“Just build it to the Code.” That’s the most (For thin-wall heads, i.e., 2-in.

thick or less, choosing

common response you hear during a design review ID or OD makes little difference, while most heads
that involves purchasing a new pressure vessel. Yet, more than 36 in. are custom made.) As heads get
there’re as many choices within the ASME code as thicker, hot forming is necessary and dies are based
there are when searching for your next vehicle. Smart on ID. Thick, hot formed heads can be OD ordered
choices can save you money during fabrication as but require an extra manufacturing step.
well as over the lifecycle of the vessel. So, here, we’ll 2. Design pressure and temperature. Required wall
attempt to condense the 5,000+ pages (50+ lbs) of thickness is more sensitive to pressure than tem-
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, or “the perature. Therefore, specifying a design pressure
Code,” as it’s affectionately known, into a simple 100 psig over the maximum operating pressure is
guide when specifying vessels, heat exchangers and more costly than specifying a design temperature
tanks. We’ll focus on 10 key factors. 100°F higher than what’s needed. A design pressure
1. Inside diameter versus outside diameter. Process of 25 psig–50 psig above that at the maximum op-
engineers often specify a vessel’s diameter based erating/upset condition and not less than 90% of
on inside diameter (ID) to ease volumetric calcula- maximum allowable working pressure is industry
tions. This also will simplify fabrication/installa- practice. Keep design temperature to no more than
tion of internal hardware (e.g., support rings, trays, 50°F–100°F above that at maximum operating/
distributors, etc.). However, sometimes specifying a upset conditions. Also, watch your design pressure
vessel based on outside diameter (OD) is better. For and temperature so as not to cross into the next
instance, after a purchase order is issued, heads are higher flange class. Check ASME B16.5 for design
the first things ordered — obtaining off-the-shelf temperature and limitations for flanges.
heads is more likely if specified by nominal pipe sizes 3. Vacuum rating. Although current project needs may
(NPS), which is OD from diameters 14 in. to 36 in. not require a vessel to be vacuum rated, over its life-

December 2008 chemicalprocessing.com  20

 Typical heads
time, changes in feedstock, products and technology
will occur. A large number of re-rates now performed t
are on older vessels originally not documented for
vacuum that now require it due to process changes. t
Many new vessels will rate for full vacuum and all

L
for partial vacuum. So have the fabricator evaluate TL

your proposed design for vacuum and apply it to the ID ID

Hemispherical head
code stamp. With today’s software, this calculation Elliptical head

can be easily performed and at no cost. You may get

full vacuum rating without any modifications — if
t
not, consider spending a little extra now by welding t
on a stiffening ring and a couple of re-pads to avoid TL
ICR

DR
having to go through the cumbersome re-rate process
OD Flat head
and field hydro-test down the road. (See www. Torispherical (F&D) head
ChemicalProcessing.com/voices/plant_insites.html.) (ASME: ICR*.06xOD)
4. Head choices. Functionality, not cost, should deter-
t
mine head choice; so understanding the functional Figure 1.
differences is crucial. Dished heads for ASME vessels 6. Cones. Conical sections (cones) are needed where Curved heads
predominate
t
typically are available in three styles; elliptical (2:1), there’s a change in diameter or as a bottom head, and avoid the
flanged and dished (F&D), and hemispherical e.g., for a bin or hopper. The rule here is keep pressure limita-

L
tions of TL
flat
(hemi-heads). Under 600 psig, elliptical heads are the transition angle (referred to as the half apex heads.
ID ID
the most common and least expensive in terms of angle) to 30° or head
Hemispherical less unless process conditionsElliptical head
wall thickness and forming costs. Above 600 psig, govern, as exceeding 30° adds costs. The ASME
hemi-heads are economically attractive due to their Code demands the piece have a rolled knuckle
inherent low-stress shape; below 600 psig, they are the at both ends when the t transition is greater than
most expensive choice because they are constructed 30°; bendingFillet stresses complicate the calculation,
t
TL Fillet
of welded, segmental parts not a single piece. F&D putting
ICR it beyond
weld the skill of
Stress many
raiser fabricators. weld
DR

