiFi, to-point. TCP is higher layer and IP is lower
small chip combines illumination and wireless layer. TCP is built on UNIX system. Layers
transmission. In big sun lighted spaces. LiFi can used in TCP are
not work. LiFi cannot replace WiFi (complete (1) Network interface layer
replacement may not be possible every where) (2) Internet layer
(3) Transport layer and
National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN): (4) Application layer
Government approved NOFN in 2011. It’s aim The function of TCP is dividing the packets,
is to provide Broad band connectivity to rural sending the packets, after giving IP address. IP6
areas. NOFN is named as Informaiton super has more advantages than that of IP4. IP6 is
highway [i-ways as new highways]. Bharat called IPng. [IPng is IP next generation] TCP is
Broadband Network Limited (BBNL) was for dividing, sending packets but IP is for
brought in 2012. It uses Gigabit Passive Optical managing IP addresses.
Network (GPON). The plan under BBNL is to
connect 2,50,000 village panchayats of the
country. It will help in providing e-services and Comparission between IPv4 and IPv6:
e-applications at high speed. Its advantages IPv4 is Internet protocol version 4 and IPv6 is
include less need for amplification, check on Internet protocol version 6. IPv6 is also called as
electromagnetic interference, and higher IPng (Internet protocol next generation). IPv4
bandwidth has manual configuration, where as IPv6 has
automatic conversation. The address size of
IPv4 is 32 bits and that of IPv6 is 128 bits.
Bharat Net: There is less availability of address in IPv4,
Bharat Net is upgraded version of NOFN. The where as it is more in IPv6. Security is also less
project inauguration was done in 2015 and in IPv4 and more in IPv6. Packet size in IPv4 is
establishment by 2017. It aims at providing smaller and it is bigger in IPv6. The table
bandwidth on demand. showing these differences is as shown below.
Feature IPv4 IPv6 (IPng)
Configuration Manual Automatic
Address size 32bits 128 bits (7) Application layer (top layer)
Address The physical layer is nothing but, hardware
less more components. SO, physical layer consists of
availability
Security less more Network hardware needed. Data link layer is
connected to network, to access the data.
Packet size smaller Bigger Network layer has connection of end to end
Open Systems Inter connect (OSI) Model: logical addressing feature. Transport layer
OSI has 7 layers. They are functions as segmentation and control of data
(1) Physical layer (bottom layer) flow. Session layer works for synchronization of
(2) Data link layer data and dialogue units. Presentation layer
(3) Network layer works for content presentation. Encrypt, Decrypt.
Application layer works for data for use, what
(4) Transport layer
user sees. The following flowchart represents all
(5) Session layer the layers and their connections, showing
(6) Presentation layer and purpose of each layer.
Physical Data link Network Transport Session Presentation Application
layer Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer Layer
(Bottom layer) (Top Layer)
Network Access End to End Segmentation Synchronization Content Data for

hardware Network Logical and control of data and presentation use what
need Addressing of data flow dialogue units Encrypt, User sees
Decrypt
OSI and TCP/IP relative layers: 2, Read as well as write type of use was available
The following table shows the layers of OSI and and in web 3, Read write and Execute uses were
TCP/IP with relation if exists. made available. In web4, concurrency, web of
thought will be the basic uses. Web1 is not user
S.No. OSI TCP/IP
interactive. The user interaction in web 2 was
7. Application (Top layer) Application taking place in communicative manner, where as
6. Presentation in web 3, it is cooperation way of user
5. Session interaction. But, in web4, it will be integration
4. Transport Transport method of user interaction. The web1 was of
3. Network Internet static form (Web form). The web 2 was having
dynamic form of application. In web 3 multiple
2. Data link Link
connecting ways and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
1. Physical options are made available, and in web4, along
Web 1 to 3, now coming web 4: with Artificial Intelligence feature, H2M (Human
If we know web page address, then we can use to Machine) M2M (Machine to Machine) kind of
file transfer protocol. “.com” says domain name. services will be available. The aim of website in
One URL links many domain names. [URL = web1 was providing information, and in web2 it
Uniform Resource Location]. If we know URL, was to provide platform. In web3, the aim of
then we can use file transfer protocol. If web website is consolidation. In web 4, the aim of
pages are not linked with search engines, then website will be Intelligent Interaction. Tagging
the results will not be achieved. Basic use of of web1 was Taxonomy and in web2 it was
web 1 was read only type of use, where as in web Tagging itself. In web3 Tagging is “Automatic
Tagging” and in web4, tagging will be “More internet type used will be WWWW, Nanocore.
web OS”. The outcome in web1 was web starts. The websites (or) blogs useful in web1 were
In web2 it was “Social media begins”. In web3, company websites and in web2 they were
the outcome is semantic web and in web4, the Wikipedia, Google blogs. In web3, the websites
outcome will be symbiotic web. Information (or) blogs useful are Db pedia and i Google. In
outlook in web1 was owning and in web2, it was web4 the websites (or) blogs useful will be High
sharing. In web3, the information outlook is cognition blog (or) website. Mr Tim Berners
world data base” and in web4, the information Lee is Pioneer in the development of web1 and
outlook will be Neuro technology and 5G. The web3, where as Mr Tim O’Reilly is pioneer in
internet type used in web1 was Dialup and in the development of web2 services. In web4, 5G
web 2, it was Broad band. In web 3, the internet efforts will be introduced. The tabular form of
type used is Ultra broad band and in web4, the these differences are as shown below.
Feature Web1 Web2 Web3 Web4

Read + Write + Concurrency, web of
Basic use Read only Read – write
Execute thought
2004(Media web 2.0
Start 1996 2016 2020 likely
conference)
User interact Not interactive Communicate Cooperation Integration
Static (Web Multiple connect +
Static dynamic Dynamic (Application) AI + H2M and M2M
form) AI
Website aim Information Platform Consolidation Intelligent interaction
Automatic
Tagging Taxonomy Tagging More web OS
Tagging
Outcome Web starts Social media begins Semantic web Symbiotic web
Information Neuro technology +
Owning Sharing World data base
outlook 5G
Internet Dial up Broad band Ultra Broad band WWWW, Nanocore
Company Wikipedia, Google,
Websites blogs Db Pedia, i Google High cognition
websites blogs
Pioneers Tim Berners Joint effort, 5G
Tim O’Reilly Tim Berners Lee
coming up Lee efforts
Blogs and websites: tabular form of these differences is as shown

The content of the websites will be in structured below
form (or) Hierarchical form where as, content of Feature Websites Blogs (web log)
the Blog is in the order of “Newest first”. Structured/
Websites are more personalized, where as in case Content Newest first
Hierarchical
of blogs, it depends on type of blog. The Personalized More It depends
application of websites is static (or) Dynamic
Static (or)
where as incase of blogs it is of dynamic type. Dynamics Dynamic
The conversation of websites may exist or may dynamic
not exist. But, in case of blogs conversation Conversation It depends More exists
exists. Normally separate domain exists. The Domain Normally Frequently sub-
name separate domain
Net Neutrality: Objectives of e-Governance:
It is network principle of equal treatment of data The main aim of e-Governance is to provide e-
packets moving across IP addresses. The term services to citizens through apps (application soft
“Net Neutrality” was coined by professor Tim wares). Some of them are mobile seva, My Gov,
Wu. The common principles of Net Neutrality E-Sangaam, E-kranti, Digilocker etc. The main
are aim of mobile seva app is to provide 24  7
(1) Reasonable internet management services. My Gov app provides citizen interface.
practices Internet Of Things (IOT) can be done using E-
(2) No unreasonable discrimination on prime Sangaam app. Common usages of ICT are
priority and internet traffic management. available in E-Kranti app. Digilocker provides
First country to bring net neutrality law some space to keep documents. Finally, the cost
was chile in 2010. The present chairman will be reduced as service delivery gateway is
of Net Neutrality committee of available (e-services finish the complete work
Government of India is A.K. Bhargava. very fast with minimum cost incurred). The
overall objective of e-services is to bring more
people to use e-services. These objectives can
Open Internet: also be represented in the form of flow chart as
It is the internet, where, full resources of the follows.
internet and its services are easily accessible to Common Usages
all people is called “Open Internet”. 24  7 services
of ICT
Project Loon: Mobile seva E-kranti

This project is to transmit internet services big
balloons at the height of 20kms above earth Citizen
interface e-Governance Simplificaiton
surface. Through this project, people can get
such internet services directly on their mobile.
The chairman of committee for project Loon is My Gov Digi Locker
Secretary Ministry of Electronics and IT. Project
Loon is brought by Google. Project Loon is Internet
of things Cut Cost
supported by BSNL. It is for 4G LTE services.
Project Loon uses Mesh Network. Service delivery
E-Sangam
Gate way
Face book WiFi Hot spots:
The aim of Face book WiFi hotspots is to Dimensions of e-Governance:
achieve increased penetration. The spectrum Online grievance redress services are made
support for Face book WiFi hotspots is given by available through G2C mode (Government to
BSNL. Under this programme, use of Rural Citizen). Online tendering services are made
WiFi hotspots is also started. For this, Face book available through G2B (Government to
has chosen 100 villages at the start. Business) service of e-Governance. Services of
Jeevan Praman are made available through G2E
White space Tech of Microsoft: (Government to Employee) mode of service
The aim of white space tech of Microsoft is to Service delivery gateway is available through
use unused low frequency spectrum of radio & G2G (Government to Government) mode of
TV white space. It will help in cheap internet service. Flow chart of dimensions of e-
connectivity of rural area. Governance is shown as follows.
G2C G2B programmes such as Digital literacy and intemet

programmes National Informatics Center (NIC)
Online Online
grievance tendering is under the control of Ministry of Electronics
redress e-Governance
and Information Technology. This ministry
covers IT Act, other related laws, E-Governance
G2E G2G standards.
Digital Literacy etc., National level cloud and
Jeevan Praman Service
delivery other National E-Governance Infrastructure and
gateway other supportive programs are available in E-Gov
App store. This App links to GOI portal, my
E-Governance in India: GOV application websites of ministries state
E-Governance in India has many programmes portal etc. State portal provides services such as
and services related to Information & state clouds SWAN, state Date centres and other
Communication Technology (ICT). They are infrastructure Each of these have links to local
(1) Digital India GOV efforts E-district (District websites) sub
district level IT efforts state portal connects
(2) E-Gov app store and many other
websites of state departments (other states)
softwares and services related to state through other state infrastructure flow chart form
governments also of E-Governance in India is as follows.
Digital India covers many programmes, mainly
NeGP 2.0, Meghraj cloud project and other
Ministry of Electronics IT Act, other
Digital India and Information Technology related Laws
Ne GP 2.0
National Informatics E-Governance
center (NIC) Standards
Meghraj cloud
Other Digital Literacy and
programmes Internet Programmes
National Level GOI Portal State State Portal

cloud and other clouds Local Gov Efforts
My Gov
National
E-Governance SWAN E-District
Infrastructure District
State Data Websites
E-Gov App centres
store
Websites of Websites Sub distric
Other state of state
Other supportive Ministries Infrastructure level IT
programmes Departments Departments efforts
(or) Others (or) others
Digital India: services on demand and digitally empowered

The Digital India programmed was launched in people etc, are the main vision areas in Digital+
India programmed. Digital India Republic Day
2015. 1st July to 7th July is called Digital India
week. Digital infrastructure, governance and Tableau won 1st prize amongst central line
ministries at the republic day 2016. NeGP2.0 is (1) process re engineering
the part of Digital India. Digital India includes (2) Mobile first
multiple programmers like CSC 2.0 mobile sever (3) Transformation and standards
and many others. meghraj cloud gives multiple (4) service integration and localization
types of cloud computing support. Technical E-District:
support for Digital India is given by ministry of This scheme was launched in 2011. The aim of
Electronic and IT (Earlier Diety) prime minister E-District is to implement Business process Re-
is chairman of the monitoring committee of engineering Automation of backend processes
Digital India. and + reduce personal visits of people for
government services. It is easy to access service
Pillars of Digital India: of E-District from anywhere at any time in a
The following flow chart shows the pillars of district.
Digital India
Public Reforming E-Gov App store:
Broad band Universal
access to internet e-Governance (1) It was started in 2013
Gate ways phone access through
Programmes technology (2) It is for Gov development and their use
(3) people can download related Apps from it
Information Electronic Early (4) It hosts both cloud and non-cloud
IT for narvest
to all manufacturing Jobs applications.
Programme
Mobile as Digital Identity: My Gov:

Mobile can made as digital identity by linking (1) It was launched in 2014
mobile with Aadhar and digital certificate, e-sign (2) The New software of My Gov was
additional biometric identity (if needed) and launched in 2015
authentication services. (3) My Gov app provides crowd sourcing
Mobile seva platform: (4) My Gov app is the largest citizen
Mobile seva platform was started in 2012 mobile engagement platform.
seva platform links Government devices to
people through mobile and Tablets. In mobile CSC 2.0(Common Services Center 2.0)
seva platform usages of m-apps and multiple (1) Earlier it was CSC Now it is CSC 2.0
channels are available For mobile seva platform
(2) “C.S.C 2.0 _A Forward” was launched in
Deity won UN public service Award 2014 under
2015
category of “promoting whole of government
Approaches in Information Age” (3) The aim of CSC 2.0 is to give e-services
to rural areas
(4) Some computer literacy people can
E-karanti- NeGP 2.0:
become part of CSC
The objectives of E-kranti-NeGP 2.0 are as
follows
(1) To redefine NeGP with outcomes PRAGATI-Pro-Active Governance and
(2) To enchance citizen centric services Timely Implementation:
(3) To promote common usages of ICT (1) It was launched in 2015.
(4) To implement use of emerging (2) For grievance redress of common people
technologies. PRAGATI was launched.
The principles of E-kranti NeGP 2.0 are as
follows.
(3) The technologies used in PRAGATI step 3: The data provided should be verified
include Digital Data management, Video through e KYC by e sign service providers.
conferencing and Ge0- spatial mobility step 4: e sign service providers submit the
(4) It has 3 tiers. verified details of the applicant to certifying
authority. The certifying authority forwards
“National supercomputing mission: Building the certificate to e service providers.
capacity and capability” step 5: e sign service providers provide
(1) It was launched in 2015 digital signature and certificate and the e sign
can be used for useful purposes
(2) The focus of this mission has taken place
in 12th five year plan These 5 steps can be shown in the form of
(3) The objectives of this mission are Certifying
Authority
(i) state of art super computing facilities
(ii) promoting R&D in super computing 4. Issuance
1. Online request of Certificate
(iii) Human resources development for IT
for Digitial 2. Request for
Essential Signature verified data
National Securities Depository Limited details e-Sign Aadhaar
(NSDL): service based
(1) Depositories Act came in 1996 NSDL is Use of providers e-KYC
e-Sign 5. Digital 3. Verification
first such depository
Signature and through
(2) Securities are in Depositories account. Certificate e-KYC
Transfer of ownership is through simple
account transfers.
Geographical Information System (GIS):
(3) Transaction cost is lower as compared to
Geographical Information System (GIS) is
transacting in certificates.
surface using hardware equipments and
(4) Depository system links issuers analyzing and presenting the data digitally using
depository participants, NSDL and software applications is known as Geographical
clearing bodies of stock exchanges. Information System (GIS) GIS consists of
(5) NSDL promotes script less trading features such as Digital map, Data capture and
(6) It facilitates hypothecation of securities Data layers. Digital map provides map locations
and automatic delivery of securities. through ICT. Data capture feature of GIS puts
information into GIS. Data layers analyse and
Electronic Transaction Aggregation and classify the information. GIS techniques can be
Analysis Layer(e Taal): used in planning development (or) disaster
It is for real time aggregate view of government recovery. GIS is an IT based information system
for capturing storing checking and displaying
e-services
data related to locations when subsurface data is
taken, it is called 3D GIS
e sign- Digital signature: GIS is promoted by National centre for Geo-
There are 5 steps to obtain e sign digital Informatics (NGOG)
signature
step 1: Essential details with online request
Information Technology Act: (IT Act):
for digital signature is to be made to e sign
(1) IT act was brought in 2008. It promotes
service providers.
good use of IT
step 2: Request should be made using
(2) IT act is applicable throughout India
Aadhaar based e KYC
(3) Authentication of electronic records is Deep portal:
made using Digital signatures (1) Deep portal is an e-bidding and e-reserve
(4) Central Government appoints controller Auction portal for procurement of short
of digital signatures. The controller of term power by Discoms.
digital signatures controls the certifying (2) It will bring uniformity transparency and
authorities. competition in power sector
(5) The certifying authorities work for issue
of digital signature certificate. E-learning:
(6) Cyber appellate Tribunal works for IT (1) E-learning is learning using ICT tools
act. The term of chairman of cyber and programmes including networks and
appallate tribunal is for 5years. The websites.
chairman should be qualified as judge of (2) Web learning is learning using the web
high court. browser (websites)
(7) To remove the chairman, enquiry should (3) Blended learning = classroom learning +
be done by a supreme court Judge. e-learning
(8) Cyber regulation advisory committee (4) Without internet connectivity one can go
appointed by central Govt also works for through E-learning
IT act.
(5) Every web learning is not E-learning only
that web learning, where online
National e-governance conference: instruction is available is E-learning (or)
It was organized by Department of synchronous learning E-learning can be
Administrative reforms and public grievances, described in the form of diagram as
and ministry of Electronic and Information shown below.
technology (earlier deity) in partnership with
concerned state. Learning and education
10th National e-Governance conference is
scheduled in 2016 in Nagpur (Maharashtra) E-Learning
20th National e-Governance conference is
scheduled in 2017 in Andhra Pradesh. Web-based Learning
Internet Governance forum:

(1) UN(United Nations) took steps for it in
From above diagram web based learning doesn’t
2006 and its renewal was done in 2015
mean E-learning. E-learning covers web based
(2) It is multi stake holder
learning. Learning and education covers both E –
(3) Internet governance forum issues policies Learning and web based learning.
relating to internet
Asynchronous & Synchronous e-learning:
(4) Internet governance forum meet took (1) Asynchronous e-learning & synchronous
place in 2005 in Brazil. Its meeting in e-learning uses multimedia
2016 is scheduled in December in
Mexico. (2) Instruction facilities are available in
synchronous e-learning but in
asynchronous e-learning they may be
available (or) may not be available.
(3) It is possible for learners to log in as and
when they want, in asynchronous e-
learning But in synchronous e-learning, Role of ICT in education- Tools devices
At the set time only, the log in is methods:
possible. The following changes have taken place after the
(4) Asynchronous e-learning is use of digital use of ICT assisted class rooms in education.
data even when not having internet (1) Interactive white boards
facility. (2) Intelligent autonomous system
(3) Learning management system
(4) Mind mapping software
The tabular form of these differences can be (5) Learning tablets
made as shown below. (6) Digital projectors
Feature Asynchronous synchronous (7) Classroom management software
use of (8) Table PCs
Yes Yes
multimedia
(9) Multiple displays.
Internet use may be Yes
Instructor
Access to may or may not Learning Management System (LMS):
facilitates
instructor be (1) Learning management system is ICT
learning live
system specially for e-learning online
Logging in As and when courses and web based learning.
At the set time
by learners they want
(2) Anybody can learn learning management
Continuum of approaches of ICT system. Especially student prefer to learn
development in schools: it.
(1) ICT development in schools helps in (3) Learning management system can be
improving infrastructure. learnt using virtual class rooms social
(2) ICT development helps in changing media bulk emails e-content etc
curriculum in schools. (4) Learning management system provides
(3) Example of ICT application is OMR multiple uses including online tests
evaluation using scanner (5) LMS may be synchronous (or) may not
(4) Infusing of ICT in school reslts in broad be synchronous.
based use to bring in new usages. SCORM-Sharable Content Object Reference
(5) ICT development helps in Transforming Model:
Real world applications & centres of (1) These are technical standards for e-
learning. learning software products
The diagrammatic form of ICT development is (2) SCORM relates to online learning
as shown below content and learning management system
Emerging Applying Infusing Transforming (3) These technical standards help in easy
broad use
(4) SCORM reduces cost of content
integration.
Efforts for Use ICT for Broad base Real world E-learning model platforms:
infrastructure existing tasks uses applications (1) Examples of E-learning platforms are
Expore Change Bring in Centres of (i) Virtual class (or) Youtube
possitbilities Curriculum new usages learning
(ii) search engines
(iii) News websites Edu SAT:
(iv) Social media (1) Satellite Instruction Television
(v) Digital libraries Experiment (SITE) was started in India in
(vi) NKN(national knowledge network) 1975-1976
(vii) Wikis (2) INSAT system was started in 1983.
(viii) Related apps (3) Edu SAT project was launched in 2002
and GSAT-3 was launched in 2004
(2) The use of each platform can be as
(GSAT-3 is also known as Edu SAT)
follows
(4) Utility of Edu SAT is for conventional
(i) Lecture can be obtained using virtual
radio television broad casting interactive
class (or) you tube
radio and television exchange of data,
(ii) Content can be explored using search video conferencing and web based
engines education.
(iii) Information sources can be obtained from (5) There could be use of satellite Interactive
news websites terminals (SET) and Receive Only
(iv) Discussion forums can be obtained Terminals (ROT) in Edu SAT
through social media (6) Use of Edu SAT is also in professional
(v) E-book can be accessed using Digital and university network.
libraries (7) Central Institute of Education
(vi) Knowledge share application can be Technology (CIET) uses satellite
accessed using NKN (National technologies.
Knowledge Network) (8) Edu SAT is being used as Gyan Darshan
(vii) Quick findings can be accessed using by Doordarshan
wikis. (9) Edu SAT can be used as VICTERS
(viii)Knowledge focus can be done using Versatile ICT Enabled Resource for
related apps under E-learning. Students.
The following diagram describes E-learning Multiple objectives of Edu SAT:
model-plat forms The following are the multiple objectives of Edu
Lectures Discussion Knowledge SAT
Forums Share
(1) Broad access to quality education and
teaching resource persons
Virtual class Social Media NKN
/ Youtube (2) Supplementing curriculum based
teaching
Explore (3) To provide effective link between ICT
Quick find and education
content
E-Learning (4) To support teacher training
Search Wikis (5) To enhance distance education efforts
engines
(6) To provide quality education even to
remote areas
Information E-book Knowledge
sources (7) To provide community partnership and
focus
monitoring
News Digital Related
Websites Libraries Apps National Knowledge Network (NKN):
(1) NKN was approved in 2010
(2) National knowledge commission (4) ERNET (Education and Research
suggested to establish NKN Network) is used for Education purpose
(3) Chairman of NKN is Sam Pitrora. (5) SPACENET is used for space Research
(6) ANUNET is used for connecting
Objectives of NKN: institutions engaged to Automic research.
(1) To provide network between knowledge DAE (Department of Atomic Energy)
institutions uses ANUNET.
(2) To provide ultra high speed National The following flow shows the brief information
Information Network. about network & their applications.
(3) To connect with international knowledge NIC NET ERNET
community
(4) To provide sectoral virtual network
Government
(5) To provide advanced distance education Information Education
and collaborative education.
(6) To provide quality secure services.
(7) To provide common standard platform GARUDA SPACENET
(8) To provide test beds for multiple
implementation. Grid Space
Note: Computing Research
(1) Garuda–NKN partners meet is scheduled
in September 2016
SWANs ANUNET
(2) NKN design philosophy is scalable
Network reach with speed and network
Back bone. State Sectorial
Networks for DAE
NKN Design philosophy
National Mission on Education through ICT

Scalable Network Network backbone (NMEICT):
Reach +Speed
(1) It is launched by ministry of Human
resources development
(3) NICNET (National Informatics Centre (2) Purpose of NMEICT is to implement
Network) is linked with the NKN potential use of ICT in Higher education to
(National Knowledge Network) bring better gross enrolment ratio in higher
education.
Multiple types of network in India: (3) Access equity and equality are the
The following are the types of networks and the elements used by NMEICT
application related to the Network. (4) The major components of NMEICT are
(1) NICNET (National Informatics Centre (1) connectivity and (2) content generation.
Network) is used to obtain Government (5) The aim of NMEICT is to provide
Information. content to learners through e-Books and
(2) GARUDA is used for Grid computing e-Journals.
(3) SWAN (State Wide Area Network) is (6) NMEICT helps through one stop
used for state networks. education portal ‘Sakshat’.
(7) NMEICT is under ministry of Human (2) The purpose is to enable teachers to reach
resources Development for locations without physical presence. It
(8) NMEICT focuses on many areas. Some will lead to online students with online
of them are Interactive multimedia quality education.
content high speed connectivity low cost (3) The use of Enabling all schools with
access devices and DTH educational virtual class room is better educating
channels. children in remote and hilly areas too
(9) NMEICT is planned to connect to National Digital Literacy Mission:
universities and colleges in order to (1) National policy on IT 2012 and scheme
provide just in time quality educational for IT mass literacy together formed
resources and teachers. National Digital Literacy Mission
(2) The objectives of national digital literacy
Education and Research Network (ERNET): mission are
(1) ERNET was established in 1998. (i) At least one person with Digital
(2) It is dedicated to the needs of research literacy in every household
and education community. (ii) To provide E-Government access
(3) ERNET is given support through network (iii) To create employability.
infrastructure
(4) Now ERNET gives support for IPv6, and e-yantra:
also for high speed campus Area Network (1) e-Yantra was developed to incorporate
(5) ERNET comes under ministry of robotics in engineering education
Electronic and IT (earlier Deity) (2) e-Yantra is related to training to teachers
(6) ERNET is satellite network and students
(7) ERNET provides Domain registration (3) It promotes experimentation and
web hosting and e–mail services. competitions
(8) ERNET can also be used in consultancy (4) e-Yantra is used in Robotic labs (or)
and project management clubs in colleges
(9) Now, ERNET serves more than 1300
institutions National e-library:
(10) FIRE – Future Internet Research (1) It is ICT based national knowledge asset
Experimentation is related to ERNET. (2) It is part of digital India
(3) It will support education research and
E-Bastas: innovation
In E-Bastas publisher displays content on the (4) It is for efficient access to quality
portal. Schools browse and select the content so e-content
that students download such E-Bastas. For
example learning tablets become part of E-bastas
as they replace paper based books. National scholarship portal:
(1) It was launched in 2015
(2) The purpose of National scholarship
Enabling all schools with virtual clss Room:
portal is End – to end disbursement of the
(1) Technical support to enable all schools scholarship to beneficiaries.
with virtual classroom is given by
Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology
Advantages of ICT in Education: pace Institutions learners can set
The following are the advantages of ICT in decide
education. Theory+ Limited link Enhanced link
(1) ICT implements knowledge networks practice
(2) ICT promotes Distance education Evaluation Manual Automatic (or)
(3) ICT provides multiple interactions semi Automatic
(4) Updates can be made easily through ICT Focus Discipline Discipline +
(5) It become easy to manage education Thematic
through ICT. Learners more Also
(6) ICT provides cost effective learning homogeneous heterogeneous
(7) ICT provides scalable features Knowledge Limited Broad
(8) It provides saving in travel time (or) integration
travel cost
(9) Multiple new methods can be introduced Limitation of ICT in education:
using ICT There are three types of limitations in ICT they
(10) ICT provides skills for future are
development (1) Teacher related
(11) Content sharing is easy with the use of (2) Student related
ICT (3) Technology related
(12) Even for working people ICT helps to (1) Teacher related limitations:
save time and risk (For differently abled (i) Attitude and unwillingness to experiment
people also)
(ii) ICT related capabilities
(13) ICT uses less paper ((or) ICT is paperless
(iii) Teaching methods and techniques
technique tool)
(14) ICT works for 24 hrs 7 days
(2) Student related:
(15) ICT is learning management Tool
(i) Inadequate constructive use instead for
(16) ICT provides access to best practices
entertainment
(17) ICT has broad stakeholders
(ii) Problem faced in choice when multiple
(18) ICT is a tool for Education. conflicting in information
(iii) Over reliance on ICT may also limit
Changes in the education through ICT: critical thinking ability
The following changes have taken place from (3) Technology related:
Traditional learning to E-learning, after the (1) Inadequate software in local language
introduction of ICT in education
(2) Computer infrastructure and internet
The following table shows all these changes in availability.
different categories (or) features.
(3) Initial cost and maintenance up-gradation
issues.
Category Traditional E-learning
(or) Feature Learning
Problems in e-learning:
Activities Mainly teachers Learners better
The following are the problems that arise due to
prescribe participate
use of e-learning
Presence Timely physical Learn any (i) Language of internet content can create
presence where any time problem.
(ii) Internet speed can disturb while getting (3) It provides lab migration activity.
the information
(iii) ICT infrastructure should be provided Types of software based on accessibility:
that increases the expenditure. There are five types of software based on
(iv) Internet literacy is required to learn accessibility they are
through e-learning (i) Propriety
(v) Paper Ink writing practice gets disturbed (ii) Shareware
(vi) Sometimes even isolation problem can (iii) Freeware
arise once addicted to e-learning. (iv) Open source soft ware
(vii) Excessive content is available through (v) Free software
e-learning But the content seems to be
confusing. (i) Propriety: They are available on
payment basis and permission (or) license is
(viii) There are limits for ICT online given to one or more computers
communication
(ii) shareware: For specific period free trial
(ix) There are technological gaps in education is available then one has to purchase for
system continuation
(x) some health issues also arise due to (iii) Freeware: It is free of cost and is usually
e-learning bundled up with some operating system (or)
any other software.
World links programme: (v) Open source ware: It gives the users
(1) It is brought by world bank freedom to run/use software for any purpose
(2) The purpose of world links programme is and in any manner (It may or may not be free)
to train teachers internet connected (v) Free software: IT is freely accessible
computer in Africa, Latin America, the and can be freely used, modified copied or
middle east, south and south east Asia. distributed by anyone
Multiple services provided by world links
programme are Operating system (OS):
(i) Feasibility studies 1. operating system is collection of software
(ii) School – to school partnership that makes a computer to function
(iii) capacity development amongst teachers 2. Operating system is automatically loaded
(iv) workshops for policy makers. when computer starts up
3. Microsoft windows is an example of
Global Initiative for academic network operating system (OS)
(GIAN):
It aims at tapping the talent pool of scientists and Application software:
entrepreneurs. It will take to quality reforms with 1. It is used on installed operating system
knowledge and technology. 2. Microsoft office is an example of
application software.
FOSSE-Free and Open Source Software
Education: Utility software:
(1) It provides support for Free and Open 1. They perform basic maintenance /up –
Source Software (FOSS) keeping tasks on a computer.
(2) It is text book companion to create
documentation for FOSS
2. Examples of utility software are (6) IBM1401 and IBM1620 were popular
Antivirus of file management computers of this time
programmes (7) William Shockley and colleagues
Note: developed 2nd generation of computers at
(1) Internet explorer is example of freeware bell laboratories
(2) If source code is available then we call it
as open source software 3rd generation of computers:
(3) office 2016 is an application software not (1) The 3rd generation of computers were
the operating system developed first time in mid 1960s
(2) They are based on Integrated circuit chips
Different Generations of computers: (3) Operating system were developed in 3rd
There are five generations of computers They are generation of computers
(1) 1st generation computers (4) Size of 3rd generation of computers is
(2) Second generation computers smaller and they use less energy 3rd
generation of computers work with high
(3) 3rd generation computers speed
(4) 4th generation computer (5) Use of magnetic Ink readers high speed
(5) 5th generation computers printers is increased
(6) These computer performed much faster
1st generation computers: arithmetic and logical operations
(1) These were developed in late 1940 (7) Examples of 3rd generation of computers
(2) 1st generation computers are based on include IBM 360 series and 6000 series
vacuum tube
(3) For programming stored programmers 4th generation of computers:
were being used (1) The 4th Generation of computer were
(4) Size of 1st generation computers was developed in mid 1970s
bulky and they were using more energy. (2) Application software were developed in
(5) UNIVAC1-Universal automatic computer 4th generation of computers
1 was made in 1st generation of (3) These are based on large scale integration
computers. of transistors in single clip
(4) Size of computer of 4th generation were
2nd generation of computers: smaller and work with higher speed.
(1) The second generation of computers were (5) 4th generation of computer brought
made for the first time in late 1950s computer networks and paved way for
(2) They were based on transistors internet.
(3) For programming purpose programming (6) Very large scale Integration technology
languages were developed in 2nd (VLSI) was also introduced in 4th
generation of computers generation of computers
(4) 2nd generation of computers were using (7) Micro programming and micro computer
less size and less energy use but they were expanded in 4th generation of
were having more speed computers
(5) Commercial Application in industry and
business started from second generation
of computers
th
5 Generation of computers: (1) Railway reservation system. Insurance
(1) 5th generation of computers were companies use mainframe computers.
developed in 1990s (2) Desktop came in 4th generation.
(2) These are based on Ultra Large Scale (3) Compact desktop with more portability is
Integration (ULSI) called Laptop.
(3) Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques
were used for programming purpose. Features and differences among super
(4) Size of 5th generation of computer is the computers, Mainframe computers, and Mini
least as laptops, Tabs are introduced in computers:
5th generation of computers (1) Super computers are suited for immense
(5) There was growth of super computer calculation on few programmes where as
technology 5th generation of computers Mainframe computers are suitable to run
(6) In 5th generation of computers great too many programmes at the same time.
advancement of robotics has taken place. But Mini computers are suited for
(7) Pentium series also come up in 5th running few programmes at the same
generation of computers time.
Note: (2) The practical use of super computers is
Nuclear research and weather forecasting,
(1) 3rd generation of computers are very
where as Mainframe computers are
much advanced
having their practical use at Banking
(2) 1st generation of computers were very sector, and Mini computers are having
costly practical use in small firms with few uses.
(3) In 2nd generations of computers (3) Speed of super computers is the highest
programming languages such as COBAL, on single or few programmes, where as
FORTRAN etc., are brought. speed of Mainframe computers is very
(4) Proper operating system was not high even if too many programs are being
developed in 2nd generation of computers. run. But speed of Mini computers is
(5) The concept of PC came in 4th generation lesser than that of Mainframe computers
of computers. and speed of Micro computers is lesser
Types of Computers: than that of Mini computers.
The following are the different types of (4) Cost of super computers is the highest,
computers. where as the cost of Mainframe
(1) Super computers computers is very high. But cost of
(2) Main frame computers Miniframe computers is lower than that
of Mainframe computers and the cost of
(3) Mini-computers
Micro computers is lower than that of
(4) Desktop personal computers Mini computers.
(5) Work stations (5) High research with too extreme data base
(6) Laptops / Notebooks can be performed using super computers.
(7) Tablet PC / Laptab Mainframe computers work as server
(8) Personal Digital Assistants / Palmtops / computers. Mini computers are used by
Tabs small user group and they are also called
as small server computer.
These differences of features among the three
types of computers can be shown in the form of
table as shown below.
Note:
Feature Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers

