1.

Introduction to Civil Engineering

INTRODUCTION:
Civil engineering is the oldest branch of engineering. Civil engineering aims at providing
basic facilities and needs of the people. It also includes general safety, well being and health
of the people.

Civil engineering involves surveying, planning, analysis, design, construction, supervision and
maintenance of construction projects of Government and also Private.

Scope of different fields of Civil engineering in infrastructural developmental activities:-

It can be observed that, in the national budget about 50% of capital is allotted for
construction activities itself. Hence construction industry plays a vital role in national
development and national economy improvement.

1. SURVEYING:
Surveying is the branch of civil engineering which deals with measurement of relative
positions of an object on earth’s surface by measuring the horizontal distances, elevations,
directions, and angles. Surveying is typically used to locate and measure property lines; to
lay out buildings, bridges, channels, highways, sewers, and pipelines for construction; to
locate stations for launching and tracking satellites; and to obtain topographic information
for mapping and charting. It is generally classified into two categories: Plane surveying (for
smaller areas) and Geodetic surveying (for very large areas). Surveying is the science of map
making.

2. BUILDING MATERIALS:
This section describes the basic materials used in building construction and discusses their
common applications. As the world’s population increases and consumes more of the
natural resources, it is incumbent upon the civil engineer to use building materials that
contribute to sustaining development instead of satisfying only the short-term need.
Material selection should incorporate an evaluation of the amount of energy required to
produce and deliver the material to the building site.

As a Civil engineer one should have a thorough knowledge about all these materials and
wise enough to choose an appropriate material for specific use which results in cost effective
technology in construction without sacrificing durability and serviceability of the structure.

3. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT:
It is the branch of civil engineering which deals with the controlling time, cost, quality, and
safety, and acting in a socially, politically, and environmentally acceptable manner. achieving
good quality of work with economy, efficiency and factor of safety as guiding principles.

In this branch we use modern and effective methods such as Bar charts, CPM and PERT. We
also use alternative smart and composite materials for construction. It also enables us to
complete the project well within the stipulated period.
4. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:
Structural engineering is a field of civil engineering that deals with the analysis and design of
structures that would safely bear or resist the loads, stresses and other forces. Structural

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engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria (as per the guideline or
code specified), predicated on safety (e.g. structures must not collapse without sufficient
warning) or serviceability and performance (e.g. building must not sway causing discomfort
to the occupants). Buildings are made to tolerate massive loads as well as changing climate
and natural disasters.
Structural Engineers have a duty to their clients and the public to provide safe designs.
Typically, the Structural Engineer is responsible for the structural design of the overall
project, including specification of the design loads, issuance of design documents, and
review of submittals. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient
use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.

5. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:
Geotechnical engineering is a sub discipline of civil engineering and requires knowledge of
basic engineering principles, such as statics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and the behavior of
engineering materials. In a broad sense, the definition of a geotechnical engineer is an
individual who performs an engineering evaluation of earth materials. This typically includes
soil, rock, and groundwater and their interaction with earth retention systems, structural
foundations, and other civil engineering works. In this branch of civil engineering we deal
with the property of soil to withstand the entire load coming at the bottom of the structure.
knowledge of moisture content, safe bearing capacity, sub-soil layers and soil profile will
helps to arrive at effective, efficient and economical design of suitable foundation with
regard to transfer of loads safely.

6. HYDRAULICS:

Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and
conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the
extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of
civil engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and
levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering.

Hydraulic engineering is the application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing

with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.
Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is
involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river,
the interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and
deposition. "The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various
features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for
highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for
thermal power plants."

7. WATER RESOURCES & IRRIGATION ENGINEERING:

In this branch of civil engineering we deal with the harvesting of water during rainy season in
reservoirs and effective utilization of same for domestic/Industry purposes, supplying
through canals to irrigation lands to crop cultivation, development of fish culture, etc.,
Supplying of water from dam to agricultural field results in better agricultural produce and
there by socio-economical status individual and the country is improved.

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Drawing water from dam for production of hydro-electricity will results in better electricity
supply. By supplying electricity to the industry area, revenue from the industries is improved
and thereby overall socio-economical status of the country is improved.

8. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transportation engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering which deals with the
application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide
the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods (transport).

Transportation engineering, as practiced by civil engineers, primarily involves planning,

design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation facilities. The facilities
support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and even space transportation .

In this branch of civil engineering we deal with construction of good quality road networks,
railway line laying, harbor constructions and airport constructions of national and
international standards. The design aspects of transport engg include the sizing of
transportation facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the facility has), determining
the materials and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry (vertical and
horizontal alignment) of the roadway (or track).

9. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
In this branch of civil engineering we deal with the supply of safe drinking water to rural and
urban areas and collection and disposal of waste water and solid waste.

Due to industrialization and increase in vehicular traffic resulting in air pollution problems.
By conducting environmental impact assessment studies suitable measure may be taken to
avoid environmental hazardous.

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEER:

A civil engineer has to do surveying, planning, analysis, design, estimating, get approval,
construct and maintain all civil engineering projects.

Civil engineer has to involve himself in research, development and training programmes to
upgrade the technology in construction.

Apart from the above civil engineer has a great role in the development of infrastructure for
the country and is as follows:
o Town and city planning.
o Construction and maintenance of good transportation systems such as roads,
railways, harbors and air ports.
o Construction and maintenance of water tanks, dams to harvest water during rainy
season and utilizing the same across the year.
o Purifying and supplying drinking water to domestic and industries.
o Construction and maintenance of good drainage system and treatment plants.
o Impact assessment studies on land, water and air pollution and taking suitable
measure to control the same.

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 ROADS

Introduction:
The path over which vehicles and other traffic may pass is called road.

In 1934 a technical body called Indian Road Congress (IRC) was formed to provide a common
platform for sharing of experiences and ideas with regard to planning, construction and
maintenance of roads in India.

TYPES OF ROADS OR CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS :

(a) Classification of roads based on significance or function of roads: (Nagpur Plan)

1. EXPRESS WAYS:

Cross-section of Express Highway in embankment

Express ways are superior to National highways. These are constructed in heavy traffic areas
for uninterrupted and no cross traffic is permitted. Normally these express ways are
designed for high speeds and are provided with central median or traffic separators for the
traffic in opposite directions to avoid head on collisions. These express ways are always
fenced all along the length of the road to avoid entry of animals. Express ways have
advantages like reduction in travel time and less fuel consumption.

EX: Pune-Mumbai express way

Bangalore-Mysore express way.

2. NATIONAL HIGHWAYS:
These are the roads connecting National capital to state capital, major cities, towns, ports,
border areas etc., National highways should have at least two lane traffic of 8m wide with at
least 2m wide shoulder on each side. They should have high class surface finishing and
adequate structural design to with stand the traffic load expected.

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 Cross section of National Highway

3. STATE HIGHWAYS:

Cross section of State Highway

These are roads connecting national highways of neighboring states, to district head
quarters and major cities in the state. These highways should have 8m carriage way and 2m
wide shoulder on each side.

4. MAJOR DISTRICT ROADS:

Cross section of Major District Road in cutting

These roads are constructed with in district connecting market place and production areas
to state or national highways or railway stations. These roads have lower speed and
geometric design specifications than for national highways or state highways.

5. OTHER DISTRICT ROADS:

These roads connect rural areas of production to market places, connect from village to
major district roads, state highways or national highways. These roads have lower design
specifications than major district roads.

6. VILLAGE ROADS:
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These roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other. These roads are also
connecting other district roads, major district roads and state highways.

(b) Classification based on materials used for construction:

1. EARTHEN ROADS:
These are unimportant roads and are constructed using locally available soil near the site
from barrow pits. In these roads traffic is very less or rare. Normally these roads are used
commute from residence to agricultural fields by formers in the village.

2. WATER BOUND MACADAM ROADS: (WBM)

Water bound macadam road is better than the earthen roads. A dense and compacted
course of broken stone, sand and red earth mix is laid in layers.

3. BITUMINOUS ROADS:
In the beginning earthen roads are constructed and later on converted to water bound
macadam roads and further on water bound macadam roads a layer of bitumen is laid as a
wearing coat and is called as bituminous roads. Bituminous wearing coat act as binding
material and provides a leveled smooth surface for the road.

4. CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS:

Cement concrete roads are of high standard. They are the costliest of all other types of
roads. These roads provide an excellent riding surface and pleasing appearance. These roads
are virtually maintenance free.

COMPONENTS OF ROADS:
Components of roads consists of:
1. Pavement or carriage way
2. Shoulders
3. Kerbs
4. Traffic separators or medians and
5. Drains.

1. PAVEMENT OR CARRIAGE WAY:

This is width of road which is designed to handle volume of expected traffic. According to
IRC specifications, the maximum width of vehicle is 2.44m and side margin of 0.68m is
required for safe driving of the vehicle. Hence for single lane road carriage way width works

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out to be 3.8m. for road pavements having two or more lanes, the width of 3.5m per lane is
sufficient.
2. SHOULDER:

The width of carriage way is extended on both sides of carriage way by a minimum of 2 to
5m. it is also strong, stable but little more rough and has different color for clear distinction.

3. KERBS:
These are boundary indicators between carriage way and foot paths and raised about
200mm above the edge of carriage way. They also provide lateral stability to the base
course. Refer the figure given at pavement or carriage way.

4. TRAFFIC SEPERATORS OR MEDIANS:

2 to 3m

These are provided to separate the traffic moving in opposite directions. These are provided
to enhance the visibility and prevent head on collision. These may be shrub plantation or
provided with fence.

5. DRAINS:

Side drains are provided all along the length of the road to allow rain water to flow away and
not to accumulate on the road surface which may disturb the traffic movement.

BRIDGES

Introduction:

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Bridge is a structure which provides passage over the obstacles like valley, river, road or
railway track without closing the way underneath. The bridge may be built for pedestrians,
road for vehicle traffic or for railway track.

Classification of bridges:
Bridges can be classified into various types depending upon the following factors:

1. PURPOSE:
Under this heading, bridges can be classified as road bridges, railway bridges, foot bridges,
aqueduct bridge (for carrying canal water across valley) etc.,

2. ALIGNMENT:

If the bridge is at right angle to the obstacle it is termed as square bridge. If the bridge is at
some other angle then the bridge is termed as skew bridge.

3. NATURE OF LIFE:
Under this bridges may be classified as permanent and temporary.

Permanent bridges are seen along highways and railways which are built with masonry or
RCC or Steel with strong foundation.

Temporary bridges are built during military operations or during project execution and
dismantled after the purpose.

4. SPAN:
Based on the span of the bridges, they may be classified as :
Culverts – less than 8m span
Minor bridges – 8m to 30m span
Major bridges – 30m to 120m span
Long span bridges – span more than 120m
5. FIXED OR MOVABLE BRIDGE:
Normally fixed bridges are built. Movable bridges are built across navigable channels or
rivers so as to avoid obstacles to navigation. Movable bridges may further classified as swing
bridges, lift bridges and bascule bridges.

