Introduction to Nozzle

What is Nozzle?
“Nozzle is a mechanical device of varying cross-sectional
area in which steady flow fluid made to accelerate at the cost
of pressure drop”

 The 1st nozzle was designed

by a Swedish Engineer
Carl, G.B. Lavel in 1893.

 Nozzles are always designed

to discharge maximum mass
of fluid at given set of flow conditions.

 The x-sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow

direction for subsonic flows and increases for supersonic
flows
 This variation depending upon the velocity(C),specific volume(v),
pressure ratio and dryness fraction(X) of steam.

 Steam nozzle convert the enthalpy of steam into the kinetic energy,
since the mass flow rate kept constant.

 A well design nozzle performs energy conversion with minimum loss.

 Therefore, amount of energy conversion depends upon the pressure

ratio and type of expansion through the nozzle.

 Isentropic expansion provides max. conversion of energies.

3 primary groups of nozzle types
1. Cone (conical, linear)
2. Bell (contoured, shaped, classic converging-diverging)
3. Annular (spike, aerospike, plug, expansion, expansion-
deflection)
Pc=Chamber pressure
Pb=Back pressure
Pe=Exit pressure
Pcr=Critical Pressure
Throat
Convergent
Divergent
Mach No.
Subsonic flow
Sonic flow
Supersonic flow
 Flow of fluid through nozzle regarded as isentropic.

 Inlet velocity is low and pressure is high.

 No heat supplied/rejected (Q=0 ).

 Drop in total heat converted in kinetic energy.

 No external work is done (W=0).

 Fluid work on itself by gaining kinetic energy/velocity.

h1-h2=C2/2
Velocity of fluid keeps increasing
after passing the throat.

Increase in velocity due to rapid

decrease in density and area.

In convergent region velocity

increases more rapidly than the
specific volume.

In divergent region specific

volume increases more rapidly
than the velocity.
All practical rockets operate in regimes (e)-(g)
 Static pressure at exit of Space Shuttle
Main Engine nozzle is considerably less
than ambient pressure at sea level

 Mismatch in pressure gives rise to

Mach “disc” in nozzle exhaust

 Extremely strong shock wave that

creates a region of subsonic flow and
produces a characteristic white
luminescent glow

 Flow in picture is over-expanded (lift-off)

 There are many applications of nozzles :

 Steam turbines/Gas turbines

 Jet engine

 Rocket motor/engine

 Fuel injector

 Boiler injector (pump the feed water into boiler).

 Condenser injector (to remove the air and create vacuum)

 Measuring instruments
 Friction losses mostly occurred in long divergent region of the
nozzle.

 In divergent region fluid stay time is more than convergent.

 In convergent region fluid expands very rapidly.

 Stay time in convergent region is about fraction of

seconds(0.001second).

 These losses may be occurred :

 between nozzle inner surface and fluid
 internal fluid friction
 shock losses
 Expansion is no more Isentropic.

 Enthalpy drop is decreased.

 Low exit velocity.

 Final dryness fraction increased.

 K.E converted into heat.

 Specific volume increased due to

overheating.

 Increase in entropy.

 Nozzle efficiency is also decreased.

 1 2
C1 C2

h1 h2

P1 P2

V1 V2

A1 A2
Throat
T1 T2
1 2
Let suppose flow through the nozzle is isentropic, therefore

Q=0, W.D=0, P.E=0

The steady flow energy equation for the nozzle becomes:

2 2
C C2
h1  1  h2   (1)
2 2

 C1
2 2
C2
h1  h2 
2
Velocity at inlet of nozzle C1=0, because it is very small than C2

C2
 h1  h2
2  C2  C

C  2( h1  h2 )  ( 2)

Mostly enthalpy expressed in kJ/kg, then the additional constant (103)

Will be appear in equation (2).
Therefore,
 C  2  10 3 ( h1  h2 )

C  44.72 ( h1  h2 )

C  Const ( h1  h2 )
This is general form of energy equation irrespective of the shape of nozzle

Now, for the gas, the isentropic flow of fluid through the nozzle may be
Approx: We know that,

h1  h2  Cp (T1  T2 )  R 
 
  1
Cp
 

h1  h2  R (T1  T2 )  (3)
 1
Now, substitute the value of (h1-h2) in equation (2)