Immense calculation on Running too many Running few programmes
Suited for
few programmes programmes at the same time at the same time
Nuclear research and
Practical use Banking sector Small firms with few users
weather fore casting
Highest on single (or) few Very high even if too many Super and Mainframe >
Speed
programmes programmes run Mini > Micro
Broad High research with too Small user group, or small
Very large ‘server computers’
Relevance extreme data base server computer
Work Stations: Tabs / Personal Digital Assistants:

(1) The basic meaning of work stations is (1) They are handy, such that they can be
terminal desktop computer in a network worked even on the plan it self.
(2) Work statons have power as single user (2) Their utility is limited. They can’t
computer, more data processing storage replace PC
(3) Work stations have better network (3) Touch screen is available for Tabs /
equipped and more network resources. Personal Digital Assistants
(4) The practical use of work station is (4) They can also be worked as smart
software development, engineering phones.
applications and desktop publishing.
Analogue computers:
Desktop Personal Computers: (1) They use continuous physical
(1) The Desktop personal computers aim at phenomenon.
single user at a time, yet multiple task (2) Examples of Analogue computers are
execution. thermometers, speedometer, and petrol
(2) They work as standalone computers but pumps
may work in a network also.
Digital Computers:
(3) Desktop personal computers are portable
but less as compared to Laptops / Note books (1) Quantities are represented as digits
usually as binaries.
(2) They are useful for large amount of data
Laptops (or) Note books:
processing
(1) They are smaller in size so they are handy
and they have less weight. Hybrid computers:
(2) The devices available with Laptops are (1) If we combine Analogue with Digital,
key board, touch pad and display screen then it becomes as Hybrid computer.
in the device. (2) They possess more speed and accuracy.
(3) Laptops / Note pads function virtually Working of a computer system:
most or all functions of a PC (1) Arithemetic logical unit performs
(4) Laptops / Note pads may or may not have whatever the task given by us.
touch screens but tablet PCs have touch (2) The data will be stored in Memory
screens. (3) Control unit gives instructions only. It
has connection with all the parts of CPU.
The following flow chart sows CPU [Central memory gets stored in hard disk. It stores
Processing Unit] and its connections with other OS & other programmes.
components. (2) ROM (Read Only Memory) stores non
Input CPU volatile memory (that can’t be erased)
Devices (3) RAM (Random Access Memory) stores
Arithmetic main memory, but it is volatile. It stores
Control Unit
Logic Unit running Programmes.
(4) Cache is part of CPU. Programmes more
in direct use & programmes more in use
Output
are stored in cache.
External Memory
Devices Storage (5) ROM is firm ware. It contains BIOS
[Basic Input Output System] and POST
[Power On Self Test]
Storage and Memory types:
The following flow chart shows the storage
(1) Hard disk performs tasks such as storage, devices
multiple programmes. Secondary
Hard Disk ROM RAM Cache
Secondary Read only Part of CPU

Memory Memory Main Memory
Storage Firm ware Volatile In more

Memory direct use
OS and BIOS Running Programmes

Multiple and Programmes more in use
Programmes POST
Booting a Computer system: ROM Hard disk

The following steps take place one after the other (1) Firm ware (1) Multiple software
in booting a computer system. (2) Read only (2) Read + Write
(1) (Power on) (3) Limited capacity (3) More capacity
(2) Power supply to different parts takes (4) Use first at boot (4) As data / Programme
place
Different computer system devices parts:
(3) CPU starts
Central Processing Unit (CPU):
(4) BIOS (Basic Input Output System) takes
1. It is called as Brain of the computer.
command
2. It uses micro processors called chips
(5) POST (Power On Self Test)
3. It determines speed and performance of
(6) RAM and Hard disk check
the computer.
(7) OS check
4. It has Arithmetic Logic Unit, control unit
(8) OS uploads in RAM and Memory Registers.
(9) Ready
Mother board (MoBo):

Comparing ROM and Hard disk: It connects various parts together.
Input devices: 5. Solid state drive
Input devices give instructions, some of the 6. Memory cards and
examples of input devices are keyboard, scanner, 7. Online storage devices.
mouse, trackball, joystick, microphone, stylus,
bar code reader. Magnetic ink, character Reader, Hard Disks:
Magnetic card Reader, Blue tooth, Optical Mark Hard disks are coated with magnetic oxide.
Reader, Biometric Devices and web camera. They have high speed and more storage capacity.
CD-Compact Disk and DVD-Digital Versatile
Output devices: Disk:
Output devices give final result. Examples of CD&DVD are of same size but DVD uses higher
output devices are frequency shorter wave length and grooves are
(1) VDU-Visual Display unit (Monitor and dense, thus DVD has more storage capacity.
Projector) and
(2) Printers Blue Ray Disk (BD):
It looks like CD or DVD but can store high data
Primary Memory: as it uses blue laser whose wave length is shorter.
Primary memory is also called as Main Memory,
as it includes RAM Random Access Memory Magnetic Tape:
and ROM-Read Only Memory. A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic
oxide divided into parallel tracks onto which data
RAM-Random Access Memory: may be put.
While switching the computer Operating system Solid State Drive (SSD):
loads from the disc onto RAM. Information is They are based on electronic circuits with no
lost when the computer is switched off. moving parts using flash memory.
Touch screens:
Read only Memory (ROM): Touch screens work as both input and output
1. It holds software that can be read but not devices. They may be resistive or capacitive.
be written.
2. An example is ROM-BIOs Resistive Touch Screens:
3. Power-On Self-Test (POST) takes place 1. If pressed electrically conducted layers
for the storage in ROM, every time the bend to touch each other.
computer is switched on. 2. Soft ware recognizes change and carries
function.
Capacitive Touch screens:
Graphic Processing Unit (GPU): 1. Electrostatic grid of tiny wires has
Its main function is to process and display electrical charge
images on the monitor. 2. They can work with human skin.
Storage devices: Printers:
These include There are two types of printers. They are
1. Hard disk (1) Impact printers
2. CD and DVD (2) Non impact printers
3. Blue Ray Disk (1) Impact Printers: These include Daisy
4. Magnetic Tape wheel, Dot-Matrix and Line Printers.
(2) Non Impact Printers: These include ink LCD-Liquid Crystal Display or TFT-Thin
jet and laser printers. Film Transistor:
Daisy wheel: 1. Crystals are manipulated to change the
way they interact with light.
It is very similar to type writer. They are on
single font and lack flexibility. 2. The display controller controls the
electric signals to the liquid crystals and
Dot Matrix Printers:
the back light.
These type of printers use an array of pins known
3. They are light weight, compact and
as print wires to strike an inked printer ribbon
consume low power.
and produce images on paper. These type of
printers use continuous and print not that good. LED-Light Emitting Diode:
1. Basically, LED monitors are LCD
Line Printers:
monitors with a LED backlight to power
These type of printers print entire line at a time LCD panel.
main use of these printers is with main frame
2. They consume less power, but in viewing
computers (or) Mini computers.
angle they are like LCD
Ink jet printers:
OLED-Organic Light Emitting Diode:
These type of printers work by ejecting ink
1. Organic material is used to convert
through tiny tubes. These are more used for
electric material into light
colour printing. Ink may spread on poor quality
paper. 2. They don’t use backlight thus low power
consumption
Laser Printers: 3. They have fast response time, wide
1. Laser printers use laser as light source and viewing angles, outstanding contrast
electro photographic imaging. levels and perfect brightness.
2. These type of printers are high speed printers
IPS (In plane Switching) Monitors:
and have high quality
1. In IPS-LCD crystals are aligned
3. The mechanism of Laser printers is similar to
horizontally to the screen rather than
photocopier.
vertically.
Plotter: 2. Electrical field is applied between each
Plotter is a large printer that generates high end of the crystal molecules termed a
quality documents by moving ink over the lateral electric field.
surface of the page more useful to architects. 3. They have more accurate colour and wide
Types of Monitors: viewing angle
These include CRT (Cathode Ray Tube), LCD, AMOLED-Active Matrix Organic Light –
LED, OLED and Plasma. Emitting Diode:
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): 1. Individual pixels are lit separately (that is
1. The CRT (also known as the picture tube) the active matrix bit) on top of a Thin
receives the signals through a cable and Film Transistor (TFT)
the signal is decoded by the display 2. Super AMOLED integrates touch sensors
controller which finally appear on a in display itself.
phosphor screen
2. They are bulky and consume more
Plasma:
power.
1. Plasmas are partially or completely Web browser:
ionized gases and vapors, which besides 1. It enables user to locate and view pages
ions and electrons also contain chemicals on a web.
and large number of electronically 2. Tim Berners Lee brought the idea in
charged particles. 1989.
2. Each plasma has its luminescence.
3. These displays mostly make up Xenon Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):
(or) neon atoms. A meta language that is applied to documents for
4. When voltage is applied, electrodes get maintaining their structure.
charged and cause ionization of gases
resulting in plasma. Telnet:
It is internet protocol that enables users to log
Frustrated Internal Total Reflection (FITR): onto a remote computer on the internet and to
1. FITR are now being developed. use remote computer as if there is direct local
2. When touched, FITR scatters light. connect.
3. Cameras on the back detect the light.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It is used for voice calls on the internet
In WWW, it defines how messages are formatted
and transmitted what action browsers and servers Green computing:
should take. 1. It means using computing resources in
environment friendly manner.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure 2. It includes green use, green displosal,
(HTTPS): green design and green manufacturing.
It Promotes privacy and integrity of visited data
Digi Locker – Digital Locker:
Hyper Text Markup Language: 1. It is platform for verifying and issuing
It is used for creating web pages documents in digital way.
2. It is move for paperless governance.
URL-Uniform Resource Locator:
1. It specifies the location of the web page. 3. Use of e-sign.
2. It points to executable files that can be Jeevan Pramaan:
fetched using File Transfer Protocol. 1. It is for pensioners.
2. Digital Life Certificate (DLC)
Domain Name: 3. This portal was started in 2014.
1. It is substitute for IP address
2. It is easier to remember National Centre for e-Government Standards:
W3C-World Wide Web Consortium: It prepares and publishes e-Government
1. It is community that develops open standards
standards to ensure long term growth of E-Hospital:
the web. 1. It is for Online Registration System (ORS)
2. It is led by Tim Berners Lee inventor of and some other services.
world wide web. 2. It uses SaaS [Software as a Service]
File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
It is used for file Transfer on the net
Ethics and Values in
Engineering Profession
Syllabus: Scope, Human Values: Morals, Values and Ethics – Integrity – Work Ethic –
Service Learning – Civic Virtue – Respect for Others – Living Peacefully – Caring -
Sharing – Honesty – Courage – Valuing Time – Co-operation – Commitment – Empathy –
Self-Confidence – Character – Spirituality, Engineering as experimentation - engineers as
responsible experimenters - codes of ethics - a balanced outlook on law, The code of ethics
for engineers – NSPE guidelines - Fundamental principles.
Index
S.No Chapter Name Page No
1 Engineering Ethics Introduction 745 – 749
2 Professional Ethics & Values in Engineering 750 – 761

Unit
1 Engineering Ethics Introduction

an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in
Ethics and morals relate to “right” and
workplaces or principles in
“wrong” conduct. While they are sometimes
religions. Morals refer to an individual’s
used interchangeably, they are
own principles regarding right and wrong.
different: ethics refer to rules provided by
Comparison chart
Ethics versus Morals comparison chart
Ethics Morals
What are they? The rules of conduct recognized Principles or habits with respect to
in respect to a particular class of right or wrong conduct. While morals
human actions or a particular also prescribe dos and don'ts,
group or culture. morality is ultimately a personal
compass of right and wrong.
Where do they come Social system - External Individual - Internal

from?
Why we do it? Because society says it is the Because we believe in something

right thing to do. being right or wrong.
Flexibility Ethics are dependent on others Usually consistent, although can

for definition. They tend to be change if an individual’s beliefs
consistent within a certain change.
context, but can vary between
contexts.
The "Gray" A person strictly following A Moral Person although perhaps

Ethical Principles may not have bound by a higher covenant, may
any Morals at all. Likewise, one choose to follow a code of ethics as it
could violate Ethical Principles would apply to a system. "Make it
within a given system of rules in fit"
order to maintain Moral integrity.
Origin Greek word "ethos" Latin word "mos" meaning "custom"

meaning"character"
Ethics versus Morals comparison chart
Ethics Morals
Acceptability Ethics are governed by Morality transcends cultural norms