TYPES OF BRIDGES:

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 Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3 Cable Suspension Bridge

Fig.4 Box Culvert (Single or double)

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 Fig.5 Pipe Culvert

Fig.6 High Level Cause way

Fig.7 Swing Bridge

Fig.8 Double Bascule Bridge

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 DAMS
Introduction:
Dam is hydraulic structure built across the flow of water so that water gets accumulated on
the upstream side and is called as reservoir. The main purpose of construction of dam is to
store the water during rainy season and later use it for various purposes.

Such reservoirs can be used for following purposes:

1. Recreation (boating) and Fish culture development.
2. Water supply for domestic and Industries.
3. Water supply for agriculture purpose
4. Generation of hydro electric power
5. Flood control / navigation.

TYPES OF DAMS:

1. EARTHEN DAMS:

Earthen dams are constructed using good quality soil which is well pounded down and
compacted. It is best suited for small dams and where weak foundation conditions are
existing. In most of the earthen dams seepage is major problem and requires careful and
regular maintenance. To prevent soil erosion on upstream side of embankment stone
pitching is provided. Some times to control seepage an impervious core is constructed in the
middle of body of earthen dam.
2. ROCK FILL DAM:

Cross section of Rock Fill dam

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These type of dams fall between earthen and gravity dams. An impervious layer of slab
(usually concrete) is laid on supporting embankment with masonry structure on the
upstream side and stone or dry rubble masonry on down stream side.

3. GRAVITY DAMS:

Cross section of concrete Gravity Dam

These dams resist or withstand the external forces including hydrostatic force of stored
water on upstream side by weight of dam itself. Normally gravity dams are constructed out
of concrete or stone masonry. Some times an inspection gallery is provided in the body of
the dam at desired position to check the seepage of water from up-stream to down-stream.
These type of dams are constructed where strong strata is available for foundation.

4. ARCH DAMS:

An arch dam is curved in plan. Water is stored on convex side of arch and thin sections of
concrete can be designed to store water. It is built with masonry or concrete. The hydraulic
pressure from the reservoir is resisted by arch action. It is suitable for narrow valley with
sufficient depth and strong strata are available for foundation with abutments.

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 Multiple Choice Questions and Answers
1. Surveying deals with
A Sub soil exploration B Estimation of quality and quantity
of surface and sub-surface water
C Determination of correct distance D Design of super structure and sub
between objects or stations. structure.

2. Infrastructure development focuses on providing

A Transportation facilities B Water system and drainage
facility
C Power supply and communication D All the above
facilities

3. Dams are
A Constructed to cross a channel or B Barrier or obstacle constructed
flowing water across a water stream
C Constructed across a tunnel D None of the above.

4. The roads connecting important towns, areas of production and market places,
connecting with each other or with the main highways of a district are:
A Major district roads B Arterial roads
C Express ways D None of the above

5. Geotechnical engineering involves the study of

A Water B Soil
C Air D All of the above

6. Shoulders are the components of

A Roads B Bridges
C Buildings D Dams

7. A bridge constructed at some angle to the river flow is

A Skew bridge B Square bridge
C Steel bridge D Lift bridge
8. A bascule bridge is a
A Floating bridge B Arch bridge
C Suspension bridge D Movable bridge

9. A drainage gallery is provided in the body of

A Arch dam B Earthen dam
C Gravity dam D Buttress dam

10. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) comes under

A Architecture & Town planning B Hydraulics
C Surveying D Structural Engineering

11. The science of map making is known as

A Estimation B Surveying
C Town Planning D Construction Technology
12. By-pass road is constructed

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 A Inside the city B Over the main road
C Around the city D None of the above

13. The part of civil engineering which deals with waste water and solid waste is called
A Water supply engineering B Geotechnical engineering
C Sanitary engineering D Structural engineering

14. A branch of civil engineering dealing with the technical measures to use and protect
the components of environment is
A Transportation engineering B Hydraulics engineering
C Geotechnical engineering D Environmental engineering

15. Composite material consisting of cement concrete and steel used in civil engineering
structural construction is
A Pre-stressed concrete (PSC) B Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
C Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) D Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)

16. Highways which are superior to national highways and are provided wherever
volume of traffic is very high are
A State highways B Roadways
C Airways D Expressways

17. The part of civil engineering which deals with design of slabs, beams, columns,
footings etc., is called
A Transportation engineering B Structural engineering
C Geotechnical engineering D Water supply engineering

18. The structure which provides passage over the obstacles like valley, river without
closing the way underneath is
A Dam B Bridge
C Harbor D Airport
19. Land use, planning, zoning etc., are a part of
A Transportation engineering B Construction technology
C Town planning D Geotechnical engineering

20. River flood controlling can be done by constructing

A Bridge B Tunnel
C Dam D Harbor

21. Long span bridges are generally made of

A Plain cement concrete B Pre-stressed concrete
C Timber D Pozzlolona concrete

22. Which of the following material is not used for dam construction
A Hollow blocks B Stones
C concrete D Timber

23. _____________ is not a natural construction (building) material

A Plywood B Stone

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 C Sand D Timber

24. ___________ is used for flood control, navigation and hydro power generation etc.,
A Multipurpose dam B Detention dam
C Timber dam D Culvert

25. For crossing a water course or valley in all seasons ______ is essential
A Pathways B Flooring
C Bridge D Curb
26. Pick up a structure in which a inspection gallery is formed ____
A Gravity dam B Bridge
C Harbor D Airport

27. Effects of pollution and reducing the ill-effects is studied under ____
A Surveying B Geotechnical engineering
C Hydraulics D Environmental engineering

28. Land use planning, zoning etc., are a part of ____

A Transportation engineering B Construction technology
C Town planning D Geotechnical engineering

29. River flood controlling can be done by constructing ____

A Bridge B Tunnel
C Dam D harbor

30. Which of the following is not a term related to bridge ____

A Approach B Pier
C Impervious core D abutment

31. ____ are constructed on both sides of abutments to prevent scouring and protecting
the banks of river.
A Wing walls B Dams
C Piers D Trusses
32. Use of _____ is essential for saving time, labor, money etc., during a work
A Construction technology B Arch bridge
C Pipe culvert D Gravity dam

33. Abuttment is a part of

A Road B Bridge
C Dam D Building

34. Which of the following is not an irrigation infrastructure ?

A Dam B Canal
C Jackwell D Road

35. Surveying mainly deals with

A Communication B Environment
C Material D Measurement

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36. Studying the properties of soil in assessing safe bearing capacity is called as
A Transportation engg. B Building materials
C Estimation D Geotechnical engg.

37. Building tanks & dams and carrying stored water to agricultural field is known as
A Structural engg. B Environmental engg.
C Water resources & irrigation engg. D Construction technology

38. Kerbs are the components of

A Roads B Bridges
C Buildings D Dams

39. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) comes under

A Architecture & town planning B Hydraulics
C Surveying D Structural Engineering

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2. Introduction to Engineering Mechanics

Few Important Definitions:

Particle:
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Theoretically, such a
body can not exist, while dealing with the problems involving distances which are
considerably larger compared to the size of the body.

Ex: Car and Road, Aero plane and Gunner, Ship and Sea, etc.,

Continuum:
A body consists of several particles. It is well known fact that each particle can be sub
divided into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not feasible to solve any engineering
problems by treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles. The body is
assumed to consist of a continuous distribution of matter. This will not separate even when
various forces considered to be acting simultaneously. In other words, we say the body is
treated as ‘CONTINUUM’.

Rigid Body:
A body in which all the particles occupy the fixed position with respect to each other is
called the rigid body or the body which does not undergo any deformation even after
application of external force is also called as rigid body.

However no body is rigid, every body undergoes some amount of deformation when acted
up on by external forces. Still there exists several situations wherein there is no deformation
of the body, and the concept of rigid body holds good.

TIME:
It is a measure of succession of events. The universally accepted event to measure time is
the rotation of earth. The time taken by earth to revolve once around its own axis is called a
day. To have fractions for various other events, the day is divided into 24 hours, an hour into
60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds and so on….

FORCE:
It is the action of a body on another body. It always tends to change the state of rest or state
of motion of the other body. It is always associated with direction also.

POINT FORCE:
It is yet another idealization which is very commonly used in engineering mechanics.
50Kg

50x9.81 N

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The weight of the man standing on the beam is shown as force applied at the point ‘C’.
Actually, the man cannot apply his weight through a single point. There is a certain area of
contact through which the weight is applied. However this area is small when compared to
the other dimension involved in the problem. Therefore not much accuracy is lost by
treating it as a point force and there by simplifying the problem.

INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS:

Presently the whole world is in the process of switching over to International Systems of
units (SI). In recent days for engineering study SI system is adopted.

SI Units – Meter-Newton-Second

Elements of a force or Characteristics of a force:

A force could be completely defined only when the following four characteristics are
specified:

10N

Line of action

a) Magnitude ( 10 N )
b) Direction ( Towards the body )
c) Point of application and (Point ‘A’ )
d) Line of action. ( Dotted line )

CLASSIFICATION OF FORCE AND FORCE SYSTEM:

When several / number of forces act up on a body simultaneously, they constitute a system
of forces.

1) Collinear Force system:

When a system of forces acting simultaneously on a body and line of action of all the
forces lay on the same line such a system of forces is called ‘Collinear force system’
Ex: The forces on a rope in a tug of war.

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
2) Coplanar force system:

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When system of forces is made to act simultaneously on a single plane with different
magnitude and different directions are said to form a Coplanar Force System and is as
shown in fig. below:

a) Coplanar Like Parallel force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on a single plane, their lines actions are parallel to each other and
directed along the same direction but their magnitudes may be different such a
system of forces is called as ‘coplanar like parallel force system’ and is as shown
below:

b) Coplanar unlike parallel force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on a single plane, their lines actions are parallel to each other and
their directions and magnitudes may be different such a system of forces is called
as ‘coplanar unlike parallel force system’.

c) Coplanar Concurrent force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on a single plane, with different magnitude and different
directions and when you produce the lines of action of all the individual forces
they do meet at a common point such a force system is called as ‘coplanar
concurrent force system’ and is as shown below:

d) Coplanar Non-oncurrent force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on a single plane, with different magnitude and different

Page 19
 directions and when you produce the lines of action of all the individual forces
they do not meet at a common point such a force system is called as ‘coplanar
concurrent force system’ and is as shown below:

3. Non-Coplanar force system: when a number of forces are made to act on a different
planes simultaneously with different magnitudes and different directions that
constitutes a ‘Non-coplanar force system’ and is as shown below:

a) Non-Coplanar Like Parallel force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on different plane, with different magnitudes and their lines actions
are parallel to each other and directed along the same direction such a system of
forces are called as ‘Non-coplanar like parallel force system’.
b)

c) Non-Coplanar Unlike Parallel force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on different planes, their lines actions are parallel to each other and
their directions may be different such a system of forces are called as ‘Non-coplanar
unlike parallel force system’.

d) Non-Coplanar Concurrent force system: when system of forces are made act on
different planes simultaneously, and when you produce the lines of action of all the

Page 20
 individual forces they do meet at a common point such a force system is called as
‘Non-coplanar concurrent force system’.

e) Non-Coplanar Non-concurrent force system: when system of forces are made act
simultaneously on different planes, and when you produce the lines of action of all
the individual forces they do not meet at a common point such a force system is
called as ‘Non-coplanar non-concurrent force system’.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM:

The first step in analysing many engineering mechanics problems is to draw a free body
diagram.
‘The process of writing an isolated sketch of the body under consideration from the other
bodies in contact and indication all the forces acting on it such as self weight, external forces
and contact reactions at the point of contact with the other bodies is called Free Body
Diagram(FBD).
T

RA
θ
50Kg A

50x9.81 N

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY OF A FORCE:

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Statement: ‘It states that the state of rest or state of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a
force acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction
but acting anywhere on the body in the line of action of the replaced force’.