  
C  2 R (T1  T2 ) 
  1 
   
C  2 ( p1 v1  p 2 v 2 ) 
  1 

  p2 v2 
C   2 p v (1  )   ( 4)
   1
1 1
p1 v1 

For isentropic expansion through the nozzle

 
p1v1  p2 v2

1
v2  p1 

 p 

v1  2 
Now, substitute the value of v2/v1 in equation (4)
 1/

  p 2  p1  

C  2 p1 v1 (1    )


  1 p1  p 2  


1 / 

  p2  p2  

C  2 p1 v1 (1    )


  1 p 1  p 1  


11 / 

   p2  

C  2 p1 v1 (1    )


  1  1
p 


(  1 )
 
   p2   
C  2 p1 v1 (1    )   (5 )
   1  p 1  
 

Now, at any section of the nozzle, the continuity equation of mass flow
per unit area.
  AC
m

1
 


   AC
m


m C
  (6)
A 
This equation shows that the mass flow rate is constant at all section of
the nozzle and the velocity(C) and specific volume (v) varying through the
nozzle, then the x-sectional area must be minimum which will be throat of
the nozzle.
At throat:

Pt= throat pressure

vt= specific volume

Ct= velocity at throat

From equation (5)
(  1)
 
   pt   
Ct  2 p1v1 (1    )   (7 )
 (  1)  p1  
 

m Ct
  (8)
At t
From equation (7) and (8)
(  1)
 
m 1    pt   
 2 p1 v1 (1    )   (9)
At t  (  1)  p1  
 
We know that for isentropic expansion:
 
p1v1  p2 v2
1
vt  p1 

 

v1  pt 
1
 p1  
vt  v1 
 pt 

 
 (  1)
 
m 1    pt   
 2 p1v1 (1    )
At 1
 (  1)  p1  
 p1    
v1 
 p 
 t 

(  1)
1
 
m 1  pt      pt   
   2 p1v1 (1    )
At v1  p1 

  (  1)  p1  
 

(  1) 2
 2
 
m 1    pt    pt    
 2 p1v1 (     )
At v1  (  1)  1
p  p1  
 

(  1)
 2

m 1    pt    pt   
 2 p1v1 (     )   (10)
At v1  (  1)  p1   p1  
 
For maximum mass flow rate at throat differentiate the differential part of
the equation (10) w.r.to (pt/p1), where as other , p, v are constant.

 1
 2

d   pt    pt   
      0
 pt   1 
p  1
p 
d
 p   
 1 

pt
let, x 
p1
Now, differentiate
2  1
d
(x   x 
) 0
dx

 2 
     1 
 1
2 
    1    1
x  
 x 
0
 
  2 
  1


  

2
x  
 x1 / 
 

x1 /  2 1
 
 2 

 


    1
 
x 

x1 /  2

 2 

 





  1
x


 2   1
x 
  1

 


pt  2   1

 

p1    1 Critical Pressure ratio
 
 2   1
p t  p1 
  1

 
For air average value of =1.4, therefore,
1.4
pt  2  1.4 1
 
p1  1.4  1 

pt
 0.528 This is critical pressure ratio for air
p1

For critical temperature (Tt)

Tt 2

T1   1

2
Tt  T1
  1
For critical velocity (Ct)
Ct  2h1  ht 

Ct  2Cp T1  Tt 

  
C t  2 RT1  Tt 
   1 

   T1 
C t  2 RTt   1

   1  Tt 

     1 
C t  2 RTt   1
   1  2 

     1 
C t  2 RTt  
   1  2 

C t  RTt Critical Velocity

PROBLEM:
Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional
area duct such as a nozzle shown in Fig. at a mass flow rate of
3 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of 1400
kPa and 200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to
a pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow can
be approximated as isentropic. Determine the density, velocity,
flow area, and Mach number at each location along the duct that
corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

Assumptions:
1. Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats
at room temperature.
2. Flow through the duct is steady, one-dimensional, and
isentropic.