at notch
(torispherical) heads have the lowest profile (height/ 7. Nozzles loads OD and projections. The ASME Code Flat head
diameter ratio) and compete well with elliptical [2] requires consideration
Torispherical (F&D) head of all loads. Designers
(ASME: ICR*.06xOD)
heads under 100 psig, although they have half the routinely perform wind and seismic calculations but
As welded After grinding
volume. The low profile of the F&D head only is too often overlook nozzle loads due to thermal pipe
advantageous when top head accessibility is required stress — these can cause visible damage. If attached
for maintaining instruments, agitator, etc., or when piping operates at more than 200°F we suggest pro-
space is limited below or, for horizontal vessels, to the viding the fabricator with the nozzle loads in Table
sides. For vessels 24 in. or less, off-the-shelf pipe caps 2 for a reasonable nozzle stiffening. By providing a
(elliptical) provide the most economical design.
Improved fatigue resistance
Flat heads have very limited use for pressure ves-
sels more than 24 in. in diameter. Because of their
flat geometry, they offer far less resistance to pressure
than elliptical and F&D heads of the same thickness.
Engineers occasionally will specify a flat head, but this Fillet Fillet
weld Stress raiser weld
practice is uneconomical for pressures above 15 psig–25 at notch
psig. If a large diameter flat head is necessary for code
equipment, then stiffening the head with structural
I-beams is possible but requires sophisticated finite el- As welded After grinding
emental analysis, a skill that not all fabricators possess.
5. Jacket choices. Consider functionality, not cost.
Choosing the correct jacket is paramount to
achieve process needs. The three common types
— conventional, half-pipe and dimple — offer
Figure 2. Blend grinding of fillet weld can prevent fatigue but the throat of the weld
advantages and disadvantages with respect to pro- (the distance from face to root) must meet code requirements after grinding.
cess parameters, reliability and cost [1] (Table 1 ).

21  chemicalprocessing.com December 2008

 How types of jacketing compare
Type of jacketing Advantages Disadvantages
Conventional (full enclosure) High flowrates Poor heat transfer coefficients and
Low pressure drop heat transfer due to low velocities
More coverage than other jackets Thick wall required to withstand jacket pressure*
Bypassing and dead zones — resulting in
poor heat transfer
Highest cost
Half-pipe High flowrates Difficult to fabricate around nozzles
Low pressure drop Incomplete coverage unless
Suitable for dirty fluids and no bypassing spacing is kept to 1 in. or less
High jacket pressure with no adverse effect More expensive than dimple jacket
on inner vesselwall thickness
Good fatigue resistance (cyclic service) if
applied with full penetration welds
Dimple Least expensive Limited to steam and low flow liquids
Ability to withstand high pressures only performing maintenance heat transfer
Easy to work around nozzle Least resistant to fatigue failures (cyclic service)
Susceptible to plugging — requires clean fluid
Difficult to estimate flow/pressure drop without
vendor supplied empirical procedures
Bypassing and dead zones — resulting in poor
heat transfer
*Note: a spiral baffle in the jacket space, welded per Code as a stiffener to the inner wall, will reduce required inner wall thick-
ness and improve heat transfer due to increased fluid velocity.
Table 1. Each type of jacketing has a particular combination of pluses and minuses.

