UNIT-5

EXPANSIVE SOILS
Def of expansive soils:

Expansive soils are those soils which swell considerably on absorption of water and
shrink on removal of water.The expansive soil has considerable strength in dry state,but the strength
goes on reducing on absorption of water.The soil exerts considerable pressure on foundations during
swelling.

Expansive soils are soils that expand when water is added, and shrink when they dry out.
This continuous change in soil volume can cause homes built on this soil to move unevenly and crack.

These soils are found in some regions of India and many other countries.

Problems of expansive soils:

The most obvious way in which expansive soils can damage foundations is by uplift as
they swell with moisture increases. Swelling soils lift up and crack lightly-loaded, continuous strip
footings, and frequently cause distress in floor slabs.

Expansive soils swell when water is introduced. Such soils could create major problems for
shallow foundations and pile foundations

Shallow foundation subjected to upward thrust.

 Expansive Soil Can Cause Foundation Problems

Expansive spoil is distinguished by the presence of swelling clay minerals that can absorb a
significant amount of water molecules. When expansive soils obtain moisture, they expand or swell
up. Likewise, when expansive soils lose moisture, they begin to shrink.
 Since foundation walls are designed to support loads from above rather than lateral (sideways)
bearings, expanding soil can cause foundation problems.

Hence, when rain or improperly channeled water enters too quickly and oversaturates your backfill
soil, that excess water will exert immense pressure against your foundation walls. This is known as
hydrostatic pressure.

 Cracks in your foundation or basement walls.

 Sloping or spongy floors.
 Doors and windows that stick.
 Gaps at the top, bottom, or side doors.
 Drywall or stucco cracks.
 A sagging roof.

In areas where expansive soils are anticipated, the law may require testing of soil prior to construction
on a particular site. A geotechnical engineer typically does this by taking soil samples and subjecting
them to laboratory testing. Such testing yields two primary measurements used to describe the degree
to which soil may be described as “swelling.” First, “swelling potential” indicates the degree to which
the soil may expand when wetted and may be described as none, low, moderate, high, or very high.
Second, “swelling pressure” indicates the amount of pressure the soil exerts, in pounds per square
foot, against a neighboring solid object when wetted.

Construction activity can exacerbate the effect of expansive soils. For example, artificial irrigation
causes more water to infiltrate the ground, while at the same time less water evaporates due to there
being more roadways, parking lots, driveways, sidewalks, and buildings. This results in an increase in
subsurface moisture, and this excess water in the soils is the most significant and direct cause of
expansive soils damage.

Expected problems of expansive soils:

When expansive soils become wet and expand, the resulting expanding pressure can cause uplift
against concrete slabs and foundation footings, causing a wide variety of damages to buildings and
surrounding areas. These damages may include:

• Cracking and heaving of concrete, including garage slabs, driveways, sidewalks, patios, foundations,
basement walls, and basement floor slabs
• Water leaking into basements
• Broken pipes and water lines
• Cracks in interior drywall
• Sticking doors and windows

These damages may occur slowly over time, and may affect individual homes, buildings or units in a
neighborhood at different times. Further, the costs associated with expansive soils damage total
several billion dollars annually, more than all other natural hazards combined.

Reduction of effects of the expansive soils:

The risks associated with expansive soils can be significantly reduced through proper construction
practices. These practices include proper ground preparation, proper surface and subsurface drainage,
and proper landscaping.
i)Ground Preparation:

Proper preparation of the site before construction begins can significantly reduce the
tendency of soils to swell when wet, as well as the effects expansive soils may have on nearby
structures. The use of engineered fills provides one way to do this. This process replaces some of the
native soil with an engineered mixture, which may contain low- or non-swelling materials such as
sand. These fill soils are spread on the surface in thin layers, then water is added and each layer is
compacted to the density recommended by a geotechnical engineer. Because the resulting fill has a
final moisture content and density higher than that of the native soils in their natural condition, it is
less prone to swell.

ii)Over-excavation:

It provides a second way in which the effects of swelling soils may be mitigated through
proper ground preparation. Here, native soils are cut and removed to a depth below the lowest
foundation or road level, and the cut is then filled with layers of soil under controlled moisture and
density conditions. This creates a buffer between the surface and the underlying swelling soils.

The use of chemical treatments provides a third way in which the site may be prepared for
construction. Here, chemicals are added to the soil which change the clay chemistry and mineralogy
to make it less expansive. However, the treatment may not penetrate the soil very deeply, and this
method is less commonly used in residential construction.

iii)Drainage:

As noted above, excess moisture in the soils serves as the primary cause of damage
due to expanding. Consequently, the proper drainage of rainfall, snowmelt, and irrigation is a crucial
aspect of reducing the risk of these damages. This includes managing the drainage of surface moisture
to prevent infiltration into the soil, as well as the drainage of subsurface moisture that has already
penetrated the surface.

