Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 1

Coatings Application 2
In this module, methods of coating application other than
brush or roller, conventional and airless spray are discussed.
While their use is perhaps less familiar to coating inspectors,
most may be encountered form time-to-time. In some
specific industries, the use of exotic application methods is
common.

The module also discusses maintenance painting, and the

special considerations needed to provide good protection
when time and access may be limited. Special coatings have
been developed for maintenance purposes, and different
methods of surface preparation.

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Coatings Application 2
Factory Application of Coatings............................................ 4
Dipping ............................................................................ 4
Flow Coating.................................................................... 5
Flood Coating .................................................................. 6
Curtain Coating................................................................ 7
Barrel Coating.................................................................. 7
Roller Coating.................................................................. 8
Coil Coating ..................................................................... 8
Electrophoretic Painting .................................................. 9
Coating Inspection ......................................................... 11
Special Application Equipment ........................................... 12
Plural Component Spray Systems..................................... 13
Equipment ...................................................................... 14
Purge Pump.................................................................... 15
Plural-Component Spray Guns ...................................... 16
Manifold Mixing System ............................................... 16
Hot Spray Systems............................................................ 17
In-Line Coating Heaters................................................. 18
Advantages and Disadvantages ..................................... 18
Electrostatic Spray ............................................................ 19
Advantages and Disadvantages ..................................... 20
Safety Features............................................................... 22
Centrifugal Spray .............................................................. 22
Gunite Application............................................................ 23
Application Method ....................................................... 23
Typical Uses................................................................... 24
Rebound ......................................................................... 25
Anchoring ...................................................................... 25
Gunite System Advantages............................................ 26
Other Specialized Application Equipment........................... 27
High-Volume, Low-Pressure Spray Systems ................... 27
Air-Assisted Airless Spray................................................ 28
Maintenance Coatings Operations ....................................... 31
Reasons for Maintenance Coating .................................... 32
Elements of Maintenance Coating Operation................... 33
Coating Selection .............................................................. 34
Maintenance Coatings.................................................... 35
Pre-Job Conference........................................................... 37
Pre-inspection ................................................................... 38
Surface Preparation........................................................... 39

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Surface Preparation Standards .......................................... 42

Defective Substrates ...................................................... 43
Soluble Salts...................................................................... 44
Application........................................................................ 46
Inspection .......................................................................... 46
Dry Film Thickness measurement ................................. 46
Adhesion Testing ........................................................... 47
Scaffold and Work platforms............................................ 48
Containment...................................................................... 49
Hazardous Materials ......................................................... 50
Historic Structures ............................................................ 50
Maintenance of Porous Surfaces....................................... 51
Summary ........................................................................... 52
Standards for Maintenance Painting ................................. 52
Some standards used for maintenance coating work..... 53

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Factory Application of
Coatings
Coatings may be applied in many ways. The most familiar are
those methods we have already discussed, such as application
by brush, roller, and spray. In this section, we will discuss
with some of the less common and more specialized methods,
such as flood, curtain, automated roller coating, and
electrophoresis.

The two most primitive methods of applying liquid coating to

a surface are either to dip the article into a container of paint,
or to pour the paint over the article and allow the surplus to
drain away. Both these methods are used surprisingly often.

This section discusses the controlled application of coatings

by:

o Dipping

o Flow, Flood or Curtain coating

o Barrel coating

o Automated Roller

o Electrocoating

Dipping
The simplest method of dipping is to immerse the work piece
totally in the paint, held in a suitable container. The work
piece is then withdrawn, and excess paint allowed to drain.
Problems can arise with solvent retention in thicker coating
films, so a paint that has been thinned with volatile solvents, is
usually used.

The combination of low solids coatings, and thinning to

reduce solvent retention, provide thin coating films,
particularly at the top of the work piece where drainage is at a
maximum. To provide even film thickness, the rate of
withdrawal must be controlled. This rate depends upon the
viscosity of the paint and the film thickness required. For

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high viscosity materials, the rate of withdrawal is generally

slower.

Dipping plants are generally mechanized, and much of the

process is automated.

Paints for dipping should be especially formulated for this

method of application. Slow drying coatings continue to flow
for a long time and will show unsightly runs and sags.
Because the film is thick on the runs and sags, it may skin dry
and never properly harden. The resin must therefore be one
that is either nonconvertible, or one that is heat convertible
when the article is subsequently stoved. The solvent must be
sufficiently volatile that the paint dries quickly, but not so
volatile that it causes the bulk paint in the tank to skin dry.