Limitations:
a) This law is applicable only for rigid bodies, which is the subject matter of engineering
mechanics.
b) In case of subjects like the strength of materials in which deformable bodies are
concerned, the principle of transmissibility will not hold good. Since the point of
application of the forces completely alter the internal stresses in the deformable bodies.

MOMENT OF A FORCE:
A force has not only the tendency to move a body, but it has a tendency to rotate the
body also. The measure of the rotational effect of a force is called the moment of a force.

‘The moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular
distance to the force from the moment center’.

M=Fxd N-m

Sign Convention:
(i) If the given force is rotating in Anti-clock wise direction with respect to the moment
center then that moment is treated as +ve moment.

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 (i) If the given force is rotating in Clock wise direction with respect to the moment
center then that moment is treated as -ve moment.

COUPLE:
Two forces F and –F, having the same magnitude parallel lines of action and opposite sense
are said to form a couple.

In other words, two equal unlike parallel forces, whose lines of action are not the same,
form a ‘couple’

-F
MOMENT OF A COUPLE:
The rotational effect of couple is called the moment of the couple or simply as ‘couple–
moment’

d1 F
.1 d2
d3
F d
M1 = +Fxd1 +Fxd2
= F(d1 + d2)
= + F.d (Anti-clock wise) ----- (1)

M2 = F(d+d3) – F(d3)
= Fxd +Fxd3 – Fxd3
= Fxd (anti-clock wise) ----- (2)
Thus by comparing equations (1) and (2) the moment of a couple is constant and does
not depend up on the moment center.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUPLE:
a) A couple consists of two equal and opposite forces which are separated by a distance.

b) Couple does not have any translatory effect on the body.

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 c) The rotational effect of a couple is constant, the magnitude of which is equal to the
product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the
two forces.
d) The moment of a couple is a vector.
e) The couple can be rotated through any angle.
f) The couple can be shifted to any position in its plane, without changing the external
effect on the body.

COMPOSITION OF FORCES:
It is possible to find a single force which will have the same effect as that of a number of
forces acting on a body. Such a single force is called ‘Resultant’ force and the process of
finding out the resultant force is called ‘composition of forces.’

RESOLUTION OF A FORCE:
The resolution of a force is exactly the opposite process of composition of forces. It is the
process of finding a number of component forces which will have the same effect on the
body as the given single force is called resolution of a force.

RESULTANT OF FORCE SYSTEM:

Resultant of a force system is one which will have the same translational and rotational
effect as the given system of forces.

Resolving a Force: 10Sinθ

Y
10N

θ
X 10 Cosθ

Sign Convention: +ve

-ve +ve

-ve

VARIGNON’S THEOREM or PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS:

The French mathematician Varignon (1654 – 1722) gave the following theorem which is also
known as principle of moments.

Page 24
Statement: ‘the algebraic summation of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about a
moment centre is equal to the moment of their resultant force about the same moment
centre’.

Proof:
Y-axis

A F2 R

F1
θ θ1
Θ2
O X-axis

Referring to the above fig. Let ‘R’ be the resultant of forces F 1 and F2 and A is the moment
center. Let d, d1 and d2 be the moment arms (perpendicular distances) of the forces R, F 1 and
F2 respectively from the moment center A. Then in this case we have to prove that
We have to prove that Rd = F1d1+F2d2+. . . . . . .

Join OA and produce, call it as ‘Y’ axis and draw X-axis at right angles to it at O. Denoting by
‘’ the angle that Resultant makes with X-axis and noting that the same angle is formed by
perpendicular to R at A with OA, we can write

Rd = R X AB Cos 
= AB (R Cos )
= AB Rx -------- (1)
where Rx denotes the component of R in X-direction.

Similarly, If F1x and F2x are the component of F1 and F2 in x-direction respectively, then

F1d1 = F1 X AB Cos 1
= AB (F1 Cos 1)
= AB F1x ----- (2)

F2d2 = F2 X AB Cos 2
= AB (F2 Cos 2)
= AB F2x ----------(3)

Adding (2) and (3)

F1d1 + F2d2 = AB (F1x + F2x )

F1d1 + F2d2 = AB (Rx) -------- (4)

Comparing Equations (1) and (4), we can write,

Rd = F1d1 + F2d2

Page 25
 Hence Proof.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION:

1st Law of motion:

Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
compelled to change that state by external forces imposed on it.

2nd Law of motion:

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force and it takes
place in the direction in which the force acts.

3rd Law of motion:

For every action, there is always equal and opposite reaction.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
The net effect of force applied in sequence on a body is given by the algebraic sum of effect
of individual forces on the body.
OR
The effect of a given system of forces on a rigid body is not changed by adding or subtracting
another system of forces in equilibrium.

PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE:

It states that the action of a force on a body is not affected by the action of any other force
on the body.

Parallelogram Law:
Statement: If two forces are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of
a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of
the parallelogram drawn from their common point.

We have to prove that,

Page 26
 and the angle ‘θ’ of R with P is given by,

Proof:
B
C

Q R

α θ α

A P D E

The two given forces P and Q are drawn from a common point A as shown in fig. The
lengths of AD and AB are proportional to magnitudes of P and Q respectively. The
parallelogram is completed by drawing lines parallel to AB and AD. The diagonal AC
represents the resultant R. The line AD is extended and a perpendicular is drawn from C on
this line.
As ABCD is a parallelogram
AB = CD = Q (the magnitude of Q)
AD = P (the magnitude of P)
AC = R (the magnitude of R)

Angle BAD = angle CDE = α (the angle between P and Q)

In right angled triangle ACDE,

But
and

In triangle ACE,

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Effect of a force on a body depends on

A Magnitude B Direction

Page 27
 C Position or line of action D All the above

2. When trying to turn a key into a lock, following is applied

A Coplanar forces B Moment
C Lever D couple

3. A single force and a couple acting in the same plane upon a rigid body
A Balance each other B Can not balance each other
C Produce moment of a couple D One equivalent

4. Moment of a force
A Occurs about a point B Measures the capacity to do
useful work
C Occurs when bodies are in motion D Measures the ability to produce
turning about axes

5. If a number of forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, then each of them will
produce the same effect, which it would have done while acting alone. This is
known as :
A The principle of physical B The principle of transmissibility of
independence of forces forces
C The principle of resolution of forces D None of the above.

6. In order to determine the effects of forces acting on a body, we must know

A Its magnitude and point at which it B Direction of the line along which it
acts on the body acts
C Their nature (whether push or pull) D All of the above

7. Free body diagram of a body shows

A A body isolated from all external B A body isolated from all its
forces surroundings and all external
forces acting on it.
C A body shown separately from its D None of the above.
surroundings and all external and
internal forces acting on it.
8. The effect of a couple is unchanged if
A The couple is rotated through any B The couple is shifted to any other
angle position
C The couple is replaced by another D All of the above
pair of forces, whose rotational
effects are the same.
9. The forces which meet at one point and have their lines of action in different planes
are called _______
A Coplanar concurrent forces B Non-coplanr concurrent forces
C Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces D None of the above

10. Couple means two forces acting parallel, _________

A Equal in magnitude and in the same B Not equal in magnitude but in the
direction same direction
C Equal in magnitude but opposite in D None of the above

Page 28
 direction

11. Moment of a force can be defined as the product of force and ___ distance from the
line of action of force to the moment center.
A Equal B Maximum
C Perpendicular D None of the above

12. Forces whose line of action lie along the same line of action are ____
A Coplanar parallel forces B Collinear forces
C Coplanar concurrent forces D Coplanar non-concurrent forces

13. Moment of a force about a moment center is the measure of its _____
A Translatory effect B Rotational effect
C Both A and B D None of the above

14. The translatory effect of a couple on the rigid body is ___

A Positive B Negative
C Zero D None of the above

15. Principle of transmissibility of forces states that when a force acts upon a body, its
effect is
A Minimum if it acts at the CG of the B Maximum if it acts at the CG of
body the body
C Same at every point on its line of D Different at different points on its
action line of action

16. Two parallel forces equal in magnitude and opposite in direction are separated by a
finite distance are said to form ____
A Moment B Couple
C Resultant D Equilibrant

17. The forces which pass through a single point and lie in the same plane are ___
A Collinear forces B Coplanar non-concurrent forces
C Coplanar concurrent forces D Non coplanar concurrent forces

18. Every force acting on an object produces its own effect independent of the other
forces. This is known as ___
A Principle of transmissibility of forces B Superposition of forces
C Principle of physical independence D None of the above
of forces
19. The force is a ___
A Scalar B Vector
C Zero D None of the above

20. Couple is a ___

A Free vector B Sliding vector
C Fixed vector D Unit vector

21. Force can be resolved into ___

A Only one component B Only two component

Page 29
 C Only three component D Any number of component

22. State which of the following statements is true?

Two forces can produce the same moment about a point___
A Only when the two forces are equal B Only when the moment arms of
the forces are equal
C When the two forces are concurrent D When the product of the force
and the moment arm are equal

23. The magnitude of the moment is ___ when a force is applied perpendicular to a lever
A Maximum B Minimum
C Zero D Negative

24. A force of magnitude 500N acts away from the origin of co-ordinate axis at 30º with
the y-axis in the second quadrant. Its x-component is ___
A -250N B 250N
C 250√3N D -250√3N

25. A force of magnitude 10N makes an angle of 210º with the positive x-axis. Its x-
component will be ___
A -5 N B 5N
C -5√3 N D 5√3 N

26. A block weighing 10KN rests on an inclined plane of inclination 30º with the
horizontal. The magnitude of the component of weight parallel to inclined plane is
A 5 KN B 5√3 KN
C 10 KN D 10√3 KN

27. The magnitude of component of a force is always____

A Less than the magnitude of original B Greater than the magnitude of
force original force
C Equal to its magnitude of original D None of the above
force

28. A force of magnitude 26N is acting along a line of slope 12/5. The magnitude of the
vertical component of the force is
A 24 N B 10 N
C 20 N D 65 N

29. The x-component of a 10N force is 5 N. the angle made by the force with y-axis is ___
A 0º B 30º
C 45º D 60º

30. Two forces having the same line of action are called
A Coplanar parallel forces B Non coplanar concurrent forces
C Coplanar non concurrent forces D Collinear forces

31. The magnitude of the moment is zero, when the force is applied ____ to the lever
A Perpendicular B Inline with
C At any angle to D At 60º to

Page 30
 32. Following is the unit of moment of a force
A N B Nm2
C N2m D Nm

33. If two forces are parallel, then they cannot be

A Coplanar B Concurrent
C Non coplanar D Non concurrent

34. To define force completely, the following characteristics should be specified.

A Magnitude and direction B Point of application
C Line of application D All of the above

35. The net force that results from a number of individual forces acting on an object is
the vector sum of the individual forces. This is termed as the
A Principle of superposition B Principle of transmissibility
C Moment of forces D Principle of physical independence

36. Forces co-exist on a plane and all the forces act-helter-skelter over the body. These
are
A Coplanar non-concurrent forces B Coplanar concurrent forces
C Coplanar parallel forces D Non-coplanar non-concurrent
forces
37. The principle of transmissibility states that, when a force acts upon a body, its effect
is
A Maximum, if it acts at the centre of B Different at different points on its
gravity of the body line of action
C Same at every point on its line of D Minimum if it acts at the CG of the
action body

3. Composition of Forces

RESULTANT OF COPLANAR CONCURRENT & NON CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM:

(i) When only two forces are acting on a body:

Q R
α

θ α
Page 31
 P

and the angle ‘θ’ of R with P is given by,

(ii) When number of forces are acting on a body:

Write down equations of ∑Fx and ∑Fy
Then, Calculate
Magnitude of Resultant = √ ∑Fx2 + ∑Fy2
Direction θ = tan-1 (∑Fy2 / ∑Fx2)
RESULTANT OF COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM:
TYPES OF LOAD:
Loads or forces may be broadly classified into two groups namely:
a) Applied loads/forces
b) Non-applied loads/forces

Applied load/force: the load or force applied externally on a body is called applied force.
Non-applied load/force: the load or force by virtue of its mass or reaction due to contact
with the other body are called as non-applied loads/force.

