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/ 20
THE
RECONSTRUCTION OF
RELIGIOUS ‘THOUGHT:
IN ISLAM
By
Sm MOHAMMAD IQBAL
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON : HUMPHREY MILFORD puinvace
‘Dam Quran is a book which emphasizes ‘dood’ rather than
‘idea’. ‘There are, however, men to whom it is not possible
organically to assimilate an alien universe by re-iving, a8 a
vital proces, that special type of inner experience on which
religious faith ultimately reats. Moreover, the modern man,
by developing habits of concrete thought—habits which
Islam itself fostered at least in the earlier stages of ite
cultural career—has rendered himself less capable of that
experience which he farther suspects because ofits liability
to illusion. ‘The more genuine schools of Sufism have, no
doubt, done good work in shaping and direeting the evalu-
tion of religious experience in Islam; but their Intter-day
representatives, owing to their ignorance of the modern
mind, have become absolutely incapable of receiving any
fresh inspiration from modern thought and experience,
‘They are perpetuating methods which were created for
generations possessing a cultural outlook differing, in
important respects, from our own. ‘Your creation end
resurrection,’ says the Quran, ‘ate like the creation andl resur-
rection of a'single soul.’ A living experience of the kind
of biological unity, embodied in this verse, requires to-day a
‘method physiologically Iese violent and paychologically
more suitable to a concrete type of mind. In the absence
of such a method the domand for a scientife form of
religious knowledge is only natural. In these lectures,
hich were undertaken atthe request of the Madras Muslim,
Association and delivered st Madtas, Hyderabad, and
Aligarh, T have tried to meet, even though partially, this
urgent demand by attempting to reconstruct Muslim reli-
gious philosophy with due regard to the philosophical
traditions of Islam and the more secint developments in
the various domains of human knowledge. And the present
moment is quite favourable for such en undertaking. vi Preface
Classical Physics has learned to criticize its own founda-
tions, As a roslt ofthis criticism the kind of materialism,
which it originally necessitated, is rapidly disappearing
and the day is not far off when Religion sad Science may
discover hitherto unsuspected mutual harmonies, Tt must,
hhowever, be remembered that there is no such thing 25
finality in philosophical thinking. As knowledge advances
and fresh avenues of thought are opened, other views, and
probably sounder views than those set forth in ehese lec-
tures, are possible, Our duty is carefully to watch the pro-
‘gress of human thought, and to maintain an independent
critical sttitude towards it,
ML.
CONTENTS
1, KNOWLEDGE AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE .
UL, THE PHILOSOPHICAL ‘PST OP THE REVELA-
‘TIONS OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE
Lf, THB CONCEPTION OF GOD AND THE MEANING
(OF PRAYER
IV. THE HUMAN EGO—HIS FREEDOM AND IM.
‘MORTALITY °
\V. THE SPIRIT OF MUSLIM CULTURE
VI. THE PRINCIPLE OF MOVEMENT INTHE STRUC-
"TORE OF ISLAM oe
‘VIL, IS RELIGION POSSIBLE?
INDEX
a
mm
189 138 The Spirit of Muslim Culture
which tends to give a false view of history. Tbn-i-Khaldun,
seeing the spirit of his own view of history, has fully criti.
cized and, T believe, finally demolished the alleged revela-
tional basis in Islam of an idea similar, at least in its
psychological effects, to the original magian idea which had
reappeared in Islam under the pressure of magian thodght,
VI
‘THE PRINCIPLE OF MOVEMENT IN THE
STRUCTURE OF ISLAM
$s. cultural movenseat lam rests the od state view
of the universe, and teaches a dynamic view, As an
notional system of unification it recognizes the worth of
Bek 0 a
basis of human amity, Bloods
Se ae ee
bums unity becomes posible only withthe peroeption
that all human life is spirimal in its origin, Such a per-
y ceremonial
scible for-man 10
- Chsistianlty which had
Griginally appeared as a monastic order was tied by Con-
stantine as-g-sestem of unification, Tis fulure to work a3
such a syetom drove the Emperor Julian to return to the
old gods of Rome on which he itempied to pul-philor
sephicil interpretations. A modem histovian of civilization
dua ths depicted the state ofthe civilized world about the
time when Islam appeared on the stage of History:
“It weed then that egret ciation tt tha taken four
thovand yous to const was on the verge of doen and
that mankind a ly to Tetum to thet conn of barbarin
here every tie aod tet wan gant the next and law and order
were unknown, ‘Theol wil snstions bad Joe thir oes, Hens
ald inners maths suld-na-longee
The new
‘encom erated by
i Tewae atime faught widh tage
CCiviliaatio, like a giguatic tree whose fllage bad overarched the
‘world and whove branches bad borne the glden trite of art and
feience and literature tood toting, ite tronk no longer alive with
the flowing sop of devotion and reveseace, but rotted to the eae,
riven by the storms of war, and held together only by te cords of| |
140 Phe Principle of Movement in
ancient custome and laws, that ight sap at ny moment, Was there
‘ny emotional culture tht could be brought into enter mankind
once more into unity and wo cave cvilation? "This entre must be
‘something of a new type, for te ld sanctions snd ceremonial were
dea, snd to build up athss ofthe seme kind would be the work of
"The writer then proceeds to tel us that the world stood
in need of x new culture t tke the place ofthe culture
af the throne, and the systems of unification which ‘were
based on blood-telaonahp. Te i amaring, be ad tat
such seultare should have arisen from Arabia just st the
time when it was most neded, ‘Theres however, nothing
amazing in he phenomenon, ‘The werd-ife ititvely
sees its own nee ands rts moment dines its wa
Sirceton, ‘This ws inthe langage of religion, we cal
plophetc revelation, tis only natural that Islam should
Fave fashod across ‘the consciousness of simple people
untouched yang of the ancient eulturey and occupying
2 oprephical poston tere thre continents met (O°
the Structure of Teton on
fuilce of Barope in politieal and social erence ilustrtze
{he former priscipe; the immobility of Tnlm during the
prince Sf movement in the strate of Islam? "This is
Enown a Tad
"The word ietify means to exert, In the texminalagy
‘view to form an
independent na Legal question, The idea, 1
jelieve, has its origin in a well-known versc.of the Quran-
‘Rnd th thewe se exert We shaw Qur pal We find it
Inore definitely 2 ion of the Holy
‘Peophet. Whon Ma‘ad was appointed ruler of Yemen. the
decide masters coming up_bsfors_him, “I will judge
#f the Book of God contains noting to guide you?” “hen
will act on the precedent of the Prophet of God.’ ‘But if
the precedents fail?”