An effective surface drainage plan consists of managing roof and slope drainage, as
well as the proper use of ditches and swales. Roof drainage can be managed by the proper use of
gutters, downspouts, and splash blocks to direct rainfall and snowmelt away from building
foundations. Water which infiltrates the ground near the foundation can not only leak into basements,
but can also cause the soil around the foundation to swell, potentially damaging the slabs and
foundation walls. Generally, geotechnical reports call for a proper surface drainage system to carry
surface water 10 feet away from buildings at a slope of 10 percent.

Another element of proper surface drainage is the use of ditches (shallow trenches) and swales
(depressions) built into the landscaping, to ensure that water is channeled away from the buildings but
not directed toward neighboring structures. Once collected, this runoff may drain into commonly
shared gutters, storm sewers, and/or culvert pipes.

In addition to effectively managing surface drainage, it is also necessary to properly manage drainage
of the water which does infiltrate the soil. Good subsurface drainage will ensure that the soils do not
retain an excess of this moisture. Drainage of subsurface moisture can be managed by the use of
sumps, perimeter drains, interceptor drains, and area drains.

A sump consists of an enclosed pit or low area that collects subsurface water. A submersible pump in
the bottom of the pit pumps water out and to the surface. A perimeter drain consists of a perforated
drain pipe installed around the base of a building’s foundation. The drain pipe collects subsurface
water and is sloped to direct it away from the foundation and into a sump, area drain, or gravity outlet.
Again, this is an important means of preventing damage to the building by keeping excess water away
from the soils near the foundation. An interceptor drain consists of a gravel- or sand-filled trench with
or without a drain pipe, and is often used to intercept subsurface water coming from a source uphill
from a home, such as an irrigation canal. Finally, an area drain, similar in construction to an
interceptor drain, runs beneath streets and gathers water from perimeter drains and other sources. An
area drain has the advantage of being able to collect water from numerous sources in a relatively large
area.

iv)Landscaping:

In addition to proper ground preparation and drainage planning, proper landscaping is

important in minimizing the impact of expansive soils, primarily by limiting the amount of water
introduced near building foundations. Proper landscaping consists of following guidelines regarding
the placement and watering of plants near buildings. Flowers and shrubs should not be planted closer
than 5 feet from foundations, unless they require very little water and are hand- or drip-line watered.
Similarly, sprinkler systems should not spray water closer than 5 feet from foundations. Finally, trees
should not be planted closer than 15 feet from foundations, as they tend to take up large amounts of
water in dry weather, which can cause expansive soils to settle and disrupt the slope necessary for
proper surface drainage.

Our role in reducing the problems of expansive soils:

Damages due to expansive soils can be complex and expensive to repair. Many so-called
repairs, especially to damaged foundations, serve as mere band-aid fixes which mask symptoms and
fail to address the cause of the problem.

Affected homeowners have legal recourse in the face of these expensive repairs. Claims
may exist against the developer, builder, general contractor, and/or subcontractors for damages
resulting from expansive soils. Homeowners who suspect they suffer from problems associated with
expansive soils should seek legal counsel immediately, as any potential claims will be subject to the
applicable statute of limitations.

Identification of Expansive Soils:

Expansive soils are mostly clays of silty clays. Not all clays can be considered as
expansive soils. If the design engineer suspects the presence of expansive soil, the engineer should
obtain the expansive index of the soil.
Expansive index test is described in ASTM D 4829, “Standard Test Method for Expansion Index of
Soils.” In this test, a soil specimen is compacted into a metal ring so that the degree of saturation is
between 40% and 60%. The specimen is placed in a consolidometer and a vertical pressure of 1 psi is
applied to the specimen. Next the specimen is inundated with distilled water and the deformation of
the specimen is recorded for 24 h. The swell or the expansion of the soil volume is computed
(Fig. 8.20 Table 8.5).
Expansive index General guidelines

0–20 No special design is needed

20–50 Design engineer should consider effects of expansive soil

50–90 Special design methods to counter expansive soil is needed

90–130 Special design methods to counter expansive soil is needed

>130 Special design methods to counter expansive soil is needed

EXPANSIVE SOILS CAN BE IDENTIFIED BY STUDYING THEIR MINERALOGY, WHICH CAN BE

IDENTIFIED BY THE FOLLOWING TESTS :

 X-Ray Diffraction test.

 Microscopic examination.
 Differential Thermal Analysis(DTA).

There are certain simpler tests to determine the expansive characteristic from engineering point of
view.

 Free swell test

 Differential free swell test.
 Swelling Index determination

In free swell test 10 gm of soil passing through 425 mic. IS-sieve if poured in a cylinder containing
100 ml of distilled water, and left undisturbed for 24 hours. The volume of the soil is measured and
the free swell Sf is given as (Vs-Vi)/Vi *100.

Where,

Vi= Initial Volume

Vs= Volume of the swelled soil.

The Bentonite may swell from 1200 to 2000%; Kaolinite - about 80 % ; Illite - 30 to 80%.