any other API standard exists

Comparative concentricity
for rectangular tanks. Appendix
13 of the ASME Pressure Vessel
Concentric tube Eccentric tube
Code provides a methodology
but will lead to an expensive
OD
center over-design. Most fabricators
will apply the stress/strain
formulas in Roark [3] to design
a safe and economical tank that
can operate under 15 psig.
9. Cyclic service. If a vessel will
ID experience an unusual number
center
of thermal or pressure cycles over
A
its design life, this could result in
premature fatigue failure (usually
Figure 3. at a weld) unless preemptive
Welded tub-
ing (left) is reasonable nozzle load, the ves- effective to specify a rectangular measures are taken. Fatigue is
inherently more sel fabrication and piping design vessel for pressure other than cumulative material damage that
concentric
than seamless
can proceed in parallel and static head; therefore, only manifests as a small crack and
tubing (right). avoid pipe stress/nozzle loading consider this configuration for progressively worsens (sometimes
Eccentricity issues months into fabrication. atmospheric tanks. Flat surfaces to failure) as the material is
exaggerated
for illustration Also, nozzle projections below are highly stressed under pres- repeatedly cycled. A 1985 survey
purposes; “A” the support ring or lugs shouldn’t sure (and vacuum) and the showed that fatigue was the
is the govern-
ing dimension, stick out further than the support required thickness without second most prevalent cause of
minimum wall bolt circle or structural steel will adding stiffeners can be mind- failure in industry (25%), closely
thickness.
have to be removed when setting boggling. An engineer need- behind corrosion (29%) [4].
the vessel. This is ill-advised for ing a rectangular tank often It’s up to the purchaser to in-
heavy equipment. incorrectly specifies API 650 or struct the fabricator what design/fab-
8. Rectangular tanks. It’s not cost ASME. Neither API 650 nor rication practices to follow to avoid

December 2008 chemicalprocessing.com  22

30° 60° 90° 45°

fatigue. Cyclic service is usually associated with batch Vessel and heat exchanger nozzle loads
processes and ASME [5] provides the following rules: Force Load*
Design for fatigue if N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 ≥400 for non- Lateral force in any direction F × 450D lbs
integral (fillet weld) construction and ≥1,000 for integral Bending or torsional moment F × 110 D2 ft-lbs
construction (i.e., no load-bearing fillet welds), or 60 and
*Note: D is pipe diameter in inches and F is flange rating factor: for 150-lb
350, respectively, in the knuckle region of formed heads, flange rating, F = 0.6; for 300, 0.7; for 600, 0.8; for 900, 1.0; for 1,500, 1.1;
where N1 is the number of full startup/shutdown cycles; N2 and for 2,500, 1.2. For API-specified equipment, refer to the respective
is the number of cycles where pressure swings 15% (non- standard for nozzle loads.
integral) or 20% (integral); N3 is the number of thermal Table 2. Use these loads if attached piping operates at ≥200°F and formal
cycles with a temperature differential (ΔT) exceeding 50°F stress analysis hasn’t been done. Contact OEM for glass lined equipment.
between two adjacent points no more than 2.5 (Rt)½ apart
(where R is inside radius of vessel and t is thickness of the etc., from any type of mis-aligned rotating equipment.
vessel being considered) — apply a two-times factor if ΔT Fatigue failures in welded equipment most com-
exceeds 100°F, a four times factor if more than 150°F, and monly occur in fillet welds where there’s an abrupt
see Div. 2 for more than 250°F; and N4 is the number of change in equipment geometry. Division 2 of the
thermal cycles for welds attaching dissimilar materials in ASME Code designs around fatigue cracking in
which (α1-α2)ΔT (where α is the thermal expansion coef- nozzles by limiting the use of fillet welds. However,
ficient) exceeds 0.00034, or for carbon steel welded to stain- fillet welds and sharp corners are ubiquitous in Div. 1
less steel, the number of cycles where 2ΔT exceeds 340. designs and can’t be avoided without cost.
Equipment and piping in continuous processes Crack initiation usually begins at the surface due to
also can experience fatigue due to the relentless me- small microcracks. Therefore, surface smoothness is a
chanical loading/unloading of reciprocating compres- good defense. Polished surfaces have four times the fatigue
sors, piston pumps, bin vibrators or from vibration, resistance [6] but polishing generally can’t be justified