APPLIED LOADS/FORCES:
Applied loads or forces are again broadly classified in to three categories namely:
i) Point Load/force
ii) Uniformly distributed load/force
iii) Uniformly varying load/force
i) Point Load: If a load is acting on the body over a very small area without much
loss of accuracy in the analysis of the problem, it may be approximated as force
acting at a point. Thus a concentrated load is an idealized ‘point force’

ii) Uniformly distributed load/force(UDL): A linear load which has got uniform
intensity over a considerable length is called the uniformly distributed load.
W/m

Page 32
 L

(w/m)xL

L/2 L/2

iii) Uniformly varying load (UVL): A linear load which has got uniform varying
intensity over a considerable length is called the uniformly varying load.

W/m

L
½ X (W/m) X L

2L/3 L/3

W/m

L
(½ x W/m x L)

L/2 L/2

W1/m
W2/m

L1 L2

2L1/3 2L2/3
L1/3 L2/3

W2/m

Page 33
 W1/m

L
(W1/m)xL (1/2 x(W2/m)xL

L/2 L/3
L/2 – L/3

NON-APPLIED LOAD/FORCE:
Non-applied load/force is further classified into two categories as follows:
i) Self weight
ii) Reactions
Self weight: Every body near the earth is subjected to gravitational attration and hence has
got a self weight.
W= mg m=mass of the body
g= acceleration due to gravity
Reactions: Reactions are self adjusting forces exerted by other bodies in contact or by the
supports.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. If a force F makes an angle θ with x-axis, the components of force with respect to x-axis
and y-axis , respectively, are
A F cos θ, F sin θ B F sin θ, F cos θ
C F tan θ, F sin θ D F sin θ, F sec θ

2. Direction of the resultant force can be determined by

A V B H
tan   tan  
H V
C tan    H 2
 V 2  D None of these

3. Varignon’s principle of moments can be stated as

A Moment of resultant force R aboutB Moment of resultant force R about
‘X’ = (moment of force P about ‘X’ = (moment of force P about
‘X’) x (moment of force ‘Q’ ‘X’)  (moment of force ‘Q’
about ‘X’) about ‘X’)
C Moment of resultant force D R None of the above
about ‘X’ = (moment of force P
about ‘X’) + (moment of force
‘Q’ about ‘X’)
Page 34
4. Moment of a force is defined as
A Linear effect of a force about a pointB Rotational effect of a force about
a point
C Turbulent effect of a force about D
a All of these
point

5. Two forces each equal to P/2 act at right angles. Their effect may be neutralized by the
third force, acting along their bisector in the opposite direction, with a magnitude of
A P B 2 P
C -P/2 D P/ 2

6. In a coplanar concurrent force system, if V  0, then the resultant is

A Horizontal B Vertical
C Moment D None of the above

7. The varignon’s theorem is not applicable for the forces, which are
A Coplanar non-concurrent B Non-coplanar, non-concurrent
C Concurrent D Parallel

8. The magnitude of the resultant of two forces of magnitudes P and √2 P is ‘P’. Then the
angle between the two forces is
A 1350 B 900
C 450 D 300

9. The technique of finding the resultant of a system of forces is called ___

A Resultant B Resolution
C Composition D None of the above

10. Equilibrant is nothing but a resultant ____

A Equal in magnitude and in the sameB Equal in magnitude but opposite
direction in direction
C Not equal in magnitude but in the D Not equal in magnitude and
same direction opposite in direction
11. If two forces P and Q (P>Q) act on the same straight line but opposite in direction then
their resultant is ____
A P+Q B P/Q
C Q–P D P–Q

12. In a coplanar concurrent force system, if  H  0, then the resultant is

A Horizontal B Vertical
C Moment D None of the above

13. Component of a force at right angles to its line of action is ____

A Zero B Positive
C Negative D None of the above

14. If two concurrent forces each of magnitude P act at right angles to each other, their
resultant is ___
A 2P B P
Page 35
 C P√2 D 2√P

15. The resultant force of two concurrent forces becomes maximum and minimum if angle
between them is ____
A 0º and 180º B 0º and 90º
C 90º and 0º D None of the above

16. A rigid body acted upon by coplanar non-concurrent force system has ___
A Both translatory and rotary motion B Translatory motion in one
direction and rotary motion
about itself
C Under rest completely D All the above

17. The single force which will have the same effect as the system of force is ___
A Couple B Resultant
C Moment D Force

18. If the resultant of coplanar concurrent force system acts along horizontal x-axis, then ___
A ∑Fx= 0 B ∑Fx= R
C ∑Fy= R D None of the above

19. The magnitudes of two forces are 30N and 40N, which of the following can be the
magnitude of their resultant.
A 0N B 5N
C 10 N D 100 N

20. If magnitude of the resultant of two forces of magnitudes P and P is P, the angle between
the two forces is ___
A 60º B 30º
C 45º D 120º

21. If magnitude of resultant of two forces of magnitudes P and √2 P is P, the angle between
the two forces is ____
A 135º B 90º
C 45º D 30º

22. The angle between two forces of magnitude 100N each is 120º. The magnitude of their
resultant is ____
A 0N B 100 N
C 120 N D 150 N

23. The maximum magnitude of resultant of two forces of magnitudes 100 N and 150 N is __
A 100 N B 250 N
C 350 N D 125 N

24. The minimum magnitude of resultant of two forces of magnitudes 100 N and 150 N is __
A 100 N B 150 N
C 50 N D 0N

Page 36
25. If the angle between two forces each of magnitude P is 50º, then their resultant has
magnitude
A 2P B 2P cos 50
C P cos 50 D 2P cos 25

26. Two forces acting on a particle in opposite direction have a resultant of 5N. If they act at
right angles to each other, their resultant has a magnitude of 25N. the magnitudes of the
two forces are ___
A 10N, 15N B 15N, 20N
C 20N, 25N D 5N, 10N

27. Two forces of magnitudes 8N and 6N act at a point. If the resultant of the two forces has
a magnitude of 10N, the angle between the two forces is ___
A 90º B 60º
C 45º D 30º

28. The resultant of two concurrent forces becomes minimum if angle between them is
A Zero B 180º
C 90º D 60º

29. The simplest resultant of a parallel force system is always

A A wrench B A force
C A moment D A force and a moment

30. The purpose of replacing a number of forces acting on a body simultaneously is

A To find resolution B To find transmission
C To find resultant D To find moment of forces
31. If two forces act at an angle 120°, the greater force is 50N and their resultant is
perpendicular to the smaller force, the smaller force is
A 20N B 25N
C 30N D 43.33N
4. Centroid
INTRODUCTION:
A plate of weight ‘W’ can be balanced by a finger, by adjusting the position of the plate by the trial
and error method. The plate can be thought of consisting of a number of small elements where in
each has a particular magnitude of weight. The plate can be balanced only when the position of the
finger coincides with the line of action of the resultant of all the weights. The reaction exerted by the
finder is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction of the resultant.

CENTER OF GRAVITY:
The center of gravity of a body can now be defined as a point in it, at which the resultant of
gravitational forces is concentrated.

Page 37
The weight of a body can be determined by calculating the product of the density ( ρ) and volume (V).
The volume ‘V’ is again the product of cross-sectional area (A) and the thickness (t). If a body has
uniform density and thickness through out it. These factors will be cancelled and only the factor, area
remains in the moment equation. Under such circumstances the problem is reduced to
determination of centroid of the plane area.

CENTROID:
Centroid of an area is a point through which the resultant of parallel forces of area acts.
CENTROID OF PLANE AREA:

Consider a plate of irregular shape and thickness ‘t’ in X-Y plane as shown in fig. is divided into small
elements. The weight of each element is given by ρA1t1, where ρ is the density, A1 is the surface area,
and t1 is the thickness of the element ‘1’. The forces acting on all the elements form a system of
__ __
parallel forces. The co-ordinates of the resultant of all the forces is assumed to be x and y as
shown in fig.

We know that the sum of moments of all the parallel forces should be equal to the moment of the
resultant of all the forces about the same axis. Taking moment about the y-axis (application of
Varignon’s theorem) we get,
_
tA x  ( tAx)1  ( tAx) 2  - - - - - - - - - (1)

Now assume that the density and thickness to be uniform throughout the body, thus reducing it to a
plane area,
_
A x  A1 x1  A2 x 2  - - - - - -
_
A1 x1  A2 x 2         
x
A1  A2       

Page 38
 _
x
 Ax (2)
A
Similarly taking moment about the x-axis we get,
_
A1 y1  A2 y 2        
y
A1  A2       
_
y
 Ay (3)
A
The location of centroid can also be determined by the method of integration
_
Ax   x.d A

_
Ay   y.d A

CENTROID OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES:

The location of centroid of various regular geometric shapes like rectangle, square, triangle, circle,
semicircle, quarter circle, etc., can be determined by using the above integral equations.
_
Ax   x.d A

_
Ay   y.d A

1) RECTANGLE:

Consider a rectangle in x-y plane, whose breadth is ‘b’ and depth is ‘d’. we shall now find the location
of centroid with reference to the base.
Considering an elemental area of depth ‘dy’ and ‘b’ at a distance of ‘y’ from the base.

Page 39
 Now, d A  b.d y
w.k.t.
_
Ay   y.d A

_ d
(b.d ) y   y.b.d
0
y

d
_  y2 
d y  
 2 0

_
d
y 
2

_
b
Similarly , x 
2

2) TRIANGLE:

The fig(a) shows a triangle on x-y plane whose base is ‘b’ and height is ‘h’. We shall now find the
location of the centroid with reference to the base, considering an elemental area of depth ‘d y’ at a
distance y-from the base.