dgemect:’ ‘Whe stadent of the history of Islam, however,
gether) The new culture finds the foundation of world:
‘unity in the ptinciple of Tauhid’. Isiam, a a polity, is only
2 practical smiling this prin si
nthe intellectual an aking Ct demands
loyalty to God, not to thrones. And since God is the ult-
mate spiritual basis of all life, loyalty to God vigtually
amounts to man’s loyalty to his own ideal nature) The’
ultimate spiritual basis of all life, as conceived by Islam, is
‘ternal and reveals itself in variety and change, A society
Based on such a conception of Reality must reconcile, in
ts life, the categories of permanence and change, (Ie mast
‘possess eternal principles to regulate its collectve'life; for
the eternal gives us 2 foothold in the world of perpetual
change.) But eternal principles when they are understood
‘to exclade all possibilities of change which, according to
the Quran, is one of the greatest ‘signs’ of God, tend to
immobilize what is easentially mobile in
Ts well aware that with the golitial expansion of Islam
systematic egal z and
four early doctors of law, both of Arabian and non-Arabian
dlescent, worked ceasclenaly until z
aL
‘schools af Law. ‘These schools of law recognize a
gro of iad (1) culaeeauhay in tetion
‘ntsc i practically confined fo the founder of the shoals,
(@) telatixe authority which is to be exercised within the
Yimit of pacicala: schol, and (3) spel aushoity whieh
felatea tothe determining ofthe lw applicable toa partica-
fae cate left undetermined by the founders. In this paper
Tam concerned with the fist degree of thad only, i.
complete authority in legislation.
al denied ever since the
cstablishment of the schools, inasmuch as the idea of 142 ‘The Principle of Movement in
complete Ijthad is hedged round by conditions which axe
ible of reali vidual
Such an attitude seems exceedingly atemge in a system of
In based mainly-on.the_gronndwork_pravided by the
(Quran which embodies an essentially dynamic outlook on
life, Ieis, therefore, necessary, before we prooeed further:
to discover the eauses of this i
Some European writer think that the stationary charactet
of the Law of Islam is due tothe infkaence of the Turks.
is fan entirely supertcial view, forthe legal schools of
Islam had been finally established long hefore the Trish
the Structure of Islam aa
the binding force of Shar'at, and to make the structure of
Te lee aOR
3, The ise and growth of scatic Sufism, which gradually
developed under influences of « non-Iolanie character, a
wucy speculative side, i 10 loge extent responsible for
Siiatdiads. On its purely celisios aide Susan fostered
[eagainst tho vetbal qulbles of our eatly
pear The eave of Sulyan Susi an satancs in point
He was one of the acutet legal minds of bis tne, and was
decry the funder of schol flav; but bing sho
intensely spiritual, the dry-a-dust aubletis of con-
Sry legate love-bin taste Sufism. On its
{influence beyan to work in the history of Islam, ‘The real
(causes are, in my opinion, as follows:
speculative side which developed later, Sufism is a form
f feccthought and in allianes with Rationalisn. “The
1. We aro all familiar with the Rationalist movement
which appeared in the church of Islam during the eat)
days ofthe Abbasides, andthe bitter controversies which it
tised, ‘Take for instance the ne important point of con
‘uve bation the two camps-—the conservative desi
sLthe aemity ofthe Quran. Thy Rata done
bbcause they thought that this as Gsfpoaotier eon ofthe
Christian dogma of the eternity of the wordk on the other
Iban, the gapsszaatige thinkers whom the later Abbess,
fearing the politcal implications of Rationalism, gave theit
full suppor, thoughe that by denying the eternity of the
‘Quran the Rationalstdwere undermining the very founde-
tions of Muslim society? Nazzam, for instance, practically
rejected the traditions, and openly declared Abn Fras
to be an untrustworthy reporter, ‘Thus, partly owing to
2 isu eof the ult ues of Rationalism,
and partiy owing tothe unrestrained thought of particu
Rationaliste,Gonservative thinkers regarded this movement
462 Toree of disintegration, and considered it a danger to
the stabil of Islam ava social polity) The main
‘to realize this the only course open to them was to
seth at bid on the dt of air and bain
(ipenranes and Realy) ected a tind of ndiforence
err appli to Appearance and nto Realty.