The shape of the work piece is also very important when

considering dip application. Obviously, an article with many
recesses will retain paint in these areas. In the motorcar
industry, this problem is overcome by rotating the whole car
body, mounted on a giant spit, while it is in the dipping tank.

The surface area to volume ratio of the paint in the tank must
be kept to a minimum and air entrapment should be avoided.
For this reason, large dipping tanks are agitated by pumps that
circulate the paint, the inlet and return pipes being kept below
the liquid level.

Flow Coating
When coatings are applied by the flow method, articles to be
coated are first prepared, often by degreasing and/or acid
dipping. The articles are then carried by conveyor through an
enclosed chamber containing low-pressure jets that spray the
coating material.

Work pieces then pass into a solvent chamber where the

solvent vapor/air mixture conditions are controlled to give
good film formation; adequate flow to allow the film to settle,
and sufficient air flow to ensure reasonable drying.. Unused
coatings or run-off may be collected and recycled.

The paint circulation system may be equipped with

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o automatic filtering

o viscosity control

o automatic top-up of both paint and solvent.

Claims are made that a very high standard of finish can be

obtained and the use of large dip tanks avoided.

Flow coating may also be used to coat the internal surfaces

of small diameter pipe. Because of access difficulties,
surface preparation may also be restricted to flow methods,
using acid or proprietary cleaning materials.

With the pipe set at an angle (steeper angles increase the

flow rate), paint is poured into the upper end of the pipe.
The pipe is rotated as the paint flows, and the excess material
is collected at the other end. Rotation should continue until
the coating film has ‘set’. This technique works best with
coatings that are subsequently heated, allowing some further
flow to improve the film integrity and smoothness.

Flood Coating
Flood coating is a variation of the flow method, a technique
used for the coating of large complex work pieces, such as
electrical transformers that have a complex shape and areas
that cannot easily be reached for coating by conventional
means.

Liquid paint is pumped over the article so that it is completely

flooded and the excess is allowed to drain off. It is collected
in a tank, from which it is pumped through filters and back to
the main reservoir for re-use.

With this type of coating system, paint losses are relatively

small and even two pack materials can be used if they have a
reasonably long pot life. As in the case of dipping, careful
adjustment of paint viscosity is necessary to achieve a good
coating film of the correct thickness.

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Curtain Coating
Another flow method sometimes used in large-scale
production is called curtain coating. In this case, the part to be
painted is first prepared, then placed on a conveyor and passed
through a curtain of paint. The film thickness applied is
dependent upon the speed of the conveyor.

Solvent evaporates during the pouring operation, so regular

addition of thinners is necessary to maintain the correct
viscosity. Production rate can be high, and there is little loss
of material, since coatings are re-circulated.

Due to the high production rate, coatings formulations suitable

for curtain coating are fast drying.

Barrel Coating
Very small components such as screws, fasteners, and clips,
may be coated by ‘barrelling’, or barrel coating. The articles
are loaded into a rotating drum or barrel, set at an angle of
about 45°, and calculated quantities of paint and solvent are
added. The barrel is then rotated with the components
tumbling into and out of the paint mixture, until all the articles
are thoroughly coated.

When the components are coated (generally after about 10

minutes), warm air is blown in to remove the solvent, while
the barrel continues to rotate. The components or small
articles are then tipped out. They are then allowed to air dry
or they are baked according to the type of paint used.

When loading the barrel, the correct amount of paint and

thinner in relation to the surface area to be coated is important.
Too much paint results in components sticking together, while
too little leaves bare spots on the articles. Too much thinner
leads to prolonged drying time and inadequate coverage,
while too little thinner gives an uneven film, also resulting in
bare spots.

Excessive time will give a rough finish with poor gloss. The
speed of rotation of the barrel is generally close to 25

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revolutions per minute. Higher rotation speeds cause

components to stick together by centrifugal force.

The type of paint used is important. For best results it should

be either a solvent-cure coating such as vinyl, or a heat-cured
coating such as stoving enamel.

Roller Coating
Roller coating is a process specific to the application of high
viscosity paints to large flat surfaces. The process is similar to
printing, in that the coating is first applied to multiple rollers
or drums, then transferred to the surface to be coated. Contact
between the final roller and the surface to be coated creates a
thin uniform film.

Roller coating machines may be designed to coat one side

only, or both sides of the sheet at the same time.

This roller application method is only suitable for flat surfaces

such as sheet steel, and works best with flexible sheets such as
mild steel or aluminum. Thicker, more rigid sheets such as
timber or laminated board are more often coated by curtain
coating.