From similar triangles ABC and DBE width of the element is given by

Page 40
 h y w

h b
h y
w  b
h
Area of the strip is given by,
h y
d A  w.d y  .b.d y
h
We know that,
_
Ay  y.d A

h
1 _
h y
(
2
xbxh). y   y.(
0
h
).b.d y

h
b
  h (hy  y
2
).d y
0

h
1 _  b hy 2 y3 
( xbxh). y   (  )
2 h 2 3 0

1 _
b  h3 h3 
( xbxh) y    
2 h 2 3
1 _
b  h3 
( xbxh) y   
2 h 6 
_
b bh 3 2
y x x
h 6 bxh
_
h
y  ;
3
_
b
Similarly , x 
3
2) SEMI CIRCLE:

The semi-circle of radius ‘R’ which is symmetric about x-axis is as shown in fig.(a) is considered.
_
Hence y =0. Select a triangle of height ‘R’ at an angle ‘θ’ with reference to the x-axis.

1
Area of triangular strip A = d A  ( R.d  )( R )
2

Page 41
 1 2
 R d - - - (1)
2
2
x R. cos  - - - (2)
3
We know that,
_
Ax   x.d A

With limits from –π/2 to +π/2 holds good.

_  / 2  / 2
1 2 2 1
x  R .d    ( .R. cos  )( R 2 .d  )
 / 2
2  / 2
3 2
R2 3
   // 22  R  sin    // 22
_
x.
2 3

_
R 2    R 3   
x.    sin  sin 
2 2 2 3  2 2

_
R 2 2 R 3
x. 
2 3

_
4R
x Centroid of semi-circle with respect to y-axis
3

3) QUARTER CIRCLE:

Consider a triangular element of height R at an angle ‘θ’ with reference to x-axis of the quarter circle
shown in fig(a).
1
Area of triangular strip A = d A  ( R.d  )( R )
2
1
 R 2 d - - - (1)
2
2
x  R. cos  - - - (2)
3
We know that,
_
Ax   x.d A

With limits from 0 to +π/2 holds good.

Page 42
 R2 3
  0 / 2  R  sin   0 / 2
_
x.
2 3
_
R 2 R3
x.  1
4 3

_
4R
x with respect to y-axis
3
_
4R
And y  with respect to x-axis
3

4) SECTOR OF A CIRCLE:

__
The sector of a circle shown above has a radius ‘R’ and is symmetric about x-axis, therefore y =0.
Consider a triangular element of height ‘R’ and base ‘R.dθ’ at an angle of ‘θ’ with respect to the x-
axis. The distance of centroid of the triangle from the origin ‘o’ measured along its height is (2/3 R).
The projection of this distance on x-axis is
x = 2/3 R cosθ
1
Area of the triangular element x  .R.R.d
2
_
w.k.t. Ax   x.d A

 
_
1  2  1 
x   R 2 d     R cos   R 2 d 
 
2   3  2 

_
1  2
x R 2 2   R 3  cos  .d
2  6 

_
1  1
x R 2 2   R 3  sin   


2  3
 1

_
x R 2  R 3  2 sin  
3

_
 2 R sin  
x
 3 

Page 43
 Multiple Choice Questions

1. The centre of gravity of a plane lamina will not be its geometrical centre if it is
A Square B Rectangle
C Right angled triangle D Equilateral triangle

2. The centroid of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ is ___ from any of the three sides,
A a 3 B a 2
2 3
C a D a
2 3 3 2
3. The centroid of semi circle of radius ‘R’, with respect to its diametric axis is given by
A 3R B 3R
3 8
C 4R D 4R
3 

4. First Moment of the total area about its own centroidal axis is
A Twice the area B Three times the area
C Zero D None of these

5. The centre of gravity is a point

A At which the whole area of the plane B At which the whole volume of the
figure is concentrated body is concentrated
C At which the whole weight of the D All of the above
body is concentrated

6. The Generalized formula for centroid in x-direction is given by

A a B  ax
 ax a
C  ax   a D  ax   a

7. The centroid of a right angled triangle, with its base as x-axis and height as y-axis is
A h b B 2h 2b
and and
3 3 3 3
C h 2b D 2h b
and and
3 3 3 3

8. The centroid of circle with its origin as axes is given by

A R, R B 0, 0
C 4R D 4R
0, ,0
3 3

9. The centroid of a semicircle of radius R is at a distance ____ from diametric axis

A 3R/4π B 3R/8π
C 4R/π D 4R/3π

10. An axis over which one half of the plane figure is just mirror image of the other half is
___
A Axis of geometry B Axis of symmetry
C Axis algebra D Axis of mathematics

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11. Centroid of a triangle with base b and depth h is
A b/3 and h/3 B b/2 and h/2
C b/4 and h/4 D None of the above

12. Centroid of plane figure is the point at which ___

A Volume of body is assumed to be B Surface area is assumed to be
concentrated concentrated
C Weight of the body is assumed to be D All the above
concentrated

13. Centroid of quarter of circular lamina lies from diameter line at a distance of ___
A 2R/3π B 3R/8π
C 4R/3π D 5R/3π

14. The centroid of triangular lamina of height ‘h’ is situated at a distance ___ from its
apex
A h/3 B 2h/3
C h/2 D h/4

15. The centroid of a triangle of height ‘h’ is located at distance ____ from its base
A h/2 B 2h/3
C h/3 D h

16. If the given figure is symmetrical about vertical y-y axis, the centroid lies on
A x-x axis B y-y axis
C Bottom D top

17. Centroid of a sector of a circle which is symmetry about x-axis is at distance of ___
A 4R/3π B 2Rsinα/3α
C R sinα/2α D None of the above

18. The centroid of an equilateral triangle with each side ‘a’ is ___ from any of the three
sides
A a√3/2 B a√2/3
C a/2√3 D a/3√2

19. The x or y co-ordinate of the centroid of a quadrant of a circular area of radius R is

___
A 4R/3π B 2R/3π
C 2R/π D R/π

20. The first moment of an area about the x-axis is ____

A ∫ x . dA B ∫ y . dA
2
C ∫ x . dA D ∫ y2. dA

21. The first moment of an area about the y-axis is ____

A ∫ x . dA B ∫ y . dA
C ∫ x2. dA D ∫ y2. dA

22. The centroid of lamina

A Must be point on the lamina B Is point which can be made to lie

Page 45
 on or outside the lamina by
changing the co-ordinate system
C Is a fixed point in space regardless D Is a unique point fixed with
of the orientation of the lamina respect to the lamina

23. The centroid of a triangle of height ‘h’ is located at a distance from its apex, which is
A h/2 B h/3
C 2h/3 D h

24. Centroid conveys some clue about

A The orientation of a surface B Centre of a body
C Shape and disposition of the area D Area of cross section

5. Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

INTRODUCTION:
This chapter deals with the equilibrium conditions for different system of forces and
determination of reactions at the support of structure.

A body is said to be in equilibrium when it does not have any translatory or rotatory motion
in any direction. This means that when the body is in equilibrium, the following two
simultaneous conditions are to be satisfied.

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THE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR A BODY TO BE EQUILIBRIUM ARE:
1) Coplanar Concurrent force system:
The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of the two mutually
perpendicular directions is zero.
 Fx  0 and  Fy  0 (These are also known as equations of equilibrium)
2) Coplanar Non-Concurrent force system:
The algebraic summation of forces in Horizontal (x-direction) and Vertical (Y-
direction) and moment of all the forces about a moment center acting on the body must be
zero.
 Fx  0 ,  Fy  0 and  M  0 (These are also known as equations of
equilibrium)

REACTIONS AT SUPPORTS:

A beam may be defined as a structural element which has one dimension (length)
considerably larger than the other two dimensions, namely, breadth and depth and is
supported at few points. It is usually loaded in vertical direction. Due to applied loads
reactions develop at supports, and the system of forces consisting of applied loads and
reactions keep the beam in equilibrium. The nature of reaction depends upon the type of
supports.

TYPES OF SUPPORTS:

Various types of supports and reactions developed are listed below:

(1) Simple Support:

If the beam rests simply on a support it is called a simple support. In such case the reaction
at the support is at right angles to the support and the beam is free to move in the direction
of its axis and also it is free to rotate about the support.

(2) Roller Support:

If the beam rests on a rollers supports it is called a roller support. In such case the reaction
at the support is at right angles to the support and the beam is free to move in the direction
of its axis and also it is free to rotate about the support.

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 (3) Hinged Support:
If the beam rests on a hinge support it is called hinged support. In such case the reaction at
the support will be two in numbers and both are mutually perpendicular preferably one
horizontal and other in vertical direction as shown in fig.

(4) Fixed Support:

If the beam rests on firmly fixed support it is called fixed support. In such case the reaction
at the support will be three in numbers and is as shown in fig.

Page 48
 (5) Tensile Force:
The force which acts away from the body under consideration is termed as Tensile force.
F
θ

W
W

(6) Compressive force:

The force which acts towards the body under consideration is termed as Compressive
F
force.

(7) Body resting on smooth surface:

W

(8) Body resting on rough surface:

W F

Ff
R

Lame’s Theorem:
Statement:
Lame’s theorem states that, if a body is in equilibrium under the action only three forces,
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.

Page 49
Limitations:
i) Lame’s theorem is applicable only for equilibrium of forces
ii) Lame’s theorem is used only for three forces. Not more than three forces or not
less than three forces.
iii) Lame’s theorem is applicable only when maximum numbers of unknowns are two
only.
Due to the above limitations Lame’s theorem is not widely used in solving the problems on
equilibriums. But when ever situation is favorable we can use lame’s theorem effectively.
Other wise use of equations of equilibrium is much more convenient.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A free body diagram is a diagram

A Drawn by free hand B Of a body suspended freely in air
C Drawn by detaching the body D Of a body in vacuum, free from
from its attachments with any influence from the
surroundings and replacing the surroundings
attachments with force vector

2. A particle acted upon by the two forces of equal magnitude is in equilibrium. The
angle between the forces is
A 00 B 900
0
C 180 D 450

3. If a body is in equilibrium, it is concluded that

A No force is acting on the body B The resultant of all the forces
acting on it is zero
C The moment of the forces about any D Both (B) and (C)
point is zero

4. Three forces of magnitudes F1=100N, F2=100N and F3=100√3N act on a particle in a

plane. The particle remains in equilibrium, only if the angle between F1and F2 is
A 300 B 450
0
C 60 D 900

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5. An equilibrant is a force
A Unequal in magnitude, opposite in B Equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and collinear with the direction and non-collinear with
resultant the resultant
C Equal in magnitude, opposite in D Unequal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and collinear with the direction and non-collinear with
resultant the resultant

6. Equilibrium equations are

A H  0 B V  0
C M  0 D All of these

7. Lami’s theorem is applicable for

A Coplanar forces B Concurrent forces
C Coplanar and concurrent forces D Any types of forces

8. For a smooth spherical surface, reaction acts

A Inclined to the plane of contact B Perpendicular to the plane of
contact
C Horizontal to the plane of contact D All of these

9. The necessary condition for equilibrium of a coplanar concurrent force system is that
algebraic sum of ___ must be zero.
A Horizontal and vertical forces B Moment of forces
C Horizontal, vertical and moment of D None of the above
forces

10. In case of equilibrium of non-concurrent force system if ∑H = 0 and ∑V = 0 then the

resultant is ___
A Resultant force B Force
C Moment D zero

11. The force which is equal and opposite to the resultant is ___
A Resultant B Moment
C Couple D Equilibrant

12. The procedure of resolution is ___

A To find the resultant of the force B To break up an inclined force
system into two components
C To find the equilibrant D None of the above