professional and legal guidelines
within a particular time and place
Many employers are concerned about how their WE CAN ENFORCE ETHICS
employees behave at work. And they should be! Ethics are defined by company practices and also
How an employee behaves toward customers can common practice. A company can enforce
have a major impact on whether or not those ethical behavior by first defining what it means
customers ever come back; how an employee to be ethical in that specific organization. Some
behaves toward other employees could result in common ethics that most companies will want to
lawsuits; and how an employee behaves with enforce include the following: you don’t lie, you
suppliers could result in a criminal prosecution. don’t steal, you don’t cheat (on expense reports
There’s a lot at stake for employers when it or anything else), you don’t falsify information,
comes to making sure that employees behave the etc. A company can specifically state its ethics
way the company desires. We want employees to policies, and can hold employees to specific
be both ethical and moral. The problem is that behaviors. As in any standard reinforcement
these words have different meanings to different situation, you can either reward good behavior or
people. punish bad behavior. Most companies typically
ETHICS VS. MORALS do both. You can read an example of this
Although these terms are often used approach in the article by Stan Mack on
interchangeably by many people, they in fact Chron.com called “How to Enforce Ethical
have very different meanings. ethics is: Behavior in the Workplace.” I think Mack’s
“The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a approach is a bit too Draconian, and I much
particular class of human actions or a particular prefer the approach outlined in “How to Reward
group, culture, etc. It defines how thing are Ethical Behavior” on the Sustainable Business
according to the rules.” Forum, written by Matt McGonegle.
Either way, whether an employee engages in
Where as, morals as: ethical behavior or not can be strongly
“Principles or habits with respect to right or influenced by the company. If they act correctly,
wrong conduct. It defines how things should they keep their job and they are rewarded. And if
work according to an individuals’ ideals and they don’t, they face the consequences, which
principles.” can include losing their job. They may also be
Ethics are external constructs, while morals are fined or jailed, depending on whether their
internal beliefs that have been formed by behavior also violates ethical behavior as defined
personal experience and learning. by other authorities, such as the federal
government.
VANI Publications Ethics & Values in Engineering Profession
EMPLOYEE MORALS ARE HARDER TO I think the best course of action is to bring up the
CONTROL idea of ethics and the expectation of moral
Because morals are internal and based on how conduct during the interview process. Once the
someone was raised, it is harder to control or person is hired, you can then train him or her on
have an effect on someone’s morals. What I may the ethical code expected at your organization.
consider to be immoral may be perfectly Then, reward ethical behavior as you see it, and
acceptable to someone else. Yet, we may work administer penalties when you see the code
together as long as we do our work and abide by violated. Once people learn there are
the ethics of the organization. Of course, there consequences to their behavior, they will adjust
are some immoral behaviors that spill over into it accordingly. I would not worry about their
the unethical. At least in American business, moral behavior until such time as it causes an
stealing is considered immoral and violates most ethical violation
ethics policies. There is even a code among Preface
thieves that you don’t steal from your fellow
Natural sciences and engineering are important
thief. But there are many personal acts that
forces shaping our future. They exert both
people may engage in behind closed doors that a
positive and negative influences upon our world.
fellow employee may consider to be immoral,
We all contribute to these changes. The
while others won’t. For example, gay marriage is
engineering professions, however, have a
considered immoral by some and is perfectly
particular responsibility in structuring these
acceptable to others. How you opt to deal with
processes. Hence in 1950, the Association of
these issues will be guided by your own moral
Engineers VDI in Germany presented a
code and, of course, the laws of whatever state
document on the specific professional
you reside in.
responsibilities of engineers.
CAN YOU SCREEN FOR ETHICS AND
Recently the VDI Executive Board passed the
MORALS?
new document. “Fundamentals of Engineering
Certainly, honesty tests that have been used and
Ethics”. They are intended to offer to all
validated in some situations such as courts of
engineers, as creators of technology, orientation
law, but they are not yet used on a widespread
and support as they face conflicting professional
basis. You can ask candidates to undergo tests
responsibilities.
for illegal drug use, and that may screen out
These fundamentals have been proposed by the
some who engage in behaviors you don’t want
"VDI philosophers" together with representatives
the company associated with.
of other disciplines within the VDI Committee
One of the best screening tools I have seen used
on People and Technology.
is administering a “cultural” assessment. This
I hope that this document may strengthen
will give you an idea of whether a candidate is a
awareness and commitment in dealing with
good “fit” for your organization. Of course, this
ethical issues of the engineering professions.
assumes that you have a very good idea of what
your company culture is, and that it has been Preamble
documented. Without the proper baseline Engineers recognize natural sciences and
knowledge on which you can formulate your engineering as important powers shaping society
questions, this kind of assessment will not work. and human life today and tomorrow.
Therefore engineers are aware of their specific solutions. They furthermore include: –
responsibility. defining the technical characteristics of such
They orient their professional actions towards products and processes, – suggesting
fundamentals and criteria of ethics and alternative technical solutions and
implement them into practice. The fundamentals approaches and – taking into consideration
suggested here offer such orientation and support the possibilities of unwanted technological
for engineers as they are confronted with developments and deliberate misuse of
conflicting professional responsibilities. products and processes.
Responsibilities Orientation
1.1 Engineers are responsible for their 2.1 Engineers are aware of the embeddedness of
professional actions and the resulting technical systems into their societal,
outcomes. According to professional economic and ecological context.
standards, they fulfill their tasks as they Therefore they design technology
correspond to their competencies and corresponding to the criteria and values
qualifications. Engineers perform these implied: the societal, economic and
tasks and actions carrying both individual ecological feasibility of technical systems;
and shared responsibilities. their usability and safety; their contribution
to health, personal development and welfare
1.2 Engineers are responsible for their actions to of the citizens; their impact on the lives of
the engineering community, to political and future generations
societal institutions as well as to their 2.2 The fundamental orientation in designing
employers, customers, and technology users. new technological solutions is to maintain
1.3 Engineers know the relevant laws and today and for future generations, the options
regulations of their countries. They honour of acting in freedom and responsibility.
them insofar as they do not contradict Engineers thus avoid actions which may
universal ethical principles. They are compel them to accept given constraints
committed to applying them in their (e.g. the arbitrary pressures of crises or the
professional environment. Beyond such forces of short-term profitability). On the
application they invest their professional contrary, engineers consider the values of
and critical competencies into improving individual freedom and their corresponding
and developing further these laws and societal, economic, and ecological
regulations. conditions the main prerequisites to the
1.4 Engineers are committed to developing welfare of all citizens within modern society
sensible technology and technical solutions. – excluding extrinsic or dogmatic control.
They accept responsibility for quality, 2.3 Engineers orient their professional
reliability, and safety of new technical responsibility on the same fundamentals of
products and processes. Their ethics as everybody else within society.
responsibilities include technical Therefore engineers should not create
documentation as well as informing products which are obviously to be used in
customers about both appropriate use and unethical ways (e.g. products banned by
possible dangers of misuse of new technical international agreement). Furthermore they
may not accept far-reaching dangers or Many of these laws today take up
uncontrollable risks caused by their controversial issues related to open
technical solutions. questions in engineering sciences and ethics.
2.4 In cases of conflicting values, engineers give Engineers are challenged to invest their
priority: professional judgment into substantiating
– to the values of humanity over the such questions.
dynamics of nature, Concerning national laws, the sequence of
– to issues of human rights over technology priorities is as follows: national laws have
implementation and exploitation, priority over professional regulations, such
– to public welfare over private interests, professional regulations have priority over
and individual contracts.
– to safety and security over functionality 3.4 There may be cases when engineers are
and profitability of their technical solutions. involved into professional conflicts which
Engineers, however, are careful not to adopt they cannot resolve co-operatively with their
such criteria or indicators in any dogmatic employers or customers. These engineers
manner. They seek public dialogue in order may apply to the appropriate professional
to find acceptable balance and consensus. institutions which are prepared to follow up
Implementation such ethical conflicts. As a last resort,
3.1 Engineers are committed to keeping up and engineers may consider to directly inform
continually developing further their the public about such conflicts or to refuse
professional skills and competencies. co-operation altogether. To prevent such
3.2 In cases of conflicting values, they are escalating developments from taking place,
expected to analyze and weigh controversial engineers support the founding of these
views through discussions that cross borders supporting professional institutions, in
of disciplines and cultures. In this way they particular within the VDI.
acquire and strengthen their ability to play 3.5 Engineers are committed to educational
an active part in such technology activities in schools, universities, enterprises
assessment. and professional institutions with the aims
3.3 In all countries, national laws and of promoting and structuring technology
regulations exist which concern technology education, and enhancing ethical reflection
use, working conditions, and the natural on technology.
environment. Engineers are aware of the 3.6 Engineers contribute to developing further
relevance of engineering ethics for these and continually adapting these fundamentals
laws and regulations. of engineering ethics, and they participate in
the discussions corresponding.
Unit Professional Ethics and
2 Values in Engineering
Scope: 4. Technological advancement can be very
Engineering is transforming science into useful demanding on the engineering skill in the global
products for human comfort. Engineering is context,
something that engineers do, and what they do 5. Moral values and responsible conduct will
has profound effects on others. Ethics in play a crucial role in decision making.
engineering then is the ability as well as The study of engineering ethics within an
responsibility of an engineer to judge his engineering program helps students prepare for
decisions from the context of the general their professional lives. A specific advantage for
wellbeing of the society. It is the study of moral engineering students who learn about ethics is
issues that confront engineers and engineering that they develop clarity in their understanding
organizations when some crucial decisions are and thought about ethical issues and the practice
taken. Engineering research and practice requires in which they arise. The study of ethics helps
that the task being performed considers all the students to develop widely applicable skills in
pros and cons of a certain action and its communication, reasoning and reflection. These
implementation. skills enhance students' abilities and help them
Professional engineering bodies like IEEE, engage with other aspects of the engineering
ASME, IEI etc., have evolved comprehensive program such as group work and work
ethics codes relevant to their respective placements.
professions, based on the rich experience of their
members. Independent organizations like NSPE Professional ethics
have prepared value based ethical codes Profession is a commitment to a designated and
applicable to all engineering professions. organized occupation by virtue of being an
Teaching engineering ethics in academic authority over a body of knowledge with
institutions is undertaken largely through many requisite skills acquired through specialized
case studies for creating awareness interactively training. An occupation becomes a profession
among engineering students of all disciplines. By when a group of people sharing the same
studying engineering ethics, the students develop occupation work together in a morally acceptable
awareness and assessment skill of the likely way with members setting and following a
impact of their future decisions on moral and certain ethics code. A professional is a
ethical grounds. Ethical standards in engineering practitioner belonging to a specific profession.
are influenced by many factors: Professional ethics, as opposed to personal
1. Engineering as an experimentation for the values and morality, is a set of ethical standards
good of mankind is a notable factor involving far and values a practicing engineer is required to
reaching consequence. follow. It sets the standards for professional
2. Ethical dilemmas make engineering decisions practice, and is only learned in a professional
relatively difficult to make. school or while practicing ones own profession.
3. Risk and safety of citizens as a social Today, it is an essential part of professional
responsibility is a prime concern of an engineer. education because it helps students deal with
issues they will face.
The scope of engineering ethics envelopes Individual Responsibility:
diverse activities like An individual in his professional capacity has
1. Engineering as a social experimentation responsibility for the regular tasks he is assigned,
2. Engineers responsibility for safety for the outcomes of the actions and decisions. A
3. Role of engineers, managers, consultants etc. professional is answerable and liable for the
4. Rights of engineers actions. He should have the capacity and moral
5. Moral reasoning and ethical theories strength to defend his actions/decisions.
6. Responsibility to employers Individuals may fail for one or the other of the
7. Global issues and concerns following reasons:
The best way to teach engineering ethics is by 1. Failure to meet minimum appropriate
using case studies—not just the disaster cases standards or falling very much below
that make the news, but the kinds of cases that an expectations due to negligence,
engineer is more likely to encounter. Many real 2. Deliberate underperformance
time cases are available or some hypothetical Human values; morals, values and ethics
cases can be constructed and there are methods For understanding of how in order for
for analyzing them. individuals, organizations and societies to endure
Engineering ethics can be taught in a free- and function effectively, it is essential that an
standing course, but there are strong arguments individual's positive exalting forces be
for introducing ethics in technical courses as rediscovered and revitalized.
well. If the subject of professional ethics is how Human values embrace the entire range of values
members of a profession should, or should not, pertinent to the human condition, interest,
affect others in the course of practicing their behavior, and aspiration. While laws are a set of
profession, then engineering ethics is an essential rules for personal or corporate behavior and
aspect of engineering itself and education in working against such rules will attract
professional responsibilities should be part of recrimination and punishment, morals on the
professional education in engineering, just as it is other hand are a set of standards for personal
in law and medicine. behavior and ethics are a set of standards for
professional behavior. Morals and ethics are self
Professional Codes of Ethics imposed or regulated and voluntary when
A code of ethics prescribes how professionals are broadly interpreted.
to pursue their common ideal so that each may Work ethic
do the best at a minimal cost to oneself and those Work ethic is a set of values based on hard work
they care about. The code is to protect each and diligence. It is also a belief in the moral
professional from certain pressures (for example, benefit of work and its ability to enhance
the pressure to cut corners to save money) by character. A work ethic may include being
making it reasonably likely (and more likely then reliable, having initiative, or pursuing new skills.
otherwise) that most other members of the Workers exhibiting a good work ethic in theory
profession will not take advantage. A code is a should be selected for better positions, more
solution to a coordination problem. A responsibility and ultimately promotion.
professional has obligations to the employer, to Workers who fail to exhibit a good work ethic
customers, to other professionals- colleagues may be regarded as failing to provide fair value
with specific expectations of reciprocity.
VANI Publications Professional Ethics & Values in Engineering
for the wage the employer is paying them and In the 19th century, the Arts and Crafts
should not be promoted or placed in positions of movement of William Morris in the UK and
greater responsibility. Work ethic is not just hard Elbert Hubbard in the
work but also a set of accompanying virtues, US noted how "alienation" of workers from
whose crucial role in the development and ownership of the tools of production and their
sustaining of free markets. work product was destructive of the work ethic
Benjamin Franklin wrote: because in the expanding firms of that era, the
‘Remember, that time is money. He that can earn workers saw no point in doing more than the
ten shillings a day by his labor, and goes abroad, minimum. The notion of work ethic was revised
or sits idle, one half of that day, though he to include giving up control over the work
spends but sixpence during his diversion or process to management so that the latter could
idleness, ought not to reckon that the only study and "rationalize" the work process, and the
expense; he has really spent, or rather thrown notion of work ethic thereafter included
away, five shillings besides. ... acknowledgment of management control. Good
Remember, that money is the prolific, generating work ethics includes a positive attitude with all
nature. Money can beget money, and its work projects, being prepared to go the extra
offspring can beget more, and so on. Five mile to get things done, creating a work
shillings turned is six, turned again is seven and environment where great teamwork can flourish
three pence, and so on, till it becomes a hundred and having the capacity to encourage the best
pounds. The more there is of it, the more it performance standards from your fellow
produces every turning, so that the profits rise workers.
quicker and quicker. He that kills a breeding Service learning
sow, destroys all her offspring to the thousandth Service-Learning is a teaching and learning
generation. He that murders a crown, destroys all strategy that integrates meaningful community
that it might have produced, even scores of service with instruction and reflection to enrich
pounds.’ the learning experience, teach civic
Criticism of work ethic responsibility, and strengthen communities.
Countercultural groups, most notably slacker, Through service-learning, young people—from
hippie and hacker communities, have challenged kindergarteners to college students—use what
these values in recent decades, characterizing they learn in the classroom to solve real-life
them as submissive to authority and social problems. They not only learn the practical
convention, and not valuable in and of applications of their studies, they become
themselves, but only if it brings a positive result. actively contributing citizens and community
An alternative perspective has arisen in recent members through the service they perform.
years, suggesting that the work ethic is being Service-learning can be applied in a wide variety
subverted in a broader, more mainstream and of settings, including schools, universities, and
more readily marketed-to proportion of society. community-based and faith-based organizations.
This perspective has given rise to the phrase It can involve a group of students, a classroom or
"work smart". an entire school. Students build character and
become active participants as they work with
others in their school and community to create
service projects in areas such as education, paying for your time, and how much profit he or
public safety, and the environment. she expects to make from you. If you are
University students in Michigan looked for ways working for yourself, you should have an idea of
to support struggling local non-profit how much income you want to bring in after tax.
organizations during difficult economic times. By working these figures back to an hourly rate,
Graduate communication students honed their this gives you an idea of the value of your time.
skills while providing a wide variety of public By knowing the value of your time, you should
relations services with community partners, be able to tell what tasks are worthwhile to
including developing press kits and managing perform, and which tasks give a poor return. This
event coordination. helps you cut away the low value jobs, or argue
Service-learning is an education and youth for help with them.
development strategy that connects learning Respect for others
objectives with meaningful service to the Respect for others is based on self-respect. It
community. Students build civic, leadership, and really is following the Golden Rule: Do unto
academic skills while strengthening communities others as you would have others do unto you.
through service. Benefits include improved Being a polite and courteous person makes one a
academic achievement, increased student rare individual in today's world. Politeness, and a
engagement and civic skills, and stronger genuine concern for the rights and feelings of
communities. others in our society seems to have slammed the
Civic virtue door in our faces. A culture of rudeness has
Civic virtue is the moral underpinning of how a become a feature of modern society. Whether it's
citizen behaves and is involved in society. It is a loud cellphone conversations, line cutting, or
standard of righteous behavior in relation to a terrible customer service by staff people, finding
citizens’ involvement in society. A individual politeness in the world is on the decline.
may exhibit civic virtue by voting, volunteering You can very easily find people who view
and organizing other community activities. politeness and good manners as weakness and as
Without an understanding of civic virtue, citizens character flaws to be overcome. They argue that
are less likely to look beyond their families, rudeness succeeds and common courtesy is a
friends and economic interests. They are less mark of failure.
likely to help others in the community, to They view rudeness to others as a sign of their
volunteer their time, to give to nonprofit superiority as people, and a badge of their status.
organizations or to participate in group activity They couldn't be more wrong. Politeness and
that benefits society. Related ideas for civic common courtesy are more likely to achieve
virtue are citizenship, philanthropy, public good, success, in business and in life, than a selfish,
voluntarism and social capital. bullying attitude.
Whether in your personal relationships with
Valuing Time: others, or in your company, being polite and well
A first step in good time management is to mannered pays off in many ways. In your
understand the value of your time. personal life, remembering special days, holding
If you are employed by someone else, you need doors, and displaying good manners in general
to understand how much your employer is shows respect for the other person. That respect
will almost always be reciprocated by the other Sustainability can be expressed as meeting
person. present ecological, societal, and economical
Word of your genuine concern, for treating needs without compromising these factors for
others fairly and with respect, will improve your future generations.
company's public image dramatically. Customers Sustainable design encompasses the
and clients will refer your business to their development of appropriate technology which is
friends and family, resulting in even more a staple of sustainable living practices.
personal referrals. Good old fashioned word of Sustainable development in turn is the use of
mouth advertising, through testimonials from these technologies in infrastructure. Evidence
satisfied customers is a powerful marketing tool. from the earliest hominid remains suggest that
Everyone wants to be treated with respect, and in one of the keys to the divergence of Homo
the modern decline of manners, your business Sapiens from apes came about through an
politeness will shine like a beacon in the increasing and varied use of tools. Tool
darkness. complexity eventually became more and more
Contrary to the criticism that good manners are a complex, finally evolving into the myriad of
display of weakness, polite and respectful actions technologies we rely on today.
are a sign of self confidence. They are also It would appear therefore that whilst there are
recognition that everyone deserves to be treated humans there will always be the development of
with dignity. technologies to shape the world we live in.
Instead of taking their money and running, Ethics of technology
missing their appointments, or barging past them The Ethics of Technology is a sub-field of Ethics
in lineups, you are showing you value their time and generally sub-divided into two areas:
and rights, as well your own. The ethics involved in the development of new
In a world where good manners are in steep technology – whether it is always, never, or
decline, your polite actions will help you to stand contextually right or wrong, to invent and
out. You definitely won't be seen as a doormat. implement a technological innovation.
There is a huge difference between providing The ethical questions that are exacerbated by the
service and being subservient. Service implies an ways in which technology extends or curtails the
equal respect for yourself and others. Being power of individuals – how standard ethical
subservient is based on a lack of self respect, and questions are changed by the new powers.
has nothing to do with being polite. Show your In 1998 UNESCO set up its Ethics of Science
respect for yourself and others. and Technology Programme which aims ‘to
Display your good manners today. promote consideration of science and technology
in an ethical framework by initiating and
Peaceful living: supporting the process of democratic building.’
Our principle of ‘Peaceful living’ centers on the Likewise The Centre for Technology and Ethics
ethical and sustainable application of is a collaboration of three universities in the
technologies which would aim to provide basic Netherlands (Delft, Eindhoven, Twente) which
needs for everyone without compromising the aims:
planet’s resources.
Sustainability
To stimulate and undertake interdisciplinary and recommendations to the supervisor. At the
applied research in the field of ethics and lowest level of involvement the team plays no
technology; role in the decision making at all. Between these
To stimulate and undertake fundamental research two extremes the supervisor and team may make
in ethics relevant for the field of ethics and the decision together, or the supervisor may
technology; outline the problem and constraints for solving it
To stimulate and undertake activities in the field (time, money, etc) and hand it over to the team to
of teaching in ethics and technology; solve.
To act as an intermediary between the Involving team members in decision making,
philosophy departments involved in the three which can include problem solving, should be
universities. Ethics on the one hand and public based on whether one or more of the following is
debates and the media on the other. met:
Commitment and cooperation: The need for acceptance. The greater the need
Commitment means acceptance of the for the team to accept your decisions, the more
responsibilities and duties and cooperation you should involve them.
means help and assistance. By developing team The effect the decision will have on the team.
commitment and cooperation in a work team you The more the problem or decision affects the
are assisting the team to meet its goals and team, the more you should involve them.
objectives. Work teams that are committed and Their involvement in implementing the decision.
cooperative are more likely to achieve the goals If the team will be implementing or carrying out
the business has set. the decision, involve them.
There are a number of signals that indicate the
work team is committed and cooperating. These The ability and desire of the group to become
include: involved. If the team wants to be involved,
Maintaining or increasing quality consider involving them, particularly if they have
Reaching or exceeding production targets sufficient knowledge or expertise in the issue
Decreasing complaints from team members involved. Even if they do not, it could be useful
Limited conflict between team members for training and development purposes.
Fewer workplace injuries. Empathy
There are degrees of team involvement in Empathy is the ability to mutually experience the
decision making. Your knowledge of the skills thoughts, emotions, and direct experience of
and abilities of the team members will guide others.
your decision about the extent supported The ability to understand another person’s
employees can contribute to making a decision. circumstances, point of view, thoughts, and
There are no rules for when and how team feelings is empathy. When experiencing
members should be involved. It is a matter for empathy, you are able to understand someone
your judgment. The following diagram shows else’s internal experiences.
the degrees of involvement team members may Self-confidence
have. Self-confidence relates to self-assuredness in
At the highest level of involvement the team one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc.,
identifies and solves problems, and brings sometimes manifested excessively. Being
confident in yourself is infectious if you present meditation, prayer and contemplation, are
yourself well, others will want to follow in your intended to develop an individual's inner life.
foot steps towards success. Spiritual experiences can include being
Promise yourself, no matter how difficult the connected to a larger reality, yielding a more
problem life throws at you, that you will try as comprehensive self; joining with other
hard as you can to help yourself. You individuals or the human community; with
acknowledge that sometimes your efforts to help nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.
yourself may not result in success, as often being Spirituality is often experienced as a source of
properly rewarded is not in your control. inspiration or orientation in life. It can
Self-esteem has been directly connected to an encompass belief in immaterial realities or
individual's social network, the activities they experiences of the immanent or transcendent
participate in, and what they hear about nature of the world.
themselves from others. Positive self-esteem has Traditionally, many religions have regarded
been linked to factors such as psychological spirituality as an integral aspect of religiou
health, mattering to others, and both body image experience.
and physical health. On the contrary, low self- Among other factors, declining membership of
esteem has been associated with the outcomes of organized religions and the growth of secularism
depression, health problems, and antisocial in the western world have given rise to a broader
behavior. Usually, adolescents of poor health view of spirituality. The term "spiritual" is now
will display low self-esteem. Globally, self frequently used in contexts in which the term
confidence in boys and girls will decline during "religious" was formerly employed; compare
adolescence, and in contrast to boys, girls' self- James 1902 lectures on the "Varieties of
confidence won't shoot back up again until early Religious Experience".
adulthood. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas
During adolescence, self-esteem is affected by on moral character (qualities such as love,
age, race, ethnicity, puberty, health, body height, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness,
body weight, body image, involvement in contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a
physical activities, gender presentation, gender concern for others) - aspects of life and human
identity, and awakening or discovery of experience which go beyond a purely materialist
sexuality. Self-confidence can vary and be view of the world without necessarily accepting
observed in a variety of dimensions. belief in a supernatural reality or divine being.
Components of one's social and academic life Spiritual practices such as mindfulness and
affect self-esteem. An individual's self- meditation can be experienced as beneficial or
confidence can vary in different environments, even necessary for human fulfillment without
such as at home or in school. any supernatural interpretation or explanation.
Spirituality: Spirituality in this context may be a matter of
Spirituality is the concept of an ultimate or an nurturing thoughts, emotions, words and actions
alleged immaterial reality, an inner path enabling that are in harmony with a belief that everything
a person to discover the essence of his/her being; in the universe is mutually dependent; this stance
or the "deepest values and meanings by which has much in common with some versions of
people live. Spiritual practices, including
Buddhist spirituality. A modern definition is as – Subjects share responsibility if voluntarily
follows: accept risk
"Spirituality exists wherever we struggle with the • Reasons for monitoring outcomes:
issues of how our lives fit into the greater – Commercial purposes (e.g. product
scheme of things. This is true when our improvement)
questions never give way to specific answers or – Precautionary purposes (e.g. manage risk)
give rise to specific practices such as prayer or Nature of Subjects
meditation. We encounter spiritual issues every • Subjects:
time we wonder where the universe comes from, – Individual consumers, groups or society as a
why we are here, or what happens when we die. whole:
We also become spiritual when we become • Those who can make informed choices, and
moved by values such as beauty, love, or • Those requiring advocates:
creativity that seem to reveal a meaning or power – Disadvantaged, future generations, other
beyond our visible world. An idea or practice is species & the environment
"spiritual" when it reveals our personal desire to • Impacts:
establish a felt-relationship with the deepest – Health, safety & the environment
meanings or powers governing life.” – Changes to social structure & social status:
Examples: • Income & wealth distribution
• Computers: • Lifestyles & personal empowerment
– Developed & adopted over about three decades • Education, culture
– Significant impacts on society: Features
• Not well understood or nor always predicted, • Absence of a ‘control group’ ( equivalent non-
e.g: participants):
– The Y2K bug – Products & services usually offered to all
– However largely accepted as a positive – Benefits may such that they can’t be withheld
technology from a particular group
• Nuclear power stations • Society may have little prior understanding:
– Developed & adopted over about three decades – Innovative products & services
– Significant impacts on society: – Uncertainty in future impacts (positive or
• Not well understood nor always predicted, eg. negative)
Chernobyl • Informed judgements are difficult to make:
– Widespread concern & installed capacity in – For both experimenter and subject
decline Summary
Experimental Attributes of Engineering: • Engineering is a form of social
• Incomplete understanding of implications: experimentation:
– Insufficient time or money – Innovation with social & environmental
– Commercial advantage (desire for secrecy) impacts
– Uncertainty about impacts (sometimes – Uncertainty & risk in outcomes
unknowable) • Stakeholders have a right to informed consent:
• Participation of experimental subjects: – Information, opportunity, decision making
– Products or services often target non-engineers capability
• Problems in implementation:
A balanced outlook on Law honor, reputation, and usefulness of the
The 1969 Santa Barbara offshore spill of profession.
235,000 gallons of crude oil blackened 30 miles II. Rules of Practice
of spectacular beaches, damaged wildlife, and 1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety,
hurt the local tourist trade. Predictably, the health, and welfare of the public.
disaster prompted demands for new laws and a. If engineers' judgment is overruled under
tighter controls to prevent such occurances in the circumstances that endanger life or property,
future. A group of Southern Californians staged they shall notify their employer or client and
a burning of gasoline credit cards of the such other authority as may be appropriate.
offending oil company. Unioin oil, only to be b. Engineers shall approve only those
taken to task by alocal newspaper for taking the engineering documents that are in conformity
wrong aim. The newspaper argued that gas with applicable standards.
station operators who would suffer the most by a c. Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or
boycott are not at fault. information without the prior consent of the
NSPE CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS client or employer except as authorized or
Preamble Engineering is an important and required by law or this Code.
learned profession. As members of this d. Engineers shall not permit the use of their
profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the name or associate in business ventures with any
highest standards of honesty and integrity. person or firm that they believe is engaged in
Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.
quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the e. Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful
services provided by engineers require honesty, practice of engineering by a person or firm.
impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be f. Engineers having knowledge of any alleged
dedicated to the protection of the public health, violation of this Code shall report thereon to
safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform appropriate professional bodies and, when
under a standard of professional behavior that relevant, also to public authorities, and cooperate
requires adherence to the highest principles of with the proper authorities in furnishing such
ethical conduct. information or assistance as may be required.
I. Fundamental Canons Engineers, in the 2. Engineers shall perform services only in the
fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: areas of their competence.
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare a. Engineers shall undertake assignments only
of the public. when qualified by education or experience in the
2. Perform services only in areas of their specific technical fields involved.
competence. b. Engineers shall not affix their signatures to
3. Issue public statements only in an objective any plans or documents dealing with subject
and truthful manner. matter in which they lack competence, nor to any
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful plan or document not prepared under their
agents or trustees. direction and control.
5. Avoid deceptive acts. c. Engineers may accept assignments and assume
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, responsibility for coordination of an entire
ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the project and sign and seal the engineering
documents for the entire project, provided that participate in decisions with respect to services
each technical segment is signed and sealed only solicited or provided by them or their
by the qualified engineers who prepared the organizations in private or public engineering
segment. practice.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract
an objective and truthful manner. from a governmental body on which a principal
a. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in or officer of their organization serves as a
professional reports, statements, or testimony. member.
They shall include all relevant and pertinent 5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.
information in such reports, statements, or a. Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications
testimony, which should bear the date indicating or permit misrepresentation of their or their
when it was current. associates' qualifications. They shall not
b. Engineers may express publicly technical misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility in
opinions that are founded upon knowledge of the or for the subject matter of prior assignments.
facts and competence in the subject matter. Brochures or other presentations incident to the
c. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, solicitation of employment shall not
or arguments on technical matters that are misrepresent pertinent facts concerning
inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless employers, employees, associates, joint
they have prefaced their comments by explicitly venturers, or past accomplishments.
identifying the interested parties on whose behalf b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit, or
they are speaking, and by revealing the existence receive, either directly or indirectly, any
of any interest the engineers may have in the contribution to influence the award of a contract
matters. by public authority, or which may be reasonably
4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client construed by the public as having the effect or
as faithful agents or trustees. intent of influencing the awarding of a contract.
a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential They shall not offer any gift or other valuable
conflicts of interest that could influence or consideration in order to secure work. They shall
appear to influence their judgment or the quality not pay a commission, percentage, or brokerage
of their services. fee in order to secure work, except to a bona fide
b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, employee or bona fide established commercial or
financial or otherwise, from more than one party marketing agencies retained by them.
for services on the same project, or for services III. Professional Obligations
pertaining to the same project, unless the 1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations
circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to by the highest standards of honesty and integrity.
by all interested parties. a. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and
c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial shall not distort or alter the facts.
or other valuable consideration, directly or b. Engineers shall advise their clients or
indirectly, from outside agents in connection employers when they believe a project will not
with the work for which they are responsible. be successful.
d. Engineers in public service as members, c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment
advisors, or employees of a governmental or to the detriment of their regular work or interest.
quasigovernmental body or department shall not
Before accepting any outside engineering former client or employer, or public body on
employment, they will notify their employers. which they serve.
d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an a. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all
engineer from another employer by false or interested parties, promote or arrange for new
misleading pretenses. employment or practice in connection with a
e. Engineers shall not promote their own interest specific project for which the engineer has
at the expense of the dignity and integrity of the gained particular and specialized knowledge.
profession. b. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all
2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the interested parties, participate in or represent an
public interest. adversary interest in connection with a specific
a. Engineers are encouraged to participate in project or proceeding in which the engineer has
civic affairs; career guidance for youths; and gained particular specialized knowledge on
work for the advancement of the safety, health, behalf of a former client or employer.
and well-being of their community. 5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their
b. Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal professional duties by conflicting interests.
plans and/or specifications that are not in a. Engineers shall not accept financial or other
conformity with applicable engineering considerations, including free engineering
standards. If the client or employer insists on designs, from material or equipment suppliers
such unprofessional conduct, they shall notify for specifying their product.
the proper authorities and withdraw from further b. Engineers shall not accept commissions or
service on the project. allowances, directly or indirectly, from
c. Engineers are encouraged to extend public contractors or other parties dealing with clients
knowledge and appreciation of engineering and or employers of the engineer in connection with
its achievements. work for which the engineer is responsible.
d. Engineers are encouraged to adhere to the 6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain
principles of sustainable development 1in order to employment or advancement or professional
protect the environment for future generations. engagements by untruthfully criticizing other
3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice engineers, or by other improper or questionable
that deceives the public. methods.
a. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements a. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept
containing a material misrepresentation of fact or a commission on a contingent basis under
omitting a material fact. circumstances in which their judgment may be
b. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may compromised.
advertise for recruitment of personnel. b. Engineers in salaried positions shall accept
c. Consistent with the foregoing, engineers may part-time engineering work only to the extent
prepare articles for the lay or technical press, but consistent with policies of the employer and in
such articles shall not imply credit to the author accordance with ethical considerations.
for work performed by others. c. Engineers shall not, without consent, use
4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office
confidential information concerning the business facilities of an employer to carry on outside
affairs or technical processes of any present or private practice.
7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, a. Engineers shall, whenever possible, name the
maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the person or persons who may be individually
professional reputation, prospects, practice, or responsible for designs, inventions, writings, or
employment of other engineers. Engineers who other accomplishments.
believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal b. Engineers using designs supplied by a client
practice shall present such information to the recognize that the designs remain the property of
proper authority for action. the client and may not be duplicated by the
a. Engineers in private practice shall not review engineer for others without express permission.
the work of another engineer for the same client, c. Engineers, before undertaking work for others
except with the knowledge of such engineer, or in connection with which the engineer may make
unless the connection of such engineer with the improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or
work has been terminated. other records that may justify copyrights or
b. Engineers in governmental, industrial, or patents, should enter into a positive agreement
educational employ are entitled to review and regarding ownership.
evaluate the work of other engineers when so d. Engineers' designs, data, records, and notes
required by their employment duties. referring exclusively to an employer's work are
c. Engineers in sales or industrial employ are the employer's property. The employer should
entitled to make engineering comparisons of indemnify the engineer for use of the information
represented products with products of other for any purpose other than the original purpose.
suppliers. e. Engineers shall continue their professional
8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility development throughout their careers and should
for their professional activities, provided, keep current in their specialty fields by engaging
however, that engineers may seek in professional practice, participating in
indemnification for services arising out of their continuing education courses, reading in the
practice for other than gross negligence, where technical literature, and attending professional
the engineer's interests cannot otherwise be meetings and seminars.
protected. Footnote 1 "Sustainable development" is the
a. Engineers shall conform with state registration challenge of meeting human needs for natural
laws in the practice of engineering. resources, industrial products, energy, food,
b. Engineers shall not use association with a non transportation, shelter, and effective waste
engineer, a corporation, or partnership as a management while conserving and protecting
"cloak" for unethical acts. environmental quality and the natural resource
9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering base essential for future development.
work to those to whom credit is due, and will
recognize the proprietary interests of others.
Unit
7 Basics of Project Management

1. What is a project.  Estimating Costs
 What is project Management.  Establishing the cost Baseline
 Skills every good project Manager Needs  Understanding stake holders
 Understanding organizational structures  Communicating the plan
 Understanding project life cycles and
6. Risk planning
project management processes.
 Planning for Risks
2. Creating the project charter  Planning your Risk Management
 Exploring the project management  Indentifying potential Risk
knowledge areas
 Analyzing Risks using Qualitative
 Understanding how projects come about Techniques
 Kicking off the project charter  Quantifying risk
 Formalizing and publishing the project  Developing a risk response plan
charter
 Indentifying stakeholders 7. Planning project resources
3. Developing the project scope statement  Procurement planning
 Developing the project Management plan  Developing the human resource
 Plan scope management management plan
 Collecting requirements  Quality planning
 Defining scope  Bringing it all together
 Writing the project scope statement 8. Developing the project team
 Creating the work breakdown statement  Directing and managing project work
4. Creating the project schedule  Acquiring the project team
 Creating the schedule management plan  Developing the project team
 Defining activities  Managing project teams
 Understanding the sequence Activities 9. Conducting procurements and sharing
process Information
 Estimating activity Resources  Conducting procurements
 Estimating Activity durations  Laying out Quality Assurance procedures
 Developing the project schedule  Managing project information
5. Developing the project budget and  Managing stakeholder engagement
communicating the plan. 10. Measuring and controlling project
 Creating the project cost management plan performance
 Monitoring and controlling project work of a project is to meet its goals and to
conclude.
 Controlling procurements
 Controlling communications  Managing projects and managing operations
require different skill sets. Operations
 Managing perform integrated change management involves managing the business
control operations that support the goods and services
 Controlling stakeholder Engagement the organization is producing.
11. Controlling work Results  Operations manager may include line
 Monitoring and controlling risk supervisors in manufacturing, retail sales
mangers, customer service call center mangers
 Managing cost changes and more.
 Monitoring and controlling schedule The skills needed to manage a project include
changes general management skills, interpersonal
 Utilizing control Quality techniques skills, planning and organization skills and
 Validating project scope more.
 Controlling scope Stakeholders:

A project is successful when it achievers its
12. Closing the project and applying professional
responsibility objectives and meets or exceeds the
 Formulating project closeout expectations of the stakeholders.
 Closing out the project
Stakeholders are these folks (or
 Closing out the procurements
organizations) with a vested interest in your
 Balancing stakeholders Interests at project
close project. They may be active (or) passive as far
 Professional responsibility as participation on the project goes, but the

one thing they all have in common is that each
 Operations are ongoing and repetitive. They of them has something to either gain (or) lose
involve work that is continuous without an
ending date and you often repeat the same as a result of the project.
processes and produce the same results.
Stakeholder identification is not a onetime
 One way to think of operations is the
process. You should continue to ask fellow
transforming of resources (steel, and
fiberglass, for example) into outputs (cars). team members and stakeholders if there are
 The purpose of operations is to keep the other stakeholders who should be a part of the
organization functioning where as the purpose project.
VANI Publications Basics of Project Management
Project stakeholders:
Project
Project Manager
Project Organizational Business Functional Executive Project

Customer Vendors Management
Sponser groups Partners Management Managers
Office
Stakeholders: describe, organize, and monitor the work
Project manager of project activities.

Project sponsor Project managers are the people
Customer responsible for managing the project process and
Business partners
applying the tools and techniques used to carry
Executive mangers
out the project activities.
Organizational groups
Vendors  Project management is a collection of
Functional managers processes that includes initiating a new
Project management office project, planning, putting the project
Project characteristics: management plan into action and

1. Projects are unique Measuring progress and performance. It
2. Projects are temporary in nature and involves identifying the project
have a definite beginning and ending requirements, establishing project
date.
objectives, balancing constraints, and
3. Projects are completed when the
project goals are achieved (or) it’s taking the needs and expectations of the
determined the project is no longer
key stakeholders into consideration.
viable
4. A successful project is one that meets Planning is one of the most important
the expectations of your stakeholders. functions you will perform during the
course of a project.
Project Management:
Project management brings together a set  It sets the standard for the remainder of the
of tools and techniques – performed by people – to projects life and is used to track future
project performance. Before we begin the
planning process, let’s look at some of the centrally managing and coordinating groups of
ways the work of project management is related projects to meet the objectives of the
organized. program.
Programs: Portfolios:
Programs are groups of related projects, Portfolios are collections of programs, sub
sub programs, or other works that are managed portfolios, operations, and projects that support
using similar techniques in a co – ordinate fashion. strategic business goals or objectives.
When projects are managed collectively as Programs and projects within a portfolio
programs, it’s possible to capitalize on benefits are not necessarily related to one another in direct
that wouldn’t be achievable if the projects were way. However, the overall objective of any
managed separately. program or project in this portfolio is to meet the
The management of this collection of strategic objectives of the portfolio, which in turn
projects – determining their interdependencies, should meet the strategic objectives of the
managing among their constraints, and resolving department and ultimately the business unit (or)
issues among them – is called program corporation.
management. Program management also involves
Purpose Area of focus

Applies and uses project
management processes, Delivery of products, services,
Project
or results
knowledge, and skills
Collections of related projects,
Program subprojects, or work managed Project interdependencies

in a coordinated fashion
Alings projects / programs/

Portfolios / sub port folios to Optimizing efficiencies,
Portfolios objectives, costs, resources,
the organizations strategic
risks and schedules.
business objectives
Project Management offices: organizational project management (OPM)

The project management office (PMO) is framework.
usually a centralized organizational unit that The key purpose of a PMO is to provide
oversees the management of projects and support for project managers.
1. Providing an established project
programs throughout the organization
management methodology including
The most common reason company starts a templates, forms, standards, and more.
2. Mentoring, coaching, and training
project management office is to establish and
project managers.
maintain procedures and standards of 3. Facilitating communication within and
project management methodologies and to mange across projects.
resources assigned to the projects in the PMO. 4. Managing resources.
PMOs are often tasked with establishing an
PMO organizational types:
PMO type Role Level of Control

Consulting:
Supportive Templates Low
Project repository
Compliance
Project management
Controlling Moderate
Framework conformance to
methodologies
Controlling
Directive High
PMO manages projects
Skills that every Good project Manager Needs:  Interpersonal skills are often called soft skills
 Project managers have been likened to small – and include communications, leadership,
business owners they need to know a little bit decision making, and more
about every aspect of management
 General management and interpersonal skills
 General management skills induce every area are plays a major role on every project
of management from accounting to strategic
 But some projects require specific skills in
planning, supervision, personal administration
certain application areas
and more
 Application areas consists of categories of vendor quotes, contracts, and much more to
projects that have common elements these track and be able to locate at a moments.
elements (or) Application areas, can be Note:
defined several ways:  You will also have to organize meetings, put
By industry group (automotive, together teams, and perhaps manage and
phasemacetical) organize media – release schedules,
By department (accounting, marketing) and depending on your project.
By technical (software development,  Time management skills are closely related to
engineering) (or) organizational skills. It is difficult to stay

organized without an understanding how you
Management (procurement, research and
are managing your time.
development) specialties
Conflict management skills:
The application areas are usually concerned
Conflict management involves solving
with disciplines, regulations, and the specific
problems problem solving is a really a
needs of the project the customer of the
twofold process. First you must define the
industry
problem by separating the causes from the
Communication skills: symptoms.
One of the single most important Often when define problems, you end up just
characteristics of a first rate project manager describing the symptoms instead of getting to
is excellent communication skills. Written the heart of what’s causing the problem.
and oral communications are the backbone of
To avoid that, ask yourself questions like, Is if
all successful projects.
an internal problem (or) external problem? Is
Organizational and planning skills: it a technical problem? Are there
Organizational and planning skills are closely interpersonal problems between team
related and probably the most important members? Is it managerial? What are the
skills, after common skills, a project manager potential impacts (or) consequences? These
composes. kinds of questions will help you get to the

cause of the problem?
As a project manager you will have project
documentation, requirements information,
memos, project reports, personnel records,
Negotiation and Influencing skills: management and then back again is a finely
Effective problem solving requires tuned and necessary talent.
negotiation and influencing skills. We will Team-building and motivating skills:
utilize negotiation skills in one form or Project managers will rely heavily on team –
another every day building and motivational skills. Teams are
Negotiation in projects is necessary in often formed with people from different parts
almost every area of the project, form scope of the organization. These people might or
definition to budgets, contracts, resource might not have worked together before, so
assignments, and more. This might involve some component of team– building
one – on – one negotiation (or) with teams of groundwork might involve the project
people, and it can occur many times manager. The project manager will set the
throughout the project tone for the project team and will help the
members work through the various stages of
Power and politics are techniques used to
team development to become fully functional.
influence people to perform. Power is the
ability to get people to do things they Motivating the team especially during long
would not do otherwise. It is also the ability projects (or) when experiencing a lot of
to change minds and the course of events bumps along the way is another important
and do influence outcomes role the project manager fulfills during the
Leadership skills: course of the project
Leaders and mangers are not synonymous Role of a project Manager:

terms. Leaders impart vision gain consensus Project managers are responsible for
for strategic goals, establish direction, and assuring the objectives of the project are met.
inspire and motivate others. Projects create value which in turn increases
Managers focus on results and are the business value of the organization.
concerned with getting the job done according Business value is the total value of all the
to the requirements. Even though leaders and assets of the organization including both
managers are not the same project managers tangible and intangible elements. You must
must exhibit the characteristics of both during also have the following capabilities
different times on the project understanding  Knowledge: of project management
when to switch from leadership to
techniques
 Performance: the ability to perform as a known as the traditional approach to
project manager by applying your knowledge organizing businesses
 Personal: behavioral characteristics including Functional organizations are centered on

leadership abilities, attitudes, either, and more specialties and grouped by function which is
why it’s called functional organization.
Organizational structures:
As an example the organization might have a
All organizational are structured in one of
human resources department finance
three ways: functional, projectized, or matrix
department, marketing department, and soon.
Functional organizations:
The work in these departments is specialized
One common type of organization is the
functions to perform specific duties for the
functional organization this is probably the
department.
oldest style of organization and is therefore,
Functional organizations chart:
CEO
VP Human
VP Finance
Resources
Manager Human Manager Human Manager Manager

Resources Resources Finance Finance
Staff Staff Staff Staff

Don’t talk to the big boss without first talking to your who talks to their boss who talks to the big boss.
Wise project managers should determine whether there is a chain of command how strictly it’s enforced
and how the chain is linked before venturing outside it.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. There is an enduring organizational 1. Project managers have little to
structure. no formal authority.
2. There is a clear career path with separation
2. multiple projects compete for
of functions, allowing specialty skills to
limited resources and priority.
flourish.
3. Employees have one supervisor with a clear 3. Project team members are loyal
chain of command. to the functional manager.
Projectized organizations:
Projectized organizations are nearly the opposite of functional organizations. The focus of
this type of organization is the project itself. The idea behind a project zed organization is to
develop loyalty to the project not to a functional manager.
CEO
Project Project Project Project Project

Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager
Project Project Project Project Project

Team Team Team Team Team
Members / Members / Members / Members / Members /
staff staff staff staff staff
 Organizational resources are dedicated to other areas in the organization or to hire them
projects and project work in purely project from outside if needed
zed organizations. For example if there is not enough money in
Project managers are responsible for making the budget to hire additional resources the
decisions regarding the project and acquiring project manager will have to come up with
and assigning resources. They have the alternatives to solve this problem. This is
authority to choose and assign resources from known as a constraint
You can indentify projectized organizations in least one project manager it’s possible that
several ways: employees could report to multiple project
 Project managers have high to ultimate managers if they are working on multiple
projects at one time.
authority over the project.
Functional managers pick up the
 The focus of the organization is the project.
administrative portion of the duties and assign
 The organizations resources are focused on
employees on the various projects. Project
projects and project work.
managers are responsible for executing the
 Team members are co – located. project and giving out work assignments
 Loyalties are formed to the project, not to a based on project activities. Project managers
and functional managers share the
functional manager.
responsibility of performance reviews for the
 Project teams are dissolved at the conclusion
employee.
of the project.
Project focus in matrix organizations:
Matrix organizations: Matrix organizations allow project managers
Matrix organizations came about to minimize
to focus on the project and project work just
the differences between and take advantage of
as in a projectized organization. The project
the strengths and weaknesses of functional
team is free to focus on the project objectives
and projectized organizations. The idea at
with minimal distraction from the functional
play here is that the best of both
department.
organizational structures can be realized by
Balance of power in a matrix organization:
combining them into one. The project
A lot of communication and negotiation takes
objectives are fulfilled and good project
place between the project manager and the
management techniques are utilized while still
functional manager. This calls for a balance
maintaining a hierarchical structure in the
of power between the two, or one will
organization
dominate the other.
Employees in matrix organization often times
report to one functional manager and to at
Strong matrix organizational chart
CEO
Manager of Information
Finance Marketing Production
Project managers Technology
Project Staff Staff Staff Staff

Manager
Project Staff Staff Staff Staff

Manager
Most organizations today use some Understanding Project life cycles and project
management processes:
combination of the organizational structures
Project life cycles are similar to the life cycle
described here. They are a composite of
that parents experience raising their children
functional, projectized, and matrix structures.
to adulthood children start out as infants and
It’s rare that an organization would be purely
generate lots of excitement wherever they go.
functional (or) purely projectized. Projectized
However not much is known about them as
structures can co artist within functional
first so, you steady them as they grow and
organizations, not most composite
you assess their needs over time, they mature
organizations are a mix of functional and
and grow (and cost a lot of money in the
project zed structures.
process) until one day the parent’s job is
Project based organizations: done.
There is one more structure we should talk Project start out just like this and ingress
about called a project – bases organization along similar path someone comes up with a
(PBO) A PBO is a temporary structure an great idea for a project and actively solicits
organization puts into place to perform the support for it. The project after being
work of the project. approved progresses through the intermediate

phases to the ending phase, where it is
completed and closed out.
Project phases and project life cycles: Life cycle categories:
There are three categories of project life
Most projects are divided into phases and all
cycles. Each of these project life cycle contain
projects large (or) small have a similar project
the phases or iterations.
life cycle structure.
Project phases generally consist of segments 1. Predicative cycles (Also known as fully
of work that allow for easier management, plan - Driven Approach (or) waterfall :
The project scope is defined at the
planning, and control of the work. The work
beginning of the project and changes are
and the deliverables produced during the
monitored closely, if changes are made you
phase are typically unique to that phase. Some
must revisit and modify plans and formally
projects may consist of one phases and others
accept the changes to the scope and
may have many phases.
subsequent project management plan. The
The number of phases depends on the project
work of each phase is usually distinct and
complexity and the industry. For example
not repeated in other phases. Schedule and
information technology projects might
budgets are defined early in the life cycle as
progress through phases such as requirements,
well.
design, program, test and implement. All the
2. Interactive and Incremental life cycles:
collective phases the project progresses
Project deliverables are defined early in the
through in concern are called the “project life
life cycle and progressively elaborated as the
cycle” project life cycles are similar for all
project progresses. Schedule and cost
projects regardless of their size (or)
estimates are continually refind as the end
complexity.
product service or result of the project is more
The phases that occur within the project life
clearing defined.
cycle are requital and sometimes overlap each
Iterative life cycles are a perfect choice for
other most projects consist of the following
large projects, complex projects for these
structure.
where changing objectives and scope are
1. Beginning of the project
known a head of time or for projects where
2. Planning and organizing the work of the
project deliverables need to be delivered
3. Performing the work of the project incrementally. Each phase requires
4. Closing out the project
performing all of the project management
process groups.
3. Adaptive life cycles (Also known as agile Fast tracking means that a later phases is
methods or change driven methods):
started prior to completing and approving the
Choose this method when active
phase, or phases, that come before it. This
participation of year stakeholders is required
technique is used to shorten the overall
throughout the project when you are not
duration of the project
certain of all the requirements at the
Project phases are performed within a
beginning of the project or when you work in
project life cycle project life cycles typically
a changing environment. This lifecycle
consist of initiating the project performing the
produce deliverables or portions of
work of the project and so on as a result most
deliverables, in short time periods of 2 to 4
projects have the following characteristics in
weeks. Each iteration must produce
common:
something that is ready for release at the end
 In the beginning of the project life cycle,
of the time period, and as such the time period
and the resources are fixed. when the project is initiated costs are low and
few team members are assigned to the project.
Multi – phased projects:  As the project progress costs and staffing
Projects may consist of one (or) more
increase and then taper off at closing.
phases. The phases of a project are often
 The potential that the project will come to a
performed sequentially but there are situations
successful ending is lowest at the beginning
where performing phases concurrently or
of the project its chance for success increases
overlapping the start date of a sequential
as the project progresses through its places
phase, can benefit the project.
and life cycles stages.
There are two types of phase – to – phase
relationships:  Risk is highest at the beginning of the project
and gradually decreases the closer the project
1. Sequential Relationships:
comes to completion.
One – phase must finish before the next phase
 Stakeholders have the greatest chance of
can begin.
influencing the project and the characteristics
2. Overlapping Relationships:
of the product service or result of the
One –phase starts before the prior phase
project in the beginning phases and have less
completes.
and less influence as the project progresses.
Sometimes phases are overlapped to shorten
Project Management process Groups:
(or) compress the project schedule. This is
Project management processes organize and
called “fast tracking”.
describe the work of the project.
There are the five project management working on the project. The outputs of the
process groups: initiating process group including the project
1. Initiating charter and identification of the stakeholders
2. Planning become inputs into the planning process
3. Executing group.
4. Monitoring and controlling
Planning:
5. Closing
All these process groups have individual The planning process group is the process
processes that collectively make up the group of formulating and revising project goals and
for example the Initiating process group has objectives and creating the project
two processes called develop project charter management plan that will be used to achieve
and indentify stakeholders th goals the project was undertaken to
Collectively these process groups – including address. The planning process group also
all their individual processes – make up the involves determining alternative courses of
project management process. Projects or each action and selecting from among the best of
phase of a project, start with the initiating these to produce the projects goals
process and progress through all the processes planning has more process than any of the
in the planning process group the executing other project management process groups.
process group and so on until the project is To carry out their functions, the executing
successfully completed (or) it is canceled all monitoring and controlling and closing
injects must complete the closing processes process groups produced during the
even if a project is killed. planning processes and the documentation
Initiating: must encompass all areas of project
The initiating process group as its name management and considers budgets activity
implies, occurs at the beginning of the project identification scope planning, schedule
and at the beginning of each project phase for development risk identification staff
large projects. Initiating acknowledges that a acquisition, procurement planning and more.
project or the next project phase should begin. The greatest conflicts a project manager will
This process group grants the approval to encounter in this process group.
commit the organizations resources to Executing: The executing process group

working on the project (or) phase and involves putting the project management plan
authorizes the project manger to begin into action it’s here that the project manager
will coordinate and direct project resources to management plan. The idea is to identify
meet the objectives of the project problems as soon as possible and apply
management plan. This process group is
Closing: The closing process group is probably
typically where approved changes are
the most often skipped process group in
implemented the executing process group will
project management closing brings a formal
utilize the most project time and resources
orderly and to the activities of a project phase
and as a result costs are usually highest during
or to the project itself once the project
the exacting processes.
objectives have been met most of as are ready
Monitoring and controlling:
to move on to the next project.
The monitoring and controlling process group
However closing is important because all the
is where project performance measurements
project information is gathered and stored for
are taken and analyzed to determine whether
future reference.
the project is staying true to the project
Characteristics of the process Groups:
Monitoring
Initiating Planning Executing Closing
S.No Controlling
1. Costs Low Low Highest Lower Lowest
2. Staffing levels Lowest Low High High Low
Chance for
3. Lowest Low Medium High Highest
Successful completion
4. Stakeholder influence Highest High Medium Low Lowest
Risk probability of
5. Highest High Medium Low lowest
Occurrence
The process flow: You should not think of the managing a project based on the complexity
five process groups as onetime processes that are and scope of the project available resources,
performed as discrete elements. Rather these budget and so on. As the project progresses,
processes interact and overlap with each other. the project management processes might be
They are iterative and might be revisited and revisited and revised to update the project
revised several times as the project is refined management plan as more information
throughout its life. becomes known.
Process Interactions: Underlying the concept that process groups
Project managers must determine the are iterative is a cycle the Plan – Do – Check
processes that are appropriate for effectively –Act cycle, which was originally defined by
Walter skewhart and later modified by project management process groups interact.
Edward Deming The cycle interactions can be mapped to
The idea behind this concept is that each work the five project management process
element in the cycle is results oriented. The groups
result from the plan cycle become inputs into
the Do Cycle and so on, much like the way
Initiatin
Project phase
(Feasibility
Pla D
Planning Executing
Monitoring Monitoring
and control and control
Ac Chec
Closin
Initiatin
Project
(Requirements
01. Which organization has set the defacto a username with at least six characters. This
standards for project management is considered which of the following?
techniques?
(a) Project initiation
(a) PM BOK (b) PMO
(b) Ongoing operations
(c) PMI (d) PBO
(c) A project
Ans: (c) (d) Project execution

Ans: (b)
02. The VP of marketing approaches you and
03. A project is considered successful when
requests that you change the visitor logon
____
screen on the company’s website to include
(a) The product of the project has been (d) Fast tracking is a compression technique
manufactured
that can be applied as phase –to phase
(b) The project sponsor announces the
completion of the project relationship
(c) The product of the project is turned over Ans: (b)

to the operations area to handle the
ongoing aspects of the project 06. The amount of authority a project manager-
(d) The project meets the expectations of the possesses can be related to all of the
stake holders
following except which one?
Ans: (d)
(a) The organizational structure
04. Which of the following applies a set of tools
(b) The key stake holder’s influence on the
and techniques used to describe, organize, project
and monitor the work of project activities to (c) The interaction with various levels of
management
meet the project requirements?
(d) The project management maturity level
(a) Project managers of the organization
(b) Project management Ans: (b)
(c) Stake holders
07. Which one of the following is the advantage
(d) a & c
of a functional organization?
Ans: (b)
(a) All employees report to one manager and
05. All of the following are true regarding phase
have a clear chain of command
to phase relationships except for which one?
(b) All employees report to two (or) more
(a) Planning for in interactive phase
managers, but project team members
beginnings when the work of the
show loyalty to functional managers
previous phase is progressing
(c) The organization is focused on projects
(b) Hand off’s occur after a phase – end
and project work
review in an overlapping phased project
(d) Teams are co-located.
(c) During sequentially phased projects, the Ans: (a)
previous phase must finish before the
08. You have been assigned to a project in
next phase can begin
which the objectives are to direct customer
calls to an interactive voice response system
before being connected to a live agent. You
are incharge of media communications for
this project. You report to the project (a) Initiating, executing, planning,
manager in charge of this project and the VP monitoring and controlling and closing
of marketing, who share responsibility for (b) Initiating, monitoring and controlling,
this project. Which organizational structure planning, executing and closing
do you work in?
(c) Initiating, planning, monitoring and
(a) Functional organization
controlling, executing and closing
(b) Weak matrix organization
(d) Initiating, planning, executing,
(c) Projectized organization
monitoring, controlling and closing
(d) Balanced matrix organization Ans: (d)
Ans: (d)
11. During which project management process
09. You have been assigned to a project in
group are risk and stakeholder’s ability to
which the objectives are to expand three
influence project outcomes the highest?
miles of the north-to south highway through
(a) Planning
your city by two lanes in each direction. You (b) Executing
are in charge of the demolition phase of this (c) Initiating
project, and you report to the project (d) Monitoring and controlling
manager in charge of this project. You have Ans: (c)
been hired on contract and will be released at

the completion of the demolition phase.
What type of organizational structure does
this represent?
(a) Functional organization

(b) Weak matrix organization
(c) Projectized organization
(d) Balanced matrix organization
Ans: (c)
10. What are the five project management

process groups, in order?
Basics of Material Science
And Engineering
Index
1 Basics 781 – 787
Dielectric Properties of Materials in Static

2 788 – 798
Electric Fields
Dielectric Properties of Materials in
3 799 – 802
Alternating Fields
4 Magnetic Properties of Materials 803 – 812
5 Conductive Materials 813 – 817
6 Semiconductors 818 – 819
7 Miscellaneous 820 – 828

Unit
1 Basics
BASICS: number (n), maximum possible no. of
There are around 106 atoms present in the electrons is [ 2n2]
Nature of materials are formed due to Ex: shell number no. of e- s electron
bonding of single type of atoms. Then they configuration
are called as Elements n= 1 (k- shell) 2 (1)2= 2 1s2
Ex: copper, silver etc. n= 2 (L- shell) 2(2)2=8 2s2
6
The major particles of atom are neutrons, 2p
protons and electrons. The centre of the n= 3 ( m- shell) 2 (3)3 =18 3s2
atom is called nucleus: Consists of 3p6 3d10
Neutrons and protons. Around the n=4 (n- shell) 2(4)2= 32 4s2
nucleus, Electrons revolve, Inside Nucleus, 4p6 4d10 4f14
protons, Neutrons are present as their
mass is more. They occupy very less According to the strength, chemical bonds
volume. Electron rotates around the are grouped to primary and secondary
nucleus, electron mass very. So it occupies bonds.
more volume Electron Revolves around
the Nucleus in the form of charge cloud) The primary bonds are inter atomic bonds
whereas secondary are inter molecular
The charge on the proton is +1.6 10-19C. bonds. The primary bonds are stronger
Charge on the electron is -1.6 10-10C, so than the secondary bonds.
the single atom (Hydrogen) is neutral In general, there are 4 types of bonds,
neutrons do have any charge.
1. Ionic band
Ex: Helium atom, Z=2
2. Covalent bond Primary bond
Atomic Number (no. of e-(or) No. of 3. Metallic bond
project Different electron rotate in 4. Vander wall bond  Secondary bond.
different path. Average distance of both 1. Ionic Bond:
paths is same. Same atoms are ready to give electrons
The state of an electron in an atom can be (Eg: sodium)
described by 4 quantum nos. Some other atoms are ready to take
1. Principle Quantum number (n) electron and form a stable structure (Eg:
N= 1, 2, 3, ………………… chlorine). These type atoms formed ionic
2. Orbital Quantum Number (l) bond, Eg (Na cl).
L= 0, 1,…………………….. (n-1) The general characteristics of materials
3. Magnetic quantum Number (ml ) having bonds are
Ml= 1,  1 , ……………………. L a. high strength
4. Spin Quantum number (ms) b. High hardness
Ms= + ½ - 1/2. c. Brittleness
According to Pauli exclusion principle, “ No d. High melting point
two electrons can be same quantum e. High insulating point ( property)
numbers “ so with a principle quantum Ex: mg cl2, Nacl, cuo etc.
VANI Publications Basics
2. Covalent Bond: Depending upon the manner of atomic
Some atoms are not ready to receive or grouping materials are classified as having
done electrons completely. These type of molecular structure crystal structures,
atoms share the electrons with amorphous structure.
surrounding atoms and forms a bond this
is called covalent bond. Molecular structure
Eg: silicon These structures have a no. of atoms that
are together by primary bonds.
The materials having covalent bond have Ex: H1O, C1 H4 etc.
the following properties.
1. High melting point Crystal structure
2. Brittle in nature Crystal structures are assumed by solid
3. Electrical Insulators marten here atoms are arranged in a
4. Hard in nature regular geometrical array known as space
lattice. These lattices described through a
3. Metallic Bond
unit building block called unit cell.
In some atoms, electrons are loosely
attached to the nuclear force and also
Amorphous structure:
after donating electrons they become
In glass, the atoms are not regular, this is
stable structure (They don’t participate in
called amorphous structure.
chemical reaction). These type of atoms
donate electrons to the common pool.
UNIT CELL:
A unit cell is defined as the basic structure
This common pool of electrons have – ve
of atoms arranged in a material.
charge and it forms a bond with + ve ion.
This is metallic bond.
Different forms of unit cell have different
length, different angles as given below
Ex: Aluminium , Copper, silver etc.
Properties of the materials having metallic
Cubic structure:
bond:
1. High electrical conductivity
2. High thermal conductivity
3. Ductility ( eary bending)
4. Opaque to light
4. Vander wall bond

Some atoms are chemically inactive and
they not form compounds with other
atoms. These type atoms are together with
weak bonding. These are called Vander
wall bonds. a= b= c
== =900
Ex: solid Argon, HF A  length along X – axis
Hydrogen (Bridge), H2 O B  length of cell along Y- axis
Atom Arrangement in materials: C  length along Z- axis
VANI Publications Material Science & Engineering
  Angle b/w a, b lines ( , , ) 1 1 

  Angle b/w b,c lines ℎ =  2 , 2 ,1
  Angle b/w a,c lines
1 1 1 2 2 1
, , = , ,
1 1 1
Tetragonal structure:
Remove common factors (or) common
a = b c
number in the denominator then we get
 =  =  =900
miller indices.
Ortho rhombic: miller indices = (2, 2, 1)
a  b c
= =  = 900 2.
Monoclinic:
a  b c
=     900
Triclinic:
a b  c
     900
Rhombo headral (or) Trigonal R shape:

a= b= c ( , , )= , ∞, ∞
1
= =  900
( , , ) 1
ℎ = , ∞, ∞
Hexagonal: 2
a=bc
 = =900 = 1200 1 1 1
, , = (2, 0, 0)
Miller Indices: 3.
Miller indices is identifying a particular
p/an or surface in a 3D crystal using set of
number procedure:
( , , , ) = 2 , , ,
2
ℎ = %/
( , , , ) = , ,
2 2 = ( 1, 4, 2)
VANI Publications Basics
1 1 ( x, y, z )= ( a, , )
,1 ,1 = , 2,1
2 M . I = (1, 0, 0)
1 4 2
= , ,
2 2 2 Defects in single atomic crystalline structures:
4.
( , , ) = (− , ∞, ∞) Defect
1. Schottky deflect A vacancy
( , , ) or vacancies an ionic crystal structure is
. = (−1, ∞, ∞)
called schottky defects
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , = , ,
−1 ∞ ∞ 2. Interstitial defect Atoms that occupy
a site in the crystal structure. At which
M.I= (-1, 0,0) there is usually not an atom.
5. 3. Frenkel pair A nearby

pair of vacancy and interstitial is called as
freckle defect
4. Substitution If different
atoms are occupying the locations of the
regular atoms then they are called
substitution defects
6.
( , , ) = ( , ∞)
( , , ) 1 1
. = , ,0
1 1
m.i = (1, 1, 0)
Lattice
structure
No.of
neighboring Packing
Cell Structure atoms/unit No.of nearest Example
atoms (or) efficiency
cell
co-ordination
number
Simple cubic 1 6 52% Polonium
BCC (Body
Centered 2 8 68% Fe, mn, Na, k
Cubic)
FCC (Face
Centered 4 12 74% AG, pb, PE
Cubic)
HCP
(Hexagonal
6 12 74% Be, Cd, Zn, Zr
Closed
Packing)
Two
interpenetrating
DC (Diamond
FCC sub 8 4 34% Ge, Si
Cubic)
lattices are
present
Q. If iron atom has BCC structure. After
Note: heating assumes FCC structure. Then
Zinc blend structure  It is same as volume is reduced
diamond cubic but 1 FCC sub lattice has
the atoms of 1 Classification of materials in material
(Ex: Gallium) and other FCC sub lattice has science point
other (Ex : As). View:
1. Metals and alloys
1. III- V Group compounds [Ga As, In p etc ] 2. Ceramic materials
2. II- VI group compounds [ Zn Se, Cd Te etc) 3. Organic polymers
4. Composite Materials
VANI Publications Material Science
Ceramic materials : They Combine the high refractoriness of
Ceramics are complex compounds of ceramics and toughness of metals. They
metals, Non- metals. They are hard and are used as cutting tools, Nozzles for jet
brittle. Engines and High temperature Resistant
materials.
Ceramic materials contain phases that are
compounds of metallic and Non- metallic Classification of Materials in Electrical,
element. A phase is a physically separable Electronics Engineering point of View.
and chemically homogeneous constituent 1. Conductors
of a material, most ceramics have crystal 2. Dielectrics
structure. 3. Magnetic Materials
4. Semiconductor
Ceramics are used extensively in electrical
industry because of their high electrical Conductor
resistance. They are also used at high Conductors are good Electrical
temperature because of their withstanding Transmission structure and they have low
capacity of high temperature temperature Resistance because of more
no. of electrons
Ex: silica, Ba Ti 03, garnet etc. Ex: Aluminum, Silver, Gold etc.
Garnet is a group of silicate minerals (mg3 Dielectrics:

Al2 (Si O4 ) 3] Not required These materials provide Electrical Insulator
Transparent ceramic materials are , b/w 2 Mediums, which are at different
Alumina ( Al2 O3) potentials, and also store electrical Energy.
YAG (Yttrium Alumina Garnet)
Commercial Ceramic materials are, When the Main function is electrical
Barium Titanate ( Ba Ti O3) insulation thn these materials are called
Lead titanate (Pb Ti O3) insulating materials. When the main
Lead zirconate ( Pb Zr O3) function is storage of electrical energy.
Organic polymers: then these materials are called Dielectrics
Organic materials are a group of materials
characterized by large molecules that are Magnetic Materials:
built joining small molecules. These are the materials which can become
magnets or attracted towards magnets.
Usually, artificially Eg: PVC , PTFE,
Magnetic materials generate electric
polythene terylene, Nylon, natural rubber,
power, energized electro motor,
synthetic rubber Application; They are
Reproduce sound and visual images and
extensively used as insulating materials.
store binary information in the form of
Composite Materials:
memories in computers
These are combinations of metals and
Ex: Iron, cobalt, Nickel etc.
Ceramics Metals and Organic polymers,
Ceramic and Organic polymers etc.
Magnetic materials are of 2 types
Cermets  Composite materials of i. Permanent Magnetic material or hard
ceramics and Metals. Magnet Material.
These are the materials after magnetic GaAs is ‘direct Band’ gap material.
they don’t loose Magnetic property. So
they are used as permanent Magnet. If e- jump from CB to VB, the energy
released in the form of light ray having E=
ii. Impermanent magnetic material or Soft hf energy. This is called ‘photon’
magnet Material:
These are the materials after Magnetic
their Magnetic Properties can be removing
easily. These are used as Electromagnetic.
ENERGY BAND GAP:
Material Energy gap

Metal  (or) less
Semi metal  0.05eV
Semiconductor  1.5 eV (≃ 1 )
Insulator  9 eV (≃ 6 )
Semiconductor Gap (Eg)
Ge 0.72 eV
Si 1.1 eV at Room temperature
GaAs 1.43 eV
1.24
( ) =
( )
Ga As   = 0.867 m
This wavelength belongs to the infrared

Region the Spectrum of frequency Ge, Si
are indirect band gap materials.
If an electron jumps from conduction band

to valence band, then energy is released in
the form of particle. This is called “phonon’
Unit Dielectric Properties of Materials
2 In Static Electric Fields
Microscopic:
Very small in size(Few A0 ; 1A0 = 10-10
meter which cannot be seen with normal
eye. Non-Measurable. Ex: atom radius, ⃗ = =0
mass of electron Microscopic.
Polarization is defined as total dipole
Macroscopic:
Small in size which can be seen with eye. moment per unit volume
Measurable physical quantity. Eg: r, r, . .
In Material Science, we get the Relation ⃗=
between Microscopic non-measurable
physical quantities a macroscopic ⃗
measurable physical quantities.
= ⃗
1. Measure capacitance using Measurement If we apply external electric field to the
method with air as a medium between the
capacitors plates. dielectric material, then all dipoles align in
∈ the field direction, so that polarization
= − − − (1)
2. Measure capacitance dielectric as a ⃗= not equal to 0.
medium between the capacitor plates
∈ ∈ ⃗=
= − − − (2)  0
(2)
 ∈ = − − − − − (3)
(1) Which is an extra quantity in case of
dielectric under the presence of external
electric field which is to be added to
Where r is a relative permittivity of the equation (1)
dielectric which is a measurable physical
quantity. Dielectric material and ⃗ =∈ ⃗ + ⃗ − − − − − −
polarization, polarizability − −(4)
General Equation:
For a linear dielectric material, output x
input
⃗  ⃗
⃗ × ⃗
Electric dipole:
Electric dipole moment is defined as, Balance unit
Describe physical phomemena
⃗ = ⃗
[Coulomb meter]
= Q d az
⃗ × ∈ ⃗ − − − − − −(5) Xe + 1 = r
Xe = r – 1

⃗ = ( − 1) ⃗ − − − − − (4)
Where Xe  Electric susceptibility
Substitute eq (5) in eq (4) Eq-(4) is Macroscpic (measurable)
⃗ = ∈ ⃗ + ∈ ⃗ Eq- (3) = Eq – (4)
= ∈ ( + 1) ⃗ − − − −(6)  ⃗ = ( − 1) ⃗
Let Xe + 1 = r ---------(7)
∈ − 1 =
r  Relative permittivity
Substitute eq (7) in equation (6)  
Measurable Non-measurable
Macroscopic) (Microscopic)
⃗ = ∈ ∈ ⃗ − −
Note:
− −(8) Material r
Vacuum 1
0r =  -------- (9) Air 1.0006
  permittivity of the dielectric Medium Helium 1.00006
Si 12
Sub (9) in (8) Ge 16
Q. A parallel plate capacitor has C= 2 f. The
dielectric between plates has Er=100,
⃗ applied voltage V =1000 volt.
=  ⃗ − − − −(10) a. find Energy stored in the capacitor
Only for Linear Materials b. Find the energy stored in polarizing the
dialectic
Note: c. Show that polarizing energy density = ½ PE
⃗= ̅
1
⃗  ⃗ . =
2
1
= × 2 × 10 × (1000)
⃗ = ⃗, → 2
⃗ = = 1
⃗ − − − − − (2)
Sub (1) in (2) =
⃗ × ⃗ − − − − − (3)
= =
Eq-(3) is Microscopic, because N,  are relation
1 1 2 × 10
to atoms = × × (1000)
2 2 100
We know that ⃗ =  ⃗
VANI Publications Dielectric Properties of Materials in Static Electric Fields
= 0.01 In gases, the distance between atoms is

more so that the interaction between the
Energy stored in polarizing the dielectric
atoms is very less.
1 1
− Let us consider a gass having N atoms /m3
2 2
=1-0.01 Each atom atomic Number is Z
=0.99 Joule The No. of electrons is Z
Total Negative charge is – Ze
.
Total charge of the Nucleus + Ze
1 1
−2 i. Force on charge ‘q’ due to electric field is,
=2
. = ⃗
1 1
. −2 . Force on Nucleus due to ⃗ ⃗ = ( )⃗
=2
. ⃗ ⃗ =
Force on e’ cloud due to
1
= . ( − 1) (− ) ⃗ = −( ⃗)
2
1 Charge inside the sphere of radius ‘x’
= ( − 1)
2 4
1 1 1 →−
( − 1) . = 3
= .
2 2 2 −
1 →
4
Note: 3
In dielectric properties of materials, we 4 − 4
state the following points. → .
3 4 3
Relation between Microscopic and 3
Macroscopic physical quantities
1. Why different materials have different Er − .
2. How Er change with respect to temperature =− = − −−→ (1)
4

=
. At equilibrium, the coulomb force tou
ℎ ℎ centre on nucleus is balanced out by a for
nucleus due to applied electric field
Mechanisms of polarization
There are 4 types of polarization ( ) . (4 )⃗
1. Electronic polarization = ⃗ = − −→ (2)
4
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization Dipole moment,
4. Space charge polarization
P=Qd
(or)
Interfacial polarization The electric dipole moment,
P = (Ze) x --------- (3)
1. Electronic Polarization:
Sub (2) in (3)
(4 ) P ind = ex ----------- (3)
= . . ⃗
From equation (3) it is understood that, in
P= 4 ⃗ − − − −−→ (4) the presence of external electric field, the
ions are shifted. Because of the shift, ionic
, ℎ polarization comes in to the picture.
In this case, hydrogen and chlorine atoms
Polarization ⃗= N ⃗ are also present in the presence of external
E.F.o
= N (4 ⃗)
=4 ⃗ − − − − − − − −→ (5) Electron clouds inside the atom shifts.