Coil Coating
Roller coating is sometimes used for large volume coating of
metal sheets such as steel, galvanized steel, or aluminum,
supplied in the form of coils. The metal is received by the
coater in the form of a coiled continuous sheet up to 1,600
mm (5-ft.) wide and weighing up to 500 kg (1,200-lbs).

The metal is cleaned, passivated, painted, stoved, and recoiled

in one continuous operation at speeds up to 120 meters per
minute; as much as 2,500m2/hour (25,000-sq.ft.) of flat sheet
may be coated on one side or on both sides.

Prior to coating, the sheet is passed through one or more

alkaline cleaning baths, where the protective oil applied at the
manufacturing plant is removed, together with any other
contamination.

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The clean metal is then passed through phosphate and rinsing

baths to create a phosphate deposit that acts as a base for
painting. After drying, the phosphated metal is coated on one
or both sides by passing through coating application rollers.
The coating is then dried by passing the metal sheet through
an oven.

More than one layer of coating may be applied by adding

more application rollers and more ovens. Very rapid cure is
possible with specially formulated coatings and a dedicated
coating line. For example, coatings that cure in only a few
seconds can be applied by roller and cured by sophisticated
combinations of UV radiation and infra-red heating.

Coatings applied to coils in this way are applied prior to

fabrication of such articles as roof and side cladding sheets,
domestic appliances and office furniture. The applied
coatings must have a good quality of finish for the consumer
market, and must be sufficiently flexible to resist the stamping
and pressing operations required to manufacture the end-
product.

Electrophoretic Painting
Electrophoresis is a variation of the paint dipping process,
using an electrical charge to ensure efficient and even
coverage of the work pieces.

An electric current is passed through a bath of water-soluble

paint so that the paint particles become charged. The negative
charge is generally applied to the work piece, and the bath
itself is grounded, or positively charged to achieve current
flow. Coatings molecules are then attracted to the work piece,
which is grounded to simulate the opposite charge

The continuing electric charge also squeezes water from the

resin molecule on the electrode, under the influence of the
electrical potential, a process known as electro-osmosis. At
this point, the coating on the article may have up to 90%
solids, even though it is deposited from a bath containing
perhaps less than 20% solids material. The cumulative effect
of these processes is termed electropainting.

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Coatings must be specifically designed for this process.

The electrical application process has several advantages,

including:

o Current density is highest at sharp edges, and these

receive the thickest coating.

o The deposited material is an electrical insulator so that

when a certain film thickness has been built-up, that
area becomes insulated and no more coating will
deposit. The deposited film is therefore
self-terminating, thus controlling the film thickness
and providing a uniform film.

A disadvantage of the method is that application is a one-

coat process. It is commonly used to apply primer coatings
to car bodies in a factory production line dipping process,
with the remainder of the coatings applied by spray.

Since the electrophoretic process was first developed, more

sophisticated paint media such as phenolic and epoxy based
resins have been made water-soluble. These give better
corrosion resistance and a more consistent process, including
greater bath stability.

A major development in the process came when cathodic

electropaints were first used. The process is essentially the
same, but the resins molecules are positively charged, which
prevents some minor corrosion process on the metal surface,
thereby greatly improving the quality of adhesion of the
coatings to the substrate.

Electro-deposition is used extensively in the car industry, but

it is also used in other high volume painting applications.
These include steel furniture, sheet metal, aluminum windows,
dust control and air-conditioning equipment, aircraft
components and refrigerator bodies. The advantages of
electropainting include:

• Very high efficiency, giving a paint utilization of 95% or

more

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• Absence of toxic solvents and fire hazards

• Very uniform coating with excellent protection of sharp

edges

• Good throwing power into less accessible areas

Capital cost of the application equipment plant is high and

rigorous monitoring to maintain efficiency is required

Coating Inspection
Coating inspection with any of these production line
processes is likely to be associated with the process as much
as looking at the coatings. The efficiency of pumps, the
viscosity of the product, and the cleanliness of re-cycled
product are all critical if the process is to be reliable.

Much effort is made to establish the correct parameters for

the process. The speed of conveyor belts, for example, is
likely to significantly affect the thickness of coating applied.
Coating inspectors should:

o Learn the parameters of any specific process, and

verify that they are maintained while the process is
under way.

o Check that all controlling parameters are adjustable,

and that the operators know how to make the
adjustments

o Verify the results in the usual way, by measurement

and comparison with the specified requirements

In addition to the usual parameters, such as film thickness

that can generally be measured in the usual way, it is likely
that some unusual measurements will be required. For many
of these processes, there is an aesthetic requirement that
would specify values for gloss, opacity and freedom from
visible defects such as ‘orange peel’ for the finished coating
film.