Thi sabe of taal sertedlines in ter Suton
ahooed ane ran of avery imporsnt pest of Ta,
SRST a pitcing tbe prnpect of eorataiod
Bascal De poche side it atracted and Sally
absorbed the best minds in Islan) ‘The Muslim state wa
31 mediocs
and the unthinking masses of Islan,
‘of a higher ealibze to guide them, faund choir security only |
7 On te top all hi exe the
die cent of Nalin inlet Iifomin the male of
ihe inecth century. This wa indeed a gest ow, and
al the contemporary historians ofthe invasion of Tartar
acrbe the faves of Baghdad witha haluppresed
feos about the future of Islan, for fear of father
Kfantcpation, which i only natura ia such period of
lta dey,
thei ors ob -one point of preserving a uniform social
their fforts on the one point of preserving a uniformsocial
life for the people by a jealous exclusion of all innovations 44 The Principle of Movement in
the law of Shari ved by the early d
the Structure of Islam 45
Islam. Their leading ica was social order, and there is no,
ub that they were partly right beeauseorgaizaion doce
toacertin exten conterit the forces of donay. ut they,
didnot se, and our modern Ulema donotoce tha the ule
mate fate ofa people doesnot depend eo much on owanizh-
fon sson the-worthand power of ditdeal mata at
‘wenonganized soc the individual is aliogtiersnshel
‘fot cisions Hepsns the woeweath cfoocal thoes
‘around him and loses his own oul. ‘Thus a false reverence,
for past history and its ertifcial resurrection constitute no)
remedy for a people's decay. “The verdict of history, as
‘modern weiter as happily put tis that worn out ideas have
never risen to power among a people who have worn them
ute y fictive
‘wated individuals. Soch individuals alone reveal the depth
of life. ‘They disclose new standards inthe light of which
(Ue bein tse tht ou enantio willy So
olable and requires revision. (The tendency to. over-
organization by a false reverence Bf the pastas masifested
in the legists of Islam in the thirteenth century and later,
vwas contrary to the ince impulse of Islam, and conse
aquestly invoked the powerful reaction of Ibn-i-Taimiyya,
‘ono of the most indefatigable writers and. preachers of
Jan tgs rain tym afer he detrton
of Baghdad,
Ibn-i-Taithiyya was brought up in Hambslite tradition,
Claiming freedom of Iitihed for himself he rose in revolt
against the finality of the schools, and went back to first
principles in order to make a fresh start. Like Ibn-i-Hazm
—the founder of Zahini school of law—he rejected the
Hanafite principe of reawning by anglogy and Tims a2
sinderstood by older Teg for ie dhonght agreement wap
the bass of all supersiton, And there is no doubt that,
considering the moral and intellectual deetepitude of his
ee i soth_ ury, from the one
ee ees
jn Persia, and finally succeeded in spreading the fire of his
a
brea =oomey
fashion, While it rises in revolt against the finality of the)
fav it mainly falls back on the traditions of the Prophet.
rosng of fey we find at te des osha
hues long beea working in the i
cf the Turkish nation, ‘This is clear from Halim Sabit's
ew theory of Mokammedan Law, grounded on modern
oeiologieal concepts, Ifthe renaissance of Islam is a fact,
and I believe itis a fact, we too one day, like the Turks, a See eee ) —stighty a re Seis wy hat
a highly peer the ino of the unity
a net and part elit which somehow
ran in tac but bhai etoneonpeed 2
cach oer ‘ a "
a eral to give you.some idea of rligio-poitcal \ ‘space-time reference, is aly when
le si i aa ye | Sac sgn ear o whatwecal he extemal
SRE mata se uate we Fyn area when you ok tt a ating in
sei haue to scculuate our intelectual hese, foot
Pre cannot make any orginal contibution Tos genera! |
serve leastana cack on the rapid movement AFTDORESN
‘in the world of Islam. ~
5 ds ana in and ideal of ach acing, The
Snain Lines of thought in Turkey represented by the Nation- Tat aie standpoint, an
\ “Jur Party and the Party of religious reform, ‘The point of CA cca, Ta hee Hea pines into pace
: : ' code Aaron to realize then ina efit
sreand aot Religion, With these thinkers religion as such f ‘ongaton to riz th oat
Sateand aot Bree anction, ‘The sae i the sential i Suman orton) isin this seam alone that the 6
Factor in national if which determines the character and, ioe ie thenerdny. notin thegonse that itis headed by i
‘sors saat eth wo can aways Sere
function of all other factors. ‘They, 5 eject. suaspressaatse of Gaon cath Wc
| Haaseep at de function of Staeand Religion, and ove EESporic will behind bis suppored ifalibits
wll bai gto tis portant conside-
‘stesheasaatinaChurchand Safe. Now the strwtare | or 2 ght ot ‘a
‘of Islam as a religio-political system, no doubt, does permit | ion. ‘The afkimate Beals sssonding-to-she- Quast sie Hal awe Si
tim, an ea fn a ie const in tema The
Seo ef dosogh personaly T think i is a mistke t0 sista and ie consii osSembo ASSO
eh esate pore doninatandue| | fois onan al nt the
i ese et eed inthe system of Tam, Tn Tam zl igi eer
{ ‘Sapisbul and the empor are not wo distinct domaine ge The reali ratte of fat to all religion,
I | ean eae Peder ay oe
' ant amined by the attitude of mind with which the agent \ connits nt ecm osha Seely atrial ak
Gemma by et paged of a ee tiga veh oes that he mee ter NS
i ‘which vitimately determines its chara E we disc it vstld, ANT thi i=
i Tunporal or profane if it i done in aspizit of detachment
se te infnite complexity of ile behind isi ie spiritual
i His inopited by that complesity. In Tslam itis the same
Teality which appears as Chrrch looked at from one point { pate its
we vioy and State from another, Te i not true to say that
\ ‘Church and State are two sides or facets of the same thing.