In differential free swell test, two samples of 10 gm dry soil passing through 425 mic. IS - sieve are
poured in 50 ml graduated cylinders, one containing non-polarizing liquid(Kerosene) and another
water. Both the jars are kept undisturbed for 24 hours and differential free swell (DFS) is given as,

Differential Free Swell (DFS) = [ Vs(w) - Vs(k)]/ Vs(k) *100

Where, Vs(w) = Volume of soil in water.

Vs(k) = Volume of soil in kerosene.

A relationship between differential free swell (DFS) and degree of expansion is given in the table
below:

Differential Free Swell (DFS)[%] Degree of expansion

<20 Low
20-35 Moderate
35-50 High
> 50 Very High
Holtz and Gibbs(1956), gave the following table to classify the expansive soils into low, moderate,
high and very high expansive categories based on volume change(%), Colloidal content(%), Plasticity
Index(PI) and Shrinkage Limit(SL).

Property Property Ranges for

Low moderate High Very High
Volume Change(%) 0-10 10-20 20-30 >30
Colloidal Content(%) 0-15 10-25 20-35 >25
Plasticity Index(PI)(%) 0-15 10-35 20-45 >30
Shrinkage Limit(SL)(%) 12 8-18 6-12 10

R.B. Peck, W.E. Hanson & T.H. Thornburn (1974), gave the following relation between the Plasticity
Index(PI) and Swelling Potential:

Swelling Potential Plasticity Index(PI)

Low 0-15
Medium 10-35
High 20-55
Very High >=35

Gromko, G.J. (1974) has related shrinkage limit(SL) to the linear shrinkage(LS) and degree of
expansion:

SL(%) LS(%) Degree of expansion

<10 >8 Critical
10-12 5-8 marginal
>12 0-5 non-critical
 Swell pressure:

The pressure which the expansive soil exerts , if it is not allowed to swell or the volume change of
the soil is arrested , is known as Swelling Pressure of Soil.
(Or)
i. The pressure that heated and softened coal exerts when it is obstructed from free swelling.
(or)
ii. ii. The pressure exerted by a contained clay when absorbing water in a confined space.

 swelling soil
Soils that contain clay minerals which absorb water and as a result swell causing bumps across
terrain. The most common mineral that causes swelling soil is Smectite (montmorillonite).

Methods of determination of swell pressue:

Objective

The expansive clays increase in their volume when they come in contact with water owing to surface
properties of these clay types. The pressure which the expansive soil exerts , if it is not allowed to
swell or the volume change of the soil is arrested , is known as Swelling Pressure of Soil. The
swelling pressure is dependent upon several factors namely (a) the type and amount of clay in the soil
and the nature of the clay mineral, (b) the initial water content and dry density, (c) the nature of pore
fluid, (d) the stress history of the soil including the confining pressure and (e) drying and wetting
cycles to which the soils have been subjected to.

A soil with high swell pressure is considered “unsuitable” for use as embankment fill material and in
case the sub-soil is having high swell pressure then suitable “ground improvement measures” may be
needed before constructing embankment on such soil. One of the methods for constructing
embankments on expansive soils is to lay a CNS (non-swelling clay) layer at the base of the
embankment, to isolate the sub-soil from the moisture (mainly rain water) coming in vertically
downwards direction. For any clay to be classified as “CNS (non-swelling clay)”, it should not have
swell pressure more than the specified value (normally 0.5 kg/m2).

In laboratory, one dimensional swelling pressure test is conducted using either fixed or the floating
RINGS on both undisturbed and re-moulded soils in the partially saturated condition. Two methods are
employed, namely, “consolidometer method” in which the volume change of the soil is permitted and
the corresponding pressure required to bring back the soil to its original volume is measured and
“constant volume method” in which the volume change is prevented and the consequent pressure is
measured.

SWELL PRESSURE TEST

1.Swell Pressure Test by Consolidometer

Apparatus:

A device to hold the sample in a ring either fixed or floating with porous stones on each
face of the sample. A consolidometer shall also provide means for submerging the sample, for
applying a vertical load and for measuring the change in the thickness of the specimen. The provision
for fixing of the dial gauge shall be rigid and in no case shall the dial gauge be fixed to a cantilevered
arm. The dial gauges shall be fixed in such a way to record the vertical expansion of the specimen.

(a) Specimen Diameter: 60mm.

(b) Specimen Thickness: Shall be at least 20mm in all cases. However, the thickness shall not be less
than 10 times the maximum diameter of the grain in the soil specimen. The diameter to thickness ratio
shall be a minimum of 3.

(c) Ring: The ring shall be made of non-corrosive material.

