Selecting and sizing process compressors to better match process requirements A. K. Coker, A. KC. Technology, West Midlands, England oper compressor selection and sizing requires understanding the main types of compressors and their operation, using the right mathematical mod- ols for sizing both polytropic and adiabatic compressors, and providing for surge control and compressor discharge fluid treatment, ‘There is no single type of compressor that can be adapted to a particular application. The operating condi- tions, space and weight restrictions must be reviewed before the appropriate compressor is selected. In addition, the type of driver must be selected since its operation and process conditions are interrelated. Fig. 1 shows the different types of compressors. They can be classified into two basic types: reciprocating and centrifugal. The reciprocating compressor is well suited for high pressures and low-volume flowrates, while the centrifugal is preferred for lower pressures and high-vol- ‘ume flowrates. A centrifugal compressor uses the rela~ tionship between velocity and pressure to increase the gas pressure, The gas enters a rotating impeller at the eye; the vanes force the gas to the outside rim, and subse- ‘quently throw it away from the rim at a high velocity. Phe «tas is flung into the surrounding diffuser and volute pas- ssageways with a large volume, resulting in a reduced veloc- ity. The velotity encray’is’changed into pressure enérey and this subsequently increases the gas pressure ‘Conapressor performance often varies with changesin. process conditions. Sometimes performance curves sup- plied by the manufacturer as discharge pressure and power requirement versus an inlet volumetric flow may not be valid for variations in process conditions. Lapinat has pro- vided a technique for obtaining a usable performance curve that is valid for the actual process conditions, Centrifugal compressors. In a centrifugal compres- sor, at least half the driver power (eg, an electric motor, «gas or steam turbine, or a.gas engine) is changed into gas velocity energy. The increased velocity ean be car- ried forward to the next impeller for e further increase in velocity, A centrifugal compressor tses.the impeller to furnish rotational pressure, which squoczes the gas out- wards and closer together, resulting in some pressure increase. As the impellers rotated faster, more energy is expended from the driver. Fig, 2 illustrates the flow of gas in a centrifugal compressor. The amount of pressure Sanaa oymanic | clstcement ale cee aby == ih ee vo, — cneoer | warna ti frié S ‘ina Sete ear eae Fig. 1. Basic compressor typos. Centrifugal force as outet Impater. Votute "Fig. 2. Centrifugal compressor gas flow. . that a compressor impeller can develop depends on its speed and diameter, Increased velocity and presgure are required where there are large impeller diameters and high speed. The impeller metal will have the same cen- trifugal force as the gas flowing through it. Therefore, the pressure that is developed with a single impeller is « limited by the strength of the impeller metal. An addi- tional impeller is used where one impeller is incapable of, providing the required pressure. The gas leaving one rim enters the-next stage eye of the impeller, consequently boosting its pressure. Reciprocating compressors. Reciprocating compres- sors are furnished as single or multistage with iatings from fractional to more than 15 MW per unit. The pres- sures range from a low vacuum at suction tovdd,000 bat” and higher ut discharge. The number of stages depends fn the overall compression ratio. The compression ratio HYDROCARHON PROCESSING JULY 1994 39i 2958 n =e. Generally, it is impractical to build sufficient Fest op second stage heat transfer equipment into the design of most com- Sater, Qwcrwce | prossors to convey the bulk of the heat of compression. a ee ‘Therefore, most machines tend to operate along a poly- tropie path which approaches the adiabatic. Mast com- pressor caleulations are based on the adiabatic curve.