i {dane is'a single unanalysble seality which is one oF the
l Taher ae your point of view varies. The point is extremely
i frneacttng and a full elucidation of it will involve vs in
hse Peter conetats a scope forthe oc realization
| rey all is holy ground. As the Prophet so beautifully
3 whole of th 2 The ata
¥ ‘But in this sense all state, not
jp pumtan Tlomination and aiming t the realization of
ene caw ha the Ko NA 48 The Principle of Movement in
the idea of the separation of Church and State from the
history of European politcal ideas, Primitive Christianity
‘was founded, not asa political or evil unit, but as a
‘order in a profane work, having nothing to do with evil
affairs, and obeying the Roman authority practically in'all
satters, ‘The result ofthis was that when the State became
Christian, State and Church confronted each other as
dlistinet powers with interminable boundary disputes
between them, Such a thing could never happen in Islam;
for Tela was from the ver beginning cv pity, having
of sim ples
hich ike the twelve tables of the Romans, carried, a
experence_subsoquently proved, great_potetltes of
"The Nation-
list theory of state, therefore, is misleading inasmuch as it
suggests a dualism which does not exist in Islam,
"The Religious Reform Party, on the other hand, Ted by
Said Halim Pasha, insisted on the fundamental fact that
Islam is a harmony of idealism and positivism; and, as a
Tay-eF the eral veites oF Wesinth, Salty, and
solidarity, has no fatherland. ‘As there is no English’
‘Mathematics, German Astronomy or French Chemistry,’
says the Grand Visier, ‘eo there is no Turkish, Arabian,
Persian or Indian Islam, Just as the universal character of|
tific truths engenders varieties of acientifie national
caltures which in thei totality represent human knowledge,
‘much in the same way the univers character of Islamic
“Modern culture based as itis on national egoism i, accord
ingtpti ee-phed wer clement
tis the reult of an overdeveloped indnstrisism
through which men catify their primitive instincts and
inclinationg) He, however, deplores that durin the course
Of history the moral and social ideals of Islam have been
sradually desamized through the influence of local char-
feter, and preeslamie superstitions of Muslim nations.
the Structure of Islam 49
"These ideals to-day are more Iranian, Turkish, o Arabian
than Telamic, ‘The pute brow of the principle of Taubid
‘Lan ceived snore or lesan impress of heahenism. and the
‘only alternative open to us, then, i to tear off from Telam
the hard erut which bas immobilized an ewentially dynamic
outlook on life, and to rediscover the orginal vertes of
Freedom, equality, and solidarity with a view to rebuild our
moral, socal, and. politcal ideals out of their original
simplicity and universality. Such are the views of the
Gtand Vidier of Turkey, You wil se tat following a line
of thought more in tune with the spirit of Islam, he reaches
practically the is
came conclusion as the Nationalist Party,
that is to say, the freedom of Iitihad with a view to sebuild
fhe ln of Sharia in-che Light of modsn thought and
che la e the
Tet us now see how the Grund National Assembly tas
‘exercised this power of Jihad in regard to the institution |
lof Khilsfxt. According to Sunni Lay the appointient of
tis
{B that according to the spit of Islam tho Caliphate of
Tmamate ean be vested in a body of persons, or an elected
“Aseerably. The sefigious doctors of Islam in Typt and
dia, 50 far a Tknov, bave not yt expressed themoclves
‘GH This point, Personally, I believe the ‘Turkish view is
perfectly sound, Tris hardly necessary to argue tis point.
‘Tesepublican form of government is not only thoroughly
‘onsistent withthe epint of Taam, but has also become a
ccesiy vic of the new foros that ave et fre in the
slam,
‘question that arises in this connexio
Tn order to understand the "Turkish Wiew Tet ws
sudan of Ii dan-te fist plop! histor
fan of Islm. Ibn-i-Khaldon, in his famous Prolegomens, 150 ‘The Principle of Movement in
mentions thre distinct views ‘of the iden of Una
(1) That Univereal Imamato is a Divine
Institution, and is consequently indispensable, (2) That it
is merely a matter of expediency. (3) That there is no need
f such an institution. The last taken by th
‘Khuwagi, It seems that modern ‘Turkey has shifted from
the first to the second view, i. to the view of the Mutazilla
‘who regarded Universal Imamate asa matter of expediency
only. ‘The Turks argue that in our political thinking we
‘must be guided by our past politea esperence which points
‘unmistakably tothe fact that the i al
oa. It was a workable idea when the
Empire of Islam was intact, Sinoo the brsak-us of this
Empie indepeadent political units have arisen, ‘The idea
hnes ceased to be operative and cannot work as a living
factor in the organization of modern Islam, Far from seey=
ing any useful purpose it has relly oad in the way af a
reunion of Independent Muslim Stace, Persia has stood
aloof from the Turks in view of her doctrinal differences
regarding the Khilafae; Morocco has always looked askence
at them, and Arabia has cherished private ambition, And
all thexe ruptures in Islam for the sake of a mere symbol of
4 powser which depasted long ago, Why should we not, be
‘en further argue, lean from experience in our politcal
thinking? Did not Quai Abu Bake Bagilani drop the con-
dition of Qarshiyat in the Khalifa in view of the facts
experience, ie, the political fall of the Qureish and theit
consequent inability to rule the world of Islam? Centuries
‘ago UnnicKhaldun, who personally believed in the con
dition of Qarshiyat in the Khalifa, argued much in the sam
way. Since the power of the Qureish, he says, has gone,
‘there is no alternative but to accept the most powerful man,
as Imam in the country where he happens to be powerful
‘Thus Ibn-i-Khaldun, realizing the herd logic of facts,
suggests a view which may be rogarded a8 the frat dim
vision of an International Islam fans insight toeday, Such
the Structure of Islam 1st
isthe attitude of the modern ‘Turk, inspired as he is by the
realities of experience, and not by the scholastic reasoning
of jurists who lived and thought under different conditions
of life
‘To my mind these arguments, if Fightly appreciated,
indicate the bieth of an Inicrnational ideal which, though
forming the very essence of Ishm, has been hitherto over~
shadowed or rather displaced by Arabian Impesiatisin of
‘he earlier centuries of Jalam. ‘This new ideal is clearly
reflected in the work of the great nationalist poet Zin whose
songs, inapiced by the philosophy of Augustus Comte, have
clone a great deal in shaping the present thought of Turkey.