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 Tube patterns

30° 60° 90° 45°

Experience has shown that most fatigue problems
occur due to inadequately supported attachments
or where saddles/supports lacked wear pads or
rounded corners.
10. Tubing. This can be a significant cost ele-
Triangular Rotated Square Rotated ment when ordering large heat exchangers.
triangular square
Cost can vary appreciably depending on the
Note: Flow arrows are perpendicular to the baffle cut edge. fabrication requirements specified. It’s not
our intent to steer you away from the highest
quality tube but merely to point out subtle-
Figure 4. More
tubes can fit with 30° for fatigue life alone. Shot peening imparts compressive ties that can noticeably affect price.
and 60° configura- stresses into the metal surface that impede crack initiation • Diameter. Tubing is specified based on OD. For
tions but mechanical
cleaning may be
but, again, only high-end applications can economically quickest delivery, stick to commonly stocked sizes, typically
harder. justify peening. For mid- to small-size process vessels, ¾-in. and 1-in. tubes for the chemical industry. Specify-
good weld quality often is the most economical defense ing smaller tubes (e.g., ½ in.) will increase the exchanger’s
against fatigue; so, state requirements in the equipment tube count and cost; this will improve duty but will cause
specifications. Because fatigue cracks often initiate at the higher pressure drop and may make mechanical clean-
toe or root of fillet welds, grinding the face to gently blend ing more difficult. Therefore, only consider tubes smaller
the weld into the base metal with a generous radius re- than ¾ in. for cleaner services or when increasing the shell
markably reduces stress risers (Figure 2). Another method diameter/length isn’t an option. Larger tubes (>1 in.) have
to reduce stress risers is to TIG (tungsten-inert-gas) wash a the opposite effect but may be necessary to satisfy process
weld toe to improve smoothness and remove microcracks. conditions. Another option to increase effective surface
Initially target welds where cyclic loading is occurring. area without changing tube diameter is to specify finned
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tubes or twisted tubes — but those are ducing seamless tubes [10]. They typ- in wall thickness. So, welded tubes
limited to clean applications. ically are made by piercing, extrusion tend to be more concentric (Figure
• Length. Tubes are stocked in or pilgering. The inner mandrel/die 3). Seamless tube standards permit
20-ft lengths. Seamless tubes are made can’t stay perfectly centered during larger wall-thickness tolerances
from individual billets or hollows and the tube forming process. Welded than those allowed by welded tube
so can vary in length by one to two tubes on the other hand begin with standards [11].
feet. The length of welded tubes is strip material that is very consistent • Minimum versus average wall
more exact because they’re produced
from a continuous strip coil. The most
wasteful and costly option for stocked
tubes is ordering units just over 10
ft in length because nearly 50% of
the tube is discarded. As tube count
increases, direct mill orders become
economically attractive; in such cases,
any length tube can be supplied, if
your schedule allows. Mills have mini-
mum orders (i.e., 2,000 lb.–2,500 lb.),
though “mini-mills” will take orders at
half these quantities.
• Gauge. Tubes come in different
wall thicknesses (or gauge). Industry
standards [7] detail the appropriate
wall thickness based on material
type and service. Table 3 provides
guidance for a ¾-in. tube where no
prior service history is available.
• Corrosion allowance. This
typically isn’t added because tubes
are considered a replaceable feature
of the exchanger. If designing for
a corrosive service, specifying the
next-heavier-gauge wall thickness
or choosing a higher alloyed tube
material is more appropriate.
• Seamless versus welded tube.
There’s a perception that seamless
tubes are more reliable than welded
tubes. This is currently less valid as
some manufacturers have developed
specialized techniques for making
welded tubing that give products that
show no preferential weld corrosion
and have properties equal to those of
seamless tubing [8,9]. Seamless tubing
will cost more and usually has longer
delivery. Welded tubing requires a
greater amount of non-destructive ex-
amination (NDE), but this typically
only adds pennies per foot of tubing if
done at the mill [8,9].
Eccentricity is inherent in pro-
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Table 3. When using ¾-in. tube and not having a history of materials
in the particular service, follow these guidelines.