® S ‘Relationships may be developed between the tempera- senor ture, pressure and volume for a polytropie process between state 1 and state 2, The ideal gas law states that: pV=RT 8) i Frat stege Sevvnd stage that i Fig, 3, Two-stage compressor flow diagram. prvi =PaVa" @ j RT, per stage is limited by the discharge temperature andes Py="y"» Pa = 6) not exceed four.” t ‘Multistage compressors are provided with intercoolers __-‘Rearranging p, and_p in Eq, (5): botwoon stages and with an aftercooler at the compres- sor discharge. These are heat exchangers that remove the TY Ve 6) heat of eompression from the gas and reduce its tempera~ Bhy ture to approximately that at the compressor intake. In certain cases, aftercooling and interstage cooling are not —_—_‘For a polytropic process between states 1 and 2: CE always bonofioial. If the gas must be heated before enter- ing a reactor, downstream heaters can be designed fora Py 3, lower duty ifthe heat of compression is not removed. Mulk —p, @ ! tistage compressors are intercooled when the inlet tem- . perature of the gas and the required compression ratio Substituting Eq (6) into Eq. (7): are such that the discharge temperature of the gas exceeds 150°C. The coolers reduce the actual volume of gas flowing ( 7% ) to the high pressure cylinders, the power requirement, and, therefore, keep the temperature within safe operat- ing limits, In instances where a compressor with inter- ‘Therefore: coolers is used to compress gases with condensable vapors, 4 the combined effect of compression and cooling can con- = 7, _( Vs J" dense out the liquid. Thorefore, the liquid condensate mast =~ V, } be removed by installing a knockout pot after the inter- * cooler. This will prevent damage tothe downstream of the or: compressor. Fig 3 illustrates a two-stage compressor with intercoolers. (By ® @ ao) ‘Compressor equations. Compressors are rated in kif 1 A J i of compression head developed. This is the energy con~ oO veyed to.a gas stream by a compressor. It is observed by the Substituting Eq, 10 into Eq. 7: ‘ jnerease in gas pressure as the gas passes through the ‘hy? ‘compressor. Centrifugal compressors more nearly follow Yi polytropie operation and are widely used to handle large ‘olumnes of gas at pressure ranges of 7 bar to several thou- sand bar. Be "There are two ways to carry out the thermedynamic _The compression work can be calculated from the pres- calculativis fur compression, namely by asouming: suro-volume relatianship’as follows: (A) An adiabatic (isentropic) reversible path: A process during which there is no heat added or removed from the system. The entropy is constant. That ap a2) pV*=constant @ (2) A polytropie reversible path: A process in which ya 4 changes in gas characteristics during compression are } reviewed. That is: for a polytropie process: pV" =constant @ 2 WV. ‘The constant temperature process is a case when We)ere aa) 4; which is equivalent to isothermal compression; the con- " stant pressure process n=0;and theeonstant volume pro- ‘Integrating Bq. 18: 40 WYDROCARBON PROCESSING /JULY 1904we C=p,Vf =p,Ve aw Therefore, Hq. 14 can be expressed as: r[atees| Using the ideal-gas laws: PiVo=mRT and: pi =mBTy Eq. 16 is given by: mR, - 7) i-n as) w a6) For polytropie compression, work done is defined by: R(T, -T.) w— 2k = 7) 7) Top an oO ‘The polytropie compression work can be expressed W-—2 1%, - 2%) as) Since the process from 1 to 2 is polytropie, then: PVE =PaVE (19) (20) en (22) 3) 22 = compression ratio Pr Eq, 23 is given by: 24) Polytropic compressor. Real compression processes operate between adiabatic and isothermal compres- sion. Actual compression processes are polytropic because the gas being compressed is not at constant entropy as in the adiabatic process, or at constant tem- perature as in the isothermal processes. Generally, ‘compressors have