‘reproduce thesubstance of oneafhis poems from Professor
Fisher's German translation:
“In onder to create a realy festive politcal unity of Taam, all
‘Moet countrte mut fit become independent: and then inthe
totality they shoald range themasives under one Caliph. Ts auch x
thing posi atthe present moment? If not to-day, one must wait
In the meantime the Caliph mst reduce his own howwe to order and
lay the foundations of a workable modern state.
"dn the International world the weak find
alone desesszsreect?
pathy, pa
"These Hines clearly indicate the trend of modern Islam.
For the present every Moslem nation must sink into her
‘own deeper self, temporarily focus her vision on herself
alone, until all are strong and powerful to form a Hiving
family of republics.
the nationalist thinkers is uot_sn-casy a8 tnbe achieved
byasmercly symbolicalaverlisdahip, It is traly manifested
‘uullipliciy- of free independent unite whose racial
spiritual aspisation. It scems to me that God
is slowly bringing home to us the truth that Islam is neither
‘Nationalism nor Imperialism but « Leaguesof Nations
which recognizes artificial boundaries and xacil distinctions The Principle of Movement in
‘From the same poet the following passage from a poem
called ‘Religion and Seience’ will throw some further light
fon the general religious outlook which is being gradually
slutped in the world of Tslam to-day:
“Who vere theft spiritual leaders of mankind? Without doubt
‘the Prophets and Holy men, In every period religion has led
Philosophy; From it alone morality end act receive light. But then
Felgion grows weak, end lov ler orginal ardour! ‘Tfoly men
fissppeas, and spiritual leadership becomes, in name, the heritage
fof the Doctors of Law! "Tho lading star ofthe Doctors of Law i
tradition; They dag teligon with foros on thi track; but piluapby
tayat “My leading saris reson: you go sight, Igo left.”
"Toth religion end philropy elim the soul of man and draw ie
on citer sie!
“When this struggle ie going on propaant experince delivers up
postive science nd this young ledor of thou cay, "Tradition is
history and Reason isthe method of history! Both interpret and
desire to reech the same fndeinable meting!”
“hut what ia this something?
“in ita apinitalined heart?
“If go, then take my last word—Religon fs poitive aclence, the
‘porpoue of which in to eprilie the heart of man!"
Tt js clear from these lines how beautifully the poet has
adopted the Comtian idea of the i
i i.e theological, metaphysical, and
Scientific—to the religious outlook of Islam. And the view
of religion embodied in these Tines determines the poet’s
attitude towards the position of Arabic in the educational
system of Turkey. He says:
“The land where thecal w prayer resounde in ‘Turkish; whore
those who prey understand the meaning of tel wigan; the land
‘where the Quran leet ia Turis; where overy man big o mal,
2 commnand of Ged; O! Son of Turkey! that land
‘the sim of religion is the spisiualization of the heat,
a ‘Dencttate the soul of map, and it cen beet
ype eee lane
the Structure in Islam 153
penetrate the inner men, according to the poet, only if its
Sisitualiing ideas are clothed in his mother tongue, Most
Le i :
by-Luskish, For reasons which will appear later the poet's
{jihad is open to grave objections, but it must be admitted
that the reform suggested by him ia not without a parallel
in the past history of Islam, We find that when Mohasninas
{the Mehdi of Muslim Spain—who was
a Berber by nationality, came to power, and established the
pontifical ule of the Mawahidin, he ordered for the sake
of theilterate Berbers, that the Quran should be translated
and read in the Berber language; that the eall to prayer
should be given in Berber; and thet all the functionaries
of the Church must know the Berber language
In another passage the poet gives his dal of woman-
‘hood, In his zeal for the equality of man and woman he
wishes to sce radical changes in the family law of Islam a3
itis understood and practised to-day
“Thre the woman, ray masher, ny ster, or my daughter itis
agers is phe ta nc cn on edo ty
life! "There is my beloved, ray bus, my toon and way sa it he
Iwo males me understand the poey of ie! How ould the Holy
Law of God roatd these beaut creates as Gapicabl beings?
Bay hr an cron he erpreti ft Qu By te
sri atin ee Bo
uaa eae a
Tahoe tte or serena
ote
tango an ith of tao fn unatrimony, nether the famly nor the
cry al le or ter gt We have opened tia
‘courts of unos
"ike family, on the other hand, we have left in the hands of
school.
