6
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DIGESTION
AND NUTRITION
Chapter Outline
6.1 YOUR MICROBIAL “ORGAN”
6.2 ANIMAL DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
Food Processing Tasks
Sac or Tube?
6.3 OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
6.4 CHEWING AND SWALLOWING
6.5 FOOD STORAGE AND DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
6.6 STRUCTURE OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
6.7 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
Protein Digestion and Absorption
Fat Digestion and Absorption
Water Absorption
6.8 THE LARGE INTESTINE
6.9 METABOLISM OF ABSORBED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
6.10 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND PHYTOCHEMICALS
6.11 WHAT SHOULD YOU EAT?
Fruits, Vegetables, and Whole Grains
Heart-Healthy Oils
Lean Meat and Low-Fat Dairy
Minimal Added Salt and Sugar
6.12 MAINTAINING A HEALTHY WEIGHT
What Is a Healthy Weight?
Why Is Obesity Unhealthy?
Causes of Obesity
Learning Objectives
After reading the chapter, students should be able to:
Examine how Helicobacter pylori is harmful for humans.
Differentiate between incomplete and complete digestive systems.
Examine the diet-related structural adaptations that birds and mammals have developed.
Illustrate the functions of the major organs in the human digestive system using a diagram.
Examine the process of mechanical and chemical digestion in the mouth.
Describe the structure and functions of the stomach.
Examine how the functions of the small intestine are affected by its structure.
Illustrate the structure of the small intestine using a diagram.
Discuss how carbohydrates, proteins, and fat are digested and absorbed in the small intestine.
Examine the structure and functions of the large intestine.
Describe the importance of the liver in the processes of digestion, metabolism, and homeostasis.
Examine the various types of nutrients that humans require.
Discuss the characteristics and importance of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals.
Examine why it is important to maintain a healthy body weight.
Key Terms
anus crop gizzard rectum
appendix emulsification intestine salivary glands
basal metabolic rate esophagus large intestine, colon small intestine
bile essential amino acids lumen sphincter
body mass index (BMI) essential fatty acids microvilli stomach
brush border cells feces minerals villi (villus)
chyme gallbladder peristalsis vitamins
cloaca gastric fluid probiotic
complete digestive tract gastrovascular cavity phytochemical
Lecture Outline
6.1 Your Microbial “Organ”
A. Before 1980, physicians thought that ulcers were caused by stress or diet.
B. Later, researchers discovered that Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium, was largely responsible.
1. Not everyone that has H. pylori develops ulcers.
2. H. pylori can be destroyed by antibiotics.
a. Individuals without H. pylori are more apt to have GERD.
3. Infection with H. pylori increases one’s risk of stomach cancer.
C. Scientists feel that a decline in Bifidobacterium may be a factor in irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS).
1. Many patients with IBS get relief by administration of a probiotic dose of Bifidobacterium.
D. Physicians are realizing that the microbial balance in our digestive system is important for
good health.
6.2 Animal Digestive Systems
A. A digestive system mechanically and chemically reduces food to particles and molecules
small enough to be absorbed into the internal environment.
B. Sac or Tube
1. An incomplete digestive system (for example, in a flatworm) has one opening.
a. Food enters and waste leaves through the same opening.
b. Digestive products are absorbed directly to the needy tissues.
2. A complete digestive system is a tube with two openings, allowing food to move in one
direction through the lumen; it performs five tasks.
a. Mechanical processing and motility is the breaking up, mixing, and transporting of food
material.
b. Secretion is the release of needed enzymes and other substances into the lumen.
c. Digestion is the chemical breakdown of food matter to molecules small enough to
cross the gut lining.
d. Absorption is the passage of digested nutrients into the blood and lymph.
e. Elimination is the expulsion of undigested and unabsorbed residues at the end of the
gut.
6.3 Overview of the Human Digestive System
A. The human digestive system is a tube with two openings and many specialized regions.
1. The mouth is designed to break the food into smaller pieces and begin digestion via
exposure to saliva.
2. The pharynx (throat) is a shared structure that leads to the esophagus.
3. The stomach churns the food and exposes it to gastric juices.
4. The small intestine is an area of much digestion due to the accessory structures.
5. The large intestine serves to absorb water and remove wastes from the body via the anus.
B. The digestive system also contains accessory organs that contribute to digestion.
1. The salivary glands secrete saliva, which begins the digestion of starches in the mouth.
2. The liver produces bile, which emulsifies fats.
3. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile.
4. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which is rich in digestive enzymes.
6.4 Chewing and Swallowing
A. Thirty-two teeth in humans interact with saliva to mechanically and chemically prepare
food in the mouth.