performance characteristics analo- gous to pumps. Their performance curves relate flow ‘capacity to head. The head developed by a fluid between states 1 and 2 can be derived from the general ther- modynamic equation. He ‘Joa (28) where ‘H=hoad, kiikg ressure, bara pecific volume of the fluid, meg Fora polytropic compression, the pressure-volume relationship is pV" =constant vaS pe where: V=mole volume, m®/(kg mol) For the polytropic head, H,, V can be substituted in ‘Eq. 25. The polytropic head is defined by: 6) 4, fe op en ape by integrating Bq, 27, H, becomes: 28) (29) where: vient, <6, mt 222 (30) Substituting these into Eq. 29, to eliminate C, gives: a_) Lalo Using the gas law relationship: - 4| ay J HYDROCARHON PROCESSING) JULY (004 442 E 3 i 2m foe ab feos nk a0 os Poppi 6 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 G4 66 08 90 G2 Poytepe otfeiency, Fig, 4, Polytropio and adiabatic ofciancy fora perfect gas (Z=1) 32) BY, M, O sue: Z, = compressibility factor at suction T, = absolute temperature at suction, K ‘M, =moleoular weight, kg/kg mol R= Gas constant, 8.314 ki/ieg mol K ‘Substituting Eq. 32 into Eq. 31, the polytropic head, _Zit he Zag = a) ‘The polytropic head is defined by: ote) 35) ‘This can also be expressed as: a(R) G5) iG 1 ete molar mass of the gas, kg/kg mol T= suction temperature, K (36) ‘The discharge temporature, ty, is given by: ) 4) : ee Zag Rd ‘There is a limit on the temperature such as in olefin or butadiene plants to prevent polymerization. At tempera- ‘ares greater than 230°C to 260°C, the approximate mechan- ‘cal limit, problems of sealing and casing growth could occur. High temperature requires a special and high cost machine, ‘Therefore, multistage compressors are designed within the temperature range of 120°C to 150°C." Tn industrial compressors or expanders, the compression (7 H,, becomes: or expansion path will be polytropic. Therefore, the poly- tropic work produced (or required) can be derived from 2, RT, ( a (gg) 8418. Thatis: nei me (-Wyaty —PVi} (38) If the compressibility factor, Zo, for the gas at discharge conditions is significantly different from that of the suction, _sinee: then the average compressibility factor, Zau is used to 1 , calculate the polytropic head. PAVE =paV for polytropic condition, Eq. 38 becomes: ‘Table 1. Polytropie efficiencies for various types _. ybedrey «ow | | O Factine conation Ey CW py GAM | Gentiugal compressor Best 080 Gentitagal compressor Fair 072 Reciprocating compressor Best £1.00 where: Reciprocating compressor Fair os ‘va orrotary vane compressor Best 082 Ps ‘Axial or rotary vane compressor Fair 0.85. R, =— and pV, Rotary lobe compressor Average O57 Py Smal bore or ppetne aout S08 reciprocating compressor Eq. 39 can be further expressed to give Good 148 Internal combustion engine ‘Table 2. Approximate mechanical losses as a || percentage of a gas power requirement Gas power requirement English, np Metric, KW Mechanical losses, % 003,000, 002,500 3 3,000 06,000 2.5000 5,000 28 £000 to 10,000 5,000 t0 7.500 2 10,000+ 7800+ 15 42. HYDROCARBON PROCESSING /JULY 184 a) tt Wy = (4% je 1} sane «0 ‘The negative sign shows that the power is put into the system. ‘The actual work required is defined by: wy, (CW) toa ee dl aD ‘The power required is:(Wet & Power = fete fw (42) 3,600 Adiabatic compressor. Performance of reciprocating (pis- ton) compressors with large valve area, or where valve losses, are evaluated, is considered as close to adiabatic behavior as ‘can be measured. The thermodynamic definition of an adi- ‘abatie process requires that no heat be added or removed from a system in which a change of state occurs. The adiax batic head produces the following equation, which is similar to the polytropic head of Eq. 33. This is expressed as: «(Zao wt) w|i ( 4] 3) 4s) This can also be given by: 8814 ZT 1 we (ofa 7,=T7,R,* .K (45) - 4. kd/kg (46) ‘The actual adiabatic work required is: (Ween et = an ‘The adiabatic power required