Properties:
For simplicity we use cp 0.846 kJ/kg · K and  1.289
throughout the calculations.
The gas constant of carbon dioxide is R=0.1889 kJ/kg K
The flow is isentropic and thus the stagnation temperature and pressure
throughout the duct remain constant, therefore,
T0  200  273  473K
and
P0  1400kPA
To illustrate the solution procedure, we calculate the desired properties of
the location where the pressure is 1200 kPa, the first location corresponds
to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.
 1 
P  
T1  T0  
 P0 
1.2891 
 1200  1.289
T1  473 
 1400 
T1  457 K

V  2cpT0  T1 

V  2  0.846 473  457 

V  164.5 m / s
From ideal gas relation
P

RT

1200

0.1889  457

  13.9kg / m 3
From mass flow rate relation
m
A
V
3
A
13.9  164.5

A  13.1  10  4

A  13.1cm 2
For velocity

C  RT

C  1.289  0.1889  457  10 3  1kJ  1000m 2 / S 2

C  333.6m / s

For Mach No.

V
Ma 
C

164.5
Ma 
333.6

Ma  0.493
The result for the other pressure steps are summarized in table and
plotted on the graph.
Discussion :
Note that as the pressure decreases, the temperature and speed of sound
decrease while the fluid velocity and Mach number increase in the flow
direction. The density decreases slowly at first and rapidly later as the
fluid velocity increases.
PROBLEM:
Air at 8.6 bar and 190oC expands at the rate of 4.5 kg/sec through a
C-D nozzle into a space at pressure of 1.03bar. Assuming that the
Inlet velocity is negligible, calculate the throat area and the exit
cross-Sectional area of the nozzle.

Data

P1=8.6 bar
T1= 190oC
P2=1.03 bar
P1= 8.6 bar
C1=0 C1= 0
C2=??

T1= 190+273=463K A2=??

Mass flow rate=4.5 kg/sec ,Pt, Ct

Required:

At = ?? A2=??
For Throat pr: (Pt) For Temperature (Tt)

 Tt 2
pt  2   1 
   T1   1
p1    1 
2
Tt  463
1.4  1

 2   1
p t  p1  
   1 
Tt  385.8 K

For Specific volume (vt)

1. 4
 2  1.4 1
p t  8.6 
 1 . 4  1  pt vt  RTt

p t  4.54bar RTt
vt 
pt

287  385.8
vt 
4.54  10 5

vt  0.244m 3 / kg
For Throat velocity (Ct)

C t  RT

C t  1.4  287  385.8

C t  394 m / s

For Throat area (At)

m vt
At 
Ct

4.5  0.244
At 
394

At  0.00279m 2
At  2790mm 2
For Exit area (A2) For Specific volume (v2)
m v 2 p 2 v 2  RT2
A2 
C2
287  252.5
v2 
RT2 1.03  10 5
v2 
p2
v 2  0.702m 3 / kg
 1 
T1  p1   For Exit velocity (C2)
  
T2  p 2 
C 2  44.72 h1  h2 
1.4 1 
463  8.6  1.4
 
T2  1.03  C 2  44.72 Cp T1  T2 

T2  252.5 K C 2  44.72 1.005463  252.5 

C 2  651m / s
For Exit area (A2)

m v 2
A2 
C2

4.5  0.702
A2 
651

A2  0.00485m 2

A2  4850mm 2
Problem
Estimate graphically the critical pressure and throat area perkg/sec
mass Flow of a convergent and divergent nozzle expanding steam
from 10 bar, dry saturated down to atmospheric pressure of 1 bar.
Assume that the inlet velocity is negligible and that the expansion
is Isentropic.
The procedure is to choose a series of pressures say 9 bar,
8 bar, 7 bar, 6 bar, 5 bar, 4 bar and 3 bar and calculate the cross-
sectional area at each of pressure chosen.

Solution:

From steam table at 10 bar, dry saturated steam have

h1= hg=2778 KJ/kg

S1=Sg=6.586 kJ/kg

p1=10 bar, p2=pe=1 bar

 For specimen calculations for pressure of 7 bar.