(d) Porous Stones: The stones shall be of silicon carbide or aluminium oxide and of medium grade. It
shall have a high permeability compared to that of the soil being tested. The diameter of the top stone
shall be 0.2 to 0.5mm less than the internal diameter of the ring.
Procedure :

By Consolidometer Method:

1.Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples:

Clean and weigh the empty containe Cut-off the specimen either from undisturbed tube sample or
from block sample, the latte generally being more representative of the field conditions. Remove
about 30mm height of so from one end of the soil sample. Gradually insert the consolidation ring in
the sample b pressing with hands and carefully removing the material around the ring. The soil
specimen s cut shall project as far as 10mm on either side of the ring. Then trim the specimen smooth
an flush with the top and bottom of the ring. Wipe the container ring clear of any soil sticking t the
outside and weigh again with the soil. The whole process should be quick to ensur minimum loss of
moisture and if possible shall be carried out in the moisture room. Th representative specimens from
the soil trimming shall be taken in moisture content cans an their moisture content determined in
accordance with IS:2720 (Part-XI)

2.Preparation of Specimen from Disturbed Soil Sample:

The soil sample shall be compacted to th desired (field) density and water content in a standard
compaction proctor mould. Samples suitable sizes are cut from it as given in Para (i) above.

NOTE-1: Since swelling pressure of the soil is very much influenced by its initial wate content and
dry density, it shall be ensured that in the case of undisturbed soil samples, th specimen shall be
collected from the field for test during the driest season of the year, s that the swelling pressure
recorded shall be maximum. In case of remoulded soil sample the initial water content shall be at the
shrinkage limit or field water content, so that th swelling pressure recorded shall be maximum.
NOTE-2: The desiccated soil obtained from the field coupled with smaller thickness consolidation
ring make the undisturbed soil specimen always in danger of being disturbe during trimming; hence
great care shall be taken to handle the specimen delicately with th least pressure applied to the soil.

3.Saturate the porous stones by boiling in distilled water for at least 15 minutes and moisten a surfaces
of the consolidometer which are to be enclosed. Assemble the consolidometer with th soil specimen
(in the ring) and porous stones at top and bottom of the specimen, providing wet filter paper between
the soil specimen and the porous stone. Then position the loadin block centrally on the top porous
stone.

4.Mount this assembly on the loading frame such that load applied is transmitted to the so specimen
through the loading cap.

5. In the case of the lever loading system, the apparatus shall be properly counter-balanced. If jack
with load measurements by platform scales is used as the loading systems the tare weigh with the
empty consolidation apparatus, excluding those parts which will be on top of the so specimen, which
rest on the platform shall be determined before filling the ring with the soil an this tare weight shall
be added to the computed scale loads required to give the desire pressures at the time of loading the
soil specimen.

6. Screw the holder with the dial gauge to record the progressive vertical heave of the specime under
no load
 7. Place initial setting load of 50 gf/cm2 (this includes weight of the porous stone and the loadin pad)
on the loading hanger and note initial reading of the dial gauge.

8. Connect the system to a water reservoir with the level of water in the reservoir being at abou the
same level as the soil specimen and allow water to flow in the sample. Then allow the soil t swell.

9. Record the free swell readings shown by the dial gauge under the seating load at different tim
intervals. The dial gauge readings shall be taken till equilibrium is reached. This is ensured b making
a plot of swelling dial reading versus time in hours, which plot becomes asymptotic wit abscissa
(time scale). The equilibrium swelling is normally reached over a period of 6 to 7 day in general for
all expansive soils.

10. Then subject the swollen sample to consolidation under different pressures. Record th
compression dial readings till the dial readings attain a steady state for each load applied ove the
specimen. The consolidation loads shall be applied till the specimen attains its origin volume.

(2 )Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method

The arrangement for Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method consists of

Loading unit (5 tonnes),

Proving ring (with high sensitivity, 200 kg capacity) along with all Apparatus as used in
Consolidometer method.

Procedure By Constant Volume Method:

i. Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples as well as Preparation of Specime from
Disturbed Soil Sample: Same as for “Consolidometer Method”.

ii. Keep the consolidation specimen ring with the specimen between two porous stones saturate in
boiling water providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and the porous stone. Th loading
block shall then be positioned centrally on the top of the porous stone.

iii.Then place this assembly on the platen of the loading unit. The load measuring proving ring t
attached to the load frame shall be placed in contact with the consolidation cell without an
eccentricity. A direct strain measuring dial gauge shall be fitted to the cell. Inundate th specimen with
distilled water and allow it to swell.
 iv. Note down the initial reading of the proving ring. The swelling of the specimen with increasin
volume shall be obtained in the strain measuring load gauge. To keep the specimen at constan
volume, the platen shall be so adjusted that the dial gauge always show the original reading This
adjustment shall be done at every 1 mm of swell or earlier. The duration of test sha conform to the
requirements given in “Consolidometer method”. Then dismantle the assemb and extract the soil
specimen from the consolidation ring to determine final moisture content accordance with IS: 2720
(Part-IX).

Improvement of Expansive Soils

(1) using Fly Ash :

The research programmeon “Improvement of Expansive Soils using Fly Ash” was carried out in
CSMRS.The research focuses on the optimum amount of fly ash required for the improvement of
expansive soil and the influence of addition of fly ash to the expansive soils on its geotechnical
parameters.