by the compressor is: W, (Waat | a 3,600 Efficiency. The adiabatic oificiency, £., assumes that ‘work done in compressing the gas is reversible (that is, there is no heat loss or gain, and on re-expansion to the original pressure, volume and temperature will remain ‘the same as the original). ‘The adiabatic efficiency, Haw is defined by: Powers -{ 4s) a9 pe Meh 50) 7,6, ~ 8314 60) ‘The polytropic efficiency, Ey is used to compare adia- patie with polytropie performance. This is defined by (#5) oy n ‘The polytropic efficiency assumes that heatis lost (radi- ation or conduction) or gained by friction during an actual 44 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING /JULE 1994 Fig, & Comprossor generalized flow characteristics. ‘compression process. Both polytropic and adiabatic effi- ciencies represent the difference in theoretical energy required in compressing a gas and the actual energy required. However, the adiabatic efficiency closely repre- sents the power absorbed. The polytropic efficiency gives ‘a better estimate of the temperature rise, Generally, poly tropic efficiency is used in all centrifugal compressor com- putations. Table 1 gives some typical polytropic efficiencies — for different types of machines. Fig. 4 shows the relationship between the polytropie effi- cienoy and adiabatic (isentropic) efficiency of a perfect gas. ‘The mass flowrate, w, hglh, can be determined from the volumetric rate, Q, m°/h, 2s: u=Q 2) where: weight _ PM, . olume ~ BRT © substituting Eq. 53 into Eq. 52, w becomes: PM, ) . 0 er | oa (amma “4 ‘The discharge volumetric flowrate, Qy isdefined by: 4] a BR} ‘The actual intake volume, Q, is the volume aspirated into a reciprocating compressor cylinder during the suction stroke, or drawn into the inlet of a centrifugal compres- sor impeller. Q, is defined by: - 1.01925 )/_71 7 2, = Gul P \(seeiz)z0" Generally, ithe compression ratio for piston machines is Jess than 5 or 6, single-stage compression is used. Ifthe total compression ratio is between 6 and 36, two-stage compression will be requived. Three or more stages may be required for compression ratios greater than 36, For a two-stage com- (68) enpression, caleulate the square root of the total compression ratio. Then assume that the compression ratio per stage will be equal to the square root of the total compression.” Mechanical losses. After the gas power is calculated by either the polytropic or adiabatic compression method, power losses due to friction in bearings, seals and speed- increasing gears should be added. Aithough there is no accurate method to estimate mechanical losses from gas power requirements, Table 2 gives approximate mechan- ical losses as a percentage of the gas power requirement. ‘The mechanical losses can be calculated by: Mechanical losses = (Power)\% Mechanical losses) (58) ‘The total power required is: Design problem. A centrifugal compressor is to be specified for a gas plant. The unit is to compress 8,200 kegfhr of gas mixture at 66°C from 1.5 bara to 5.5 bara. ‘The gas mixture consists of 80% hydrogen (Hy), 45% methane (CH,), 15% ethane (Cals), 7% propane (CyHg) and 3% n-butane (n-C, Ho). Assuming a poly- tropic efficiency of 87%, adiabatic efficiency ia 85%, suction compressibility factor Z, =0.97 and discharge compressibility factor Zp = 0.98, caleulate the adia- batic head, discharge temperature, actual work required and the total brake power. Table 3 gives the properties of the gas mixture. ‘The mixture specifie heat ratio, k, is defined by: eS MG, ‘MC, MG, - 8314 43.34 = 1287 35.026 * 17 ‘The average molecular weight of the gas mixture: M,.