Because of this electronic polarization are
Eq (5) is microscopic also present. So polarization is
We know that macroscopic equation is
= + = ( + ) ⃗
⃗= ( − 1) ⃗ − − − − − − − −→ (6) = ⃗= ( − 1) ⃗
Equate (5) and (6) = ⃗ = ( − 1) ⃗
⃗= = ( − 1) ⃗
=4 ( − 1) ⃗
= 1+4 … … … > (7) Ers  Includes the effect of electronic
ionic polarization effects.
ER= 1+ 4  E0 R3 ⃗ Both electronic and ionic configuration do

P= e ------------------(8) not depend on temperature, so electronic,
ionic polarizations are independent of
Compare (4) and (8) temperature
3. Orientational Polarization :
e= 4
Orientational  direction
(Electronic polarizability)
In same materials, molecules are present.
Note: Among them some molecules form parallel
The electronic configuration of the atom do bonding as shown in fig1. In same other
not change with temperature. So electronic molecules form bonding at some angles as
polarization. Electronic polarizability do shown in fig2.
not change with temp
2. Ionic Polarization:
Pi  Ionic polarization
I  Ionic polarizability ( farad. M2)

Electric dipole moment = ed
P old= ed -------------(1)
P new = e (d+x) --------------------(2)
P induced = (2)-(1)
= e (d +x )- ed
In above case, in addition to orientationla

polarization electronic polarization is
present (Molecules consists atoms), and
ionic polarization is also present, (
molecules are nothing but ions separated
by a small distance).
If Electric field is applied, then this

distance increases, ionic polarization comes
in to the picture so total polarization is
Total = p+ p 180
= p-p=0 P= Pe + Pi + P0
Fig 1  Net electric dipole moment is zero
= N e E + N I E + N 0 E
Fig 2  Net electric dipole moment is non-
zero = N ( e + I + 0 ) ⃗
⃗= ( + )⃗+ . . ⃗ − − − −−
3
→ (1)
⃗
= ( + )⃗+ . −−−−
⃗ 3
Resultant (Pp): permanent Electric dipole → (2)( )

moment material having Molecules with Pp ⃗= ( − 1) ⃗
⃗
⃗
= ( − 1) − − − − − −−→
(3)( )
Pp total =0 ( 2 ) ( 3 )
=
( − 1) = ( + )+ .
Orientational polarization is due to change 3
of direction of permanent electric dipoles
due to external applied electric field which
is given
= . 3 . ⃗
W. K. T , P0= N0 ⃗
= ; Note:
3
1
 Electric dipole moment is measured in term
De bye units.
 Orientational polarizability
1De bye unit = 3.33 10-30( coulomb Where  represents the amount of
) interaction between atoms, it is called
“Internal field constant (No units).
4. Space charge polarization
For the dielectric solids having cubic lattice
Structure = 1/3. So ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗
This equation is called Lorentz equation

there exist 3 types of solids and liquid
material
1. Elemental solid dielectrics ( only atoms are
In multi phase materials, there are defects, present) Electronic polarization
of atoms, traps of charge at the junction 2. Ionic – Non- polar solid dielectric ( atoms+
different phase given a Non – Zero electric ionic)
movement. This is called interfacial 3. Polar solid dielectrics (Atoms + Molecule
polarization will Pp)
Total polarization in Multiphase material
Ptotal = Pe + pi + p0 + p s 1. Elemental solid dielectrics
In elemental solid dielectric only single
In single phase polar materials, type of atoms are present and near to each
Ptotal = pe + pi + p0 other so that there exist on interaction ⃗(
internal/ field) is different from External
Negligible defects field.
Ps=0 ⃗
Ex: Si, Ge etc.
Note:
In gases, the distance between the atoms is ⃗=  ⃗ ( = 0)
more, so that the interaction between the
atoms is negligible. In this case the internal ⃗= 
electric field inside the material is same as 1
external applied field. ⃗= ⃗+ ⃗ − − − −−→ (2)
3
In solids the distance between atoms is less
so there exist an interaction between atoms Sub (2) in (1)
inside the material. In this case, the internal 1
electric field inside the material is not same ⃗= ⃗+ ⃗ − − − −→ (3)
3
as external applied field.
⃗=( − 1) ⃗ − − − −−→ (4)
Sub (4) in (3)

   1  
 E r  1 E 0 E  N   E   E r  1 E 0 E 
 3E 0 
−1 polarization has free components and total
( − 1) ⃗= 1+ ⃗
3 polarization can be written as,
−2
( − 1) = P= pe+ pi+p0
3
−1 The molecules of liquids or gas can rotate
= − − − − − −→ (5) freely when Electric fielded is applied. But
+2 3
molecules of a solid are constrained by
solid structure, they cannot move freely.
Eq (5) is called clauses Mosotti Equation
When temperature is increased at Melting
2. Ionic Non- polar solid Dielectrics :
point, solid becomes liquid and Molecules
In ionic crystal such as alkali halides, the
can rotate freely orientation polarization
total polarization is sum of electronic and
comes in to the picture, Er is increased
ionic polarization. These solids contain
because of orientation of molecules.
more than one type of atom, but no
permanent electric dipole moment.
The following graph Explains change of Er
with respect ot temperature for “
The behavior of such materials is
Nitrobenzene”
complicated So doing exact calculations is
difficult. If we measure the relative
permittivity using measurement method,
then we get the value of Er which consists
the effect of electronic, Ionic polarize given
by the following equation.
Pe + pi = E0 ( − 1) ⃗ − − − − − − −
− − −→ (1)
Where, Ers includes the electronic, Ionic
Polarization effect
In liquid state, in the presence of External
We know that mass of the ions is high at E. field, temperature is increased then
high frequencies, ions cannot move with molecular vibrations increase and
respect to the app voltage (or electric field) orientation ( change direction of did is
So at high frequencies only electronic effective so P0 reduces and Er reduces
polarization is present.
Note:
At high frequency In some materials ions have centre of
Pe = E0 ( Ere-1) ⃗ − − − − − −→ (2) symmetry as shown below
Subtracting equation (2) form equation (1)
we get Eri ( The effect of ionic polarization) o/p  change of dimension
Ere = n2 i/p  Electric field
= ( ) dimensional change = K2 E2 +
K4E4+…………………….
3. Polar solid Dielectrics
In solids whose molecule possess If one charge is + Ve and another is – Ve
permanent Dipole moment, the total then odd terms in the dimension will be can
out.
In this case if electric field is applied, the ⃗ = E
dimension is changed but if we apply Where, T= stress N/m2
mechanic stress ( dimensional change), D= piezo- electric strained constant
electric field is no produced. This effect is
called electro strict ion Inverse (or) Indirect effect:
In some materials ions does not have cent The application of electric field in a piezo-
symmetry as shown below electronic material produces strain
(Dimensional change )
When ‘E’ is not applied

S= ST
After ‘E’ is applied
S= ST + dE
1
→

Examples of piezo- electric materials

1. Natural quartz
2. Rochelle salt
3. Lithium sulphate
4. Barium titanate
5. Lead titanate
6. Lead zirconate
Dimensional change = K1 E’ + K3 E3
+………………. Application:
The commercial piezo- electric are used in
Odd function of electric field comes under 1. Gramo phone pick ups
the picture. 2. Air transducers ( ear phones, Microphones,
hearing aids)
In these type of materials, mechanical 3. Accelerometers
stress (dimensional change) induces 4. Ultrasonic flow defectors
electric field inside the material, and also if 5. Resonators
electric field is applied there is a change in
dimension. This is called indirect effect. Note:
1. Quartz is piezo- Electric material but not a
If any material is having both properties, ferroelectric
then it is called piezo electric material. 2. In piezo- electrics amplification of
ultrasonic waves is done Acoustic- electric
Piezo- electric material: interaction
Direct effect : 3. Using alternating voltage principle, piezo-
The application of stress to stress to a electrics are used to generate ultrasonic
crystal produces electric field insider the vibrations
material due to Change of polarization. (Sound waves with a frequency above
This is called direct effect upper limit of human beings)
D  E  Pt
Before applying stress
Pyro- electric effect If we apply electric field to virgin specimen

Pyro- heat ( E=0 ; P=0 ) The polarization increases
In some materials change of temperature because electric dipoles start rotating in the
(heat) produces electric field inside the direction of external electric field.
material, this effect is called pyro- Electric
effect At ‘c’ point all electric dipoles rotate in the
direction of electric field and gives
P=  T maximum polarization (Psaturation)
P  induced polarization (change in
electric effect) (If we reverse the electric field direction)
T  Change in temperature At this instant, electric field is removed, all
  temperature coefficient dipoles remain in same state and gives non-
zero polarization. This is called
Ferro- electric material: spontaneous polarization (Ps)
A Ferro- electric material is one in which
spontaneous polarization is present. In If we decrease the electric field form the
these type materials even extra applied point then we get CD curve
field is zero, there internal polarization. At E=0, the polarization is present, it is
This is called spontaneous polarization called remnant polarization (Pr)
Q. Explain the hysteresis curve of Ferro- To make this ‘zero’; we have to apply Non-
electric mate zero coercive electric field opposite to
For the dielectric material, polarization is a original direction. If we increase the
line function of applied electric field. But electric field in opposite direction, electric
there are so dielectric materials called dipoles start rotating in reverse direction
Ferro- electric material which polarization and gives – Psat.
is not a unique function of applied electric
field. One more reversal of electric field gives
EC
Ferro- electric material exhibit hysteresis Q. Explain spontaneous polarization
loop analogous to ferromagnetic materials mathematically we know that
as showm in figure. ⃗ = ∝ ⃗ − − − −−→ (1)( )
⃗= ∝ ⃗ − − − −−→ (1)( )
Where,
⃗= ⃗+ ⃗ − − − −(3)
Substitute (3) in (1)
= + ⃗
 Na.r  N
P 1    NEP  E
Ps= spontaneous polarization  E0   Nr 
Pr= Remnant (Remaining) polarization 1  E 
Ec= coercive (force fully) electric field  0 
(3) in (2)
= − − − − − − − −→ (4)
1−
= +
3
By definition of spontaneous polarization if
E=0 then P0 in Eq (4) 1− . .
3 3

= 1 ℎ = 
= 3
P= 
1 − 3 .
Hence this material exhibits spontaneous
polarization. Below some temperature 3
called ferro - Electric curie temperature, = −−−−
these type of material exhibits
− 3
Spontaneous polarization (behaves as a → (4)( )
Ferro- electric material) and exhibits ⃗= ⃗ ⃗ ( − 1) −−−−
hysteresis loop.
→ (5)( )
Above this temperature because of atomic Equation (5) = (4)
vibrations, dipoles cannot align in the
direction of applied field, and material do ( − 1) = 3
not exhibit spontaneous polarization ( Non
− 3
– Ferro Electric ).
In this case, Hysteresis effect is not present 3

and Hysteresis loop becomes a line. ( − 1) =
Q. Derive the curie Weiss law of Ferro electric −
materials
r − 1 = − − − −−→ (6)
−
The Ferro- electricity is due to orientational
polarization orientational polarization is eq (6) is curie Weiss law of Ferro electric
possible in a material having permanent materials.
electric dipole. The type of material exhibit   curie temperature
spontaneous polarization below some C  curie constant
temperature. T  Temperature
Above some temperature, spontaneous

polarization do not exist .
= = ⃗ − − − − − −−→ (1)
= − − − − − − − −→ (2)
3
+ + − − − − − − − −→ (3)
Examples of Ferro electric material:
1. Rochelle salt Application:

2. KDP  Potassium Di- hydrogen phosphate 1. Lead zirconate
(K H2 PO4) 2. Ammonium di- hydrogen phosphate
3. Barium Titanate (Ba TiO3)
4. Lead Titanate (Pb Ti O3) Note:
Curve of PS VS T Ferro Electric materials are present. They
are similar to Ferro – magnetic materials.
1. Rochelle salt Ferro electric materials do not have
practical applications.
Relative dielectric constant Er :

1. r is determined by the atomic structure of
the material.
2. r is dimensionless
2. KDP 3. r =1 for vacuum and is constant with
respect to temperature
4. For all substances other than vacuum. r
>1
5. In some crystalline materials, the value of
dielectric constant depends on the direction
along which it is measured relative to
Note: crystal axis.
The relative dielectric constant “ r “ of Ba
Ti O3 1000 C ( 373 0k) is around 3000 and ⃗ =  ⃗
at 3930k has sharp peak and has highest
Er=10,000 For Non isotropic (Er , r ,  changes with
direction)
Anti- Ferro – Electricity
In some Dielectrics below some | ⃗| = |  | | ⃗|
temperature electric dipoles align opposite
to each other, with net polarization is zero.  D x  xx xy xz 
 D    
 E
These dielectrics are called Anti- Ferro  
  y  yx yy yz
electric materials above some temperature,  D z  zx zy zz 
they do not exhibit anti- Ferro electricity.
It does not have practiocal applications
Unit Dielectric Properties of Materials
3 In Alternating Fields
To represent this energy loss we introduce
damping Factor)
l l
P= N  E -------- (4) [Dc]

VDC VAC When dc input is applied no phase
difference between P, E so  real.
= ( )
When we apply AC signal, there is a phase
V(t)= vm cos ( 2  ft) difference between P(t), E(t) and 
becomes complex.
( )
( )= = cos(2 )
* = ’e – j d”e , p(t)= N * E(t) -------
( ) = cos (2 ) After solving the equation 3, we get
When DC voltage is applied for a material ∗
= = −
having atoms of atomic Number Z
−( ) .
−
= = −→ (7)
4 4
( − ) +
For single electron atom, Z= 1
− 2 
= =− − − − −−→ (1) =
4 4
( − ) +
W.K.T F = Ma
= − − − − − − − −−→ (2)
Sub (2) in (1)
=− −2
F = qE
E= E0 cos t
Fe = (-e) E0 cos t
=− −2 − − −→ (3)
=
Where
A  Restoring force constant .
B  Damping constant (When electron column)
oscillates, as it is a charged particle radiates
energy
VANI Publications Dielectric Properties of Materials in Alternating Fields
∗
−1 ( ∗+ )
=
= ∈ +2 3
4
Orientational Polarization:
∈
E = 1.6 x 10-19, R ≃ 10A
→
M = 9.11 x 10-31 Kg ∈∗
≈ 10 (Optical Frequency Range) →
∗
∈ − 1
Assertion: − 1 =
1+
An electric polarization of an atom in T  Relaxation Time constant
dieelectric material occurs even at the
highest frequency of the applied field. At High frequencies the dipole cannot
Reason: orient or change direction according to the
The Electron cloud of an atom shifts with input voltage or Electric Field, so the
respect to the Nucleus in response to the frequency range affecting the Orientational
applied field during each cycle even at the polarization is between
highest frequencies.
Both are correct, A is correct Explanation 106 to 1010
with R.
Frequency dependency of Ionic Polarization Note:
Polarization
ℎ = 1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
In case of electronic polarization ‘m’ is
3. Orientational Polarization
mass electron. In case of Ionic polarization
4. Space charge
‘m’ is mass of ion [heavier than e-]
Range of frequency
0 = 1016 rad/s  UV frequency (or) optical
≃ 10 /
i = i1 – ji11
* 0 = 1014 rad/s  UV IR frequency (or) optical
Ionic polarization is same as Electronic 0 = 106 to 1010  Radio Frequency range

polarization. 0 = 20Hz to 20 KHz power and audio
frequency
i1 – ji11 frequency response is same as Dielectric Losses
e1, e’’ but only the difference is, in case Ina dielectric material at low frequency
of ionic polarization ( )⃗ = (∈ − 1) ( )⃗ − − − − − (1)
≃ 10 / At a high frequency
( )⃗ = (∈∗ − 1) ( )⃗ − − − − − (2)
Complex dielectric constant for non-
Where, r* = r1 - jr11
polar solids of clausius Mossoti
Equations:
−1 ( + )
=
∈ +2 3
For AC r is complex
=
Energy loss    P
 r11
 E02  V2
( ) Loss Largent:
( ) = − − − (3) J(t) =0 r11 E0 cost - 0 r1 E0 sint
=  0 r11 E0 cost +  0 r1E0 cos (t
Applied Electric Field is E(t) = E0 + 900)
cost − − − (4) Draw phasor diagram with E0 cost as
Reference
E(t) = E0 cost = Re{E0 ejt}----------- (5)
( )
( ) =
D = 0 r* E [ for AC]

J(t) = Re {j 0 r* E0 ejt}--------------(6)
= Re{j0 (r1 -jr11)E0 ejt}

J(t) = 0r11 E0 cost - 0r1 E0 cost =

---------(7)
Tan  = tan = r11 /r1
Power Density = J(T) E(T) watt/m3

Tan is called loss tangent of the dielectric
1 Equivalent circuit of a capacitor at high
= ( ) ( )
frequency
= − 
1
( ) ( ) C = r C0
2
I = j C0 r v [DC and low frequency]
1
− I = j c0 r*V
2
= j C0[r1 - jr11]V
∗
= jC0 r1V +  r11 C0V --------(2)
1
( cos = = + −−−−
2
− (3)
− )
VANI Publications Dielectric Properties of Materials in Alternating Fields
1
( 1 ) = + − − − − (1) =
Compare (1) and (3) 1⁄

=
1 /
= , =
1 Note:
= − − − − − (4) Askeral  It is a group of synthetic pure

resistant, chlorinated aromatic hydro
1 carbons used as Electrical insulators
=
Askerals are not used for Transformer,
CP = C0 r1 ------- (5) = capacitor insulation because they
decompose and Release.
Unit
Magnetic Properties of Materials
4
Biot Savart Law:-
⃗ = .
⃗
⃗× !⃗ When external Field is applied so dipoles
=
4 | |
rotate. Compared to space, in a magnetic
⃗→ material, ⃗ is an extra quantity
Right hand screw law:
which is to be added to equation (1)
⃗
= ⃗+ ⃗ −−
− −(2) ( )
→ /
⃗ = ⃗
If current is Circular then magnetic field is
straight line ⃗ = ⃗
Ampere’s Circuital law:

⃗. ⃗ =
Magnetic Dipole
⃗ = ⃗ − − − − − (3)
⃗= ^
( Amp.m2) Xm  Magnetic Susceptibility (Unit less)
Substitute (3) in (2)
⃗ → ⃗ = ⃗ = ⃗
Magnetic material and Magnetization: = ( + 1) ⃗ − − − −(4)
In free space  No magnetic Dipole Let Xm+1 = R ------(5)
⃗ = ⃗ − − − − − (1)
R = Relative Permeability (unit less)
-7
0 = 4 x 10 Henry/meter Substitute (5) in (4)
⃗= ⃗ = — (7)
Magnetization is defined as magnetic Substitute (7) in (6)
dipole moment per unit volume ⃗= ⃗
VANI Publications Magnetic Properties of Materials
Applicable only for linear material Pm = IA
Review: Pm = -ef  r2
= − ---------------(1)
2
1. Pm = IA [Amp. M ]
F  Orbital frequency of e-
2. Pm  Magnetic Dipole moment
0 = 2f  orbital Angular frequency
⃗ = ⃗
= + − − − − − −(2)
⃗ 2
=( ⃗→
− 1) ⃗ ( ) m  mass of e-
Xm + 1 =  R
2
Xm = (r -1)
→
3. Pm (A. m2)
1
( ) = − − − − −(1)
. 1 2

1
( ) = − ( + ) − −(2)
⃗= . (microscopic) 2 2
Orbital current and magnetic dipole Pm (induced) = Pm (after) – Pm (before)
Moment −
= B − − − − − (3)
4
Different types of Magnetic materials:

Orientation of Interaction
Presence of
Types of Materials Magnetic Before
Permanent dipoles
dipoles Dipoles
1. Dia magnetic NO --- ---
2. Para magnetic YES Negligible interaction
Interaction is present
3. Ferro magnetic YES and aligned parallel to
each other
4. Anti-Ferro and aligned anti
YES
Magnetic parallel to each other
with equal Magnitudes
and aligned anti
5. Feri Magnetic YES
parallel with unequal
Magnitudes
Diamagnetism M= 9.11 10-31

For single electron orbital motion when
0= 4  10-7
⃗ . Xm=-10-6
− {
= − −−→ (1) = −10 − 10 }
4
For diamagnetic material nm is very small

and negative.
− =1+
= − −−→ (2)
4
= 1 − 10 = 0.999
−
= . − − − −−→ (3) R (Radius) is independent of temperature
4
so of the diamagnetic material does not
( ) depends temperature.
−
= − −→ (4) Ex: Copper (Cu ) , Gold Germanium, silicon,
4
diamond, Al2 O3, Na cl etc.
⃗=( − 1) ⃗
⃗ In diamagnetic material, the magnetic flux
= −1 = − − − −→ (5) line does not flow in it.
⃗
(Macroscopic) Assertion:
Diamagnetic materials have r < 1
Equate (4)= (5)
Reason:
− In diamagnetic materials, Magnetization is
= { ≈ 1}
4 opposite to the applied magnetic field.
− Both are correct and correct reason
= different type of permanent magnetic
4
dipole moments:
In general N= 5  1028 atoms/m3 (i) Electron orbital motional magnetic dipole
E= 1. 6  10-19 C moment :
(ii) Electron spin magnetic dipole moment
R= 10 A =10-10m (iii) Nucleus spin magnetic dipole moment
(i) Electron orbital motion: – −
Due to this Xm -10-5 to -10-6. So it is = − − − −→ (2)
neglected.
− = 2 − − − −→ (3)
(ii) Spin Substitute (3) in (2)
ℎ
= . . – 2
2 2 = − − − − − −→ (4)
→ ( = 2 )
N= Na + Np ---------(5)
= ±1/2 =
For single e- pm= 2. ± 1/2 = +1
pm=  ±
= − − − − − −→ (6)
= 1.6 × 10 1+
pm=  ± (4) in (6)

PB is boor magneto, spin magnetic d
= – − − − −→ (7)
moment is measured in terms of Bhor +
mange
= =
PB= 9. 27 10-24 Amp. M2 1+ 1+
Now, M= ( NP- Na) PB-----------(1)
ℎ
=± = . tan ℎ
4
=± Note:
( )
1. If ‘H’ very high, then > > 1
ℎ
= 10 M= N. PB
4
Compared to electron spin, magnetic 2. tan hx =
dipole nuclear spin magnetic dipole
moment is neglect symbol of spin If x =0, tan h (0)=0
magnetic moment (direct H due to e- spin)
ℎ =
Magnetization in a magnetic material 1− 
having N X = , tan h =  =1
1+
⃗=( − ) =( − ) − (1) Tan h  = 1
Na= Ke-Ea/KT
NP= Ke-Kp/KT
Para magnetism: C  Curie constant (0 kelvin)

In paramagnetic material, magnetic spins
present but the interaction between them
is

= − − − − − −→ (1)
If we apply external magnetic field H due Xm=

the field to paramagnetic material then Xm = C.
1
Interaction is less so that ≪1 = .
1 1
Then eq (1) becomes, = = = .

= .
=
N<<1
Tan h (x) = x
= − − − −−→ (2)( Microscopic)
K= Boltzmann constant
= − − − −−→ (3)(Macroscopic)
Equate (2) = (3) Paramagnetic materials do not have

practical applications
Example of paramagnetic material,
= − − − − − −→ (4)
Fe2 O3, Mn so4; Fe so4, Fe cl2 etc.
N  5  1028; Weiss 1st concept:
Hi= H+ rm
PB= 9.27 10-24
T= 3000 Kelvin Dia magnetic  No magnetic dipoles
Para magnetic  Interactions are less
Xm= + 10-3 Xm is small and + Ve Ferro magnetic  Interaction between
r= 1+ Xm= 1+ 10-3= 1.001 dipoles strong.
Hi  Internal magnetic field
Xm dia < < Xm para M Internal magnetization
-10-5 + 10-3 H  External Applied field
R  Internal field constant
Xm= − − − −→ (5) (It speaks of interaction between Magnetic
dipoles )
Eq (5) is called curie law of paramagnetic
Material. Ex: for Para magnetic material r=0
Ferro magnetic material r= 103
Ferro Magnetism:
= − − − −−→ ( )
Ferro Magnetic −
1. Spontaneous magnetization
= = − 1 − − − − − −−
Para magnetic
No spontaneous Magnetization curie → (5)( )
Weiss law Equate (4)= (5)
Ferro magnetic material at high
temperature (T > TC) and curie Weiss law. Xm = − − − − − −−→ (6)

At high temperature, Ferro magnetic = ;

material does not exhibit spontaneous
magnetization, and hysteresis curve
= =
becomes line. In this case magnetic
susceptibility Xm varies with respect to   curie temperature
temperature according to curie Weiss law.
Eq (6) is called curie Weiss law of Ferro
In magnetic material, magnetization in magnetic materials.
ferms of input H field.
= ( − )
= tan ℎ − −−→ (1)
Weiss Hi = H+ r m --------------(2)
(2) in (1)
( )
= tan ℎ − −→ (3)
( )
Of high temperature < <
1
Slope =
Eq (3) becomes
Note :
( )
= tan ℎ Ferro Magnetic materials at high
temperature ( T > Tc) behave as
paramagnetic, Hysteresis loop becomes a
1− =
line  is slightly higher than TC.
In this case no spontaneous magnetization

= because at high temperature lattice
1− vibrations are
More, magnetic dipoles cannot Align even
magnetic dipole align due to vibrations.
= Come back to signal positions internal Ma
1− is zero.
Ferro Magnetic material at low
temperature (T < < 1 ) and Hysteresis loop
At low temperature Ferro Magnetic
material exhibit spontaneous
magnetization
If input = 0 [ H=0 ] , the out put 0 [M] for
magnetic material,

= tan ℎ − −−→ (1) T <  : Eq (7), (9) have common solution i.e
Weiss  Hi = H+ rm ----------- (2)

Sub (2) in (1) M 0
i.e material exhibits spontaneous

= tan ℎ ( + ) − (3) magnetization.
T=  Eq (7), (9) does not have common
Spontaneous magnetization; H=0 ----------- (4) solution
Sub (4) in (3) T>
=0
= tan ℎ − −−→ (5)
M=0  No spontaneous magnetization
If N spin dipoles align parallel than ,
Hysteresis Loop: T < Tc
Msaturation= Msat= − −−→ (6) Weiss 2nd concept
Virgin Magnetic materials.
(5) ÷ (6) = tan ℎ = ℎ
= tan ℎ  − − − − − −→ (7)

 =  =  − −→ (8)

(8) ÷ (6) =

= − −−→ (9) B. 0( H+ )

At point C
H=0, B= Br
>  >1 ℎ Br = 0 [ 0 + Mr]

−
>1 Mr = 
=  =1 ℎ Ef  De magnetization Curve
45 − OA BC D  Magnetization curve
=1
Br  Remnant Flux density
<  <1 ℎ
− Note :
<1 1. Material curie temperature (),
0 0
Cobalt 115 C (115+ 273) K
Iron 7700C ( 770 + 273)0 K
Nickel 3600 C ( 360 + 273)0 K
30% permalloy 70 C (70 + 273)0 K
0
2. T <  < 1   0
T    1   =
0
3. The magnetic materials used in Paramagnetic
transformer core should have low = < > ( )
Hysteresis loss and high permeability low
Anti Ferro magnetic effect in some
HC is required.
material was observed by Neel. In these
It is obtain by pure, homogeneous- Well
materials when temperature is less than
oriented material to facilitate domain
Neel temperature (TN). the dipoles align
value motion.
anti parallel to each other when external
magnetic field is applied and shown small
Magnetic anisotropy:
amount of magnetic effect. This is called
Isotropic  , ,  do not change with
Anti- Ferro magnetic effect.
direction.
An isotropic All properties change with
Above some temperature ( T > TN), these
direction
materials behave as Para magnetic
In some magnetic materials like iron,
materials, Xm is varied according to the
magnetism is not same in all direction with
curie wises law of Anti- Ferro magnetic
respect to the crystal axis. This is called
material.
anisotropy.
Anti- Ferro Magnetic
Magneto striction:  = [ = − ]
In Magnetic materials, after magnetization +
the dimensions of the magnetic material 1 1
= ( + )
are change. This is called magneto striction
Villari Effect :
In some magnetic materials, when
mechanical stress is applied ( Material
Dimensions change). The material
magnetization is change. This called villari
Effect. This is opposite of magneto
striation.
Anti Ferro Magnetism:
Anti Ferro Magnetic materials do not have
Para applications,
Ex: MNo2, Feo
Ferro- magnetic materials (Ferrites) Characteristics:
These materials behave like Ferro- 1. Ferrites have very high resistivity (because
magnetic some temperature. Above some Ferrites complex compounds, Bonds are
temperature, these behave like a Ionic, so free electrons are not available
paramagnetic material 2. Ferrites performance at high frequencies is
good ( r is 10 to 12 ).
Note: 3. They have Extremely low dielectric loses
Ferro Magnetic materials are used in 4. The permeability is high of the order of
transformer cores etc in electrical several hundreds.
engineering have no electrical Resistivity, 5. The saturation magnetization is high but
high eddy current 10s poor high frequency compared to Ferro magnetic material, it
performance, poor magnetic utilization. less.
Whereas Ferro magnetic materials have 6. Curie temperature of Ferrites varies from
electrical resistivity, extremely no eddy to several 1000C
losses, The high frequency performance 7. Ferrites are mechanically hard, brittle.
than Ferro- magnetic materials.
Ferro- Magnetic materials (or) Ferrites are Application of Ferrites:
compounds of various metals and oxygen 1. Hard Ferrites used as permanent
The general formula for ferrites is below magnetic
MO Fe2 O3 2. Soft Ferrites  used for transforms and
M  Divalent metal. inductor
3. Rectangular loop ferrites  used in data
iFm= f.e  Feo Fe2 O3= Fe3 O4( magnetite ) (Binary memory)
4. Ferrites and garnets Microwave
m= Z  zn Fe2 O4.
frequency applications.
Fe; Z = 26 4PB
Note:
Fe++; Z= 24 4PB
Assertion:
Fe+++; Z = 23 5PB Ferrite cores are used in Inductors at high
0--; Z = 10 0 frequency applications.
Ex: Fe3 O4 [ M= Fe] Reason:

Ferrites provide high flux density with
Mn Fe2 O4[ M= Mn]
minimum eddy current losses, they are
Ni Fe2 O4 [ M= Ni] insulator.
Zn Fe2 O4 [ M= Zn]
Answer - A
Mg Fe2 O4 [ M= Mg] Ferrites are complex compounds, and
electrons in them, all are under the control
YIG (Yttrium Iron Garnet)  Ferri Magnetic
of Bonds ( under the control of valence
YAG (Yttrium Aluminum Garnet)  Non forces).
magnetic ceramic material i.e free electrons are not available.
Increasing order of magnetic susceptibility
of the materials
6. Ferro Magnetic  Xm is very large and the
= = −1
+ Ve
Xm= 105 r-1
1. Super conductor  Xm =-1 [ r=0 perfect
diamagnetism]
2. Dia magnetic  Xm=-10-6 [ Xm is very small
and – Ve]
3. Para magnetic  Xm=10-3 [ Xm is very small
and + Ve]
4. Anti Ferro magnetic  Xm is small and + Ve
5. Ferri magnetic (Ferrites) Xm is large and
+ Ve
Unit
5 Conductive Materials
In conductors, no. of electrons are more, −
so conductivity, thermal conductivity is =
very high
−
 n ; Kn = + − −→ (3)
 
Electrical conductivity Thermal Conductivity  Thermal velocity
In conductors, thermal conductivity is due Take average of Eq (3)
to
1. Free electrons −
= +0
2. Due to lattice vibrations
3. In No- conductors (or) Ionic materials −
thermal conductivity (or) heat flow is due = = −
to lattice vibrations.
  Mobility of electron
Mobility in conductors:
=
When no voltage is applied to a conductor
( e=0), electrons have random motions
T  collision time
(Random velocity, so that average Random
velocity is zero). Due to thermal energy M  Mass of electron
supplied by the room temperature.
E  1. 6 10-19
When voltage is applied ( E 0) then e-s in
a metal have two types of velocities.   Mobility
(i) Random velocity due to thermal energy.
Vd= E
(ii) Directional velocity due to applied voltage
=
Now, = n q 
= =

= ( )
Force on ‘q’ change due to electric field, =

F= QE -------- (1) = pv V [ Pv= eq]
= Mean free path ( distance between
= = − − − − −→ (2)
collisions)
Integrate with respect to time,
= Vd T
−
=
VANI Publications Conductive Materials
Fermi Dirac Distribution: Regular structure of pure metal becomes
At absolute zero, temperature, all the irregular after adding other material
energy levels below a EF( Fermi Energy .   ↓ 
level) are filled, all those energy levels
above EF are empty. ↓
At any temperature ‘T’ probability of a
energy state E being occupied by an ↓ [= ℎ ] ↑ =
electron is given by ,
( )= Thermal conductivity of Metals, Wiede
mann-Franz law:
Probability of electron occupying Energy
level E at temperature ‘T’ In a conductor, no. of electrons are more.
K= Boltzman constant.
They carry the thermal energy
The velocity of electron having Fermi E is
called Fermi velocity. This is the high
1
=
2
2
=
VF  Velocity of e- having energy equal to