The broad outcome of the research programmeis as follows:

 Black cotton soils possess low strength and undergo excessive volume changes, making their use in
the constructions very difficult.

 Addition of fly ash significantly improves the index properties, compaction and strength
characteristics of black cotton soils and the effects of fly ash treatment vary depending upon the
quantity of fly ash , that is mixed with the black cotton soil samples.

 The liquid limit and plastic limit of the soils decrease with the addition of fly ash.

 The shrinkage limit of the soils increases with the addition of fly ash.

 Addition of fly ash increases the maximum dry density of soils with decrease in the corresponding
optimum moisture content.

 The unconfined compressive strength increases upon the addition of fly ash. The trend of
improvement in the unconfined compressive strength is observed to be more pronounced with the
curing of the soil + fly ash mix. A curing period of 28 days is observed to yield the maximum
enhancement in the unconfined compressive strength.

 The geotechnical properties of black cotton soils can be improved using the fly ash and an
optimum quantity between 20- 30% can yield the best possible results.

2)by polymethacrylate polymer material:

One of the worldwide problematic soil is expansive clay accompanied by large volume change
response when it subjected to a change in the water content. A chemical method for enhancing the
swelling of expansive clayey soil is provided using Polymethacrylate (PMA) polymer material. An
expansive soil is prepared in the laboratory by adding bentonite. Then experimental program is
conducted to estimate the effects of adding the (PMA) polymer on the properties of the prepared
expansive soil. Modified clay specimens are characterized based on sieve analysis, hydrometer,
Atterberg limits, standard compaction, swelling potential, swelling pressure, unconfined compression
strength and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests and 10 groups of soil samples are prepared at three
various percentages of PMA (i.e. 3%, 5% and 7% by weight of dry soil).The tests results indicated
that the induced of PMA polymers within expansive soil caused a decrease in the liquid limit (LL),
plasticity index (PI), free swell%, rebound index (Cr) and optimum moisture content (OMC) and
increase in plastic limit (PL), Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS) taken into consideration the
influence of increasing curing time, compression index (Cc) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
Also adding PMA polymers increase maximum dry density (MDD).The swelling potential decreased
up to 71.7% with increasing PMA content to 7% respectively. The results of the tests indicated that
the polymers significantly overcome the problems of expansive soils. In addition, higher UCS by
52.8% are observed by adding PMA with a percentages of 7%. Also adding same percentages of
PMA polymer caused increasing in CBR value by 72.8%.

3)by residual soil and lime expansive soil:

The soils which show volumetric changes due to changes in their moisture content are referred to as
expansive soils. With increase in moisture content, these soils swell and with decrease in moisture
content undergo shrink. This leads to seasonal movements causing heave in rainy season and
subsidence in summer, giving rise to high differential settlement in the structures founded on them
thereby causing distress and damage to it. Stabilization of expansive soils with additives has been
used with great success. In the recent past several investigations have been reported highlighting the
beneficial use of lime for performance improvement of clay soils (Davidson and Handy, 1959;
Thompson, 1966; Bhasin, 1978; Bell, 1988; Sivapullaiah et al., 1998, 2000; to name a few). In spite
of these studies there is still need of further investigation to understand the mechanism of lime
induced modifications of soils more clearly. From literature review it is observed that lime generally
improves the performance of clayey soils in terms of reduced swelling and increased strength.
However, in some cases, depending on the type of soil, amount of lime added, curing period etc. the
performance improvement reduces. In view of this an attempt is made to carry out a systematic study
through careful variation of above parameters, to develop an understanding of the mechanisms
involved.Primarily an expansive soil (ES) and a residual soil (RS) that represent the extreme types of
soil are used in the present study. The non swelling and high strength residual soil was added to the
expansive soil to improve its performance. Besides to cover a wide range of plasticity these two soils
are mixed in different proportion (i.e. 100%ES, 80%ES + 20%RS, 60%ES + 40%RS, 40%ES +
60%RS, 20%ES + 80% RS, 100%RS) to prepare six different soil samples. Subsequenty these soils
were treated with lime of varied quantity under varied curing period. The test results indicate that the
liquid limit continues to reduce till 3% lime content, beyond which the increased lime content has
marginal effect on it. However, at very high lime content (i.e. 13%) and long curing period (i.e. 28
days) the liquid limit of the expansive soil has shown an increasing trend. This increasing trend
gradually grows more prominent with increased percentage of residual soil and curing period. It is of
interest to note that irrespective of soil type the liquid limit is large for increased curing period. The
plastic limit increases with increases in lime content. The increase is relatively faster till lime content
reaching about 3%. From 3 to 5% of lime content the rate of increase in plastic limit is relatively slow.
Beyond 5% lime content visible increase in plastic limit is noticed only for increased percentage of
residual soil and higher curing period. In general soils have shown an immediate decrease in plasticity
index upon addition of lime. For 100%ES, increasing the lime content beyond 5% had a marginal
effect in further reducing the plasticity index. This is in line with earlier observations that immediately
upon addition of lime the liquid limit reduces and plastic limit increases. In general the plasticity
index increases with increase in curing period however it is more prominent for the increased
percentage of residual soil.