= 17.162. Conversions: k Solution. A computer program has been developed for either adiabatic or polytropic compression using the equations described in this article, (The program is available from the author for a nominal fee to cover postage and handling. Contact Dr. A. K. Coker; A-K.C. ‘Technology, 131 George Frederick Road, Silos Culd- field, West Midlands, B736TE U.K.) Table 4 gives the results of the gas mixture. The results show that: ‘The adiabatic head = 230.3 gE ‘The discharge temperature = 162°C “The actual work required = 276.6 4 Kg ‘Total brake powor = 649 kW. 4G HYDROCARHON PROCHSSING/JULT 194 Prova,= Power + Mechanical losses 9) ‘Multicomponent gas streams. Designing a gas compres- sor for a gas mixture involves estimating the thermodynamic properties. The procedure for calculating gas mixture prop- erties is to use the weighted molal average of the property. ‘These thermodynamic properties are estimated as: Molecular weight Myonune= Sy 60 Reduced temperature Taauy © Sita: (61) Reduced pressure via SP, Molal heat capacity MC, nigue= 9% MC, (68) Ratio of molal heat capacities k MC, wise MC, igure 64) mitre BAC teary Cy gue ~ 8318) “ VY Compressibility factor Zmstare= &Tr» P.) (65) for the mixture. ‘The compressibility Z factor for natural gas is deter- ‘Table 3. Properties of the gas mixture Molecular ‘waht, ity” vite Re pola Te"R KOR ‘66 2h Sah bs Gar eis rs feo Fare S000 S43 97.8 1g goor es or S60 rae Baa Stoo aus 16660196 574 Sere trae Sot 76510840 325 Table 4, Adiabatic compressor sizing (Gas flowrate, korn '8200.090 ‘Suction temperature, °C: ‘66,000 ‘Suotion pressure, bare: 1500 ‘Suation density, kor con | Suction volumetric rate, mfr eras () Suction compressiily factor, 0.970 Discharge temperature, °C: 161853 Discharge pressure, ba 5.500 Discharge density, kg/m 2.808 Discharge volumetric rato, s/s 2.921.988, Discharme compressibility factor Zx 0.930 Compression rato, Ra: Seer Ratio of spocfic heats capacities, k 1237 Polytropie expone 1202 Moloociar woight of gx, Ka/kg- mole, Ma $7462 ‘Arorage compressibilt f2tor Za 03350 Adkabaticeficiency, 85.000, Polytropic efiiency, 97.000 ‘aiabatic head, kil 230270 ‘aiabatic work done, Kk 235.118 ‘actual work done, kil 278.608 Power demand by the compressor, KW: 530.056 Power losses due to fiction in bearings, KW: 18.002 Total brake power KW: 648.956 Calculated adiabatic eticiency from palytropic efficiency, 85.326 _Poiytropic efficiency, SSBmined elsewhere,” where , le fraction of component Compressor surge control, All dynamic compressors have a limited range of capacity for a given selection of impellers at a fixed speed. Below the minimum value of 50% to 70% of the rated flow, the compressor will surge, becoming unstable in operation. Excessive vibration and possibly sudden failure or shutdown may occur. Its essential that all compressor systoms be designed to avoid possible surge operation. This is done by incor- Porating some type of antisurge control system. This isto ‘ensure that the flow into the compressor is sufficient to maintain stability at the required pressure drop across the compressor. The surge control system should be used only for surge control and must not be linked with other functions of the process control system, otherwise this ould result in compressor damage. Other surge control may be a blow off valve, This is ‘eutomatically controlled to open and blow off excess capac- ity to the atmosphere if the process flow requirement is too low. In some cases, suction control valves are used. For gases that cannot be discharged to atmosphere, a bypass control is the common method, This action bypasses -~\pnwanted flow back to the suction source. However, since (the gas has already been compressed, its temperature is increased, and, therefore, must be cooled before entering the compressor a second time. In this case, a bypass cooler may be installed. The cooler may be avoided where the suction source is large or far away such that the heat is 4issipated by mixing or radiation, Fig. 5 shows generalized flow characteristics of com- pressor.