From steam table at pr. 7 bar, we have,

hg =2763 kJ/kg

Sf=1.9925 kJ/kg K

Sfg=4.715 kJ/kg K

(1) For dryness fraction (X): S g  S f  x  S fg

Sg  S f
x
S fg

6.586  1.9925
x
4.7154

x  0.9741
(ii) For specific volume() at 7 bar

v  x  Vg

From steam table

V g  0.2728m 3 / kg

v  0.9741 0.2728

v  0.2657m 3 / kg
(iii) For enthalpy (h) at 7 bar

h  h f  x  h fg  (1)

From steam table:

h f  697.35kJ / kg

h fg  2066kJ / kg

Substitute the values in equation (1)

h  697.35  0.9741  2066

h  2709.84kJ / kg
(iv) For area per unit mass flow rate (A/m) mm2/kg/sec

A v

m C

C  44.72 h1  h

C  44.72 2777.1  2709.84

A 0.2657
  10 6
m 44.72 2777.1  2709.84

A
 726mm 2 / kg / sec
m
 Calculation Table

Pr.Bar 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

X 0.974

h 2709.84
(kJ/kg)
v 0.2657
(m3/kg)
h1-h 67.86

8.19
h1  h

A
(mm 2 / kg )
726
m
Assuming:

design pressure =P*

Inlet pressure =Po is fixed
Back pressure = Pb is varying
Exit pressure = Pe

(1) If, Po = Pe = Pb
 Mass flow = 0

 There is no expansion.

(2) If Pb is reduced up to some extend

(Pb> P*) slightly higher than (P*)

 Nozzle said to be over-expanding

 There is some flow through the nozzle

 Since, the enthalpy is dropped and

 Velocity will increase.

(3) If, Pb=P*

 Further decrease in Pb equal to P*

 Max. Mass flow rate, Nozzle is choked

 Mach No. = 1 at exit of nozzle

 Velocity (C) is sonic

(4) If Pb< P*

Back pressure less than the design pressure

Expansion in the nozzle fallow the same path of (3).

But expansion takes place outside the nozzle.

Pressure oscillates violently and shock wave is formed.

This condition know as under-expansion of the nozzle.

Note: when exit pressure Pe > Pb then the nozzle is

convergent type.
(A) If, Po = Pe = Pb
 Mass flow = 0

 There is no expansion.

(B) If, throat pressure well above the design pressure

(P* ) the divergent portion acts as diffuser.

(C) If, Pb = Pc

 The throat pressure becomes design pressure (P*)

 Fluid achieves the sonic velocity at the throat.

 There is maximum mass flow

Flow is choked flow

Velocity becomes sonic velocity

Mach No. = 1

Further decrease in Pb pressure will not effect on

the mass flow rate.

In these conditions divergent section is required to

further acceleration.

Because there is rapid change in the density ().

A correctly design nozzle is always choked.

(D) When PC > Pb >Pe,

The fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat continues

accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases.

This acceleration comes to a sudden stop, however, as a normal

shock develops at a section between the throat and the exit plane,

which causes a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic levels and a

sudden increase in pressure.

The fluid then continues to decelerate further in the remaining

part of the converging–diverging nozzle.

Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot

be approximated as isentropic.
The normal shock moves downstream away from the throat
as Pb is decreased, and it approaches the nozzle exit plane
as Pb approaches Pe.

(E) When Pb=Pe,

The normal shock forms at the exit plane of the nozzle.

The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section

and it can be approximated as isentropic.

However, the fluid velocity drops to subsonic levels just

before leaving the nozzle as it
(F) When Pe>Pb >0,

The flow in the diverging section is supersonic, and the fluid

expands to PF at the nozzle exit with no normal shock forming
within the nozzle.

Thus, the flow through the nozzle can be approximated as

isentropic.

(G) When Pb=PF,

no shocks occur within or outside the nozzle.

When Pb <PF,

irreversible mixing and expansion waves occur downstream of the

exit plane of the nozzle.
Under-expansion:
When the back pressure of a nozzle below the design pressure (Pc or P* ) the
nozzle is said to be underexpand. Fluid expands violently outside the nozzle.

Over-expansion:
When the back pressure of a nozzle above the design pressure (Pc or P* ) the
nozzle is said to be overexpand.

In convergent nozzle exit pressure greater than the critical pressure and reduces
the mass flow through the nozzle.