4) Improvement in Engineering Properties of Expansive Soils using Ground Granulated Blast

Furnace Slag

Improvement in engineering properties of expansive soils by mixing ground granulated

blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is the main focus of this research. For this purpose two expansive soil
samples were collected from DG Khan and Sialkot areas (Pakistan). Classification tests revealed that
DG Khan sample belonged to fat clay (CH) while Sialkot soil was lean clay (CL) as classified by
Unified Soil Classification System. GGBFS has been added in varying proportions between 0 and
55% in these soil samples to study its role in stabilizing these expansive soils. Based on the laboratory
test performed on composite soil samples, it was observed that maximum dry unit weight increased up
to 10 % by adding 50% GGBFS in both samples. California bearing ratio (CBR) value showed an
increase from 3.2 % to 11.5% for DG Khan soil while CBR values varied from 2.4% to 10.7% for
Sialkot soil by mixing 50% GGBFS. Addition of 30 % GGBFS to DG Khan soil reduced swell
potential from 8 % to 2 % while in Sialkot soil, 20 % addition of GGBFS reduced swell potential
from 5 % to 2 %. Unconfined compressive strength of remoulded sample cured for 28 days increased
by about 35% with the addition of 30%GGBFS. The results indicated that mixing of GGBFS in the
expansive soil samples have a marked increase in their engineering properties. Also, it is an affective
and environmental friendly means to dispose waste of steel industry.

5)Soft Expansive Soil Improvement by Eco-Friendly Waste and Quick Lime:

Expansive soils are being a source of risk to the population since it finally causes heavy economic
losses, great damage to buildings and infrastructure. Current study focused on the feasibility of using
waste from petrochemical plant (here called waste) as a stabilizer. The waste was provided from the
process of water softening in petrochemical units. A complete set of laboratory tests were conducted
to investigate on the effect of an eco-friendly waste and quick lime on stabilization of the expansive
soil. For each of the introduced additives, treated samples containing 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12%
concentration were prepared. The results of compaction, swelling measurement, Atterberg limits, and
unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests indicated a reduction in swelling potential. This
phenomena was contributed to the marked increase in UCS and shear strength of improved samples
by waste and lime. The results unveiled that the new eco-friendly waste showed excellent function
when compared to the conventional lime and it could provide desired geotechnical properties in soft
expansive soil.

6)Improvement of expansive soil properties used in earthworks of highways and railroads using
cement kiln dust:

Expansive soils exhibit swell potential, compressibility and low strength especially in the
presence of water. These soils, if used in highways and railroads earthworks where its unavoidable,
can cause several damages in the structure of these major transportation facilities. Therefore,
improvement of this type of soil is necessary. Using commercial admixtures in improvement
encounter supplementary cost. Therefore, using of by-product material is economic and effective
alternative. Cement kiln dust (CKD) is generated in huge quantities as a by-product material in
Portland cement plants. Therefore, this study aims to use CKD to improve expansive soil properties.
This study involved series of laboratory tests on sets of untreated samples and samples treated with
different doses of CKD to investigate their effects on the properties of expansive soil. The
investigation includes classification tests, compaction tests, permeability tests, compressibility tests,
shear strength tests, swelling tests, and California Bearing Ration (CBR) tests. In addition, chemical
tests were performed to determine the changes in pH values of control and treated soils. Furthermore,
SEM and XRD tests were performed to explore the mineralogical and morphological properties of the
original and the soil treated with 14% CKD and to investigate the generation of new products. The
results exhibited significant improvement in treated soil properties; the optimum CKD dose was found
to be 14% of dry weight of soil. As percentages of values determined for untreated soil, the values of
liquid limit, plasticity index, compressibility coefficient, expansion coefficient, and swelling ratio of
soil treated with 14% CKD decreased to 57%, 14%, 21%, 11%, and 9%, respectively whereas CBR
value increased to 828%. Moreover, the tests revealed the generation of calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH) and calcite (CaCO3) which are responsible of creation of great bond among the treated soil
particles increase its tightness and decrease its expansibility.
Expansive soils and practice in foundation engineering

Facts about expansive soils

• Cracked foundations, pavements, floors and basement walls are typical types of damage done by
swelling soils. Every year they cause billions of dollars in damage.

• The ASCE estimates that 1/4 of all homes in the United States have some damage caused by
expansive soils. In a typical year in the United States they cause a greater financial loss to property
owners than earthquakes, floods, hurricanes and tornadoes combined (USGS website).

• 60 percent of the 250,000 new homes built on expansive soils each year in the US experience
minor damage and 10 percent experience significant damage (Holtz and Hart, 1978).