* In this figure, as the system resistance decreasos, the compressor-system operating point moves to the right with a corresponding increase in the volumetric gas flow. However, the gas flow through the compressor cannot increase without a limit, Ths limit is known as “stonewall” and is caused by choking of the gas as it exits from the compressor. These two operating limits are shown in Fig. 6. ‘The designer should ensure that the system compressor curve-intersection point is well away from the surge or stonewall for efficient operation, Compressor fluids treatment. The discharge from any compressor contains a dirty corrosive liquid. Removing e sludge from a compressor air system can effect the following: ‘Reduce installation costs for drain traps, pipe and fit- tings, filters and regulators. ‘© Reduce drain trap maintenance and the failure rate of pneumatic equipment, which is caused by dirt and moi shure in the supply line * Increase the life of pneumatic equipment. High performance equipment requires high quality clean ‘and dry compressed air. Compressed air contains water, oil and dirt particles, which affect performance of pneumatic equipment, Compressed air dryers are used to remove water vapor and to dry the ait. Two main types of dryers are used: refrigerant and desiccant. Desiocant dryers use an adsorbent material such as activated alumina or molecular sieves to remove moisture from the compressed air. Also, desiccant dryors are either heat regenerated or heatless. The main advantage of desiccant dryers is their ability to cool the air toa very low temperature, They are more expensive in both capital and running costs, but are important when higher = quality air is required. These dryers are widely used in the offshore oil industry, where extreme ambient conditions are encountered, Design of desiccant dryers for removing, ‘water vapor from natural gas is given elsewhere.®* NOMENCLATURE constant. p= specific heat at constant pressure, Jag K C= specific heat at constant volume, Jikg Eqa= adiabatic efficiency = polytropi efficiency (try 0.76 for preliminary work) gas flowrate, kgihr ead, kag Figg adiabatic head, kikg H,= polytropic head, kak, [ES adiabatic isentropic) exponent, C,/C, ‘MC, = molar specific heat at constant pressure, kal/kg mol K. ‘MC; « molar specific heat at constant volume, kal/kg mol K ‘My= molecular weight, kg/kg mol ‘m= polytropic exponent bselute pressure, bara suction pressure, bara Pam discharge pressure, bara P,= suction pressure, bara lume flow, 2 mt Qq = discharge volumetric owrate, 2 Q,=-Actual intake volume flow, mist)see ugg" suction flow measured at 1.01325 har and 288.26 K. "f= univorsel gas constant. i igmol K ‘compression ratio, PP ‘T;=suetion temperature, K 1) discharge temperature, K {T,= suction temperature, K Zens = average compressibility factor for gas from suction to dis- ‘charge conditions. A value of 0 will give conservative results, tiexene ren “gua cna one ee {REESE ES Geo mmnneupermaea ies 1 erg Bf ea, Pers Choma Dine’ Handbons, eed coraw tl Bak coeiehar «Be natn catmaungtnoms SEES Eos espe caren EARS ee oS Peiduniioare. cree Le rnsoratonsonsne RENEE ccuceripruer none iaiapeae SEER he ceramics ede ya For further reading: Installation Gido—Guit othe elton and Isa lation of Cnpressed Air Sevier, {tho, 189, bj Tages Rand | The author | A. K. Coker isa lecturer in process design and | a consultant for A.K.C. Technology. Prior experi | ence includes process engineering for Davy | Energy and Environmental Li, Shell Petroleum "| Development Company of Nigeria, HAG Eng | neering in Glasgow, and research and develon- Se Pi ert tor Blue Grete inustry nthe UK. Dr Coker MS MME roids a B8c (Hons,) dearee in chemical engi neering, an MSc in process analysis and development, and a PAD in Chemical engineering, al rom Aston University, Bimingham, UK. He hhas published 19 articles in several International journals and is competing a book on Fortean programs for chamical process dsign ‘analysis and simulation to be published by Gulf Pubtching Co. in November 1984, Dr Cokeris algo a chartered chomicalengioor and Corporate membor of th nsittion of Chemical Engineers the UK. HYDROCARHON PROCESSING/JULY 1994 47