“do not know why we have left che woman in the larch?
"Done she not work forthe land? Or, wail he ura her nee into
a sharp bayonet 10 teat off Her rghtsYrom our hands through a
evolution? 154 ‘The Principle of Movement in
‘The truth is that among the’ Muslim nations of to-day,
“Turkey alone has shaken off ite dogmatic slumber, and
iained to self-consciousnes has clan
igh of ntlsual eed deals ta pared frie
ideal to the real—a transition which entails keen intellectual
and moral struggle. ‘To her the growing complexities of a
mobile and broadening life are sure to bring new situations
suggesting new points of view, and necessitating fresh
nterpretations of principles which are only of an academic
interest to a people who have never experienced the joy
of spiritual expansion. Te ia, T think, the English thinker
Hobbes who makes this acute observation that to have a
succession of identical thoughts and feelings is to have no
thoughts and feelings at all. Such is the lot of most
‘Muslim countries to-day. ‘They are mechanically repeating
old valves, whereas the Turk is on the way to creating new
‘values. He has passed through great experiences which have
revealed his deeper self to him, In him life has begun to
move, change, and amplify, giving birth to new desires,
bringing new difficulties and suggesting new interpretations,
The question which confronts him to-day, and which is
likely to confront other Muslim countries in the near future
is whether the Law of Islam is capable of evolutioa—a|
question which will require great intellectual effort, and is
sure to be answered in the affirmative; provided the world
of Islam approaches it in the spirit of Omar—the first
critical and independent mind in Islam who, at the last
‘moments of the Prophet, had the morel courage to utter
‘these remarkable words: “The Book of God is sufficient
We heartily welcome the liberal movement in modern
Islam; but it must also be admitted that the appearance of
liberal ideas in Islam constitutes also the most critical
‘moment in the history of Islam. Liberalism has a tendency
‘to act as a force of disintegration, and the race-idea which
appears to be working in modern Islam with greater force
the Structure of Isham 158
than ever may ultimately wipe off the broad human outlook
which Muslim people have imbibed from their religion.
Further, our religious and political reformers in theie zeal
for liberalism may overstep the proper limits of reform in
the absence of a check on their youthful fervour. We are
to-day passing through a period similar to that of the
Protestant revolution in Europe, and the lesson which the
rise and outcome of Luther’s movement teaches should not
bbe fost on us. A careful reading of history shows that th|
‘Reformation waa essentially a political movement, and the
‘net result of it in Europe was a gradual displacement of the
‘universal ethies of Chritianity by systems of national ethis.
"The result of this tendency we have seen with our own eyes
in the Great European War which, far from bringing any
‘workable eynthesis of the two opposing systems of ethies,
thas made the European situation still moro intolerable, It
is the duty of the leaders of the world of Islam to-day to
understand the real meaning of what haa happened in
Europe, and then to move forward with self-control and a
clear insight into the ultimate aima of Islam aa a social
polity.
T have given you some idea of the history and working
of Ijtihad ia modern Iskm. T now proceed to see whether
the history and structure of the Law of Islam indieate the
‘possibility of any Gresh interpretation ofits principles. In
other words, the question that I want to raise iss the
7 Horten, Professor of
Semitic Philology at the University of Bonn, raises the
‘same question in connesion with the Philosophy and
‘Theology of Islam. Reviewing the work of Muslin thinkers
in the sphere of purely religious thought he points out that
the history of Islam may aptly be described as a gradual
interaction, harmony, and mutual deepening of two distinct
forces, ie, the clement of Aryan culture and knowledge on
the one hand, and a semitic religion on the other. ‘The
‘Muslim has always adjusted his religious outlook to the 156 The Principle of Movement in
clements of culture which he astimilated from the peoples
that surrounded him. From 8oo to 1100, says Horten, not
feas than one hundred aysteme of theology appeared in
Islam, a fat which bears ample testimony to the entity
of Talamic thought a8 well 4s fo the cowseless activity of our
early thinkers, ‘Thus, in view ofthe revelations of a deeper
study of Muslim tersture and thought thisliving European
Orientlist has been driven tothe following conclusion
“The apt of eas i 0 broad that i in pctclly hound’
‘With the excopton ofthat en loe it as mated all the
fnnable Kets of evounding people, end given them hs owe
pecula deton of develapment™
‘The assimilaive spirit of Islam is even more manifest
inthe ephere of fay, Say Profestor Hurgronje—the Dutch
critic of Isla: ‘When we read the history of the develop-
rent of Mohammedan Lav we find that, on the one hand,
the doctors of every sge, onthe slightest stimulus, conderan
one another to the point of mutial accusations of heresy;
and, on the other hand, the very same people, with greater
and greater unity of purpose, try to reconcile the similar
quarrels of their preiecersors” “These views of modes
European cites of Islam male it perfectly cleat that, wi
the return of new lif, the inner catholcity of the epirit of
Telam is bound to work itaelf out in site of the rigorous
coneervtiom of our doctors. And Thave no doubt that a
deeper atudy ofthe enormous legal literature of Islam ie sre
to rid the modern cite of the superficial opinion that the
Taw of Ie Lineal af evel
Unfortunately, the conservative Muslim public of this|
country is not yet quite ready for a critical discussion of|
‘Figh’, which, if undertaken, is likely to digplease most
people, and rtise sectarian controversies; yet I venture to
‘offer a few remaris on the point before us.