In C-D nozzle expansion followed by a re-compression and develops a shock

wave.
PROBLEM
Fluid at 6.9 bar and 93oC enters a convergent nozzle with negligible velocity
And expands isentropically into space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the mass flow per meter
square of exit area:
(i) When fluid is Helium (Cp=5.19 kJ/kg K)
(ii) When fluid is Ethane (Cp=1.88 kJ/kg K)
Assume that both helium and ethane are perfect gases and take the
respective molar masses as 4 kg/mol and 30 kg/mol.
(i) For helium
It is necessary to calculate the P1=6.9 bar
Critical pressure in order to know T1=93 oC
whether the nozzle is choked or not.
P2=3.6 bar

pC  2   1
    (1)
p1   1

  ??

R
Cp   (2)
 1
“R” can be calculated from molar mass, we know that,
Ro
Mo 
R

Ro
R
Mo

8314.4 N  m / kmo,
R
4kg / kmol  Ro  8314.4 N  m / kmolK

R  2079 N  m / kgK

Now, substitute the value of R in equation (2)

R
Cp 
 1

 1 R

 Cp
 1 R
1 
 Cp

1 2079
1 
 5.19  10 3

1
1  0.4


1
1  0.4 


  1.667

Now, substitute the value of () in equation (1)

 1.667
pC  2  1.6671
 
6.9  1.667  1 

 pC  pb
pC  3.36bar

The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid does not
reaches the critical conditions and nozzle is not choked.

For temperature T2:

 1
T1  p1  
  
T2  p 2 

1.667 1
366  6.9  1.667
 
T2  3.36 

T2  282.2 K
C 2  44.72 Cp (T1  T2 )

C 2  44.72 5.19(366  282.2)

C 2  933m / sec Mass flow rate at exit

A2 C 2
RT2 m 
v2 v2
p2

1  933
2079  282.2 m 
v2 1.63
3.6  10 5
m  572kg / sec
v 2  1.63m / kg
3
(ii) For Ethane

Ro 1 R
Mo  1 
R  Cp

Ro 1 277.1
R 1 
Mo  1.88  10 3

8314.4 N  m / kmo, 1
R 1  0.147
30kg / kmol 

R  277.1N  m / kgK 1
1  0.147 

R
Cp 
 1   1.172

 1 R

 Cp
 For critical pressure ratio

pC  2   1
  
p1    1

1.172
pC  2  1.1721
 
6.9  1.172  1 

pC  3.93bar

The actual back pressure is 3.6 bar, hence in this case the fluid reaches
the critical conditions at exit and nozzle is choked.

The expansion from the exit pressure 3.93 bar down to back pressure
of 3.6 bar must be takes place out side the nozzle due to convergent nozzle
Now, calculations for critical conditions

For critical temperature For specific volume at exit

RTC
Tc 2 v2
 p2
T1   1

277.1  337
Tc

2 v2
366 1.172  1 3.93  10 5

Tc  337 K v 2  0.238m 3 / kg

For critical velocity at exit For max. mass flow rate at exit

C C  RTc m 
A2 C C
v2
1  331
C C  1.172  277.1  337 m 
0.238

C C  331m / sec
m  1391kg / sec
In the nozzle design all calculations are made on the bases of
Isentropic Flow conditions.

Then some allowance for friction are made by using different

co-efficient.

Velocity co-efficient
An efficiency

It is assumed all losses occurred after throat in divergent portion

in the form of friction.

These losses can not effect on mass flow rate.

The friction may be between wall and fluid or with in the fluid itself.

Energy absorbed during the friction is converted in heat.

Which results to increase the temperature from dry saturated steam
to super heated steam.

Due to friction, about 4% to 15% heat drop is decreased.

To accelerated the fluid divergent portion must be larger than the
convergent portion.

Divergent portion wall angle should be below to 20o.

Too large angle may breakaway the steam from the walls of nozzle,
which increases the friction losses in the nozzle.
What is nozzle efficiency?

“It is ratio of actual enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop between

same pressure ranges”.

For perfect gas

h1  h2
K  (1)
h1  h2

Cp (T1  T2 )
K
Cp (T1  T2 )

T1  T2
K
T1  T2
By using the steady flow energy equation for both actual and isentropic case.