• Expansive soils are not as dramatic as hurricanes or earthquakes and they cause only property
damage, not loss of life.

• Expansive soils act more slowly and the damage is spread over wide areas rather than being
concentrated in a small locality.

• Swelling clays can exert uplift pressures of as much as 5,500 psf.

• Liquid limits exceeding 50 percent and plasticity index over 30, usually have high inherent
swelling capacity.

• Expansive clay soils can be easily recognized in the dry season by the deep cracks, in roughly
polygonal patterns, in the ground surface.

Identification, Testing and Evaluation of Expansive Soils

• Visual identification

– Have significant clay content, CL or CH.

– Dry expansive soils often have fissures, slickensides, or shattering – When dry, the soils have
cracks at the ground surface

• Determination of degree of expansiveness

– A wide variety of testing evaluation methods available, but none of them universally or even
widely accepted.

– Qualitative method; semi-quantitative method and quantitative method (Coduto et al., 2015)

Semi-quantitative evaluations

• In terms of swell potential, measured in some kind of loaded swell test

• Usually a laterally confined cylindrical specimen, initially dry specimen loaded with a surcharge,
then soaked. The specimen swells vertically.

• This displacement divided by the initial height (immediately before soaking) is the swell potential,
usually expressed as a percentage.
• Standards for the performance of oedometer tests to measure expansion potential are set forth
ASTM D4536.

• Two basic types of oedometer tests: the consolidation-swell (CS) test, and the constant volume
(CV) test.

• The consolidation-swell test – Soil sample initially subjected to a prescribed vertical stress and
inundated under that constant vertical stress. – The vertical strain that occurs due to wetting is called
percent swell. – After the swelling has been completed the sample may be subjected to additional
vertical load. The pressure that would be required to rescore the sample to its original height is
termed the “consolidation-swell swelling pressure”.

• The constant volume test – Soil sample is initially subjected to a prescribed vertical stress. – During
inundation the sample is confined from swelling and the stress that is required to prevent swell is
measured. – The stress is termed the constant volume swelling pressure.

ASTM Standard Loaded Swell Tests

• ASTM D4546-14 provides standards for the loaded swell test, Methods A, B and C.

• Method A – A sample of fill material from the project is compacted into a lab specimen at the field
specified dry unit weight and water content, placed in consolidometer. – The specimen is loaded to a
vertical stress, equal to the overburden stress at the depth of fill. – The specimen is inundated in water
and allowed to swell – Test is repeated with new specimens each loaded to different overburden
stress. – Potential swell calculated.

• Method B – Performed on undisturbed field specimens, specimens can be from fill material or
natural material depending on the project. – Specimen is placed in a consolidometer. – The specimen
is loaded to a vertical stress, equal to the overburden pressure plus the induced stress from structural
foundation loads, and its deformation is measured. – The specimen is inundated in water and allowed
to swell, and the deformation is measured. – Potential swell calculated.

• Method C – A test is run after Method A or Method B. – An alternative way to determine the swell
pressure, that is the vertical stress at which the sample returns to its original height. – After swelling
has completed and the soil has reached Point B in the figure in next slide, and then a standard
consolidation test is performed to determine the post swelling deformation versus stress curve. – The
magnitude of the swell pressure determined using Method C will be different than that determined
using either Method A or B.

Expansion Index Test (ASTM D4829-11)

• A soil specimen is remolded into a standard 102 mm (4.01 in) diameter, 24.5 mm (1 in) tall ring at
a degree of saturation of about 50 percent.

• A surcharge load of 6.9 kPa (1 lb/in2 ) is applied, and then the specimen is saturated and allowed to
stand until the rate of swelling reaches a certain value or for 24 h.

• The percentage of free swell may be expressed as 𝑠𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 % = ℎ 𝐻 (100)

• The amount of swell is expressed in terms of the expansion index, EI

Foundation techniques in expansive soils:
Structures built in expansive clays are likely to be damaged due to the strains caused
in them following alternate swelling and shrinkage. Variations in the moisture regime during
monsoon and summer are the causes for this alternate swelling and shrinkage. Several innovative
foundation techniques were suggested to overcome the problems associated with expansive soils.
Belled pier, under-reamed pile, Boucell raft are some of the foundation practices adopted in these
soils. Besides, overburdens in the form of sand cushion and CNS cushion have also been tried for
arresting heave. But, most of them suffer from one shortcoming or the other. In order to overcome the
drawbacks of the existing foundation practices, fly ash cushion stabilized with lime or cement has
been tried by the authors. This proved to be very effective in arresting heave. However, its efficacy
over a few cycles of wetting and drying needs to be established since CNS cushion, which was found
to be effective in arresting heave initially, has not been found to be as effective during subsequent
cycles of wetting and drying. The present study relates to the behaviour of expansive clays under
lime-or cement-stabilized fly ash cushion subjected to several wetting and drying cycles.