EF( or) Fermi velocity
−
Joules Law: =
Joule determined experimentally that the −
he developed in a conducting wire of ‘R’
= −
carrying is equal to I2 R.
Power dissipated in heat form = I2 R ( wat)
Q  Rate of heat energy flow per unit
for a conductor current density ⃗ = ⃗
⃗ is applied electric field. cross sectional area
⃗. ⃗ = ⃗ . ⃗ = | | Thermal power transferred per unit area
Where, 
E2 is power dissipated in the of heat per
unit volume (due to resists) power K  Thermal conductivity
dissipation density = | | The –Ve sign is due to thermal power flow
= | |
opposite to
This power dissipation density represents
power dissipated in a conductor while For a conductor,
electrons colliding with Lattice ions/m3 1
Alloy = pure metal + other material = − . − − − − − (1)
3

Regular lattice structure = − . − − − − − − − −(2)
Compare (1), (2)
1
= ( )
3
  Collision time
K and  Ratio:-
= Materials which exhibit super conductivity

, may conductors, may not be conductors
1
at room temperature.
= 3
Magnetic elements, Noble metals do not
1 show super conductivity.
= . .
3
Some Super conducting materials are Be,
Zn, Ca, Hg, Al, Ge, In, Tl, Sn, Pb etc.
The Highest transition temperature Tc =

= = 2.45 × 10 /(0Kelvin)2 = L
23.20K found till now in NB3 Ge. Effect of
Magnetic Field:
For metals, is constant which is equal to
the Lorentz no It is possible to destroy super conductivity
= . . − by the application of strong magnetic field
which is more than critical magnetic field
[This gives the Relation between thermal (Hc) The critical Magnetic field in a super
conductivity and Electrical conductivity of conductor varies with respect to
a metal] temperature according the parabolic law
given below,
Super conductors (or) Super Conductivity
“Onnes” observed in a mercury at 4.20K, = 1−
the resistance became zero. This effect is
called super conductivity. Tc  Critical temperature (0 Kelvin)
T  ambient temperature (0 Kelvin)
The Temperature at which super HC  Critical Magnetic field intensive
conductor goes to normal state is called Beyond which superconductor goes to
transition temperature. For Mercury normal state
transition temperature TC is 4.20K. T= 00( Kelvin)  Hc=H0
Ho is critical magnetic field intensity at 00
Kelvin at T= 00 k Hc=H0
T= TC HC = 0
VANI Publications Conductive Materials
r= xm+1=-1+1=0
In superconducting state, the super
conductor behaving as a perfect
diamagnetic
(r=0; Xm=-1 )
This called messier effect
Super conductivity is controlled by two

parameters namely temperature , ⃗
I. If T < TC and H < HC then super conductor
(R=0, P= 0 (or) =
II. If T > TC
(or)
H> HC Normal state (not a
superconductor (or) T> TC and H > HC
The super conductivity can be destroyed if

H > Hc. this magnetic field (H) may be due
to external magnetic source (or) magnetic
field produced due to a current flow
through the super conductor
So that in a super conductor =  and r=0
If ‘I’ current is flowing through a circuit (perfect diamagnetism) are independent
super conductor of Radius ‘R’ then phenomena
Maxwell equation  E
= − − − − − −→ (2)
HC 2  R = IC----------- (1) (1)In (2)

Eq(1) is called ‘ Silsbee’s rule’ which give
the relation between critical current, −
0 =  = 0 − − − −−→ (3)
critical and the Radius of super conductor.
HC critical field
B can be constant (or) zero but it is not
IC critical current
guaranteed that B=0 -------- (4)
Statement (4), messier effect B=0 are
Meissner Effect and Magnetic flux
matching i.e conductivity is , perfect dia
exclusion
Meissner observed that when a material is magnetism are independent phenomena
super conducting state, it was not
permitting flux lines, that is B=0  B = 0(
Type – 1
H + M)
Soft super conductor
o = 0 ( H +M)
(or)
=-1 = XM Ideal superconductor
1. They have low values of TC, HC 1
2. Silsbee’s Rule is completely followed HC= 2  √
R IC Where M Isotope mass
3. Shows complete Meissen’s effect
4. Transition is sharp (superconducting Applications:
1. Superconductors are used to produce high
Type – 2 magnetic field magnets
Hard super conductor (or) 2. It is used in Rectifiers, cryotrons, persistent
Non- ideal super conductor ( super conducting memory element used
in PC memory)
1. High values of TC. H
2. Silsbee’s Rule is followed Cryotron:
3. Partially satisfy Meissen’s effect If is a superconducting switch operated at
4. Transition is not state to normal state) low temperature
Eg: Al, Zn
Frequency effect on superconductor:

It is observed that from DC to radio
frequency, the material was showing super There is an isolation between Niobium and
conductivity beyond radio frequency, the Tantalum + HC tantalum < HC Niobium
super conductors became normal 1. I control=0 and T < TC; H < HC Tantalum
materials. Tantalum is superconducting state (on swi)
2. Icontrol 0 then Niobium generate magnetic
Isotope effect on superconductor:
which is greater than Hc tantalum and
It is observed that critical temperature Tc
tantalum comes out of super conducting
or superconductor where is varies with state (OFF- HCT < H < HCN
isotope mass.
Unit
6 Semiconductors
HALL EFFECT: Hall coefficient RH is defined as,
= − − − − − −−→ (5)
Sub (4) in (5)

1 1
= =
Hall voltage : (VH)
(4)  =
⃗=
=ℎ
⃗= ( )
= =
W  length of the bar in ⃗ direction (

=
ℎ induced hall E. field)
⃗=
1
= = =
volume chanrge density

Lorentz force says = ⃗ × ⃗
⃗ Lorrentz = tq ( Vx ax  B0 AZ)
=q VX B0 ( -ay ) --------- (1) =
Force on q charge due to E is ⃗ = ⃗ =
Force on hole due to Hall electric field Note:

⃗ = + . ⃗ = − −−→ (2) 1. Measurement of hall coefficient (RH= 1/
PV) gives density of charge carriers and
At equilibrium Hall force on hole = Lorentz sign of the charge carriers
on hole 2. Assertion :
Q Ey= q VX B0 Measurement of RH gives the type of
EY= VX B0 ---------(3) charge carriers ( P type or N type )
Reason:
= . − −→ (4) RH depends on charge
Answer is (A)
VANI Publications Material Science
3. Assertion : Signal 1 signal 2
Measuring ( ne2T/m) does not reveal the
=
type of conductivity
Reason: 6. ‘Gause meter (or) ‘Tesla meter ‘ is used
Electrical conductivity depends on square to measure magnetic fields. It works on
the charge the principal of Hall Effect.
4. For intrinsic semiconductor, (ni 0) hall
coefficient is . For a metal ( n is very high
1028) , R H  0
5. Hall effect principle can be used to
multiply  signals
Unit
7 Miscellaneous
Thomson Effect: c. Electro chemical Breakdown:
If a piece of metal is made to have a It occurs at very high temperature and
temperature gradient between its two humidity of the surrounding air.
ends, an “ emf “ is observed between
these ends. It arises due to e-s at hot end 2. Important Requirements of good
tend to move to the cold end. Insulating material:
=− , → Electrically the insulating material should
ℎ (V/0C) resistivity to reduce the leakage current
and dielectric strength to enable it to with
See back effect: higher voltage without broken down.
See back discovered thermocouple Insulator should have small dielectric loss
A loop composed of two dissimilar metals high thermal conductivity.
could be made to carry a continuous
current simply by maintaining the two 3. Transformer Oil:
junctions at different temperature. The Transformer cores and chokes are
magnitude of the current depends on the commonly immersed in oil, known as
resistance of the metals. Transformer oil which acts to some extent
as an insulator but chiefly as a cooling
Peltier effect : medium.
When a current is passed through the The most important specifications are
junction of two different metals, heat is dielectric strength viscosity and flash
absorbed (or) liberated depend on the point.
direction of the current. ( Practical use of 1. Transformer oil should have high dielectric
peltier effect is refrigerator) strength
2. The viscosity of the transformer oil should
1. Breakdown in solid Dielectrics: be low
3. Flash point is the temperature at which a
There are three type of breakdown in solid
mixture of all vapour and air is ignited by a
dielectrics.
spark (or) flame which is brought close to
it .
a. Electro thermal Breakdown:
The transformer oil should have high flash
It is due to the heating produced by
point in order to reduce fire hazard. The
dielectric loss which is proportional to the
flash point is determined using a closed –
electrostatic field and the frequency
cup tester.
Ex: Naphthenic mineral oil paraffin oil.
b. Purely Electrical (or) Intrinsic
Breakdown: 4. Resistors:
It is due to collision ionization by electronic
1. wire – would power – type resistors are
possibility this breakdown are small thick
generally capable of dissipating
of dielectric, moderate temperature and
appreciable amounts of power
low frequency.
2. High value Resistor consists of a thin decreases (NTC) and voltage decreases
carbon film on a small ceramic rod indicating negative resistance.
a. The important Requirements of this type
of resistor are low temperature coefficient NTC Applications:
and good stability 1. Used as temperature sensor to measure
b. The maximum power handling capacity of temperature, temperature control and
resistor depends on thermal capacity of temperature compensation
resistor. 2. Surge protection (surge suppression).
3. Metal film resistors are constructed by Thermal conductivity
deflect thin film of metal alloy on a high Invar ( 64 % Cu, 36 % Ni)
purity ceramic core. Constantan ( 50 % Cu, 50 % Ni)
Gun METAL (90 % Cu, 10% Zn)
5. Thermistor: Bronze (90% Cu, 10% Sn)
It is a non linar resistor, in thermistor Mu metal  very high magnetic
resistance is varied with respect to permeability
temperature and it has high temperature Amurium/ cobalt  very high magnetic
coefficient of but metallic conductors have reseal
a very low temper coefficient of Sapphire  very high thermal conductive
resistance. Ferrites  very stable magnetic
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC), permeable
Thermistors are two terminal ceramic that
are manufactured in shape of dis rods (or) Capacitor characteristic
beads. 1. Paper in expensive
2. Mica dielectric long term stability
NTC Thermistor Equation: 3. Ceramic suitable for RF bypass
= 4. Dielectric low volume for
R Resistance of the thermistor large capacity
T  Temperature of the thermistor in 5. Electrolyte good Reliability,
B  The characteristic temperature of with excel
thermistor in 0K 6. Tin oxide dielectric
A  a constant properties.
A semiconductor to be used in
optoelectronic device should have,
(i) Direct energy band gap
(ii) Right value of Band gap corresponding
light wave length
V- I Characteristics: Material
As current through the thermistor is 1. Aluminimum
increased from zero, the voltage across the 2. Phosphor Bronze
bead will initially increases linearly, 3. Carbon
indicating that the resistance of the device 4. Nichrome
is constant.
As the current is increased self heating of Application
thermistor occurs, the resistance Telephone wires and trolley wire
VANI Publications Miscellaneous
Current carrying spring
Commutator brush 7. Electret:
Heating element It is a dielectric material which has
permanent electric dipoles. It is similar to
Fermions is any particle characterized by permanent magnetic material. It is not
Fe Dirac statistics and follow the Pauli electro magnet.
exclusion principle. 1. Lepidolite mica is not used for electrical
Fermions (Eg : quartz, Leptons) because it is hard and brittle.
2. Ceramic electrical insulators have glazing
5. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)(or) photo left coating, to make smooth, which avoid
Resistor (or) phot conductor, photo format of suds, moisture and prevents
conductive cell (or) photo cell (or) photo electrical break
detector:
8. Diodes:
It is a device whose resistivity is a function 1. Zener diodes are used in voltage
of the incident light, if intensity of optical regulators
illumination increases, the resistance 2. PIN diodes are used as Microwave switch
decreases because more carriers are 3. Tunnel diode is a heavily doped diode used
generated. high speed switching circuits like FM
If Hf > >Eg( incident light energy > > Eg ) 4. Varactor diode (or) varicap is used as
then e-3 jump from valence band to the frequency multiplier (or) Frequency
conduct band, so that resistance is converter.
decreased. In optical devices for LASERS, the direct
gap material Ga As is used.
Applications: Phonon (Quanta of lattice vibration) is a he
1. Used as light sensors particle, generally it is released in indirect
2. Burglar alarm circuits gap PN junctions, follow Bose- Einstein the
3. Light intensity meters particles follow B- E statistics is called
4. For counting packages moving on a
converyor belt etc. 9. Quartz Crystal (or) Piezo Electric Crystal:
6. Graphite:
It has a layered, planar structure of the
carbon atoms. The layers are held together
by vabder wall bonds.
Is has 3 planar covalent bonds.
It has good electrical and thermal
conductivity.
It is used as lubricants, refractoriness,
batteries etc.
Hetero- structure laser has low threshold Electrical equivalent circuit.
current than a INJECTION LASER. 1
=
√
= .
1 1 1 13

=

+ =3
=
L  inductance due to mass effect of the crystal
R  Resistance due to bulk losses (viscous- =
3
damping factor)
C  capacitance due to motional effect.  − − − − − −→ (3)
Cp  capacitance due to packing material and
electrodes of the capacitor. = = 2.45 10 = − −→ (4)
Both frequencies are proportional to 1 3
√
1 1 In a metal is constant and it is equal to
=
√ ℎ L called Lorentz number
Equation (4) is called wide Mann – franc
10. Thermal conductivity of metals: law
In case of insulating materials, as there are
11. Type of conductive Materials:
no free electrons, the thermal conductivity
is due to lattice vibrations only.
a. High conductive materials:
In case of metals as many free electrons
These are used as conductors, used for
are present, the thermal conductivity is
transmission and distribution of electrical
due to electrons and lattice vibrations
energy
In a metal, electrical conductivity formula
Eg: Copper ( Cu ) , Aluminimum (Al)
in
J = E
b. High Resistivity Materials:
ℎ , = − −−→ (1) These are used to make resistances and
heating devices, thermocouples etc. these
′ 1  materials must withstand high
temperatures. They are generally alloys of
In a metal, thermal conductivity formula is metals.
Eg: Constantan, Nichrome.
=− − −−→ (2)
c. Low melting metals:
13
ℎ = These are used for making solders and
3 contacts.
K  Thermal conductivity Eg: Tin Lead.
  Thermal power croissing the unit are d. Conductor- bi Metals:

bi- metal conductor containing copper (
of the metal ( watt/m2)
high conductivity) and steel ( mechanically
strong ) are used for high frequency
 ℎ
communication lines, bus bars for switch
(%) gears etc.
Carbon Brushes: If electrons jumps form conduction band
These are used for current collection form to valence band, heat particle called
the rotating parts of electrical machines. In phonon is released
carbon brushes, carbon, graphite are used. Eg: Si, Ge
They are used in normal; Diodes.
Properties: Lower energy level of conduction band and
1. Properties do not change with respect to high energy level of valence band are at
temperature. difference momentums (K).
2. Low density.
3. Carbon does not weld to metals at high Direct Band gap material:
temperatures
Fuses:
These are used to protect circuits from
high currents, the fuse materials must
have low melting point.
Materials used are lead, tin, cadmium,
bismuth etc.
If electrons jump from conduction band to
Cryotron: valence band. Light ray with energy ‘hf’ is
It is a switch constructed by using super released
conductors. H  plank’s constant
F  frequency of released light
12. Semi conductors: Eg: GaAs
At very high temperature extrinsic They are used in optical devices. Lower
semiconductors become intrinsic because energy level of conduction band and
covalent bonds break and electrons jump higher energy level of valence band are at
from valence band to conduction band. same momentum (K)
(Students you know that in intrinsic
semiconductors e-s Jump from valence
band to conduction band if energy Material Fermi level
supplied is greater than Eg= ( EC- EV) 1. intrinsic  In the middle of the
Heavily doped semiconductors are called energy gap
degenerate semiconductors and majority 2. P- Type  near valence band (or)
carriers follw Fermi- Dirac statistics on top of valence band
3. N- Type  near conduction band
Indirect Band gap material: (or) below conduction band
13. Hall Effect in semi conductors:

In a current carrying material, when we
apply a transverse (900) magnetic field,
then a voltage called hall voltage is
induced perpendicular to both current and
magnetic field. This is called hall effect.
Derivation: ⃗= = − − − −−→ (3)
Let us take a P- Type material and apply ℎ
some voltage ‘v’ to have a current in x  Electric field is from + Ve potential to –
direction
As shown below we know that in P- Type Ve potential force on charge q due to
holes majority carriers. If we apply electric field is,
⃗= magnetic flux density in Z-
direction ( here we generate F = q ⃗ − − − − − − − −→ (4)
⃗ ) So force on hole due to hall electric field is
Fhall= + q Ey ay ---------(5)
It is in + Ve y- direction.
At equilibrium, force on hole due to hall
electri field (+ Y direction ), force on hole
due to Lorentz (-Y direction) are same
E EY= q Vx Bz ---------- (6)
JX= PV VX -------- (7)
= ( )
Pv = nq = Volume charge density
⃗=
N  No. of holes per meter3
= ( ) Q  charge on hole = 1. 6 10-19
⃗= Substitute equation (7) in (6)

= ( )
ℎ
L  length, h  height, w  width = − − − −→ (8)
The Lorentz force on a charge q is given by, Hall coefficient RH is defined as,
⃗ = ( ̅ × ) − − − − − −→ (1)
= − − − −−→ (9)

Force on holes ⃗ = + q ( Vx ax BZ
Substitute equation (8) in (9)
az)
1 1
= q Vx Bz(-ay ) ---------(2) = = = − − − −→ (10)

Lorentz force on hole is in negative down Now, put Ey, Jx values in equation (8)
surface ( downward) so all holes come
near down surface down surface becomes
positive charged, near top surface holes =ℎ
are less in number i.e negative is created. ℎ
Because of this a voltage is induct it is
= − − − −→ (11)
called hall voltage (VH) and induced
Electric field is called hall electric field
VH is the hall voltage,
Where W is length of the bar in ⃗ It have high coercive force and high
direction. resistivity, high value of uniaxial anisotropy
field.
Note: They are used as Permanent magnets
1. Measurement of Hall coefficient = Eg: Barium Ferrite [Ba Fe12 O19]
Strontium Ferrite [Sr Fe12 O19]
1 gives density of carriers and sign of
carriers 2. Sift Ferrites:-
2. In intrinsic semiconductor n= p = n; is very It have low coercive force, low eddy
large (ni  0). So = = , for intrinsic current losses, high permeability abiliy to
operate upto frequencies of 10MHz
semiconductor RH is infinite
Soft ferrites are used as Inductor cores
If intrinsic semiconductor is not doped, so pure
transformer cores etc.
material, i.e if hall coefficient is high,
Eg: mnFe2 O4, Fe3O4, etc
indicates pure samples.
3. For metal RH is zero( = ;  . 1. Soft magnetic materials
metal very high ) They have low coercive force, high
permeability the direction of
Questions: Magnetization can be altered easily by an
1. A : Measurement of RH gives the sign of applied magnetic field
the charge carriers and tells weather P-
type (or) N- type Applications:
R: RH depends on change (  )ana: A 1. Used in Transformer cores, machine cores,
memory cores in computers
2. A : Measurement electrical conductivity,
Properties required in a Transformer
does not give sign of charge carriers ( i.e 
material are:
cannot tell whether p- type (or) N- type).
1. High Permeability
Ans (A)
2. Low hysteresis and eddy current losses
R:  depends on square of the charge (  =
[i.e hysteresis loop must be tall and
, ) Narrow]
3. Gauss (or) tesla meter (or) magnetic field 3. Easy to Fabricate into the form of sheets
meter is used to measure magnetic fields, 4. Low cost
it works on hall effect principle.
4. The angle between total electric field and Note:
applied field is called hall angle. 1. High permeability materials allow
saturation to be attained with a small
= applied field High Permeability implies a
EY  Induced electric field (or) hall electric narrow hysteresis loop, so hysteresis
field losses are low
Ex  applied electric field. 2. The eddy current losses in a material can
be reduced by increasing the resistivity of
14. Ferrites: the material The resistivity can be
1. Hard ferrites: increased by alloying.
a. When iron is mixed with silicon, this alloy 2. Tungesten Steel:
is used as soft Magnetic material at low It is used in Magneto magnets , D.C Meter
frequencies magnets etc. But it is cistly
b. When iron is mixed with Nickel, this alloy is
used a soft Magnetic material at high 3. Chromium Steel
frequencies. It is used as permanent Mganets
3. Compared to soft magnetic materials,
ferrites are preferred for high frequency 4. Cobalt steel:
applications because Ferrites have low They have highest coercive fields
hysteresis Losses, high electrical
resistance, extremely low eddy current 5. Alnico:
losses Alnico contains aluminum, Nickel, cobalt,
Iron other elements such as copper and
Note: titanium are also found in some types
1. Silicon steel [Iron and Silicon alloys] used
in power transformer at 50Hz frequency Alnico cold forming (or) machining is
2. 2. Iron cobalt Alloy is used in high speed difficult but they have high magnetic
generator motor, Servo motors etc. energy. So used in Permanent Magnets.
Examples
1. Iron – Silicon Alloys
2. Iron , cobalt Alloys
3. Nickel-Iron alloys as given below
Permalloy [78% Ni, 22% Fe]
M4 metal [77% Ni, 14% Fe, 5% Cu, 4%
M0]
Super Malloy [79% Ni, 15% Fe, 5% Mo, De Broglice says wavelength is inversely
0.5% Mn] proportional to momentum of a particle
ℎ
16. hard magnetic materials (or) Permanent 1.  = =
Magnetic materials:
2. = =
They have the following properties,
1. High Permeability
2. High Coercive force, genrally above104
(Amp/meter} Alloy Resistivity
3. High Remnant flux density 1. German Silver 33.8 x 10-8 [ - metal]
4. High curve temperature to minimize easy [Ni 18% Cu 64% Zn 18%]
de-magnetization 2. Manganin 42 x 10-8 [ - metal]
5. Low cost [Cu 86% Mn 12% ni2%]
3. Monel Metal 42.6 x 10-8 [ - metal]
Examples: [Ni 67% Cu 28% Mn 5%]
1. Carbon steel: 4. Constantan 48 x 10-8 [ - metal]
It was lowest coercive force and relatively [Cu 60% Ni 40%]
high residual induction [used as low cost 5. Nichrome 112 x 10-8 [ - metal]
material for Loys compass needles etc.
[Ni 61% Cr 15% Fe 24%] T        = → ↓
17. Resistivity: =
Resistivity of a conducting material has
two The Resistivity at any temperature T can
(i) th thermal resistivity arises from the be expressed as,
Vibrations P = P0[1+   T] T = T - TRT
(ii) r  Residual Resistivity caused by impure P0  resistivity at Room temperature
and structural imperfections TRT  Room Temperature
P = th + r P  Total T  Temperature
Resistivity  Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
of a metal
Even at low temperatures, residual
resistivity is present 18. Alloying Effect on Temperature:
Alloys have less regular structure than
Temperature Effect on Resistivity pure metals. So the electrical conductivity
of an alloy drops off rapidly with increased
If temperature is increased atomic (or) alloy content
Latice Vibrations increase. So the collision Alloy = Adding a metal to another metal.
of e-s increases coliision time decreases, 
decreases, P increases
Unit
ESE – 2017 Previous Paper
I
01. Which of the following methods are 03. Consider the following statements
considered as most favorable to production regarding GST:
organizations liable for Taxation? 1. The GST Bill 2014 has the purpose to
1. Straight line method of depreciation improve the Value Added Tax on
2. Declining balance method of Goods and Services
depreciation 2. It can be imposed differently in
3. Sum of the years digits method of different States
depreciation 3. It is a Comprehensive Tax imposed
4. Sinking fund method of depreciation nationwide irrespective of any State
Select the correct answer using the codes concerned
given below: 4. It is a significant step in the reform of
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 Indirect Taxation in India
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 1 Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
02. Consider the following statements
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
regarding Repo rate:
1. It is the rate at which RBI lends money 04. Consider the following statements:
to Commercial Banks generally against Vision of Digital India launched by the
Government Securities Government of India is centred on
2. It is the rate at which RBI borrows 1. Digital infrastructure as a utility only to
money from Commercial Banks senior citizens
generally against Government 2. Governance and Services on demand
Securities 3. Digital Empowerment of every citizen
3. It is the rate at which Commercial Which of the above statements are correct?
Banks keep Deposits with RBI (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
Which of the above statements is/are (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
correct?
05. The words ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed
below the base plate of the Emblem of
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
India have been taken from which one of
the following?
VANI Publications ESE – 2017 Previous QP
(a) Mundaka Upanishad Which of the above methods are correct?
(b) The Rig Veda (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) l, 3 and 4
(c) The Bhagavad Gita (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Vaalmiiki’s Ramaayana 10. If a thread is wound around a cone, starting
06. Which one of the following Committees from a point on the base, and brought back
was set up by the Government of India in to the same point, then the shortest possible
September 2014 to restructure the Railways length of the thread is equal to the
and to suggest ways for resource (a) Diameter of the base of the cone
mobilization? (b) Slant height of the cone
(a) Bibek Debroy Committee (c) Largest chord of the development sector
(b) C. Rangarajan Committee (d) Length of the perpendicular from a
(c) Parthasarathi Shome Committee corner of the development sector to the
(d) Sundar Committee opposite edge
11. Three hundred Passengers are travelling in

07. The Rotterdam Convention deals with
white, silver and black cars; each of these
(a) Reducing nuclear weapon stockpiles
cars is carrying 6, 5 and 3 passengers,
(b) Limiting the use of toxic chemicals
respectively. If the number of white and
(c) Protecting the oceans
silver cars is equal and there is only one
(d) Banning of human clone experiment
black car, what is the total number of cars?
08. A pentagonal prism is lying on HP on one (a) 52 (b) 53 (c) 54 (d) 55
of its rectangular faces. When it cut by a
12. The locus traced by a point moving along a
section plane, the largest possible section
pendulum from one end to another, when
thereof has
the pendulum oscillates, is
(a) Five edges (b) Six edges
(a) A spiral (b) An in volute
(c) Seven edges (d) Eight edges
(c) A cycloid (d) A helix
09. Consider the following tertiary treatment 13. The present ages of 3 brothers are in the
methods for treatment of waste water: proportion 3:4:5. After 10 years the sum of
1. Ion-exchange method their ages will be 78. What are their ages
2. Reverse osmosis now?
3. Chemical oxidation method (a) 12, 16 and 20 (b) 15, 20 and 25
4. Activated sludge process (c) 21, 28 and 35 (d) 24, 32 and 40
VANI Publications General Studies & Engineering Aptitude
14. A total of 324 notes comprising of 20 and 18. If the development of the lateral surface of
50 denominations make a sum of 12,450. a cone is a semicircle, then
The number of 20 notes is (a) The slant height of the cone < diameter
(a) 200 (b) 144 (c) 125 (d) 110 of the base of the cone
(b) The slant height of the cone > diameter
15. Consider the following factors in making
of the base of the cone
ethical judgment:
(c) The slant height of the cone = diameter
1. The motive from which the action
of the base of the cone
springs
(d) The slant height of the cone = radius of
2. The nature of the act itself, including
the base of the cone
the means adopted
3. The resulting consequences 19. Five Men can paint a building in 20 days, 8
Which of the above factors are correct? Women can paint the same building in 25
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only days and 10 Boys can paint it in 30 days. If
(c) l, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 only a team has 2 Men, 6 Women and 5 Boys,
how long will it take to paint the building?
16. If a line is inclined to Vertical Plane and
(a) 12 days (b) 13 days
parallel to Horizontal Plane, then which of
(c) 14 days (d) 15 days
the following statements is always correct?
(a) True Length = Plane Length 20. The Ethical skills are:
(b) True Length = Elevation Length (a) Care of possessions, modesty, posture,
(c) True Length < Plane Length self-reliance, tidy appearance
(d) Vertical Trace of the line is above the (b) Good behavior, good manners, good
XY plane relationships, good environment
(c) Attention, calmness, concentration,
17. If the radius of a generating circle which is
self-confidence, self-esteem
moving inside the directing circle is half of
(d) Code of conduct, responsibility,
the radius of the directing circle, the curve
efficiency, perseverance, punctuality
generated by a point on the circumference
of the generating circle is 21. Rajiv spends 40% of his salary on food,
(a) A circle (b) An ellipse 20% on house rent, 10% on entertainment

(c) A straight line (d) A spiral and 10% on conveyance. If his savings at
the month end are 2,000, then his monthly
salary is
(a) 6,000 (b) 8,000 26. The complete integral of
(c) 10,000 (d) 12,000 2 2
 z  px  qy3  pq  2  p 
 q is

22. A group of workers estimate to finish a
work in 10 days, but 5 workers could not 26. The complete integral of
join the work. If the rest of them finished 2
2
the work in 12 days, the number of  z  px  qy3  pq  2  p 
 q is

members present in the team originally is
2
(a) 50 (b) 45 (c) 35 (d) 30  2 
(a) z  ax  by  3 pq  2  p  q
 
23. The solution of the system of equations x + 2
 2 
y + z = 4, x – y + z = 0, 2x + y + z = 5 is (b) z  ax  by  3 pq  2  a  b
 
(a) x  2, y  2, z  0 (b) x  1, y  4, z  1
2
 2 
(c) x  2, y  4, z  3 (d) x  1, y  2, z  1 (c) z  ax  by  ab 3
32 a  b
 
24. A cone is resting with its base on HP. A (d) z  ax  by  c
section plane parallel to VP cuts the cone.
The section plane is some distance away  2,   x  0
27. For the function f  x    .
from the centre and does not pass through 2, 0  x  
the apex. The true shape of the section is The value of a n in the fourier series
(a) Hyperbola expansion of f  x  is
(b) Rectangular Hyperbola
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 0 (d) -2
(c) Parabola
(d) Rectangular Parabola 28. The solution of the following partial
2 2
25. The minimum value of the function  u  u
differential equation 9 is
2 2
 3 x y
x
f  x      x occurs at 2 2
 3  (a) sin  3x  y  (b) 3x  y
(a) x  1 (b) x  1  2 2
(c) sin  3x  3y  (d)  3y  x 
 