For isentropic expansion:

C12 C 22
h1   h2 
2 2

IfC1  0

C 22
h1  h2 
2

For actual expansion:

2
C12 C ,2
h1   h2 
'

2 2
( C1  0)
2
C ,2
h1  h 
,
2
2
Now, substitute both values of enthalpy in equation (1)

h1  h2
K  (1)
h1  h2

'
C 22 2
K 2
C2 2

'
C 22
K 2
C2
Velocity co-efficient:

“It is ratio of actual exit velocity to the isentropic velocity /

Square root of nozzle efficiency”.

Velocity Co-efficient = C2’/C2

Co-efficient of Discharge:

,
m
C.O.dischagre 
m
Problem:
Gases expands in a propulsion nozzle from 3.5 bar and 425oC down
to a back pressure of 0.97 bar at rate of 18 kg/sec. Taking co-efficient
Of discharge of 0.99 and nozzle efficiency of 0.94.
Calculate the required throat and exit area of the nozzle.
For gases take, =1.333 and Cp=1.11kJ/kgK. And R=277.5
Assume that inlet Velocity is negligible.
Data:
p1  3.5bar

pb  0.97bar

T1  425  273  698K

  1.333

Cp  1.11kJ / kgK

m ,  18kg / sec (Actual mass flow)

 Re quired
(i ) At  ??
(ii) A2  ??

m vt
At 
Ct

For critical pressure value (pc)


p c  2   1
 
p1    1 

1.333
 2  1.3331
p c  3.5 
 1.333  1 

p c  1.894bar
Note:The value (pc) shows that nozzle is choking and
Convergent-divergent nozzle is required.
For critical temperature (Tc) For critical specific volume (vc)
Tc 2 p c vc  RTC

T1   1
277.5  598
vc 
2 1.894  10 5
Tc  698 
1.333  1
vc  0.875m 3 / kg
Tc  598K

For critical velocity (Cc)

C c  RTC

C c  1.333  277.5  598

C c  471m / sec
For isentropic mass flow rate

Co-efficient of discharge=actual mass flow/Isentropic mass flow

m ,
C.O.dischagre 
m

18
0.99 
m

m  18.18kg / sec

Note: co-efficient of discharge for isentropic flow through throat is one

For throat area and exit area (At & A2)
m v c
At 
Cc
18.18  0.875
At 
471

At  0.0338m 2
For isentropic expansion from inlet condition down to the back
pressure (pb)

For temperature at exit (T2)

 1
T1  p1  
  
T2  p 2 

1.3331
698  3.5  1.333
  .
T2  0.97 

T2  506K

The expansion is shown on T-S diagram, line 1-C-2 represent the isentropic
Expansion and line1-2’ shown actual expansion.
We know that nozzle efficiency (K)


T1  T2
K
T1  T2


698  T2
0.94 
698  506


T2  571.5K Actual temperature at exit

Actual volume (v2’) 

RT2
v 
'
2
p2

277.5  571.5
v 2' 
0.97  10 5

v 2'  1.48m 3 / kg
 Actual velocity at exit (C2’)

C 2'  44.72 Cp (T1  T2 )

C 2'  44.72 1.11  10 3 (698  571.5)

C 2'  633m / sec

For exit area (A2)

m ' v '2
A2 
C 2'

18  1.48
A2 
633

A2  0.0422m 2
Isentropic Flow/ Assumed Flow

During flow through the nozzle it is assume the superheated steam

expands isentropically.

Condensation starts when saturation line reached and it continuous

in wet region

Due to condensation dryness fraction of steam decreases.

Under such conditions the mixture of steam and liquid remain

stable during the expansion.

If at any instant the expansion stopped, there would be no

subsequent changes in the condition of steam.

This is known as Equilibrium Flow.

Actual Flow

In actual flow through the nozzle, the steam may not be in
equilibrium.

Because the flow is very rapid and quickly and stay less time in the
nozzle.

The condensation of the steam may be delayed for a little while.

Steam does not condense at saturated temperature at saturated line,

even entering in the wet region, without containing any liquid.

This phenomenon is known as supersaturation, and the steam that

exists in the wet region without containing any liquid is called
supersaturated steam.
Steam condense 4% in lower mixed region, until certain line known
as Wilson-line.

