Note: This is a two-article spread with a shared commentary. Please scroll down for the second article.

diagnosis

Tachypnea is a useful predictor of pneumonia in children

with acute respiratory infection
Palafox M, Guiscafré H, Reyes H, Muñoz O, Martínez H. Diagnostic value of tachypnoea in pneu-
monia defined radiologically. Arch Dis Child. 2000 Jan;82:41-5.

Questions with no crying or fever. Tachypnea was disease duration of < 3 days (P < 0.01)
In children with acute respiratory infec- defined as a respiratory rate > 60 breaths (Table); age or presence of malnutrition
tion, is tachypnea accurate for detecting per minute in children < 2 months of age, did not influence results.
pneumonia? Does disease duration, age of > 50 breaths per minute in children 2 to
the child, or presence of malnutrition 12 months of age, and > 40 breaths per Conclusions
influence sensitivity and specificity? minute in children ≥ 1 year of age. The In children with acute respiratory infec-
diagnostic standard was chest radiography tion, tachypnea had a sensitivity of 74%
Design (not clinical diagnosis). and specificity of 67% for detecting pneu-
Blinded comparison of respiratory rate monia but did not perform as well when
with findings on chest radiography. Main outcome measures disease duration was < 3 days. Age or pres-
Sensitivity and specificity for detecting ence of malnutrition did not influence
Setting pneumonia. results.
A state referral hospital in Tlaxcala, Mexico. Source of funding: No external funding.
Main results
For correspondence: Dr. H. Martínez, Research
Participants 59 children (54%) had a clinical diagnosis
Unit on Epidemiology and Health Services,
110 children who were 3 days to 5 years of of pneumonia, but only 35 children Mexican Social Security Institute, Centro Médico
age (55% were ≥ 1 y of age) and had acute (32%) had findings on radiology. The sen- Nacional Siglo XXI, Unidad de Congresos,
respiratory infection. Children who were sitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios Bloque B, 4o. Piso, Avenida Cuauhtémoc 330,
clinically diagnosed with pneumonia were are shown in the Table. Sensitivity and Col. Doctores, Mexico 06725 DF. FAX 52-5-
matched to control children with acute specificity were lowest in children with a 761-09-52.

respiratory infection. 30% of children
were underweight. Exclusion criteria were
Test characteristics of tachypnea for detecting pneumonia in children with acute respiratory infection*
chronic diseases, genetic abnormalities,
neurologic diseases, bronchial asthma, or Test Patient group Sensitivity (95% CI) Specificity (CI) +LR –LR
septicemia. Tachypnea All children 74% (60 to 88) 67% (56 to 77) 2.2 0.4
Disease duration < 3 d 55% (40 to 72) 64% (49 to 80) 1.5 0.7
Description of test and Disease duration 3 to 5 d 64% (49 to 78) 66% (51 to 80) 1.9 0.5
diagnostic standard Disease duration ≥ 6 d 93% (84 to 102) 73% (57 to 89) 3.4 0.1
A pediatrician measured the respiratory
Clinical judgment All children 74% (61 to 88) 56% (48 to 69) 1.7 0.5
rate by observing the child’s chest move-
ments for 1 minute while the child rested *Abbreviations defined in Glossary; LRs calculated from data in article.

Commentary ratios for pneumonia in the presence of tachypnea (+LR) ranged

Many clinicians currently consider pulse oximetry to be a vital sign. from 1.6 to 3.2 with the exception of infants < 2 months of age.
In contrast, the studies by Palafox and Rajesh and their colleagues Likelihood ratios for pneumonia when tachypnea was not present
from developing nations emphasize the importance of an accurately (−LR) ranged from 0.3 to 0.8. The unique finding of Palafox and
measured respiratory rate. Palafox and colleagues studied young colleagues was that, as hypothesized, the finding of tachypnea was less
children in Mexico. They selected children with clinically diagnosed sensitive and less specific in infants and children who had been sick
pneumonia and an equal number of children with other acute respira- for < 3 days.
tory illnesses, ensuring a sample with a high prevalence of radiograph- Rajesh and colleagues in India found tachypnea to be a similarly
ically proven pneumonia (32%). The radiographic determination useful marker for hypoxia in sick infants < 2 months of age. A cutoff
of pneumonia was the reference standard to which the finding of point of 60 breaths per minute had the best combination of sensitivity
tachypnea was compared. and specificity in this age group (in agreement with the WHO recom-
Tachypnea, defined according to World Health Organization mendations). Tachypnea was present in 81% of hypoxic infants and
(WHO) recommendations, was present in 74% of children with in 32% of those who were not hypoxic. Thus, tachypnea is sensitive
pneumonia and in 33% of those without pneumonia. The presence of for ruling out hypoxia in young infants, although approximately 1 in
tachypnea approximately doubled the odds of pneumonia, and its 5 hypoxic infants will be missed using tachypnea alone.
absence decreased the odds by about half. These findings are similar to The study sample included many severely ill infants; 16% died. In
those of a systematic literature review on the diagnosis of pneumonia addition to pneumonia (present in 34%), septicemia (12%), and
in infants in which the authors concluded that tachypnea was the best meningitis (14%), several less frequent conditions were found.
single finding for ruling out pneumonia (1). In that review, likelihood (continued on page 69)

68 ©ACP–ASIM; BMJ September/October 2000 ACP Journal Club

 diagnosis

A respiratory rate of ≥ 60 breaths per minute had high

sensitivity for detecting hypoxia in infants
Rajesh VT, Singhi S, Kataria S. Tachypnoea is a good predictor of hypoxia in acutely ill infants
under 2 months. Arch Dis Child. 2000 Jan;82:46-9.