1. Teeth are hardened jaw appendages with an enamel coat over dentin and calcium with a
pulpy matrix.
a. Incisors bite off chunks, canines tear, and premolars and molars grind food.
2. Saliva (from salivary glands) contains salivary amylase to begin carbohydrate digestion,
bicarbonate to neutralize acids, and mucins to lubricate.
6.5 Food Storage and Digestion in the Stomach
A. The stomach is a muscular sac that stores and mixes food, secretes substances that dissolve
and degrade food, and controls the rate at which food enters the small intestine.
1. Gastric fluid includes hydrochloric acid, pepsinogens, and mucus.
a. HCl dissolves bits of food to form a soupy chyme; it also converts pepsinogen
(inactive) to pepsin (active).
b. Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins.
c. Normally, mucus and bicarbonate ions protect the stomach lining; but if these are
blocked, hydrogen ions stimulate the release of histamine, which in turn stimulates
release of more HCl, which may result in a peptic ulcer.
2. Peristaltic contractions churn the chyme and keep the sphincter of the stomach’s exit
closed, but small amounts are released at regular intervals into the small intestine.
6.6 Structure of the Small Intestine
A. The three regions are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
1. These regions form a total of 16–23 feet of coiled intestine.
B. The inner lining of the small intestine has several adaptations.
1. There are villi, fingerlike projections, lining the small intestine.
a. Each villus is covered in microvilli, sometimes referred to as a brush border.
2. The villi and microvilli increase the internal surface area for more effective absorption.
6.7 Digestion and Absorption in the Small Intestine
A. Secretions from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas enter via a common duct to make the
small intestine the site of the most digestion in the body.
B. Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
1. The digestion of carbohydrate begins in the mouth with salivary amylase breaking
polysaccharides into disaccharides.
2. In the small intestine, pancreatic juice performs this same function.
3. In the brush border regions, disaccharides are further broken down into monosaccharides.
a. The monosaccharides enter the brush border cells and enter a villus on their way to
the bloodstream.
C. Protein Digestion and Absorption
1. The digestion of proteins begins in the stomach, with pepsin breaking proteins into
polypeptides.
2. When polypeptides or fats enter the small intestine, cholecystokinin (CCK) is released into
the bloodstream.
a. This causes the pancreas to release pancreatic enzymes, trypsin and chymotrypsin,
into the small intestine to produce peptide fragments.
3. Brush border enzymes break the fragments into amino acids, which enter brush border
cells and eventually the bloodstream.
D. Fat Digestion and Absorption
1. Fat digestion begins and ends in the small intestine.
a. Bile from the liver and/or gallbladder emulsifies the fats.
1) Emulsification involves taking a big fat globule and breaking it into smaller
globules, which facilitates the enzymatic breakdown of fats.
2. Lipase from pancreatic juice begins to digest the small globules of fats.
3. The digested fats enter a villus via diffusion in the brush border cells.
4. Inside the villi, triglycerides develop protein coats so that as lipoproteins they can move
into interstitial fluid.
5. The triglycerides travel from interstitial fluid, to lymph vessels, and to the bloodstream.
E. Water Absorption
1. The small intestine absorbs approximately 80 percent of the water that is in the small
intestine.
6.8 The Large Intestine
A. Structure and Function
1. The large intestine stores and concentrates feces—undigested and unabsorbed material,
water, and bacteria.
2. The large intestine begins as a cup-shaped pouch at its junction with the small intestine
(appendix attached here).
3. The main portion of the large intestine, the colon, contains E. coli bacteria that make
vitamin B12.
4. It is draped across the lower abdomen and ends in a rectum (feces storage), which opens
to the outside through the anus.
B. Disorders
1. Several factors, including stress and a low-bulk diet, can delay defecation, resulting in
constipation.
2. Fecal material lodged in the appendix can lead to the complications of appendicitis.
3. Some people are genetically predisposed to develop colon polyps, which start as benign
growths, but may later become cancerous.
a. Colon cancer is highly curable when detected early enough.
b. Diagnosis can come from a colonoscopy and a virtual colonoscopy, which uses x-rays
and a computer to generate an image of the colon.
6.9 Metabolism of Absorbed Organic Compounds
A. Nutrient molecules are shuffled and reshuffled once they have been absorbed.
1. All cells continually recycle some carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins by breaking them
apart.
2. Cells use the products as energy sources and building blocks.
B. When you eat, excess carbohydrates and other organic compounds are converted to fat for
storage in adipose tissue or converted to glycogen in the liver and muscle tissue.
C. Between meals, glucose levels are maintained by breakdown of glycogen reserves in the
liver, and amino acids are converted to glucose; adipose cells degrade fats to glycerol and
fatty acids, all which enter the blood.