13. A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant force of concurrent force
system is __
A Positive B Negative
C Zero D None of the above

14. A system of forces that possesses resultant force move in ___

A The direction of line of action of B Opposite to the direction of line of
resultant action of resultant
C Perpendicular to the direction of line D None of the above
of action of resultant

Page 51
15. Lami’s theorem is valid for ___
A Two concurrent forces in B Three concurrent forces in
equilibrium equilibrium
C Four concurrent forces in D None of the above
equilibrium

16. For a smooth spherical surface reaction acts

A Horizontal to the plane of contact B Inclined to the plane of contact
C Perpendicular to the plane of D All the above
contact

17. Lami’s theorem can be applied when number of unknown forces are ___
A Two B Three
C Four D Five

18. The necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium of coplanar concurrent force
system is ___
A ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0 B ∑Fx = ∑Fy

C ∑Fx + ∑Fy = 0 D ∑Fx - ∑Fy = 0

19. A system that possesses a resultant ____

A Will be in equilibrium B Will be under rest
C Will not be in equilibrium D All the above

20. If the sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then the body may be in
equilibrium provided the forces are ___
A Parallel B Like parallel
C Unlike parallel D Concurrent

21. If a body is at rest, it implies that ___

A The forces acting on it are always B The resultant of the forces acting
zero on it are zero
C The moment of the forces acting on D Both the resultant force and
it are zero moment are zero

22. If a body is in equilibrium then it implies that the body ___

A Is at rest B Is at rest or moving with
constant velocity
C Is moving with constant acceleration D Is oscillating about a fixed point

23. A free body diagram is a diagram ___

A Drawn by free hand B Of a body suspended freely in air
C Of a body in vacuum free from any D Drawn by detaching the body
influence from the surroundings from its attachment with the
surroundings and replacing the
attachments with the force
vectors

Page 52
 24. Three forces acting on a body can keep it in equilibrium, only when they are ___
A Collinear B Coplanar and concurrent
C Coplanar and parallel D Coplanar and non-concurrent

25. A particle acted upon by two forces of equal magnitudes in equilibrium. The angle
between the two forces is ___
A 0º B 90º
C 180º D 45º

26. In tug of war, two opposing teams are pulling the rope with equal and opposite forces
of 1000N at each end. The tension in the rope is ___
A 0 B 1000 N
C 2000 N D 1000 √2 N

27. If three concurrent forces, each of magnitude P, are in equilibrium, the angle made by
the three forces with positive x-axis can be ___
A 30º , 60º , 90º B 0º , 90º , 270º
C 30º , 150º , 270º D 0º , 180º , 270º

6. Beams and Trusses

BEAMS
DETERMINATE BEAMS:
When number of unknowns is equal to the number of equilibrium equations available to
solve the problem on beams is termed as determinate beams.
No. of unknowns = No. of equilibrium equations available
INDETERMINATE BEAMS:

Page 53
When number of unknown is more than the number of equilibrium equations available to
solve the problem on beams is termed as Indeterminate beams.
No. of unknowns > No. of equilibrium equations available

TYPES OF BEAMS BASED ON SUPPORTS:

1) Simply supported beam:

B
A

RA RB
A beam which is supported simply on supports is called as simply supported beam and the
corresponding support reactions are shown as above.
2) Cantilever beam:

MA
RHA

RVA

A beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other end and subjected to different types
of loads are termed as cantilever beam and the corresponding support reactions are as
shown above.

3) Propped cantilever beam:

MA
RHA

RVA

Page 54
A beam which is fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end and subjected to
different types of loads are termed as propped cantilever beam and the corresponding
support reactions are as shown above.
4) Fixed beam:

RHA RHB
MA MB

RVA RVB

A beam which is fixed at both ends and subjected to different types of loads are termed as
fixed beam and the corresponding support reactions are as shown above.
5) Over hanging beam:
a) one side overhanging beam: b) Both side over hanging beam

Over Hanging

A beam which is freely over hanging on one side or both sides and subjected to different
types of loads are termed as over hanging beam and the corresponding support reactions
are as shown above.
6) Continuous beam:

A beam which is continuous over several supports (more than two) and subjected to
different types of loads are termed as continuous beam and the corresponding support
reactions are as shown above.

TRUSSES

In engineering, structures are constructed by connecting several members together through

pin jointed connections, simple supports, links and cables or roller supports. These

Page 55
structures are used to support large loads. We will use equilibrium methods discussed
earlier to determine external forces on the structure and the internal forces which hold the
various members of the structure. Although in most practical applications, these structures
are three dimensional, but we will be considering only plane structures.

Plane trusses:
These are structures consisting of straight slender rods connected only at their ends. The
points where two or more members are connected are called joints. All external forces are
applied only at the joints. Even the supports are provided only at the joints. The weights of
the members are considered negligible. As all the members will be subjected to forces only
at their ends, they will have axial force which can be either Tensile or Compressive. Thus the
trusses consist of only two force members.
The trusses are statically determinate when supported by a hinge and roller support.
Case (i)

If m < 2j – 3,

The structure is not rigid. Such trusses are called deficient truss.
Case (ii)

If m = 2j – 3,
The trusses are statically determinate when supported by hinge and roller support.
These trusses are also called as perfect truss.
Case (iii)

Page 56
If m > 2j – 3,
There is more number of members present in the truss than that required for
stability such trusses are called over rigid or redundant truss.
Assumptions made in analyzing trusses:
The following assumptions are made in analysis of simple trusses:
1) All members have negligible weight.
2) All members have uniform cross section.
3) Members are connected at the joints through pin connections which are frictionless.
4) Couple moments, which produce bending does not act on members of the truss.
5) External load should be applied at joints only.
6) All members have only axial force.
METHODS FOR ANALYSIS OF A TRUSS:
There are two methods available for analysis of a truss and are as follows:
1) Method of joints, and
2) Method of sections.
Method of joints – is best suited for determining the forces in all the members of the truss.
In this method first the support reactions are determined by considering the equilibrium of
the whole truss and then considering the joint where there are only two unknown and by
application of equations of equilibrium we can determine the two unknowns and proceeding
to the next joint by following the same procedure. Like this all the joints are considered and
forces in all the members of the truss are determined.
Method of section – is the best suited method for determining the forces in very few
members of the truss. In this method first the support reactions are determined by
considering the equilibrium of the whole truss and then a cutting section is passed on the
truss in such a way that, the cutting plane should cut the members in which force is to be
determined. Then considering the equilibrium of one part of the truss is considered and by
application of equations of equilibrium we can determine the forces in the members. Strictly
speaking this is a short cut method to determine forces in very few members.
Rules for finding zero force members:
(i) If there are three members at a joint, out of which two are collinear and no
external force acts on that joint, the third member is zero force member as
shown in fig. below:

o
Page 57
(ii) If there are only two members at a joint and there is no external force on that
joint, then both members are zero force members as shown below:

O O
O O
(iii) If there are only two members at a joint and external force is along any one of
the member then the other is a zero force member.

O
RA

Multiple Choice Questions

25. Fixed beams have ____

A One end fixed & other end simply B Both end fixed
supported
C Both ends roller supported D One end fixed & other end is free

26. GVL stands for

A General varying load B Gradually varying load
C Gradually vertical load D General variable load

27. A truss is perfect when

A m = 2j – 3 B 2j = m + 3
C m = 3j – 2 D 2j = m – 3

28. The minimum number of member to form a perfect truss is

A 1 B 2
C 3 D 4

29. When the reaction at a support consists of a moment, a vertical force and a horizontal
force, then that support is called as
A Hinged support B Roller support
C Fixed support D Simple support

30. A single span beam is statically determinate when

A Both ends are fixed B One end fixed , other end is
simply supported
C One end is hinged and other is D Both ends are hinged
roller supported

31. A beam AB is fixed at one end , free at the other end and loaded by a concentrated
load W at the free end. Then developed reaction RA, will be equal to
Page 58
 A W/3 KN B W KN
C W/2 KN D 2W/3 KN

32. If W KN/m uniformly distributed load is acting on a simply supported beam AB, then
reaction RA and RB will be equal to
A W/3 KN , 2W/3 KN B W/4 KN , 3W/4 KN
C 2W/3 KN , W/3 KN D W/2 KN , W/2 KN

33. Statically determinate beams are ___

A The beams which can be analyzed B The beams which cannot be
completely using equations of analyzed using static equation of
static equilibrium static equilibrium
C Fixed beams D All the above

34. The number of reaction components at fixed end of a beam are ___
A 2 B 3
C 4 D None of the above

35. u.d.l stands for ____

A Uniform dead load B Uniformly distributed load
C Uniform door load D Uniformly deviated load

36. u.v.l stand for ____

A Uniform violet load B Uniform violent load
C Uniform vibrant load D Uniformly varying load

37. A reaction line at roller support with respect to plane of contact is ___
A Oblique B Parallel
C Perpendicular D None of the above

38. Determinate beams are those ___

A Which can be analyzed completely B Which cannot be analyzed
by using equations of equilibrium completely by using equations of
alone equilibrium alone
C Which can be partly analyzed by D None of the above
using equations of equilibrium alone

39. In-determinate beams are those ___

A Which can be analyzed completely B Which cannot be analyzed
by using equations of equilibrium completely by using equations of
alone equilibrium alone
C Which can be partly analyzed by D None of the above
using equations of equilibrium alone

40. When load acts at constant rate over a given length od the beam it is called ___
A Point load B u.d.l
C u.v.l D None

41. A beam having one end hinged support and other end roller support subjected to
vertical loads can be treated as ____
A Fixed beam B Cantilever beam
C Continuous beam D Simply supported beam

Page 59
42. A beam having one end fixed and other end is free is treated as ___
A Fixed beam B Cantilever beam
C Continuous beam D Simply supported beam

43. A beam having one end fixed and other end is simply supported is treated as ___
A Fixed beam B Cantilever beam
C Propped cantilever beam D Simply supported beam

44. A beam with three or more than supports is treated as ____

A Continuous beam B Cantilever beam
C Propped cantilever beam D Simply supported beam

45. A truss is deficient when

A m = 2j – 3 B 2j = m + 3
C m < 2j – 3 D 2j = m – 3

46. A truss is redundant when

A m > 2j – 3 B m = 2j + 3
C m < 2j – 3 D 2j = m – 3

47. One of the assumptions made in the analysis of truss is ___

A Force acts at the joints only B Force acts on the mid of the
member only
C Force should not act at joints D All the above

48. While analyzing truss, method of joint is best suited for finding forces in ____
A one member only B Supports
C All the members of the truss D None of the above

49. While analyzing truss, method of section is best suited for finding forces in ____
A Few members of the truss B All the members of the truss
C Supports D None of the above

50. A redundant frame is also called _____ frame

A Perfect B Imperfect
C Deficient D None of the above

51. A truss of triangular shape is ___

A Perfect B Redundant
C Deficient D All the above

52. A truss having 11 members, 6 joints and supported by a hinge and a roller is ___
A Deficient B Redundant
C Perfect D None of the above

53. A truss having 8 members, 6 joints and supported by a hinge and roller is ___
A Perfect B Deficient
C Redundant D None of the above
54. If there are three members at a joint in a truss and no force is applied at the joint, with
two members along a straight line and the third inclined, then the force in the inclined
member is ___
A Tensile B Compressive

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 C Can be tensile or compressive D Zero
55. If a truss is fabricated using 11 members and 7 joints the resulting truss is ____
A Redundant B Deficient
C Perfect D None of the above

7. Friction
INTRODUCTION:
It is common practice for one requiring applying a considerable magnitude of force to push a body.
This implies that there must be resisting force acting on the body, opposing its movement. Surfaces
of bodies in nature possess certain degree of roughness consisting of PEAKS and VALLEYS. When two
bodies in contact tend to have relative motion, the peaks and valleys rub each other resulting in
friction. Friction force is a force acting tangential to the contact surfaces opposing the possible
movement of the bodies.