1. In the first place, we should bear in mind that from
‘he earliest times, practically up to the rise of the Abbasides,
there was no written law of Islam apart from the Quran,
the Structure of Islam Er
2, Secondly, it is worthy of note that from about the
middle ofthe first century up to the beginning ofthe fourth
rot less than nineteen schools of law and legal opinion|
appeared in Islam, ‘This fact alone is sufficient to show hov
incessantly our early doctors of law worked in order to meet
the necessities ofa growing civilization, With the expansion
of conquest and the consequent widening of the ontlook
of Islam these cary logists had to takea wider view of things,
and to study local conditions of life and habits of new
{peoples that came within the okt of Iam, A careful study)
of the various schools of legal opinion, in the light of con-
temporary social and political history, rovesle that they
gradually passed from the deductive to the inductive atti-
tude in their efforts at interpretation,
3, Thirdly, when we study the four accepted sourees of
Mohammedan Law and the controversies which they in-
vwoked, the supposed of our recognized schools
evaporates, and the possibilty of further evolution becomes
perfectly clear. Let us briefly discuss these sources.
(2) The Quran, ‘The primary source of the Law of Islam
is the Quran, ‘The Quran, however, is nota legal code. Its
main purpose, a8 I have taid before, isto awaken in man
the higher consciousness of his relation with God and the
universe. No doubt the Quran does lay down a few general
principles and rules of a legal nature, especially relating to
the family —the ultimate basis of social Iie. But why are
these rulee made part of a revelation the ultimate aim of
which is man's higher life? ‘The ansver to this question is,
furnished by the history of Christianity which appeared as
powerful reaction against the spirit of legality manifested
in Judaism, By setting up an ideal of other-worldliness it
no douibt did aacceed in spiritualizing life, butts individual-
ism could see no spiritual value in the complexity of human
social relations. ‘Primitive Christianity’, saye Naumann in
his Briefe uber Religion, ‘attached no value to the preserva
tion of the state, law, organization, production. Ie simply 138 ‘Dhe Principle of Movement in
does not reflect on the conditions of human society, And
‘Naumann concludes: ‘Hence we either dae to aim at being
without a state, and thus throwing ourselves deliberatcly
{no the arms of anarchy, oF we decide to poses, alongite
of our religious ered, # political creed as well” ‘Thus the
Quran considers it necesary 00 u
ctbies and politics ia a single revelation much inthe same
‘way as Plato does in his Republic.
‘The important point to note in this connexion, however,
ds the dynamic outlook of the Quran, Thave fully discussed
its origin and history. It is obvious that with such
look the Holy Bool of Islam cannot be inimical tothe idea
of evolution. Only we should not forget that life is not
change, pure and simple, Tt has within it elementa of con~
servation also, While enjoying his creative activity, and
always focusing his energies on the diseovery of nev vistas
of life, man has a feeling of unezsines in the presence of
hig own unfaldment. In hie forward movement he cannot
help looking back to his past, and faces hia own inward
expansion with a certain amount of fear. "The sprit of man
in its formard movement is eatrained by foress which sem,
to be working in the opposite direction. “This is only
another way of saying thet life moves with the weight of ts
‘vn past on its back, and that in any view of social change
the value und function ofthe forces of conservatism eannot
be lest sight of. It is with this organic insight into the
cssential teaching of the Quran that modern Rationalism
‘ought to approach our existing insittions. No peaple ean
afford to reject their pase ently; for itis their past chat
hnas made thei personal identity. And ina society like Tslam
the problem of a revision of old insttaions becomes stil
more delicate, and the responsibility ofthe reformer assumes
2 far more serious aspect. Islam is noncteritorial in its
character, and its aim isto furnish 2 model for the final
‘combination of humanity by drawing its adherents from
a variety of mutually repellent races, and then transforming
the Structure of Islam a
this atomic aggregate into a people possessing « set
consciouanes of tei om, ‘This was nok an easy tk to
tecomplsh. "Yet Islny by means of is welheoncved
inetietins as sucezeded to avery gst extent in cresting
someting tke a collective wil ted carmience in his
Heterogensos rss, Hn the evohton of such solely
ven the immutability of cocily harmless rules relating
tating and drinking, pusity oc impurity, has evalu of
{town inasmuch eit ends to give sh say a mpeciic
invardnee, and further secure that extereal and intro
trormity "which crnteracs the free of etrogenisy
alwys latent ins society of «composite character "The
Grits ofthese inutons mont therefore try to secure,
before he unertes to hanle thes, a cleat insight into
the ultimate signe ofthe soca experiment embod
in Tsam., He mst lok st ther ncucture, nt from the
anoint of sei advaneage or dtadvanage otis or thst.
founty, but from the pont of view of the large purpose
Svhich being gradually wocked ont in he ie of mankind
Sashole
“Taming now tothe groundwork of legl principe nthe
Curent w petty clear that fr from leaving n0 scope
for human thougst and legilatve atvty the intensive
breadth of thea principles virally ats ab an awaken
of human thought. Our etry doctors of la taking thi
flue mainly from this groundwork evolved 8 number of
Tegal systems; and the student of Moharmedan Pistory
Innows very nel that nearly bal the triumphs of Ilr a3
2 vot and polite power were du to the lg scutes
ti there doctor, ‘Next othe Romans Von Kremer,
“thre is no other nation besides the Ariba which contd
cal orn a aye of law ao careflly worked out” But
with all their comprchensiveney these wstems are ater
I inivoa!Snterprettions, and 8 such cannot can
tay finality. T know the Uletna of Tam elim Salty for
the popula echools of Mbamanedan Law, though they 160 The Principle of Movement in
never found it possible to deny the theoretical posibiyy
Of a compete Ithad, T have tied to explain the causes
hich, in my opinion, determined this attitude of the
Uleinas but since things have changed and the world bf
Islam is tonday confronted and affected by new forces set
five by the extsordiary development of human thought
inal its directions, Tseenoteaton why this atte should
be maintained any longer, Did the founders of our schools
ever cai finality for their renonings and interpretations?