D. The liver stores, converts, and maintains the concentrations of required organic compounds
in the blood; it inactivates most hormones, sending them to the kidneys for excretion, and it
removes worn-out red blood cells and detoxifies chemicals.
6.10 Vitamins, Minerals, and Phytochemicals
A. Humans need small amounts of at least 13 organic molecules, called vitamins, to assist in
cellular metabolism.
1. Some studies suggest that supplementing vitamins A, C, and E may counter the effects of
aging, protecting the immune system by inactivating free radicals.
B. Inorganic substances, called minerals (Ca, Mg, K, and Fe, for example), are also needed.
C. A balanced diet will normally meet all requirements for these substances for people who are
in good health; excessive intake is at the least wasteful and at the worst harmful.
D. Phytochemicals, supplied by plants, are also essential to reduce the risk of certain diseases.
6.11 What Should You Eat
A. USDA Dietary Recommendations
1. The USDA has recently issued a set of nutritional guidelines to replace its earlier “food
pyramid,” based on extensive nutritional research.
2. The diet recommends lowering the intake of refined grains, saturated fats, trans-fatty
acids, and added sugars or caloric sweeteners, and no more than one teaspoon of salt
daily.
3. More fruits and vegetables with high potassium and fiber content are encouraged, with
fat-free or low-fat milk products and whole grains; 55 percent of daily caloric intake is to
come from carbohydrates.
B. Fruits, Vegetables, and Whole Grains
1. Complex carbohydrates provide the body with glucose, fiber, and vitamins.
a. Soluble fiber present in many fruits and vegetables helps move food through the
digestive tract.
b. Soluble fiber also helps lower cholesterol and lower your heart disease risk.
2. Highly processed carbohydrates such as refined sugar and high fructose corn syrup are
empty calories since they have little nutritional value.
3. Approximately 1 percent of the population has celiac disease, where the villa in the
intestines is inflamed due to ingestion of gluten.
a. A diet devoid of gluten solves the problem.
C. Heart-Healthy Oils
1. Phospholipids and cholesterol are important components of membranes; fats are energy
reserves and provide insulation and cushioning.
2. The body needs very little polyunsaturated fat to supply the essential fatty acids, those
not made by the body itself.
a. Polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids.
1) Omega-3 fatty acids can reduce inflammation associated with cardiovascular
disease and arthritis.
2) These same fatty acids help to keep a diabetic’s glucose level more consistent.
3. Oleic acid from olive oil can help prevent heart disease.
4. A diet that is laden with lots of meat and dairy products could cause an increased
incidence of heart disease and cancer.
5. Trans fats have been shown to be even more deleterious to one’s heart health.
D. Lean Meat and Low-Fat Dairy
1. Of the 20 different amino acids in proteins, eight are essential (that is, must be supplied
in the diet).
2. Most proteins in animal tissues are complete; their amino acid ratios match human
nutritional needs.
3. Nearly all plant proteins are incomplete, in that they lack one or more amino acids that
are essential for humans.
a. A vegetarian diet can supply all essential nutrients if they are eaten in adequate
combinations.
6.12 Maintaining a Healthy Weight
A. What Is a Healthy Weight?
1. Body mass index (BMI), a ratio of weight and height, is a good way to measure ideal or
overweight conditions.
a. Scores between 25 and 29.9 are considered overweight; a score of 30 or more indicates
obesity.
B. Why Is Obesity Unhealthy?
1. Obesity is an overabundance of fat in adipose tissue that may lead to health problems.
a. Type II diabetes, heart disease, cancer, etc. are only some of the potential health
issues associated with obesity.
2. Obese individuals have additional triglycerides in their fat cells, which interferes with
their functioning.
a. These damaged cells encourage inflammation in the body that can increase cancer
risks or interfere with the functioning of insulin.
C. Genetics of Obesity
1. Genes may have an influence on whether or not we gain weight.
2. A study of twins found that genetic differences affected the response each set had to
overfeeding or to losing weight.
3. Scientists have discovered the ob gene, which produces leptin, an appetite suppressor.
a. Experiments performed on mice show that those without the ob gene become obese.
b. Few individuals have a leptin deficiency.
4. Another more common gene called flo has been isolated in humans and also leads to
obesity.
5. In most individuals, the secret to dieting is not genetic—just move more and eat less.
D. Eating Too Little
1. Anorexia nervosa is a condition where an individual is not within 15 percent of their normal
weight.
a. Anorexia may have a genetic basis, but is also largely due to social pressures.
b. Anorexia can have disastrous effects on bone and heart health.
2. Bulimia nervosa is a condition where an individual binges and then purges by vomiting.
a. This condition may damage both esophageal cells and teeth.
b. It can also lead to an improper pH, which upsets the body’s homeostasis.