1
(c) x  0 (d) x 
3
29. If W    i represents the complex
potential for an electric field.
2 2 x 2. Not adhering to proper maintenance
Given   x y  2 2
, then the
x y practices
3. Lack of proper inspection and quality
function  is
control during construction
y
(a) 2xy  2 2
C 4. Corruption amongst several concerned
x y
individuals
x 5. Lack of public concern
(b) 2xy  2 2
C
x y Select the most appropriate answer using
x the codes given below
(c) 2xy  2 2
C
x y (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
y
(d) 2xy  2 2
C
x y 33. Consider the following statements
3 regarding Golden Ratio for positive
z
30. The residue of f  z   integers
 z  14  z  2 z  3
1. It is the ratio of difference of two
at z  3 is
numbers and the smaller number
101 27 2. It is the ratio of sum of two numbers
(a) –8 (b) (c) 0 (d)
16 16
and the smaller number
31. The value of the integral
3. It is the ratio of the sum of two
2  3 
numbers and the larger number
0  2 
 9  sin  
d is
Which of the above statements is/are
2 correct?
(a) (b) 2 10 (c) 10 (d) 2
10 (a) 1 2 and 3 (b) 3 only
32. Consider the following statements: (c) 2 only (d) 1 only
i. The failure of many structures 34. For which of the following sectors do
ii. Accidents on major highways comprehensive safety and health statutes,
iii. Discharge of effluents which pollute for regulating Occupational Safety and
rivers Health (OSH) at work places, exist at
iv. Dangerous gas emissions present in India?
These are attributable to: (a) Mining, Factories, Ports and
1. Improper design Agriculture
(b) Factories, Mining, Agriculture and (d) 20 mm and 80 mm
Construction
37. Consider the goals of the safety policy of a
(c) Mining, Factories, Ports and
company, at once designating also the
Construction
responsibilities and authority for their
(d) Factories, Ports, Agriculture and
achievement:
Construction
1. Safety of employees and the public at
35. Consider the following statements large
regarding safety during demolition of a 2. Efforts to be made to involve all
multi storey building: managers, supervisors and employees
1. Demolition need not proceed storey by in the development and implementation
storey of safety procedures
2. Floor openings, not used for material 3. Clearing of all caveats that may tell on
chutes, should be enclosed with keeping the morale of the employees
adequate guard rails high
3. Before demolition starts all lath and Which of the above statements are correct?
loose plaster shall be stripped off (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
throughout the building (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only
4. Adequate and well-stiffened lateral
38. Which one of the following statements is
bracing shall be provided for walls
correct in the development of lateral
Which of the above statements are correct?
surfaces of solids?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 4 only
(a) The development of a right cone is a
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
triangle
36. A clutch has to transmit 200 Nm of torque. (b) Triangulation is the recommended
Assuming uniform pressure theory and the method in the development of a prism
ratio of outer to inner radii is 2.5, what are (c) The development of the lateral surface
the radii for uniform pressure of 2 MPa of a right circular cylinder is a rectangle
with the coefficient of friction of the liner (d) The elements of an elliptical cone are
material being 0.4? equal in length
(a) 35 mm and 50 mm
39. A 15 kW motor drives a bar of boring
(b) 20 mm and 50 mm
machine of 30 mm diameter, twisting it
(c) 35 mm and 80 mm
through 001 radian, if the shear stress
induced is 48 MPa and compressive stress (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 5
is 57 MPa, the length of the bar whose (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 3, 4 and 5
5
G  0.80  10 MPa is 43. Factors which govern the operating cost of
(a) 400 mm (b) 350 mm an equipment are:
(c) 300 mm (d) 250 mm 1. Purchase price of the equipment
2. Depreciation due to regular use
3. Cost of operation, maintenance and
regarding V-belt drive:
repairs
1. The groove angle of the sleeve less than
the belt section angle
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
2. The efficiency of a V-belt drive higher
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
than that of a flat belt drive
3. The groove angle is so made that the 44. Consider the following statements with
belt gets wedged in the groove reference to maintenance and service of the
Which of the above statements correct? product after delivery to the customer:
(a) 1 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only 1. Reliability analysis uses statistics of
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only failures to estimate, understand and
improve the performance of the
41. The purpose of a boring operation in
equipment and its maintenance
relation to a drilling operation is to
2. Reliability analysis records supports or
(a) Drill a hole
guides the maintenance engineer in
(b) Finish the drilled hole
improving the performance of the
(c) Correct the drilled hole
product under service
(d) Enlarge the drilled hole
42. Which of the following types of power correct?
have to be pre-justified; and, when the need (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
and occasion arise, must very soon be post- (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
justified?
45. The most fundamental attribute of TQM is
1. Reward power 2. Coercive power
(a) Drawing control charts
3. Legitimate power 4. Expert power
(b) Having regular purposeful meetings
5. Referent power
(c) Meeting ISO 9000 audit requirements
(d) Direct involvement of top management
46. Internal audits are used to verify whether: (b) Multi-product continuous
1. Products conform to technical (c) Batch production
specifications (d) Continuous process production
2. Quality management systems are
51. Ethical issues that can affect an Engineer’s
effectively implemented
professional and personal life are termed as
(a) Macro-ethics (b) Micro-ethics
correct?
(c) Morals (d) Rights
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 52. The LEED and GRIHA:
1. Are green building rating systems
47. Which industrial waste is commonly used 2. Issue energy compliance certificate
in construction industry? 3. Refer to Global standards
(a) Fly ash (b) Slag 4. Are Indian standards under finalization
(c) Sludge (d) Red oxide Select the correct answer using the codes
48. If a square pyramid is freely suspended given below:
from one of the corners of its base, then the (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
imaginary line joining that corner with the (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1and 4
centre of gravity of the pyramid will be

(a) Inclined at 600 with the vertical
regarding activated sludge process:
(b) Inclined at 45° with the vertical
1. Industries prefer activated sludge
(c) Inclined at 30° with the vertical
process as it requires less space, does
(d) Vertical
not produce obnoxious odours and
49. The maximum percentage defects that a requires less time for waste water
consumer may find definitely acceptable is treatment compared to trickling filter
called 2. It requires skilled supervision
(a) AOQL (b) LTPD (c) AQL (d) AOQ 3. Biological treatment is enhanced
because shock loadings are eliminated
50. In which one of the following types of
industrial activities does the problem of
loading and scheduling become more
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 2and3
difficult?
(a) Single product continuous
54. Consider the following statements 57. Which one of the following statements is
regarding ozone correct?
1. It is continuously being produced and (a) The end product of fossil fuels ‘is in the
destroyed form of electrical energy
2. It helps to sustain life on earth (b) Watershed protection increases the rate
3. It is formed in the atmosphere through of surface run-off of water
photochemical reaction (c) If timber is over-harvested, the
Which of the above statements are correct? ecological functions of the forest are
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only improved
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2and3 (d) Rivers change their course during
floods and lots of fertile soils are lost to
the sea
regarding solar energy:
1. To encourage the adoption of solar 58. Consider the following statements
energy production, many State concerning environmental pollution:
Governments and the Centre have 1. Nuclear explosions cause radioactive
announced plans by way of buy back as radiation
well as subsidies for installation 2. Earthquakes do not cause Tsunamis
2. Land acquisition of several hectares is a 3. Acid rain is not a major environmental
bottleneck in implementing this issue
programme 4. Air pollution has some impact on
3. Considerable R & D effort is needed to meteorology
bring down the cost of PV cells Which of the above statements are correct?
Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 only
59. The reasons for low rate of plastic recycling
56. If the efficiencies of the boiler, turbine and are:
generator are 85%, 45% and 95% 1. Scrap plastic has little value because
respectively, then the efficiency of the virgin material is rather cheap
power plant is 2. Low density of plastic leads to high
(a) 75% (b) 45% (c) 363% (d) 28.7% shipping and handling cost
3. Recycling leads to a very severe public 62. Besides species diversity and ecosystem
health hazard diversity, which of the following is
Which of the above reasons are correct? included in the term ‘bio-diversity’?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only (a) Genetic diversity (b)Climatic diversity
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only (c) Cultural diversity (d) Lingual diversity
regarding internet of things (IoT):
regarding Holostore:
1. IoT extends the communication via
1. It is a device that reads and writes data
internet to all the things that surround
in an optical form
us
2. It is a computer storage device
2. IoT is M2M communication
3. It refers to Institutions where ho1o-
3. IoT uses only wireless technology
graphy is taught
4. The major objectives for IoT are the
creation of smart environments / spaces
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only
and self-aware things
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only
64. Qualities expected of the manager of a new
(a) 1and3 (b) 2and3
project are:
(c) 1and4 (d) 2and4
1. Confidence of owner entrepreneur
2. Leadership quality and authority
regarding SMOG:
3. Quick decision making
1. SMOG was coined during the 1950’s to
4. Awareness of jobs completed so far,
describe a mixture of smoke and fog
bottlenecks being faced and funds
experienced in London
availability
2. The principal pollutants in London
SMOG are jarticu1ates and sulphur
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
compounds
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) l, 2, 3 and 4
3. The London SMOG occurs generally
early in the morning on cold wet winter 65. The ‘Economic life’ of a building is
days considered to be at an end
Which of the above statements are correct? 1. When the net income from the building
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only fails to justify its existence
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 arid 3 only
2. When the building facilities become 69. Concurrent engineering is implemented by
obsolete involving a cross-functional team for
3. When the capitalization rate becomes design, production, testing and operational
high work
Which of the above statements are correct? (a) During the project execution
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (b) Long before the project execution
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Towards the end of the project
execution
66. In a company assembly line, assembling
(d) After completion of the project
gear boxes, five workers are assigned tasks
execution
who take 10, 8, 6, 9 and 10 minutes
respectively. The balance delay for this 70. Consider the following statements
assembly line is regarding project management:
(a) 133% (b) 14.0% (c) 16.0% (d) 43.3% 1. It is the process of attaining project
objectives in a stipulated time to
67. What is an optimizing strategy?
produce quantified and qualified
(a) Strategy of choosing the best possible
deliverables
solution considering all parameters
2. It is the art of bringing together the
(b) Strategy of choosing a compromise
responsibilities, resources and people
solution
necessary to accomplish the business
(c) Strategy of choosing the least cost
goals and objectives within the
solution
specified time limitations and within
(d) Strategy of choosing a solution on the
the financial grant
basis of precedents
68. With reference to problem solving, fixation correct?
refers to (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) Focused approach to problem solving (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) Planned approach to problem solving
71. What is the full form of GPP?
(c) Inability to see a problem from a fresh
(a) Green Public Policy
perspective
(b) Green Private Procurement
(d) Inability to comprehend the goals to be
(c) Green Public Procurement
achieved
(d) Green Private Policy
72. Consider the following phases of project 3. Characterized by internal pressure
management: being less than external pressure
1. Identification 2. Formulation 4. Characterized by internal pressure
3. Appraisal 4. Implementation being equal to or more than external
Which of the above phases are relevant, pressure
sequentially? Select the correct answer using the codes
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only given below:
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
73. Phenol and formaldehyde are polymerized
to a resultant product known as 76. Consider the following statements
(a) PVC (b) Bakelite regarding water:
(c) Polyester (d) Teflon 1. Water is a polar molecule
2. Water molecules align themselves in an
electric field
concerning e-governance and technology:
3. Water molecules vary their alignment if
1. Rich Site Summary (RSS) is not a very
the applied electric polarity changes
useful tool for working on Web-service
with time
technology
4. Water molecules align themselves in a
2. My space is one of. the most visited
magnetic field
networks in the world
3. Facebook.com is not the most useful
social networking site of choice for
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
most students
4. Wiki- is a group collaboration software 77. Consider the following assumptions made
tool working on Web-service while developing the ionic packing theory:
technology 1. Cations and anions are spherical but
Which of the above statements are correct? these spheres are not hard
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 4 2. Cations are always smaller than anions
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 3. Each cation would tend to be
surrounded by the maximum number of
75. Pneumatic structures are:
anions permitted by geometry
1. Membrane structures
2. Stabilized by compressed air
4. Cations and anions do not touch each (a) Equal to the number of anti-bonding
other electrons
Which of the above assumptions are (b) Less than the number of anti-bonding
correct? electrons
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) Greater than the number of anti-
(c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 bonding electrons
(d) Equal to the number of anti-bonding
78. Consider the following statements:
neutrons
1. Asphalt is. a naturally occurring
product having non-crystalline structure 81. A resistor measures 4.Q at 40°C and 6Q at
2. Rock Asphalt occurs in lime stones or 800C. At 00C the resistor will measure
sandstones (a) 1.5 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
3. Tar is a residue left after distillation of
82. Fatigue resistance of materials can be
crude oil
improved by:
4. Resins in Asphalt provide the stickiness
1. Shot peeling
to the product
2. Polishing the surface
Which of the above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
83. Consider the following statements on
1. Baking soda is used in fire
‘firewall’ used in computing systems:
extinguishers
1. It controls and monitors the data traffic
2. Quick lime is used in the manufacture
flow between inside and outside
of glass
network
2. It protects and secures the inside
correct?
network from any outside network
3. It can be implemented in software or
hardware or a combination of both
80. In the case of ionic bonding, the molecule Which of the above statements are correct?
is stable as long as the number of bonding (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
electrons is (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2and3
84. Consider the following as advantages of (b) Pro-active governance and timely
ICT tools in educational systems: implementation
1. Increased capacity and cost (c) Primary governance for transparency in
effectiveness of the educational system India
2. Achievement by target groups that had (d) Promoting and accomplishing
limited access to traditional education governance with assured and timely
3. Support for improvement of the quality implementation
and relevance of existing structures of
88. The main goal of G2B (Government to
education
Business) is
4. Provision of links between various
1. To increase productivity by giving
educational institutions for knowledge
more access to information
sharing
2. To lower the cost of doing business
3. To create more transparency
Select the correct answer using the codes
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
given below:
85. How is the closeness or commonness of (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
attitude, behaviour, trust and performance (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
within the organization designated?
89. In a software project, COCOMO (Cost
(a) Cohesion (b) Morale
Constructive Model) is used to estimate
(c) Communication (d) Leadership
(a) Effort and duration based on the size of
86. Accessibility legislation is intended to the software
(a) Protect intellectual property (b) Size and duration based on the effort of
(b) Improve the usability of websites the software
(c) Make all websites easier to use for (c) Effort and cost based on the size of the
visually impaired people software
(d) Improve access to services for disabled (d) Size, effort and duration based on the
people in both the physical and the cost of the software
virtual worlds
90. If a clock loses 5 seconds per day, what is
87. PRAGATI is the acronym the alteration required in the length of the
(a) Pro-active governance and transparency pendulum in order that the clock keeps
in India correct time?
 91. Statement (I): Global warming is the cause
(a) times its original length be
86400 for climate change.
shortened Statement (II): Ozone depletion will cause
1 global warming.
(b) times its original length be
86400
92. Statement (I): Graph between potential
shortened
energy of spring versus the extension or
1
(c) times its original length be compression of the spring is a straight line.
8640
shortened Statement (II): Potential energy of a
stretched or compressed spring, is directly
4
(d) times its original length be
8640 proportional to square of extension or
shortened compression.
Directions: Each of the next Ten (10) 93. Statement (I): Fatigue failure is a stress
items consists of two statements, one which is lower than the yield strength of a
labeled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the other as metal.
‘Statement (II)’. Examine these two Statement (II): Repeated straining lowers
statements carefully and select the answers the yield strength.
to these items using the codes given below: 94. Statement (I): Physical properties of
Codes: composite materials are generally isotropic
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) Statement (II): The stiffness of composite
are individually true and Statement (II) panel will often depend upon the
is the correct explanation of Statement orientation of the applied forces and/or
(I) moments.
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II)
95. Statement (I): Environmental
are individually true but Statement (II)
considerations are not necessarily the same
is not the correct explanation of
as, or congruent with, ecological
Statement (I)
consideration.
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II)
Statement (II): Environmental
is false
considerations address more towards
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II)
maintaining, whereas Ecological
is true
considerations address more towards Statement (II): Digital India is a program
sustaining. to institute smart cities.
96. Statement (I): Manganese is always added 99. Statement (I): Increased cloud cover will
to steels since it combines with the sulphur lead to warmer winters due to clouds
content to form manganese sulphide. reflecting more intense solar energy.
Statement (II): If manganese is not added, Statement (II): Overcast cloud conditions
iron sulphide which is not harmful for steel, result in decrease in the day-night
would form. temperature difference.
97. Statement (I): Quality Circle is a method 100. Statement (I): Engineers shall hold
to bring Organizational Improvement paramount the safety, health and welfare of
through indulging the workers. the public while performing their
Statement (II): The main air of Quality professional duties.
Circle is self-development and mutual Statement (II): Engineers shall continue
development of grass root level employees. their professional development throughout
98. Statement (I): Digital India is a program to their careers.
transform India into a digitally empowered
society.
Unit
II ESE – 2018 Previous Paper

1. Government of India had introduced the Research has which of the following
Consumer Protection Bill, 2015, in the Lok components?
Sabha. 1. Industrial R&D Promotion Programme
The Bill gives the right to consumers to 2. Flagship Programme
1. Seek redressal against unfair or restrictive 3. Information Technology and e-
trade practices. Governance
2. File a complaint for overcharging or (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
deceptive charging. (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the above is/are included in the Ans. (a)
Bill? Sol: Features of Technology Promotion,
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Development and Utilization Programme
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (TSDP) in the Department of Scientific and
Ans. (c) Industrial Research include: “... R&D over
Sol:  The Bill replaces the Consumer Protection existing technologies ... for support, however
Act, 1986. The Bill enforces consumer “Only full-fledged complete for
rights, and provides a mechanism for development of technology will be
redressal of complaints regarding defects in considered under TSDP”, mainly “Projects
goods and deficiency in services. related to design and development of

Software/IT as required for products and
 The bill proposes to establish an
processes”, however “Pure Software
investigating, prosecuting, reviewing and
Development does not fall in the scope of
recommending body-the Central Consumer
the programme”. Its two main features are:
Protection Authority.
Development and integration of technologies
 It also provides right to consumer to file a
in identified areas; and to promote
complaint for overcharging.
application of advanced technology for
2. Technology Promotion, Development and
improving the performance, value addition
Utilization Programme implemented by
and exportability of various products”. Its
Department of Scientific and Industrial
specific objectives include: develop and
integrate technologies with holistic Ans. (c)
approach; application of modern / advanced Sol: Integrated Power Development Scheme
technology for socio-economic problem (IPDS), launched by the Government of
solving; development and application of India (Gol) in November 2014, is a
R & D activities, and promoting activities modification on Restructured Accelerated
for improving technologies and other related Power Development and Reforms
issues. Programme (RAPDRP) with smarter and
3. The Olympic Flame symbolizes efficient power / electricity services in urban
(a) Unity among various nations of the world areas by strengthening of sub-transmission
(b) Speed, perfection and strength and distribution network, metering of
(c) The development of sportsmanship distribution transformers / feeders /

consumers, and IT Information technology
(d) Continuity between ancient and modern
games (IT) enablement of distribution network.
Ans. (d) While Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti
Sol:  The Olympic flame represents link Yojana (DDUGJY) launched on l5 July 2015
between the ancient and modern games and in Patna aims 24  7 Power Supply in Rural
underlines the profound connection between Areas and feeder separation in household
these two events. and agriculture use so as to improve
 There was no Olympic flame used in first agriculture productivity and electrification to
Olympic games, held in 1896 (Athens, all the households. Similar such Scheme was
Greece). 1st time it was used in 1928 already there in Gujarat, and in the
Olympics in Amsterdam (Netherlands). Government of India erstwhile scheme Rajiv
4. Consider the following statements: Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran is subsumed
1. IPDS strengthens the distribution network in RGGVY. Launched in March 2016 Unnat
in urban areas while DDUGJY does the Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All is the
same in rural areas. name given to Domestic Efficient Lighting
2. DELP focuses to substitute LED bulbs for Programme (DELP) which is LED based and
incandescent bulbs. is being implemented by Energy Efficiency
Which of the above statements is/are Services Limited (EESL).
correct? 5. Consider the following statements:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Non-performing assets (NPAs) decline in
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 value when
1. Demand revives in the economy. (d) Increase in the carbon content of the
2. Capacity utilization increases. atmosphere due to the felling of trees
3. Capacity utilization, through substantive, Ans. (a)

is yet sub-optimal. Sol: Carbon footprint is measurement of carbon
4. Capacity utilization decreases consequent equivalent of total greenhouse gases
upon merger of units. individual or organisation.
Which of the above statements are correct? 7. What is Crowdfunding?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (a) Money collected for public welfare
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 projects by levying an entry fee to

exhibitions, shows, etc.
Ans. (c)
(b) Money collected by charitable
Sol: Capacity utilization: It is the extent or level
organizations by placing a donation box at
to which the productive capacity of a plant,
prominent locations.
firm, or country is being used in generation
of goods and services. (c) Money raised by innovators and
inventors by launching their products and
 It can be expressed as a percentage. It is
services through the Internet.
computed by dividing the total capacity with
the portion being utilized. (d) Money raised by individuals by passing
the hat around to onlookers at a street
 NPA decline in value when capacity
performance.
utilization increases.
6. The meaning of ‘Carbon Footprint’ is Ans. (c)
described by the amount of Sol: Crowdfunding: It is the practice of funding

a project or venture by raising small amounts
(a) Carbon dioxide released into the
of capital from a large number of individuals
atmosphere as a result of the activities of a
to finance a new business venture, typically
particular individual, organization or
via the Internet.
community
8. The sum of squares of successive integers 8
(b) Greenhouse gases emitted by industries
to 16, both inclusive, will be
contributing to global warming
(c) Carbon emissions released by the burning (a) 1126 (b) 1174 (c) 1292 (d) 1356
of jet fuel Ans. (d)

Sol: The sum of squares of successive integers 8
to 16, both inclusive, will be
Apply formula for  n 2 to solve this 1

   8  12   6  60cm
2
n  n  1 2n  1
question where  n2  6
Equating moment about X axis of total area
and component area given
n 16 2 n 7 2 16 16  1 32  1
 n 1
n  n 1
n 
6 1 1
60  y   3  6  4  8  6  3   6  4
7  7  114  1 2 2

6
y  3.2cm
 1496  140  1356
Equating moment about Y axis of total area
9. Consider a trapezoidal lamina ABCD with
and component area gives
AB parallel to DC, 6cm apart; AB is8 cm;
1
CD is 12cm; CD extends outwards by 2 cm 60  x   3  6  2  8  6
2
from the foot of the perpendicular from B on 1  1
  3  4    1 6  11  
DC. The centre of gravity of the lamina will 2  3
be x  6.466cm
(a) Along AC at a height of 3 cm from DC Hence centre of gravity of the lamina lies
(b) Along BD at a height of 3 cm from DC along line joining the mid-point of AB to the
(c) Along the line joining the mid-point of mid-point of DC at a vertical distance of 2.8
AB to the mid-point of DC; at a height of cm from DC.
2.8 cm from DC. 10. A cantilever beam ABC is shown to a highly
(d) At the intersection point of AC and DB exaggerated vertical scale. Horizontally, AB

is 2m long and BC is 0.6m long. Loads act
Ans. (c)
Sol: only in the region AB, and there are no loads
in the region BC. Under this load system, the
deflection at B is 0.24 cm and the slope of
the beam at B is  , where sin  = 0.038.
What is the deflection at D, which is midway
between B and C?

A B
1 D
Total area of trapezium =  (Sum parallel C
2
sides)  Distance between parallel side (a) 0.2406 cm (b) 0.2514 cm
(c) 0.2530 cm (d) 0.2452 cm
Ans. (b) Let the roots of this equation be .. 
Sol: b
     0.6
2m B 0.3m D 0.3m C a
A c
B'        1.84
D' a

C'
b
    1.334
BB'   B  0.24cm a
DD'   D   B  tan  LDB If   0.8then     0.6  0.8  0.2 which

can picked up as option since numerically
 D   B  sin  L DB
 For small angle tan   sin  greater value should have negative sign.
 0.24  0.38  30cm  0.24  1.14 12. The equation, x 3  8x 2  37x  50  0 is
 D  1.38cm factored and it has  3  4i  as one of its
Hence none is correct. roots. What is the real root of this equation?
If LBD is taken in meter then, (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6.5 (d) 13

Ans. (a)
 D   B  0.038  0.3
Sol: Use the formulae for sum and product of
  B  0.0114  0.24cm  0.0114m
roots
 0.2514
Hence answer (b) matches, but 0.24 is in Given equation is x 3  8x 2  37x  50  0
cms and 0.0114 is in m. Hence this approach Let the roots of this equation be , , 
is not correct.
With one root  as 3  4i, the other root 
11. Given that 0.8 is one root of the equation,
its conjugate i.e 3  4i
x 3  0.6x 2  1.84x  1.344  0 . the other
b
roots of this equation will be       8....  i  this gives the third
a
(a) 1.1 and -1.4 (b) -1.2 and 1.4 root  8  6  2
(c) 1.2and  1.4 (d) 1.1and1.4 13. Circle A is 4 cm in diameter; circle B is 5
Ans. (c) cm in diameter. Circle C has its
Sol: Use the formula for sum and product of roots circumference equal to the sum of the
Given equation is circumferences of both A and B together.

What will be the ratio of the area of circle C,
x 3  0.6x 2  1.84x  1.344  0
with respect to the area of circle A and circle used minimally. How many times would
B respectively? have to be used?
(a) 5.0625 and 1.84 (b) 3.875 and 1.84 (a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 3
(c) 5.0625 and 3.24 (d) 3.875 and 3.24 Ans. (a)
Ans. (c) Sol: Care is to be taken to meet the given
Sol: Circumference of circle A  4 as its conditions i.e least number of 9s and or 9
diameter = 4cm; Area of circle to be used and preference to be given to use
16 of 9.
A  4 or 
4
9
1  ;2 
 9  9  ;3  9 ;4 9  9 ;
Circumference of circle B  5 as its 9 9 9 9
diameter = 5cm; Area circle
9
5  9  9  ;6  9  9;7
2 9
5 25
B     or  9 9
2 4  9  ;8  9  ;
9 9
Circumference of circle C = Circumference 9 99
9  9;10  9  ;11  9  ;12  9  9;
of circle A+ Circumference of circle 9 9
B  4   5  9  15. In a particular test, the marks scored by 4
Diameter of circle C = 9cm candidates –A, B, C and D are as follows:
2  Marks obtained by A and B add to 100 ;
9 81
Area of circle C      
2 4  Marks obtained by C and D add up to
Ratio of are of circle C w.r.t area of circle A those scored by A;
81 81  B scores 4 times of D;
and that of circle B will be , or 5.0625
16 25  D scores 10 marks less than C.
and 3.24 The marks obtained by C will be
14. The 12 digits on the face of a clock are to be (A) 30 (b) 15 (c) 20 (d) 25
represented employing contributions of only
Ans. (d)
the number 9 as either 9 or 9 . The other
Sol: A  B  100 CD  A B  4D
prescribed conditions are (i) the least number D  C  10or C  D  10
of uses alone are permitted; and (ii) when A  4D  100 and D  D  10  A
alternates are possible, use of 9 will be or A  2D  10
preferred over use of 9 , which should be Solving these 2 equations given D = 15 and
C = 25
16. In a project there are 9 activities : A ,B ,C ,D 1 2
18. Let the Eigen vector of the matrix   be
which are sequential; E, F, G which are 0 2
sequential; H, K which are sequential. Also 1 1 
written in the form   and   . What is the
E, F, G run parallel to B, C, D; and H, K run a  b 
parallel to A, B, C, D . Besides there activity value of (a  b) ?
depended, it is also needful that B be
1
completed before taking up G; A and H be (a) 0 (b) (c) 1 (d) 2
2
completed before taking up D and K. How
Ans. (b)
many dummies are to be drawn on the
1
activity network? Sol: Let   be given vector for eigen value
a 
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 2
1 
Ans. (c)  b  be eigen vector for eigen value.
 