TYPES OF FRICTION:
The friction is basically of two types:
a) Dry friction, and

Page 61
b) Fluid friction.

(a) Dry friction:

The dry friction is developed when two bodies in contact have relative motion, the peaks and
valleys rub each other under dry state or dry condition resulting in dry friction. This is also called
as ‘Coulomb Friction’ because this was developed by scientist COULOMB in 1781.

The dry friction can further be classified into:

(i) Sliding friction, and
(ii) Rolling friction

The sliding friction comes into play when there is a sliding motion between two bodies,
possessing rough contact surfaces.

The rolling motion of a body with reference to a plane (such as wheels of the vehicles) leads to
rolling friction. Generally the magnitude of rolling friction force induced is less than the sliding
friction force under the similar conditions.

(b) Fluid friction:

Lubricating oil is generally introduced between two bodies which have relative motion. The
function of lubricating oil is to reduce the friction force. But any fluid introduces the friction force
due to viscous nature. However the magnitude of friction force developed due to lubricating oil
is very less when compared to that developed incase of dry friction.

THEORY OF FRICTION:
The nature of friction force, when various levels of magnitudes of external force act on a body
can be explained with the aid of a block of weight ‘W’ resting on a rough horizontal plane. The
variation in friction force Ff with respect to the applied force F is shown in the graph below:

Page 62
Two stages such as (i) Static friction and (ii) Kinetic friction will arise due to varying applied force
‘F’
STATIC FRICTION:
The block shown in fig.(b), is subjected to a horizontal force ‘F’ such that the equilibrium
condition is still maintained. The equilibrium condition is due to the friction force F f exerted by
the supporting plane on the contact surface. The direction of friction force is such that it opposes
the tendency of the block to move. Considering the equilibrium of the block we get.

∑Fx=0; F=Ff (1)

∑Fy=0; Rn=W (2)

from the eqn.(1) it can be seen that the magnitude of friction force F f is equal to the applied
force F as shown by the line OA in the graph which is at an angle of 45 º with respect to
horizontal. This situation exists till the limiting value of friction force F f max is attained. In the static
friction region, friction force is a self adjusting force, which is zero when no external force is
applied and it increases as the external force on the body is increased gradually, in order to see
that the condition Ff=F is satisfied. As the external force is continued to be increased gradually, a
stage is reached when the body is on the verge of slippage, known as ‘Impending Motion’
Condition.
This condition is represented by point ‘A’ in graph where the friction force has its maximum
value. The friction force acting on the body in the region below the line OA is known as static
friction, because it is responsible for the static equilibrium condition of the body.

The static friction force Ff is directly proportional to the normal reaction Rn

Ff α Rn

Ff = µRn

Where µ is a constant of proportionality known as ‘coefficient of friction’ whose value is

dependent on the surface of the two materials in contact.
KINETIC FRICTION:
The block starts moving when the force ‘F’ corresponding to its impending motion condition at
point ‘A’ is increased slightly. Then the magnitude of friction force drops slightly and abruptly
from point A to point B. The friction force known as kinetic friction force at this stage remains
constant irrespective of velocity of the block. The related coefficient of friction known as
coefficient of kinetic friction is slightly less than the coefficient of static friction.

Page 63
 ANGLE OF FRICTION: (Φ)

Consider a block of mass ‘m’ on a rough horizontal plane subjected to force F as shown in fig. (a)
the forces acting on the block are applied force F, self weight W, friction force F f and normal
reaction Rn.

The force triangle in fig.(c) shows that the normal reaction due to friction force F f and normal
reaction Rn is R. Hence the force F f and normal reaction Rn can replaced by the resultant reaction
R as shown in fig.(b). the resultant reaction R is rotated by an angle Φ with respect to the normal
reaction Rn

Defn: ‘The angle between normal reaction Rn and resultant reaction R is known as angle of
friction.
The angle of friction at the impending motion condition is known as limiting angle of friction.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: ( µ )
With reference to force triangle, we can write
Ff
tan Φ = ; but Ff =µRn
Rn

Rn
There fore, tan Φ = ; Tan Φ= 
Rn
Therefore coefficient of friction can be defined as it is the tangent of angle of friction.
ANGLE OF REPOSE: (Ө)

Page 64
A block of weight ‘W’ is resting on an inclined plane making a small angle ‘Ө’. The inclined plane is
raised gradually increasing the angle ‘Ө’ to the extent that the block is in the impending motion
condition down the plane. Any further increase in the inclination of the plane will lead to movement
of the block down the plane.
Defn.: ‘The maximum inclination of the plane with reference to the horizontal, at which the block is
on the verge of slipping is known as angle of repose.

The block is subjected to the friction force F f = µRn up the inclined plane, weight ‘W’ and normal
reaction Rn as shown in fig.(a). However the frictional force µR n and normal reaction Rn may be
replaced by the resultant reaction R as shown in fig.(b). The conditions to be satisfied for the block to
be in equilibrium condition are (i) weight ‘W’ and resultant reaction ‘R’ should be collinear and (ii)
the inclination of the plane (angle of repose) should be equal to the limiting angle of friction (i.e., Ө =
Φ)
CONE OF FRICTION:

When a block resting on a horizontal plane is subjected to a horizontal force ‘F’ acting towards the
left the resultant reaction ‘R’ acts along ‘ab’ as shown in fig(a). Reversing the direction of force such
that it acts towards the right, it can be seen that the resultant reaction acts along ‘cb’. Similarly when
the direction of force is changed gradually covering 360° in the horizontal plane, the resultant
reactions acting on the block form right circular cone with the semi cone angle equal to friction angle
‘Φ’

‘The right circular conical surface formed by several resultant reactions due to the forces of same
magnitude acting along different directions in horizontal plane is known as cone of friction’

The cone formed under the static condition of the body is known as static friction cone and that
formed under the kinetic friction condition is known as kinetic friction cone.
LAWS OF FRICTION:
The nature of friction discussed so far can be summarized as below:
 The friction force acting tangentially on the contact surface of any two bodies opposes the
relative movement between them.

Page 65
 The magnitude of friction force is independent of the area of the contact surface.
 The coefficient of friction is dependent on the materials of the two bodies in contact.
 The maximum value of friction force available at the contact surfaces of two bodies is µR n,
which is adjustable to any value below it for the requirement of equilibrium condition of the
body.
 The magnitude of friction force is directly proportional to the normal reaction exerted by
the supporting plane on the body and the proportionality constant is the coefficient of
friction
Ff α Rn

Ff = µRn

 The kinetic friction force acting on a moving body is independent of its velocity.
Multiple Choice Questions

1. Static friction is defined as

A The friction acting on a body, when B The friction acting on a body,
the contact surface are lubricated. which is actually in motion
C The friction acting on a body, D All of the above
which is at rest

2. If a body is placed on an inclined plane, then the angle at which the body is on the
verge of sliding down, is called
A Angle of friction B Cone of friction
C Coefficient of friction D Angle of repose

3. The magnitude of the force of friction between two bodies, one lying above the other,
depends upon the roughness of the
A Upper body B Lower body
C Both the bodies D The body having more roughness

4. A uniform ladder of weight W and length L rests on rough horizontal ground and
leans against a rough vertical wall with angle ‘θ’. When a man stands on the ladder,
the ladder slips towards
A Left at the ground and towards up at B Left at the ground and
the wall downward at the wall
C Right at the ground and towards D Right at the ground and towards up
down at the wall at the wall

5. If the angle of friction is zero, a body will experience

A Infinite friction B Zero friction
C The force of friction normal to the D The force of friction in the
plane direction of motion

6. The coefficient of friction depends on

A Area of contact B Degree of roughness
C Strength of the surface D All of these

Page 66
7. The tangent of the angle of friction is
A Angle of repose B Co-efficient of friction
C Cone of friction D Limiting friction

8. Angle of friction is angle between ___

A the incline and horizontal B the normal reaction and friction
force
C the weight of the body and the D normal reaction and the
friction force resultant reaction

9. The force of friction developed at the contact surface is always ___

A Parallel to the plane and along the B Perpendicular to the plane
direction of the applied force
C Parallel to the plane and opposite D All the above
to the direction of motion

10. The maximum frictional force developed at impending motion is also called ___
A Sliding friction B Rolling friction
C Fluid friction D Limiting friction
11. Frictional force is independent of ____
A Coefficient of friction B Angle of friction
C Area of Contact D None of the above

12. Compared to static friction, kinetic friction is ___

A Greater B Smaller
C Very large D Zero

13. Coefficient of friction (µ) is given by

A µ = F.R B µ = F/R
C µ = R/F D µ = F2
14. If Φ = angle of friction and µ = co-efficient of friction, then which relation is valid
___
A tan Φ = µ B tan Φ = 1/µ
C tan µ = Φ D tan (1/µ) = Φ

15. When a body resting on a rough plane is acted upon by gradually increasing force,
___
A Frictional force is zero B Frictional force increases
indefinitely
C Frictional force remains constant D There is a limit up to which
frictional force can increase
16. Coulomb’s of friction can be applied to ____
A Fluid friction B Fluid structure interaction
C Dry friction between solid bodies D Lubricated surfaces

17. Impending motion of a body refers to a ___

A Body at rest B Body above to move
C Body moving with uniform speed D Body moving uniform acceleration

18. At the point of impending motion, the static frictional force is __

A Zero B Maximum
C Minimum D Infinite

Page 67
 19. Force required to start motion is ___
A Less than that required for keeping it B More than that required for
in motion keeping it in motion
C Same as the force required for D Zero, while force required for
keeping it motion keeping it in motion is non-zero

20. The unit of coefficient of friction is ___

A Newton B Random
C Metre D Dimensionless

21. When a block of weight W resting on a rough inclined plane of inclination θ does not
slide, then the frictional force acting it is ____
A W sin θ B W cos θ
C µ W sin θ D µ W cos θ

8. Moment of Inertia:
INTRODUCTION:
Many applications in mechanics of materials such as the bending of beams, deflection of
beams etc., involve a group of geometrical terms which lead to the parameter moment of
inertia which is the second moment of area.

Consider a differential element dA on a planar area which is on x-y plane as shown in fig. The
distances of the differential element from x and y axes are y and x respectively. The

Page 68
moments of the differential element about the x and y axes are y.d A and x.dA respectively.
The second moment of area or moment of inertias of the element about x and y axes are
y2dA and x2dA respectively.