Never. ‘The elsim of the present generation of Mustim
Tiers to r-interpret the foundational legs! principle, in
the light oftheir own experience and the altered conditions
‘of modern life i, in my opinion, perfectly justified. The
‘caching of the Quran that life is a process of progressive
creation necessitates that exch generation, guided but un-|
hampered by the work of its predecessors, should be|
‘permitted ta solve its own problems.
‘You will, I think, remind me here of the Turkish poet
Zia, whom I quoted a moment ago, and ask whether the
equality of man and woman demanded by him, equality,
that is to say, in point of divorce, separation, and inheri-
tance, is posible according to Mohammedan Law. Ido not
know whether the awakening of women in Turkey has
created demands which cannot be met with without a fresh
interpretation of foundational principles. In the Punjab,
as everybody knows, there have been cases in which Muslim
women wishing to get sid of undesirable husbands have
hheen driven to apostasy. Nothing could be more distant
from the aims of a missionary religion. ‘The Law of Islam,
says the great Spanish Jurist Imam Shatibi in his AZ
Museafgat, sims at protecting five things—Din, Nafs, Aqi,
Mal, and Nasl, Applying this test I venture to ask: ‘Does
the working of the rule relating to apostasy, as laid down,
in the Hedaya, tend to protect the interests of the Faith in
this country?” In view of the intense conservatism of the
‘Muslims of India Indian judges cannot but stick to what
the Structure of Islam Gr
[are called standard works. The result ie that while th
Wet ropa to
he does at seem to know much about te family la ef
Tuam, New does he soun to undestand the etonomic
Signlcanee ofthe Qunnierule af inheitncee Maggage
teeording to Mohemnedan Law, isa cil contact The
trical Oe me ofaasiageis at liberty to ge the hnband’s
Dower of dvorce degre to heron stated codons nd
Sho tocre equality of divore wth er husband, "The
reform rigged by the poct rating to the rulo of ine
Tertane o bused one misundentanding. rom thei
uly of tht egal ares runt not be suposed het
fie rue amumee the soperonty of may ovr female
Suc an sumption wuld be cntary to the sit of
Ink. "The Quran ny:
“And for women ae vights over mea similar to those for men over
"The share of the daughter is determined not by any
inferiority inherent in her, but in view of her economic
opportunities, and the place she occupies in the soc
structure of which she is a part and parcel. Further,
according to the poet's ow theory of society, the rule of
inheritance must be regarded not as an isolated factor in
the distribution of wealth, but as one factor among others
working together for the same end, While the daughter,
socording to Mohammedan Law, ia held to be full owner
of the property given to her both by the father and the
Ihusband at the time of her marriages while, further, she
absolutely owns her dower-money which may be prompt
fof deferred according to her own choice, and in liew of
which she can hold possession ofthe whole of her husband's
property tll payment, che responsibility of maintaining her
throughout her life is wholly thrown on the husband. Tf
you judge the working af the rule of inheritance from this 62 The Principle of Movement in
point of view, you will find that there is no material differ-
‘ence between the economic position of sons and daughters,
and it is really by this apparent inequality of their legal
shares that the law secuxes the equality demanded by the
‘Turkish poet. The truth is that the principles underlying |
the Quranie law of inheritenoe—this supremely original
branch of Mohammedan Law as Von Kremer describes it—
Ihave not yet received from Muslim lawyers the attention
they deserve, Modem society with its bitter clase-strugeles|
ought to set us thinking; and if we study our laws in refer-
‘ence to the impending revolution in modern economic life,
‘we are likely to discover, in the foundational principles,
hitherto unrevealed aspects which we can work out with
a renewed faith in the wisdom of these principles.
(B) The Fiadis. The second great source of Mohamme-
ddan Law is the traditions of the Holy Prophet. ‘These have
been the subject of great discussion both in ancient end
modern times, Among their modeen erties Professor
Goldzicher has subjected them to a searching examination
in the light of modern eanons of historieal ericicism, end
azrives at the conclusion that they are, on the whole,
trustworthy. Another European writer, after examining
the Muslim methods of determining the genuineness of &
tradition, and pointing out the theoretical possibilities of
error, arrives at the following conclusion:
“Te most be sad in contusion tht ehe preceding considerations
represented only theoretical ponies and thatthe question how
far thee posites have become actuate largely a matter of
how far the acu creustances offered inducoments for maling
tse of the ponies, Doubles the later, relavely epeaking,
swore fo, an affected only a smal proportion of the ecco Sunnah,
1 may therefore he aad that for the ost part the elletions of
Sunnah considered by the Mules ax canonical ate genuine records
‘ofthe rae and enely growth of Iam.” (Mokamnedan Thre of
Finance)
For our present purposes, however, we must distinguish
the Structure of Islam 163
tuaditions of a purely legal import from those which are
of a non-legal character. With regard to the former, there
tris a very importane question as to how far they etubody
‘the pre-Islamic usages of Arabia which were in some cases
left intact, and in others modified by the Prophet, Tt is