Sol:
Ax   x
H K 1 2 1 1
A B C D 0 2 a   1a 
    
E G 1  2a  1 2a  a a0
F 1 2 1  1 
0 2  b  2 b 
Number of Dummies needed = 3     
17. What is the from of the function f(x) for the 1  2b  2 2b  2b 2b  1
following data? 1
b
X 0 1 2 3 2
1
F(x) 3 6 11 18 ab
2
(a) x 2  2x  3 (b) x 2  2x  3 19. What is the cube root of 1468 to 3 decimal
(c) x 2  2x  3 (d) x 2  2x  3 places?
Ans. (a) (a) 11.340 (b) 11.353 (c) 11.365 (d) 11.382
Sol: This question can be solved by just putting Ans. (c)

values given in various options. Sol: Let x 3  1468
f  x   x 3  1468  0
By Newton Raphson method

f xn  22. In the Laurent expansion of
x n 1  x n 
f ' xn  1
f z  valid the region
x 3n  1468 2x 3n  1468  z  1 z  2 
 xn  
3x 2n 3x 2n
1
1  z  2 , the coefficient of is
start with x 0  11 z2
3
2 11  1468 1
x1   11.377 (a) 0 (b) (c) 1 (d) -1
3 11
2 2
3 Ans. (d)
2 11.377   1468
x2  2
 11.365 1 1 1
3 11.377  Sol: f  z    
 z  1 z  2  z 1 z  2
,if    x  0
20. Letf  x    be period 1 1
 
,if 0  x    1  z
z 1   2 1  
function of period 2 . the coefficient of sin  z  2
1 1
1  1  1 z
5x in the fourier series expansion of f(x) in  1    1  
z  z 2 2
the interval  ,  is
1  1 1 1 
 1   2  3  ...... 
4 5 4 3 z  z z z 
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1 z z   z 
5 4 3 4  1      
2 2 2   2 
Ans. (a)
1 1 1 1 1 z z2
    2  3  4  ....   
1 z z z z 2 4 8
Sol: a 5   f  x  sin 5xdx
  1
Coefficient of  1
z2
0 
1 
    sin 5cdx    sin 5xdx   x 2  y2 
    23. Ifu  log  what is the value of
0  x  y 
 
0 
1    cos5x    cos5x   u u
      x y ?
   5    5  0  x y
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) u (d) eu
1   2   2   1  4  4
              Ans. (b)
  5   5    5  5
0.2
 x 2  y2 
21. What is the value of 1525  to 2 decimal Sol: u  log 
 x  y 
is non-homogeneous
 
places?
x 2  y 2 is homogeneous function
F  u   eu 
(a) 4.33 (b) 4.36 (c) 4.38 (d) 4.30 xy
Ans. (a) of degree
F u  e4 1. Sensitivity of demand
n  xu x  yu y  n 1 1
F1  u   e4  2. Elasticity of demand
3. Sensitivity of expenditure
1  e 2x
24. What is the residue of the function at 4. Elasticity of expenditure
z4
its pole? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
4 4 2 2 (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only

(a) (b)  (c)  (d)
3 3 3 3 Ans. (b)
Ans. (b) 27. Consider the following provisions regarding
sadety on highways, where major

1 1 2Z 
 2Z2   2Z3   2Z4 ...
2! 3! 4! improvement works may also be in progress:
1 e2z  
Sol: 
Z4 Z4 1. Highly visible barricades to avoid falling
2 4 8 of vehicles in deep interspaces ahead

    ..
Z3 2Z 2 3!Z (including drainages).
8 8 4 2. Wire-net provisions to ward off road
Residue at Z = 0   
3! 6 3 slippages.
25. What is the maximum value of 3. Signages for wild- animals crossing (like
z,if z  10x  6y subject to the constraints deer, elephant, etc)
3x  y  12,2x  5y  34,x  0, y  0? 4. Signages on minor gradients.
(a) 56 (b) 52 (c) 50 (d) 40 Which of the above are relevant?
Ans. (a) (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
Sol: This question can be solved by finding point (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
of intersection of the 2 liner equations Ans. (d)
representing the constraints 3x  y  12 and Sol: Signages on minor gradients are not
2x  5y  34whichis x  2and y  6 required.
Putting this value in the given objective 28. A vehicle moving at a speed of 88 km/hr
function i . e z  10x  6y , we get maximum weighs 62293.5 N and its rolling resistance
value of z = 56. coefficient is 0.018. The rolling resistance of

the vehicle is
26. Which of the following concepts are
relatable to income of members of the public (a) 1121.3 N (b) 1000.4 N
(c) 975.7 N (d) 845.6 N
while considering public welfare ?
Ans. (a) area A2 and modulus of elasticity E 2 and
Sol: Rolling resistance  C  W the two are firmly held by end plants. The
Where, C = Rolling resistance coefficient
portion of the load P applied on the plates
W = Weight of the vehicle
shared by rod and tube, respectively are
 Rolling resis tan ce  0.018  622293.5N
PA1E1 PA 2E 2
(a) and
29. For a vehicle travelling at 24km/hr having a A1E1  A 2E 2 A1E1  A 2E 2
wheel radius of 0.305 m with overall gear PA 2E 2 PA1E1
(b) and
ratio G = 19.195, and when torque A1E1  A 2E 2 A1E1  A 2E 2
transmitted is 203.6 N.m, the engine speed PA1E1 PA 2E 2

(c) and
A1E1  A 2E1 A1E 2  A 2E 2
and power are, nearly
PA1E1 PA 2E 2
(a) 4155 rpm and 88.6 kw (d) and
A1  A 2 A1  A 2
(b) 4500 rpm and 88.6 kw Ans. (a)
(c) 4155 rpm and 95.4 kw Sol:
(d0 4500 rpm and 95.4 kw
Ans. (a)
Enginerpm  Overallgear ratio  wheelrpm
Vehicle velocity
Wheel rpm 
Circumferenceof wheel
24km / hr Let Rod takes load P1 and Tube take load P2

2   0.305m
P1  P2  P
1000
24  m / min
 60  208.7rpm Since rigid plates are not placed at both the
2  0.305m
ends hence deflection will be equal.
Engine rpm  19.915  208.7  4156.8rpm
rod   tube
Engine power  Torque
P1L PL P AE
 Angualr displacement / sec  2  1  1 1
A1E1 A 2E 2 P2 A 2E 2
203Nm  4156.8  2rad Solving (1) and (2)

60sec
P1  P2  P
 88626watt  88.6KW
A1E1 PA 2E 2
30. A rod of length L, cross-section area A1 and P2 .  P2  P  P2 
A 2E 2 A1E1  A 2 E 2
modulus of elasticity E1 has been placed
P.A1E1
inside a tube of length L, of cross-section P1 
A1E1  A 2 E 2
31. A weight of 240 N is dropped on to a close- 1. Reducing the stress on the spinal cord and
coiled helical spring made up of 18mm providing for lesser fatigue-causing sitting
spring steel wire. the spring consists of 22 arrangements.
coils wound to a diameter of 180 mm. If the 2. Arrangements of keys on the computer
instantaneous compression is 120 mm, what keyboard towards optimizing finger stress
is the height of drop of the weight, given level.
G  88  103 N / mm 2 ? 3. Catering to increasing demand to produce
(a) 450 mm (b) 300 mm more pleasing objects.
(c) 250 mm (d) 150 mm Which of the above statements are correct?
Ans. (d) (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Sol: Loss of P.E = Spring energy stored (3) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1 1 Ans. (a)
Mg  H     K. 2 W  H     K 2
2 2 Sol: Ergonomics in design is the process of
W  240N D  120mm designing and/or arranging workplace,
G.d 4 products and system so that they are

K
64R 3n comfortable to the people who use them.
 = Comp in spring Designing the products so that they are
d = diameter of wire = 18mm pleasing is considered in Aesthetics and not

in Ergonomics.
n = number modulus  88  103 N / mm 2
33. Which type of output device creates
180
R = Radius of spring  90mm coloured images which look and feel like
2
photographs?
88 103 184
K N / mm  9N / mm (a) Electrostatic plotter (b) Laser printer
64  903  22
(c) Dye sublimation printer (d) Inkjet plotter
1
W  H     .k. 2
2 Ans. (b)
1 Sol: Leaser printers – a type of non-impact

240  H  120    9  120 2
2 printers – use electro photographic image
H  120  270  H  150mm and work with the concept more like the
32. Consider the following statements regarding photocopier. At the start indeed Laser
Ergonomic Design: printers were developed modifying the
photocopiers.
34. Consider the following statements with Which of the above statements are correct?
reference to sis-sigma; (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
1. It is a set of techniques and tools for (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
process improvement. Ans. (b)
2. It postulates that any process must not Insolation is incoming solar radiation. It
produce more than 3.4 defects per one incoming amount rather than absorbed
million opportunities. amount i.e measured in per unit area and per
3. It is initiative of Motorola. unit time.
Which of the above statements are correct? 36. Consider the following statements regarding
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Insolation:
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. It is the solar radiation that reaches the
Ans. (d) Earth’s surface.
35. Consider the following statements regarding 2. It is measured by the amount of solar
a Grillage Foundation: energy received per square centimeter per
1. It is provided for heavily loaded isolated minute.
columns. 3. It is the amount of solar energy absorbed
2. It is treated as a spread foundation. by the stratosphere.
3. It consists of two sets of perpendicularly Which of the above statements are correct?
placed steel columns. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
Which of the above statements are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Ans. (b)
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Insolation is incoming solar radiation. It is
Ans. (a) incoming amount rather than absorbed

amount i.e. measured in per unit area and per
35. Consider the following statements regarding
unit time.
a grillage Foundation:
37. Consider the following statements regarding
1. It provided for heavily loaded isolated
Quality circle:
columns.
1. It is a small group of people working in
2. It is treated as a spread foundation
different areas of an organization with
3. It consists of two sets of perpendicularly
multiple expertises.
placed steel columns.
2. It consists of people who volunteer means minimum project duration is duration
themselves. of critical path it means shortest duration
3. It is a human resource development permissible of project is critical path
technique duration.
4. It is a problem-solving forum 39. Let the sum of the squares of successive
Which of the above statements are correct? integers 0, 1, 2, …., n – 1, n be denoted by S

Let the sum of the cubes of the same integers
c
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only be denoted by C. It is desirable that , as n
s
Ans. (a)
increases in steps of ‘unity’ from ‘zero’ is
Quality circle is a small group of 6 to 12 given by the series:
employees doing similar work who
0 3 9 18 30
, , , , ,...  for n  0,1, 2,3, 4.... What
voluntarily meet together on a regular basis 1 5 5 7 9
to identify improvements in their respective will this ratio be for n = 8 ?
work areas using various techniques for 108 103 103 100
(a) (b) (c) (d)
analyzing and solving work related problems 17 17 15 15
coming in the way and achieving and Ans. (a)
sustaining excellence leading to mutual Sol: There is slight problem in 1 st term which
upliftment of employees as well as the 0
should be
organization 0
3
n  n 12
1. In work breakdown structure, top-down stc n 2
lgnoring1 term  
approach is adopted s  n 2 n  n 1 2n  1
2. Duration along critical path is the shortest 6
duration permissible.
c 108
3. PERT is probabilistic in its approach. Putting,n  8we get 
s 17
Which of the above statements are correct? 40. The plan view at just below window-sill
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only level, but not showing door openings- is
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 shown – of an outpost building of, say, the
Ans. (d) Forest Department. Section AA extending
Sol: Project will be completed only when just a little above ground level GL and fully
activities along critical path are completed. It below ground level is shown. the wall and
first footing are random-rubble masonry in
cement mortar, and the lowest part of the
foundation is of mass rubble in cement
mortar. the total volume of the 40 cm deep
footing for the whole building is , nearly
Total volume of first footing is
  575  425  40    485  335  40 
 3276000cm3  3.276m3
On rounding off  3.3m3

Correct answer is (b)
41. Consider the following statements with
regard to atmospheric humidity:
1. Absolute humidity is the amount of water
vapour per unit volume.
2. Hygrometer is used to measure relative
humidity.
3. Dew point is the temperature at which the
(a) 3.8m3 (b) 3.3m3 (c) 2.8m3 (d) 2.3m3
relative humidity is 75%.
Ans. (b)
Dimension of 40cm deep first footing are as
shown below:
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans. (a)
Sol: Absolute humidity is amount of water
vapour per unit volume. Whereas relative
humidity (RH) is ratio of absolute humidity
and capacity of air to hold the water vapour
i.e. 100%
AH Which of the above can be categorized as
RH   100%
HC causing ozone depletion?
AH is absolute humidity. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
HC is humidity capacity. (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only
42. Sanitary/municipal fills and waste heaps are Ans. (c)
unavoidably hazardous due to Sol: Ozone depletion is caused by number of
1. Leachates 2. Emanating gases ways:
3. Rodents and wandering animals (i) CFC/HCFC kind of gases those contain
4. Automobile workshops that seem to have chlorine or bromine.
an affinity for such neighbourhoods (ii) Major volcanic eruption that includes ash
Which of the above are correct? of chlorine and other material i.e. harmful
(a) 1 and 4 only (b) 1 and 2 only for ozone.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 and 4 only (iii) Even sunspot activity with polar
Ans. (b) stratospheric clouds and winds also damages
Sol: Sanitary landfills or municipal fills though the ozone.
have provisions to reduce pollution. 44. Which one of the following is the major
However, it is quite difficult to control characteristic of deciduous trees?
leaching (i.e. downward movement of (a) They do not lose their leaves.
pollutants) and emanating gases like CH4 (b) They shed their leaves annually.
(Methane), CO2 etc. (c) They synthesize their own food.
43. Consider the following statements regarding (d) They depend on other factors for their
depletion of the ozone layer: food.
1. Excessive release of chlorine and bromine Ans. (b)
in the environment from man-made Sol: Deciduous trees shed their leaves in
compounds, such as chlorofluorocarbons. particular season unlike evergreen.
2. Occurrence of certain natural phenomena 45. A wall, rectangular in shape, has perimeter
such as sunspots, and stratospheric winds. of 72m. If the length of its diagonal is 18m,
3. Degradation of materials by ultra-violet what is the area of the wall?
radiation.
(a) 224m 2 (b) 486m 2
4. Major volcanic eruptions.
(c) 572m 2 (d) 606m2
Ans. (b) Ans. (a)
b Sol:
N C E
a Wall 800 600

c  18m 300 0
30 0
500 50
400 400 200
1300 90 0
0 B 200
80 100 0 D
10 100 G
Perimeter = 72m   a  b   2  72m A
700
H
a  b  36m
Note: Line FG will be horizontal and not
2 2 2 2 2 2
a  b  c  a  b  18  324
inclined as given in question.
Area  a  b
47. Consider the following characteristics with
2
we know  a  b   a 2  b 2  2ab
respect to Alpha particles:
 362  324  2   Area  1. They have large specific ionization values.
 Area  486m 2 2. They dissipate their energy rather slowly.
46. To isolate an enclosed area for conservation, 3. They can penetrate the outer layer of
an open traverse is run keeping close to (but human skin.
outside of) the exterior boundary of the area 4. Their emitters are heavy elements.
through ground points Which of the above statements are correct?
A  B  C  D  E  F  G  towards (a) 1 and 4 only (b) 1 and 3 only
H (to be eventually located). AB is 800 to (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 2 and 3 only
the East of the North line at A. Ans. (c)
Deflection/Interior angles at B, C, D, E, Fare
Sol: Alpha particles cannot penetrate human skin.
indicated. What would be the magnitude of
They dissipate their energy slowly (speed of
the deflection angle at G (as marked) so that
a-particles is 16000 km/sec). Emitters of a-
GH many run parallel to BA? (Lengths are
particles are heavy elements.
immaterial in this case.)
48. Increased biological oxygen demand is an
N C E
indication of
80 0 60 0
1300 900 1. Low microbial contamination.
80 0 B G 2. Absence of microbial pollution.
D
A 700
To H Deflection angle at G 3. High level of microbial contamination.
F
(a) 1900 (b) 2100 (c) 2000 (d) 2300
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 1 14 1 5
(a) 35 dayand days (b) 34 day and days
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2 3 2 2
Ans. (c) 1 13 1 11
(c) 35 dayand days (d) 34 dayand days
2 2 2 2
Sol: Biological oxygen demand is associated with
Ans. (d)
amount of pollutants in water that required
Sol: Project duration along top path
to grade the biodegradation of pollutants by
microbes. Higher microbial action is 2  4  3  4 4  4  6  8 5  4  8  11
  
6 6 6
indication of higher BOD.
 3  6  8  17day
49. An association of two organisms of different
species for mutual benefit, and where the Project duration along bottom path
individuals may not be able to survive 6  4  7  8 12  4  12  18 9  4  15  18

  
6 6 6
separately, is called
1
(a) Commensalism (b) Parasitic  7  13  14.5  34.5  34
2
(c) Non-symbiotic (d) Symbiotic
1
Longest is 34 hence this path is critical
Ans. (d) 2
Sol: Mutualism or symbiosis is a condition of 2 2 2
 8  6   18  12   18  9 
benefits for both the organisms as       
 6   6   6 
lichen/coral and pollination.
2
1  32  1 9
50. A simple project comprises of two start-to-     1    1
3  
end parallel paths, each with three activities  2 9 4
in series, with no inter path dependencies. 4  36  9  9 121 11

   days
The a, m, b data (in days) for each activity 36 36 6
are shown in the diagram. Assuming that 51. Crashing is
three activities in series are enough for (a) Abandoning the project
further computations, what will be the total (b) Completing the project with all possible
project duration and its standard deviation? haste
4,6,8 (c) Reduction of duration for a few of the
2,3, 4 5,8,11 activities
(d) Reducing the cost of the project with all
6,7,8 12,12,18 9,15,18 needful modifications
Ans. (c) Sol: This question can be solved by finding point
52. ABC analysis in materials management is a of intersection of the 2 linear equations
method of classifying the inventories based representing the constraints
on the x1  2x 2  200 and x1  x 2  150
(a) Economic order quantity Which is x1  100and x 2  50
(b) Value of annual usage of the items
55. Consider the length of a room is 15m and
(c) Volume of material consumption width is 10m. If the sum of the areas of the
(d) Quantity of material used floor and ceiling is equal to the sum of the
Ans. (b) areas of the four walls, then the volume of
53. CPM method of network analysis is the room is
1. Ideally suited for linearly extending (a) 900m3 (b) 1000m3
works.
(c) 1200m3 (d) 1500m3
2. Meant essentially for research and
development activities.
h
3. Activity-oriented.
4. Used for planning, scheduling and
15m
controlling purposes.
10m
Given data:
Area of floor + Area of ceiling = sum of area
of four walls
Ans. (c)
10 15  10 15  15  h  2  10  h  2
54. The objective function z  3x1  5x 2 is to be
 300  50h  h  6m
maximized subjected to constraints
Volume of room  10m  15m  6m  900m3
x1  2x 2  200 x1  x 2  150
56. If the EOQ is 360 units, order cost is Rs. 5
x1, x 2  0
per order and carrying cost is Rs. 0.20 per
The values of x1andx 2 in this context are,
unit, what is the usage?
respectively
(a) 100 and 75 (b) 125 and 75 (a) 2654 units (b) 2592 units
(c) 100 and 50 (d) 125 and 50 (c) 1872 units (d) 1574 units
Ans. (c) Ans. (b)
57. If L j = the latest occurrence time for event j 60. What is the volume of an FCC unit cell in
terms of its atomic radius R ?
Ei = the earliest occurrence time for event i
 (a) 3R 3 (b) 16R 3 2
Tij = the duration of activity ij?
 (c) 16R 3 3 (d) 2R 3
What is the total float for activity ij?
Ans. (b)
(a) Ei  L j  Tij (b) L j  Ei  Tij
Sol: Volume of unit cell = a3
(c) Tij  E i  L j (d) Tij  L j  E i
2a 4R
In FCC unit cell, R  a
Ans. (b) 4 2
Sol: FT  TLJ  TEi  t ij  L j  E i  Tij 3
3 4R  3
 volume  a     16 2R
58. The process of removing irregular portions  2
of stones and facilitating their easy 61. How much sulphur is required per 100 kg of
transportation is known as final rubber product to completely crosslink
(a) Quarrying (b) Reticulating butadiene rubber?
(c) Dressing (d) Pointing (a) 17 kg (b) 27 kg (c) 37 kg (d) 47 kg
Ans. (c) Ans. (a)
59. On which of the following factors does Sol: For cross linking of rubber 1 to 5 parts (by
hysteresis loss depend? weight) of sulfur are added to 100 parts of
1. Magnetic field intensity rubber.
2. Frequency of the field This corresponds to about one cross link for
3. Volume of material every 10 to 20 repeat units. As per question

for complete cross linking we need almost 5
4. Neel temperature
times sulfur than above i.e. 5 to 25 kg for
100 kg of rubber. Out of the given options
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
only option (a) is in this range.
Ans. (d)
62. Which one of the following is termed as
Sol: Neel temperature is the temperature at which
sacrificial protection of metal?
antiferromagnetic material changes into
(a) Galvanization (b) Tinning
paramagnetic material. So statement 4 is
(c) Organic coating (d) Inorganic coating
wrong, hence options (a), (b) and (c) are
Ans. (a)
wrong; so the correct option is (d).
Sol: In galvanisation, zinc is coated on the 66. The Hall effect may be used to
surface of iron to prevent it from corroding. 1. Determine whether the semiconductor is
Sacrificial protection is the process where p-type or n-type.
zinc is kept near iron surface so that zinc 2. Determine the carrier concentration.
corrodes instead of iron. 3. Calculate the mobility.
63. The material used in the production of Which of the above statements are correct?
bearings is (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(a) Cast iron (b) Babbitt metal (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Pig iron (d) Steel
Ans. (d)
Ans. (b) Sol: Applications of Hall Effect
Sol: Babbitt metal is used in bearings. 1. it is used to determine whether a
64. Malleable cast iron is produced semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
1. By quick cooling of cast iron. 2. to calculate carrier concentration.
2. By adding magnesium to molten cast iron. 3. to calculate mobility
3. From white cast iron by annealing. 4. to calculate drift velocity
Which of the above statements is/are 5. to calculate the conductivity of specimen.
correct? 6. to calculate magnetic field B.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 67. Which of the following sets of free software
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 tools are suitable for ICT-based education as
Ans. (c) well as an open source?
65. The critical temperature above which (a) Scilab, Osdag, PHP and Latex
ferromagnetic materials lose their magnetic (b) Java, Libre Office, Audacity and Matlab
property is called (c) Scilab, Arduino, Libre Office and Latex
(a) Kelvin point (b) Curie point (d) Scilab, Octave, Netduino and Latex
(c) Recrystallization point (d) Celsius point
Ans. (a, c)
Ans. (b) Sol: Useful in Free and Open Source Software
Sol: The critical temperature at which based Education (FOSSE), Osdag (Open
ferromagnetic material becomes Steel. Design and Graphics) is Free and
paramagnetic is known as Curie temperature. Open Source Software built on Python and
Python-based FOSSE tools useful in the
design of steel structures, also providing 3D Sol: Information and Communication
visualization through Graphical User Technology (ICT) facilitates easy disbursal
Interface. While Scilab also FOSS is useful of information and Right to Information
for numerical computation facilitating (RTI), large on-line reach in service
powerful computing environment for delivery, modernization and smartification
engineering and scientific applications with of services, efficiency by improving speed,
large number of metathetical applications and accountability through scientific
and 2D & 3D graphical functions. standards and information availability.
PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) and HTML It has a mix of simplicity and complexity,
(Hyper Text Markup Language) are also for example it can simplify service delivery
used as Free and Open Source Software to people, however due to use of multiple
(FOSS) and have broad utility web technologies and need for frequent
development / coding and web related upgradation of hardware and software, it
services or making dynamic / interactive may even add up some complexity.
web pages. In FOPSSE, LaTeX is used for 69. What does CDMA stand for?
production of scientific and technical (a) Code Division Mobile Access
documentation. Arduino is Open Source (b) Code Division Multiple Access
Platform to build up the electronic projects.
(c) Code Division Multiple Applications
LiberOff ice is FOSS which facilitates
(d) Code Division Mobile Applications
sharing of work/content by users in more
Ans. (b)
non-restrictive ways, developed as an
70. A small production unit now works 6 days
offshoot of Open Office Project.
1
68. Which of the following are the benefits of e- per week with 3 hours of first shift every
3
governance system?
one of the 6 days and 3 hours of second shift
1. Simplicity, efficiency and accountability.
for each of the first 5 days. Wage
2. Quality service to citizens. negotiations led to an agreement to work on
3. Better access to information. 5 days a week with both shifts together
4. Expanded reach to governance. 1
clocking 7 hours per day with an 8%
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only 2
increase in weekly wages. How much
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
change in the hourly production would mean
Ans. (d)
parity in the agreement for both management  Farmers can showcase their produce
and employees? online from their nearest market and traders
(a) 3.68% (b) 2.15% (c) 1.82% (d) 1.33% can quote price from anywhere.
Ans. (a)  It also ensures open price discovery and
70. In the first case, total number of house per better returns to farmers.
week  3.5  6  3  5  36hours 72. Consider the following statements regarding
In the second case, total number of hours the code of ethics for Engineers:
 7.5  55  37.5hours 1. The safety, health and welfare of the

public are of paramount importance.
With increased wages, the effective hourly
2. Perform services only in the area of their
rate is
 36 1.08  1.0368 implying 3.68%
37.5 competence.
as the increase in expected productivity. 3. Issue public statements strictly in an
71. Consider the following statements: objective and truthful manner.
1. National Agricultural Portal, eNAM, is 4. Avoid deceptive acts.

designed to create a unified national market Which of the above statements are correct?
for agricultural commodities. (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
2. Farmers can showcase their produce (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
online from the nearest market and the buyer Ans. (d)
can quote his price from anywhere. Sol: Code of ethics for engineers:
Which of the above statements is/are Fundamental principles:
correct?
 Hold paramount the safety, health and
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only welfare of the public.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2  Perform services only in areas of their
Ans. (c) competence.
Sol: National Agriculture Market is a pan India  Issue public statements only in an
electronic trading portal which networks the objective and truthful manner.
existing Agriculture Produce Market  Act for each employer or client as faithful
Committees (APMC) to create a unified agents or trustees.
national market for agricultural
 Avoid deceptive acts.
commodities.
 Conduct themselves honourably, Which of the above statements is/are
responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to correct?
enhance the honour, reputation and (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
usefullness of the profession. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 Shall approve only those engineering Ans. (c)
documents that are in conformity with Sol: Material science is the branch of engineering
applicable standards. which deals with the study of structure,
Serves his personal interest and not that of properties and applications of materials.
his professional interest. Properties of materials are greatly influenced
i.e. A conflict of interest arises in the by the structure of materials.
workplace when an employee has competing 75. PQLI is based on
interests or loyalties that either are, or (a) Infant mortality, life expectancy and
potentially can be at odds with each other adult literacy rate.
e.g. A person acts as an examinee as well as
(b) Crime rate, clean environment and
examiner.
quality of housing.
73. In a radar system, the term ‘Rat-Race’ is
(c) Air pollution, water pollution and
used in connection with
sanitation conditions.
(a) Modulator
(d) Health, education and environment
(b) Pulse characteristics
Ans. (a)
(c) Receiver Bandwidth
Sol: PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index): It is
(d) Duplexer an attempt to measure the quality of life or
Ans. (d) well being of a country.
74. Consider the following statements: The value is the average of three parameters:
1. Material science deals with the strength (i) Basic literacy rate (ii) Infant mortality
and stiffness behaviour of components (iii) Life expectancy at age one
(buildings/machines/vehicle facilities) based
All equally weighted on a 0 to 100 scale.
on their response to imposed stresses (forces,
LieracyRate  IndexedInfant Mortality
moments, torque, etc.).
Rate  IndexedLifeExpectancy
POLI 
2. Material properties are dependent on their 3
micro-structure and response to force fields 76. HDI is a better index of development
and surface interaction. because
(a) GDP growth may not consider personal Sol: Conflict between private and official
growth situations. interest.
(b) It takes into consideration reduction of 80. What is ‘Nepotism’?
poverty. (a) Undermining the morale of workers.
(c) It covers income, health and education (b) Harassment of women workers.
aspects of development. (c) Being autocratic in decision-making.
(d) It covers promotion of growth. (d) Hiring friends or relatives and showing
Ans. (c) favouritism in work.
77. IPR protects the use the information and Ans. (d)
ideas that are of Sol: It is the practice among those with power or
(a) Ethical value (b) Moral value influence of favouring relatives of friends,
especially by giving them jobs.
(c) Social value (d) Commercial value
Directions: Each of the next twenty (20)
Ans. (d)
items consists of two statements, one
78. A Whistleblower is someone who
labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the other as
(a) Whistles classical music.
‘Statement (II)’. Examine these two
(b) Informs on any illegal, unethical or
statements carefully and select the answers
corrupt activity going on in the organisation.
to these items using the codes given below
(c) Is adept in whistling. Codes:
(d) Boasts about himself/herself. (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
Ans. (b) individually true and Statement (II) is the
79. What is meant by ‘Conflict of Interest’? correct explanation of Statement (I)
(a) Being interested in many subjects. (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(b) Hobbies interfering in education. individually true, but Statement (II) is not
(c) Least interest in the job taken up or the correct explanation of Statement (I)
assigned. (c) Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is
(d) A conflict between the private interests false
and the official responsibilities of a person in (d) Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II)
a position of trust. is true
Ans. (d) 81. Statement (I): Atoms can neither be created

nor destroyed.
Statement (II): Under similar conditions of 84. Statement (I): Quality is essential for
temperature and pressure, equal volumes of survival and growth of an organisation in the
gases do not contain an equal number of present era of tough competition.
atoms. Statement (II): The concept of quality is
Ans. (c) confined only to construction and
Sol: Under similar conditions of temperature and manufacturing organisations.
pressure, equal volumes of gases contain an Ans. (c)
equal number of atoms. 85. Statement (I): The concept of Just-In-Time
82. Statement (I): Lifts and external staircases is operationalized when the exact number of
are provided with access from the lobby area units required are bought at each successive
of each floor in multistorey blocks. The stage of production, at the appropriate time.
external staircase must be accessible through Statement (II): Just-In-Time concept has
self-closing, 180°-swing unlocked doors been expanded to mean a manufacturing
(with provision for locking at appropriate philosophy of eliminating waste.
conditions). Ans. (a)
Statement (II): Such staircases should not 86. Statement (I): Total Productive
be inadvertently subjected to spreading of Maintenance (TPM) is productive
smoke, but must yet provide unhindered exit maintenance involving total participation as
from the lobby of each floor. a group activity.
Ans. (a) Statement (II): Under the aegis of TPM,
83. Statement (I): Volcanic eruption is often individual operators generally take care of
accompanied by earthquakes. minor maintenance aspects.
Statement (II): Volcanoes erupt dust Ans. (a)
particles in the atmosphere. 87. Statement (I): Green energy refers to one
Ans. (b) which does not harm the ecosystem of planet
Sol: According to plate tectonics the earthquake Earth.
and volcanic eruption take place on same Statement (II): All renewable energy is
location as ring of fire and oceanic ridges. green energy.
During volcanic process besides lava even Ans. (c)
amount of gases, dust, ash also released. Green energy like solar, wind, biomass, tidal
are ecofriendly. However large hydro i.e.
renewable causing deforestation and wild Statement (II): The material of the balloon
life loss which is detrimental to can be easily stretched.
environment. Ans. (b)
88. Statement (I): To practise terraced Sol: With increase in height atmospheric pressure
cultivation in hill slopes, it can be admissible decreases and hence size of balloon
to have the vertical face of the terraced increases.
boundary run perpendicular to the ground 91. Statement (I): Preparation of bar charts is
trace of the fault line, if any, in any, the merely a scheduling operation while the
underlying land. preparation and analysis of a network is a
Statement (II): Fault lines are susceptible to planning function.
slips and should be guarded against in land Statement (II): A bar chart, prima facie,
use. does not show the interrelationships between
Ans. (a) activities.
Sol: Terrace farming and contour farming are Ans. (a)
eco-friendly technique of agriculture carried 92. Statement (I): Project management is
out in hilly areas. Where terrace and essentially the process to plan its
contours are kept perpendicular to the implementation and to pre-determine the
natural slope. Fault lines are ecological period-wise need of resources including
fragile zones prone to landslides. funds and personnel, given the choice of
89. Statement (I): Normally carbon dioxide is total duration and quality standards.
not considered as an air pollutant. Statement (II): Of the four dimensions (not
Statement (II): Carbon dioxide is a denying that there can be some more) of a
constituent of atmospheric air. project, viz., scope, cost, time and quality,
Ans. (b) only any two can be pro-assigned; others
Sol: Carbon dioxide in normal circumstances is have to abide by these two prescriptions.
not considered as an air pollutants. For Ans. (a)
example the air quality index (AQl) does not 93. Statement (I): High strength, super-
includes CO2 as pollutant. duralumin alloys are adopted in the
90. Statement (I): The size of a hydrogen manufacture of aero engines.
balloon increases as it rises in the air. Statement (II): Precipitation heat treatment
is adopted for duraumin products.
Ans. (b) Statement (II): Alpha iron can be made
Sol: High strength, super duralumin alloys are magnetic above 768°C.
adopted in the manufacture of zero engines Ans. (c)
as they are light in weight. Also precipitation Sol: Alpha iron is magnetic below 768°C (Curie
heat treatment is adopted for duralumin temperature). Hence statement II is wrong.
products. Hence both statements are correct 97. Statement (I): Information and
but statement II is not explanation of communication technologies can play a key
statement I. role in the development and economic
94. Statement (I): Metal carbides and carbon growth of rural India.
are used as refractories as they resist Statement (II): Successful ICT application
oxidation. in e-governance giving respective one-stop
Statement (II): Metal carbides and carbon solutions for rural communities is an
are not particularly suitable for high absolute need of the hour.
temperature applications. Ans. (a)
Ans. (c) Sol: ICT can play a key role in rural development
Sol: Metal carbides and carbon are suitable for and economic growth because programmes
high temperature applications; hence like e-Panchayat have provided a one step
statement II is wrong. solution for rural communities.
95. Statement (I): Long chain polymers are 98. Statement (I): Increasingly, employers have
weaker than most ceramics and metals. generally tended to expect engineers to
Statement (II): The molecular chains in possess both hard skills and soft skills.
long chain polymers are bonded to each Statement (II): Soft skills mean the
other with Van der Waals bonds. knowledge of software.
Ans. (a) Ans. (c)
Sol: The molecular chains in long chain polymers Sol: Soft skills are the personal attributes that
are bonded to each other with weak vander enable someone to interact effectively and
walls bonds and hence polymers are weaker harmoniously with other people.
than most ceramics and metals. 99. Statement (I): What is legal may not always
96. Statement (I): Mechanically, pearlite has be ethical.
properties intermediate between the soft
ductile ferrite and the hard brittle cementite.
Statement (II): Ethical standards and the many ethical standards, but law can deviate
law, share the same theme, i.e., what is from what is ethical.
permissible and impermissible. 100. Statement (I): A greenhouse gas is any gas
Ans. (b) in the atmosphere which absorbs and re-
Sol: If someone has followed the law, it does not emits heat and thereby keeps the planet’s
mean that she/he has become ethical as law atmosphere warmer than it otherwise would
itself can be unethical as law itself can be be.
unethical e.g. anti-black law was prevailed in Statement (II): In the Earth’s atmosphere,
America in 18th, 19th century. Ethics is not water vapour is one of the main greenhouse
following the law. In law, a man is guilty gases.
when he violates the nights of another. Ans. (b)
In eithics, he is guilty if he thinks of doing
so. A good system of law does incorporate

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