Moment of inertia of the planar area is the sum of moments of inertia of all such differential
elements. The moments of inertia of the planar area about x and y axes are given by

I xx  y
2
.d A

I yy  x
2
.d A
The moment of inertia also known as second moment of area is the “product of the square
of perpendicular distance from centroid to reference axis and the area”. Moment of inertia is
always a positive quantity.
PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM:

Some times it is required to find the moment of inertia of an area with reference to an axis
which is parallel to and at a distance of ‘h’ from the centroidal axis. Then it is required to
transfer the moment of inertia from the centroidal axis to another axis which is parallel to it.
The moment of inertia of a given area about its centroidal axes can be determined by using
the relations.

I GG  y
2
.d A

I GG  x
2
.d A

Consider an elemental area dA on a planar area shown in fig. The elemental area dA is at a
distance ‘y’ from the centroidal G-G axis of the plane area. Now the moment of inertia of the
plane area is to be determined about an axis which is at a distance ‘h’ from the centroidal
axis. Moment of inertia of the differential area about the A-B axis is given by

(h  y ) 2 .d A

Sum of second moments of all the differential areas gives the moment of inertia of the given
plane area.

I AB   (h  y )
2
.d A

  (h  2hy  y 2 ).d A
2

 h 2  d A  2h  y.d A  y
2
.d A

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In the above equation ‘h’ is a constant and

y d A  I GG h  d A  Ah and 2h  y.d A  0 ,
2 2 2
,
(the first moment of an area about its own centroidal axis is equal to zero).

 I AB  I GG  Ah 2

Therefore the parallel axis theorem states that “the moment of inertia of a given plane area
about an axis which is at a distance ‘h’ from centroidal axis and parallel to it is given by the
sum of moment of inertia of the area about the centroidal axis and the product of area and
square of distance ‘h’ between the two axis.
PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM:

Moment of inertia of an area about the centroidal axis (z-axis) perpendicular to its plane can
be determined by knowing the moments of inertia of the area about the centroidal x and y
axes.

Consider an elemental area dA on a given plane area as shown in fig.

The elemental area dA is a at a distance ‘r’ from the origin of the co-ordinate axes. The
projections of ‘r’ on x and y axes are x and y respectively. The moment of inertia of the area
about z-axis is given by

I ZZ  r
2
.d A
But r2=x2+y2
 I ZZ   (x  y 2 ).d A
2

 x .d A  y
2 2
.d A

Where I XX   y .d A I YY  x
2 2
and .d A

 I ZZ  I XX  I YY
The perpendicular axis theorem can now be stated as “the moment of inertia of a plane area
about the centroidal axis perpendicular to its plane is the sum of moments of inertia about
centroidal x and y axis in the plane of the area”. Moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
perpendicular to the plane of the area is also known as ‘Polar moment of inertia’

RADIUS OF GYRATION:

Page 70
The radius of gyration is defined as the distance from a reference axis at which a thin strip
formed by squeezing a given planar area and is to be placed such that the moment of inertia
of the strip is equal to that of moment of inertia of original area. The radius of gyration of a
given area is the square root of the ratio of moment of inertia and the area.

Consider a thin rectangular strip whose area is same as that of given area placed at a
distance Kx and Ky respectively from X-axis and from Y-axis as shown in fig. The moments of
inertia of the strip about x and y axes are given by

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF REGULAR GEOMETRIC SHAPES:

1. Rectangle:

The above fig. shows a rectangle of width ‘b’ and depth ‘d’ for which moment of inertia
about the centroidal axis has to be determined.

Consider an elemental area of width ‘b’ and depth ‘dy’ at a distance of ‘y’ from the centroidal
axis.

Area of elemental strip d A  b.d y

MI of the element about centroidal axis = y 2 .d A
2
= y .b.d y

MI of the rectangle about the centroidal axis is given by

d

2
I GG  y .d A   y 2 .b.d y
2

d

2

Page 71
 d

 y3  2
 b 
 3 d
2

bd 3
I GG =
12

Moment of Inertia of rectangle about an axis passing through the base:

We can apply the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of a rectangle about an
axis passing through its base, which is also parallel to centroidal axis.

I xx  I GG  Ah 2
Where h is the distance between the base and the centroidal x-axis which is equal to
d/2.

2
bd 3 d 
I xx   (bd ) 
12 2

bd 3
I xx 
3

2. Triangle:

MI about base:
Consider a triangle of base ‘b’ and height ‘h’ in x-y plane as shown in fig. Consider an
elemental strip of depth dy and width ‘w’ at a distance of ‘y’ from the base.

w h
From similar triangles we have b  h  y

b
There fore, width of the elemental strip w   h  y
h
Moment of inertia of the triangle about x-axis passing through the base

Ix  y
2
.d A

b 
 y   h  y  d y
2

h 

Page 72
 h
b  y3 y4 
 h  
h 3 4 0

b  h4 h4 
   
h 3 4 

bh 3
I xx 
12

MI about the centroidal axis:

Using the parallel axis theorem and knowing the value of moment of inertia of the triangle
about the base, we can obtain the value of moment of inertia about the centroidal GG axis
of the triangle shown.
I xx  I GG  Ah 2

Distance between the base and the centroidal axis is h/3

2
bd 3  1  h 
 I GG   bh  
12  2  3 

bd 3
I GG 
36
3. Circle:

Consider a circle of radius ‘R’ to find the MI about the centroidal axis. Select an element of
radial width dx at a radius ‘x’. the element is at an angle ‘θ’ with reference to the axis and
makes an included angle dθ at the centre as shown in fig. distance of the element from the x-
axis.

y  x. sin 

Area of the element d A   xd   d x

Moment of inertia of the element about the centroidal axis

Page 73
   y 2 .d A

  x. sin    x.d   d
2
 x

R 2 2

I GG     x. sin    x.d  d
0 0
x

R 2
I GG   x d x  sin  .d
3 2

0 0

2
R4
I GG 
4 
0
sin 2  .d

2
R4  1  cos 2 
I GG 
4  
0
2
.d


2
R 4  sin 2 
I GG  
4  2 4  0

R 4  2 
I GG   0
4  2 

R 4 d 4
I GG  or I GG 
4 64

4. Semi circle:

MI of the semicircle about x-axis passing through its base can be found by integrating the
equation with limits 0 to R and 0 to π
Consider a semi-circle of radius ‘R’ to find the MI about the centroidal axis. Select an
element of radial width dx at a radius ‘x’. the element is at an angle ‘θ’ with reference to the
axis and makes an included angle d θ at the centre as shown in fig. distance of the element
from the x-axis.

y  x. sin 

Area of the element d A   xd   d x

Moment of inertia of the element about the centroidal axis

Page 74
   y 2 .d A

  x. sin    x.d   d
2
 x

R  2

I xx  I yy     x. sin    x.d  d x
0 0
R 
I xx  I yy   x 3 d x  sin 2  .d
0 0


R4
I xx  I yy 
4 
0
sin 2  .d


R 4  1  cos 2 
4 0 
I xx  I yy   .d
2 


R4  sin 2 
I xx  I yy  2  4 
4  0

R 4  
I xx  I yy    0
4 2 
R 4
d 4
I xx  I yy  or I xx  I yy 
8 128

MI about centroidal axis:

MI of semi-circle about its centroidal axis shown in fig. can be found by applying parallel axis
theorem

I xx  I GG  Ah 2
4R R 4
Where h  and I xx  I yy 
3 8
2
R 4  R 2  4 R 
 I GG    
8  2  3 

I GG  0.11R 4

5. Quarter circle:

MI of the quarter circle about the x-axis (or y-axis) can be found by integrating the equation
with the limits 0 to R and 0 to π/2.

Page 75
Consider a semi-circle of radius ‘R’ to find the MI about the centroidal axis. Select an
element of radial width dx at a radius ‘x’. the element is at an angle ‘θ’ with reference to the
axis and makes an included angle d θ at the centre as shown in fig. distance of the element
from the x-axis.

y  x. sin 

Area of the element d A   xd   d x

Moment of inertia of the element about the centroidal axis

  y 2 .d A

  x. sin    x.d   d
2
 x

R  /2 2

I xx  I yy     x. sin    x.d  d x
0 0
R  /2
I xx  I yy   x 3 d x  sin
2
 .d
0 0

 /2
R4
I xx  I yy 
4 0
sin 2  .d

 /2
R4  1  cos 2 
I xx  I yy 
4 
0

 2
.d


 /2
R4  sin 2 
I xx  I yy   2  4 
4 0

R 4  
I xx  I yy    0
4 4 

R 4 d 4
I xx  I yy  or I xx  I yy 
16 256

MI about centroidal axis:

MI of Quarter-circle about its centroidal axis shown in fig. can be found by applying parallel
axis theorem

I xx  I GG  Ah 2
4R R 4
Where h  and I xx  I yy 
3 16

Page 76
 2
R 4  R 2  4 R 
 I GG    
16  4  3 

I GG  0.055R 4

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The ratio of the moment of inertia for triangle (b x h) coinciding with its base to a
centroidal axis parallel to the base is
A bh3/2 B bh3/4
C bh3/8 D 3

2. The radius of gyration of a circular area of radius ‘r’

A r/2 B r/4
C 2r/3 D 3r/4

3. The unit of moment of inertia of an area is

A Kg.m B Kg.m2
C Kg.m4 D m4

4. If IGG is the moment of inertia of rectangle about its centroidal axis and I AB is the
moment of inertia about its base then
A IGG > IAB B IGG < IAB
C IGG = IAB D None of these

5. Radius of gyration may be defined mathematically as

A I B I
A A
C A C A
I I

6. Moment of inertia of a plane area about 1-1 axis parallel to centroidal axis is equal to
A I GG B IGG x Ah2
Ah 2
C IGG – Ah2 D IGG + Ah2

7. Moment of inertia of triangle about the base is given by


A
64
D  d
4 4
 B bh 3
36
C bh 3 D bh 3
12 256

8. Moment of inertia of a semicircle about centroidal axis is given by

A 0.055R4 B 0.11 R4
C 0.11 d4 D d 4
64

9. The unit of radius of gyration is ___

A mm B mm2
Page 77
 C mm3 D mm4

10. The moment of inertia of an area about an axis which is perpendicular to the plane of
the figure is called ____
A Radius of gyration B Polar moment of inertia
C Second moment of area D Parallel axis theorem
11. The moment of inertia of a circle with D as its diameter about its centroidal axis is
___
A Π D2/32 B Π D2/64
4
C Π D /32 D Π D4/64

12. The moment of inertia of square of side ‘b’ about an axis through its centroidal axis
___
A b4/12 B b2/12
4
C b /36 D b2/36

13. Moment of inertia is a ____

A First moment of area B Second moment of area
C Third moment of inertia D None of the above

14. MI of triangular section about base having base ‘b’ and height ‘h’ is given by ___
A bh3/36 B bh3/12
3
C bh /64 D None of the above

15. MI of hollow circular section whose external diameter is 8mm and internal diameter
4mm about centroidal axis is ___
A 437.5mm4 B 337.5mm4
4
C 237.5 mm D 188.4mm4

16. The polar moment of inertia of a circular section of diameter ‘D’ about its centroidal
axis is ____
A Π D4/64 B Π D4/32
C Π D3/32 D Π D4/16

17. If Kxx = 3mm and Kyy = 4mm for some area then Kzz = ____
A 3mm B 4mm
C 5mm D 6mm

Page 78