The change in temperature and pressure are also very rapid,

therefore condensation does not take place as quickly as does the
pressure and temperature.

Under such situation, the condensation does not keep pace with the
expansion.

Any small disturbance in flow may caused the condensation of the

steam.

This type of flow is called Meta-stable/non-equlibrium

supersaturated flow.
During this condition the enthalpy drop is decreases.

Temperature of supersaturated vapours less than the saturated one.

The vapours is said to be super cooled.

The degree of supersaturation=T2-T2’.

The velocity of supersaturated flow is less than the saturated flow.

Entropy of supersaturated vapour increases.

Mass flow rate increases to 2-5%.

Dryness fraction equal to X=0.96%.

Problem
Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 10 bar is expanded in a nozzle
to a pr. of 0.7 bar. With the help of Moillier diagram find the velocity
and dryness fraction of steam issuing from the nozzle, if the friction
is neglected.
Also find the velocity and dryness fraction of the steam, if 15%
of heat drop is lost in the friction.

Data:
P1=10bar
P2=0.7bar
Heat drop decrease to 15%

Velocity and dryness fraction of steam if friction is neglected.

Now, form the Moillier diagram at pressure values,10 bar and 0.7 bar.

h1  2772kJ / kg

h2  2310kJ / kg
Heat drop= h=h1-h2

h= 2772-2310

h= 462 KJ/kg

C 2  44.72 h1  h2

C 2  44.72 2772  2310

C 2  961m / sec

From Moillier diagram we also find the dryness fraction at point “B”

X=0.848
Now, considered the 15% heat drop is lost in friction.

We know that for isentropic expansion the nozzle efficiency is 100%.

K  100  15  85

K  85%

Heat drop due to friction

loss  462  0.15

loss  69.3kJ / kg
 C 2  44.72 K (h1  h2 )

C 2  44.72 0.85(2772  2310)

C 2  44.72 0.85  462

C 2  886m / sec

Now, let us complete the Moillier diagram.

(i) Locate point “C” on the vertical line AB, such that BC=69.3 KJ/kg
(ii) h3=h2+69.3=2310+69.3

h3=2379.3

(iii) Through “C” draw a horizontal line “ CB’ ” to meet the final pr.
line 0.7bar at “B”.
From the Moillier diagram, we find the dryness fraction of steam
Issuing from the nozzle.

X’2= 0.878
Problem
Steam enters a group of nozzles of a steam turbine at 12 bar and
220 oC and leaves at 1.2 bar. The steam develops 220 kw with a
Specific steam consumption of 13.5 kg/kwh. If the diameter of
Nozzles at throat is 7 mm. Calculate the number of nozzles.

Data: p1  12bar

T1  220 o C

p3  1.2bar

Power  220kw / kg

m s  13.5kg / kwh

d 2  7mm
We know that for superheat steam pressure of steam at throat:
p2
 0.546
p1

p 2  12  0.546

p 2  6.552bar

From Moillier diagram at pressure of 12 bar, the enthalpy

h1  2860kJ / kg

Enthalpy of steam at throat at 6.552 bar

h2  2750kJ / kg
Dryness fraction of steam at throat

X 2  0.992

From steam table specific volume at throat of dry saturated steam

v g  0.29m 3 / kg
2

Drop in enthalpy from entrance to throat

h1  h2  2860  2750  110kJ / kg
Velocity of steam at throat,

C 2  44.72 (h1  h2 )

C 2  44.72 2860  2750)

C 2  44.72 110

C 2  470m / sec
Area of the nozzle at throat A2

A2  (d 2 ) 2
4


A2  (7 ) 2
4

A2  38.5mm 2

A2  38.5  10 6 m 2
Now, mass flow rate per nozzle

A2 C 2
m 
v2

A2 C 2
m 
X 2 v g2

38.5  10 6  470
m 
0.992  0.29

m  0.063kg / sec
We know that total mass flow rate = 13.5x220 = 2970 kg/hr

= 0.825 kg/sec

No. of nozzles = Total mass flow rate/mass flow rate per nozzle

No. of nozzle = 0.825 /0.063

No. of nozzle = 13.1 say

No. of nozzle = 14