Expansive clays, which are rich in mineral montmorillonite, absorb water during
monsoon and undergo swelling as a consequence. During summer, the water evaporates and cause
shrinkage of the soil. This alternate swelling and shrinkage with moisture fluctuations causes strains
in the structures built in them and, as a result, the structures are distressed. Single storey and two-
storey buildings, pavements, canal beds and linings, retaining walls are some of the structures which
undergo distress. This damage is estimated at £150 million in UK and $1000 million in the United
States (Gourley et al., 1993). In India tens of millions of rupees are spent on reparation of damaged
structures, as one-fifth of the country’s land is occupied by these soils.

Existing foundation practices in expansive soils

1.Under-reamed pile foundations

Under-reamed piles are piles which are provided with enlarged bulbs near the bottom. The bulbs
provide larger resistance to the pile both in compression and uplift. These are very popular in India.
However, when the piles is to be anchored in sand underlying the expansive clay bed, this is not
useful because formation of bulb in sandy soils is difficult as sands cannot take negative slope.

2. Granular pile-anchor

Based on the investigations carried out on large-scale laboratory models (Srirama Rao et al., 2007), it
was found that heave of expansive clay beds can be reduced significantly by reinforcing them with
granular pile-anchors, which are granular columns with an anchor rod placed centrally in it
connecting the foundation at the top and an anchor plate at the bottom. The frictional resistance at the
interface between the granular pile and the soil is instrumental in inhibiting the upward movement of
the soil (heave) up to some distance around the granular pile .

3.Sand cushion

One of the oldest practices used, or perhaps misused, is the sand cushion technique
(Satyanarayana, 1969). In this technique, either the entire depth of the expansive soil stratum or a part
of it may be removed and replaced with a sand cushion compacted to a low density, without,
however, compromising on bearing capacity criterion. The sand cushion is compacted to a low
density because swelling pressure, which is the pressure required to be applied on the soil to arrest
heave, is directly proportional to the density of the cushion. The cushion is placed directly beneath
the footing. The principle of sand cushion is that while the expansive clay bed swells due to the
percolation of water during monsoon, the sand cushion settles. During summer, as the expansive soil
shrinks, the sand undergoes bulking due to partial saturation. As a result, there will be minimum
volume change in the soil system beneath the footing. This, in principle, looks to be ideal but, in
practice, bristles with danger. It is difficult to arrive at the exact thickness and the density of the sand
cushion. Foundation engineers often suggest some arbitrary thickness without considering the depth
of the active zone, which is the zone within which potential volume changes occur. If the thickness is
inadequate, the problem aggravates as the high permeability of sand facilitates easy ingress of
moisture from the surface run-off and the swelling process accelerates. This is the main draw back of
the sand cushion.

4.Cohesive non-swelling soil cushion

From large-scale laboratory studies and field investigations (Katti, 1979) it was found that, in an
expansive soil stratum, development of cohesive bonds takes place upon saturation which helps to
inhibit heave in the soil below a depth of 1.0 m to 1.2 m. However, the soil in the top 1.0 m to 1.2 m
does swell. It was felt that if an environment similar to the one which exists over this thickness is
produced and the soil is not allowed to swell, it should be possible to arrest heave in the expansive
soil. By replacing the soil in the top 1.0 – 1.2 m with a cohesive non-swelling soil (CNS), this kind of
environment can be produced. The specifications for CNS material, placement conditions and
thickness requirements have been standardized by the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS: 9495-1994).
However, later studies (Subba Rao, 2000) revealed that the swell-shrink behaviour of a CNS –
cushioned expansive clay is effective only in the first cycle and that it becomes less effective during
subsequent cycles.

5.Stabilized fly ash cushions

The inadequacies of CNS Cushion brought out in one of the foregoing sections led to the conduct of
studies using fly ash cushions stabilized with lime and cement separately in lieu of the former (Rao et
al., 2007 and 2008). The studies revealed that fly ash cushion stabilized with either lime or cement
was efficacious in arresting heave substantially. In fact, it was found to be more effective than either
CNS cushion or sand cushion in arresting heave. However, the efficacy of the lime-or cement-
stabilized fly ash cushion during wetting and drying cycles has to be established before they can be
recommended for application in the field. The present study is an attempt in that direction. The
behaviour of expansive clays in their natural condition, and when stabilized with lime are discussed
in the following section. Besides, the behaviour of expansive clays provided with CNS cushion are
also presented. Of the above five the last three are methods to minimize heave of expansive clays
while the first two are methods to prevent uplift of the foundation. Of the last three, the CNS method
was found to be effective in minimizing heave. However, this was restricted only to the first swell-
shrink cycle. The stabilized fly ash cushion technique has been found to be more efficacious in
arresting heave. However, the swell-shrink behaviour of expansive clay beds overlain by cement- and
lime-stabilized fly ash cushions needs to be studied. The objective of the paper is to study the swell-
shrink behaviour of expansive clay beds overlain by stabilized fly ash cushions and see whether they
suffer from the same disadvantage as do the CNS cushion.