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Ph. (785) 472-4461 • Fax: (785) 472-3539 tubing. When it’s unnecessary to use minimum wall tubing,
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anticipated, it may be more economical to permit the use of aver-
age wall welded tubing and specify additional NDE or corrosion
evaluation of the tube seam.
PROTECT PUMPS • Tube pattern. Shell and tube heat exchangers typically are
fabricated with one of four types of tube patterns — 30°, 60°,
45° and 90° (Figure 4). Duty, pressure drop, cleanability, cost
• Dry Running and vibration all depend on which pattern is chosen. Consider
• Cavitation process needs, not cost, when making the selection.
A 30° or 60° pattern is laid out in a triangle configuration. The
• Bearing Failure
main benefit is that about 10% more tubes can fit in the same area
• Overload as a 45° or 90° pattern. There’s very little difference between the 30°
TRUE POWER LOAD DISPLAY and 60° patterns. Often a thermal designer will run analyses of both
• Best Sensitivity and select the one that provides the best pressure drop and vibration
COMPACT EASY MOUNTING results. The disadvantage of a 30° or 60° pattern is that it’s difficult
• Starter Door • Raceway to mechanically clean on the shell side. Therefore, such a pattern is
• Panel • Wall chosen for cleaner services; frequently the bundle isn’t removable.
TWO ADJUSTABLE SET POINTS The 45° or 90° pattern is selected if shell-side mechanical clean-
• Relay Outputs ing is required. Such a pattern also requires a removable bundle.
MODEL PMP-25 • Adjustable Delay Timers The 45° is more common than the 90° because it provides more
4-20 MILLIAMP ANALOG OUTPUT shell-side flow disturbance, which improves heat transfer. A 90° pat-
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Make the right choices
In today’s chemical industry, too many engineers given the task of
CALL NOW FOR YOUR FREE 30-DAY TRIAL specifying welded equipment such as vessels, heat exchangers and tanks
888-600-3247 aren’t well versed in what’s necessary to develop an economic design
that provides suitable safety and performance. Myriad choices must be
made — and each will incrementally add to the final cost and schedule.

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Previous articles
This article is the final part of a series on pointers for welded
equipment (e.g., pressure vessels, heat exchangers and tanks).
The earlier articles are:
“Avoid Costly Materials Mistakes,”
www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/003.html
“Avoid Costly Fabrication Mistakes,”
www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/065.html

When looking for savings, cutting the wrong corners may turn
out to be very costly over the equipment’s service life.

Chip Eskridge, P.E., is principal mechanical/materials engi-

neer for the Aker Plant Services Group of Aker Solutions, Louisville,
Ky. Mike James is a senior consultant, materials engineering,
for DuPont, Houston. Steve Zoller is director of fabricated
equipment for Enerfab, Cincinnati. Reach them via e-mail at Chip.
Eskridge@akersolutions.com, Michael.M.James-1@USA.dupont.
com and Steve.Zoller@enerfab.com.

References
1. “Vessel Design Manual,” ITT Industries, White Plains,
N.Y. (2000).
2. “Loadings,” Paragraph UG-22, ASME Code, Sect. VIII,
Div. 1, ASME, New York City (2007).
3. Young, W.C. and R. Budynas, “Roark’s Formulas for Stress
and Strain,” 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York City (2002).
4. Brooks, C.R. and A. Choudhury, “Metallurgical Failure
Analysis,” McGraw-Hill, New York City (1993).
5. “Fatigue Screening Criteria,” Table 5.9, ASME Code,
Sect. VIII, Div. 2, ASME, New York City (2007).
6. Deutschman, A.D., W.J. Michels and C.E. Wilson, “Ma-
chine Design: Theory and Practice,” Macmillian, New
York City (1975).
7. “Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Specification,” PIP
VESST001, Process Industry Practices, Austin, Texas (2007).
8. James, M.M. and D. O’Donnell, “When to Specify Weld-
ed, Welded and Drawn, or Seamless Tubing,” Welding
Journal (June 2008). Available online at www.rathgibson.
com/downloads/listing.aspx?did=59.
9. James, M.M., “Development of High Quality Welded Heat
Exchanger Tubing in Lieu of Seamless,” presented at ATI
Corrosion Solutions Conference, Sunriver, Ore. (2007).
10. Kearns, W.H., “Minimizing Wall Thickness Variation in
Seamless Tubing,” The Fabricator, (Aug. 28, 2003), www.
TheFabricator.com/TubePipeProduction/TubePipePro-
duction_Article.cfm?ID=678
11. “Specifications for General Requirements for Carbon,
Ferrite Alloy, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Tubes,” ASME/
ASTM SA/A-450, ASME, New York City (2004).