Question breaths per minute, the rate was counted breaths per minute provided the best
In ill infants < 2 months of age, can the again after 30 minutes. The diagnostic stan- balance of sensitivity (81%) and specificity
respiratory rate be used as an indicator of dard was the assessment of oxygen satura- (68%).
hypoxia? tion, which was measured at the finger or
toe with a pulse oximeter (BCI, Waukesha, Conclusion
Design WI, USA). Hypoxia was defined as an oxy- In infants who were < 2 months of age and
Blinded comparison of respiratory rate gen saturation level ≤ 90%. had an acute illness, a respiratory rate of
with oxygen saturation level. ≥ 60 breaths per minute had a sensitivity of
Main outcome measures 81% and a specificity of 68% for detecting
Setting Sensitivity and specificity for detecting hypoxia.
A hospital pediatric emergency service in hypoxia.
Source of funding: Not stated.
Chandigarh, India.
Main results For correspondence: Dr. S. Singhi, Department
of Pediatrics, Postgraduate Institute of Medical
Participants 77 infants (39%) had hypoxia. Sensitivities,
Education and Research, Chandigarh 160012,
200 infants who were < 2 months of age specificities, and likelihood ratios are shown India. FAX 91-172-744401. `

(mean age 28 d) and had symptoms of any in the Table. The cutoff point of ≥ 60
acute illness. Exclusion criteria were age
< 24 hours, major congenital malforma- Test characteristics for detecting hypoxia in infants with acute illnesses*
tions, previous hospitalization, or active Respiratory rate Sensitivity (95% CI) Specificity (CI) +LR -LR
cardiopulmonary resuscitation. ≥ 40 breaths/min 96% (89 to 99) 37% (28 to 46) 1.5 0.1

Description of test and ≥ 50 breaths/min 91% (82 to 96) 59% (50 to 68) 2.2 0.2
diagnostic standard ≥ 60 breaths/min 81% (70 to 89) 68% (59 to 76) 2.5 0.3
The respiratory rate was counted for 1 ≥ 70 breaths/min 51% (39 to 62) 85% (77 to 90) 3.3 0.6
minute while observing the infant’s chest
and abdominal movements when the infant ≥ 80 breaths/min 22% (13 to 33) 93% (88 to 97) 3.4 0.8
was quiet. If the respiratory rate was ≥ 50 *Abbreviations defined in Glossary; CIs and LRs calculated from data in article.

Commentary (continued from page 68) therapy in order to avoid unnecessary treatment. This is especially
Therefore, many of the “false positives” who were tachypneic but not true when patient populations have lower rates of serious illness, as
hypoxic probably had serious illness. Indeed, tachypnea identified is often the case in developed countries. Regardless of practice set-
72% of infants who died, whereas hypoxia identified only 53%. ting, all clinicians will improve their care of sick children by remem-
Both studies used the proper method for determining respiratory bering to carefully assess respiratory status.
rate, as emphasized by others (1, 2). The child should be observed in a Michael B. Aldous, MD, MPH
quiet state, ideally when not febrile, and the respirations counted for a University of Arizona College of Medicine
full 60 seconds by observing chest movement. In young children, the Tucson, Arizona, USA
presence of fever and cough (without pneumonia) increases respirato- References
ry rate by approximately 10 breaths per minute (2). A similar differ- 1. Margolis P, Gadomski A. Does this infant have pneumonia? JAMA.
ence is found between wakeful (but quiet) and sleeping children (3). 1998;279:308-13.
Respiratory rates obtained by auscultation are on average 2 to 3 2. Dai Y, Foy HM, Zhu Z, Chen B, Tong F. Respiratory rate and signs in
breaths per minute higher than those obtained by observation, with roentgenographically confirmed pneumonia among children in China.
greater differences (occasionally ≥ 10) seen in wakeful children (3). Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995;14:48-50.
These studies support the use of tachypnea as a diagnostic test to 3. Rusconi F, Castagneto M, Gagliardi L, et al. Reference values for respirato-
identify pneumonia and hypoxia in areas where radiography and ry rate in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics. 1994;94:350-5.
pulse oximetry are not widely available. In areas with better access
to these technologies, confirmatory tests should be used to guide

ACP Journal Club September/October 2000 ©ACP–ASIM; BMJ 69