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Special Application
Equipment
In other modules of this program, we have discussed
conventional air spray and airless spray equipment in some
detail, since these are the most common methods of coating
application to large surfaces. Other, more specialized spray
application methods exist, sometimes being modified
versions of conventional or airless spray, and sometimes
being designed specifically for special-use situations. Such
specialized equipment includes:

o Plural-component spray systems

o Hot-spray systems

o Electrostatic spray systems

o Centrifugal spray

o Gunite application

Developments of more familiar spray equipment include:

o HVLP - High Volume, Low Pressure

o Air-assisted Airless Spray

Depending on the requirement, most spray equipment may be

operated in:

o Manual installations, in which each spray gun is

directly operated by a painter

o Automated installations, in which one or a series of

spray guns or spray heads are operated mechanically

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Plural Component Spray Systems

Plural component spraying is the application of plural
component (usually two-component) catalyzed coatings such
as polyesters, epoxies and urethanes using equipment that
pumps the components separately, mixing them at some
stage in the application process. This type of equipment
generally is used to apply high-solids coatings (up to and
including 100% solids) that have short pot lives (from just a
few seconds on up).

Because of the short pot life, coatings can be applied with

special spray guns that mix the plural components internally
at the gun itself or even externally, in the spray pattern in
front of the gun.

Plural-component spray is used for several reasons,

including:

o Ease of application of very high solids materials

which comply with the requirements of environmental
regulations limiting solvent emissions (VOCs)

o Ease of applying 100%-solids materials with special

performance characteristics for use on steel or
concrete at 20 mils (500 µm) or more per coat

o Efficiency of spraying - in continuous-operation -

multiple-component materials that do not require an
induction or sweat-in time.

One major advantage of using plural-component spray

systems is with materials such as the polyureas, which have a
very short pot life (usually less than 10 seconds) and for
practical reasons cannot be mixed in an open container prior
to application.

Coating materials, including regular plural-component

coatings such as epoxy or urethane, are blended and mixed
within the system, not exposed to the atmosphere, and
delivered in a proper ratio to the work piece. The process is
efficient, and provides great savings in materials use and
reduces the problems and costs associated with waste
disposal.

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Equipment
Plural-component spray equipment may be either:

o Fixed-ratio type, or

o Variable-ratio type

Fixed-ratio equipment mixes and delivers the plural

component material in a set ratio such as 1:1, 3:1 or 4:1.
Variable-ratio equipment can be adjusted to provide custom
proportioning ratios from 1:1 to 18:1 or greater.

The equipment generally consists of two or three airless

pumps attached to an air motor. These individual pumps
deliver separate components from their containers through
separate lines to:

o A spray gun for delivery, with mixing outside of the

gun (i.e. after spraying)

o A spray gun with an internal mixing chamber, for

mixing and instant delivery

o A mixing manifold equipped with either a static mixer

or with a dynamic mixer, generally driven by
compressed air. After mixing, the blended material
passes through a short whip hose 8 to 10 ft. (2 to 3 m)
long to the spray gun

With fixed-ratio units, the pumps are set to deliver constant

volumes of the separate components, depending on the fixed
ratio.

Variable-ratio units are equipped with a master pump and a

slave pump. The master pump delivers the main component
(generally a resin) and the slave pump dispenses the
secondary component, generally a catalyst or activator.

The slave pump is fitted onto a sliding bar that allows it to

move forward and backward, and the position of the pump
on the bar changes the length of the pump stroke. A short
stroke of the pump provides less catalyst, a longer stroke
provides more catalyst; thus, the catalyst-to-resin ratio can be
varied.

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Whichever type of pump is used, the metered delivery of

components is critical to the success of the process, so
volumes of each component delivered must be checked. The
most common method of checking is to disconnect the
appropriate delivery line and direct the contents into a
measuring device. The flow rate must be within specified
tolerances, generally within ∀ 3% of the fixed ratio required.
Inspectors and operators should check this flow rate for each
component at an agreed frequency, generally at least once
each day. It is not uncommon for the contents to drift ‘off-
ratio’, thus delivering a coating film that will not fully cure

In general, the most accurate and consistent mixing is

achieved when using components of equal viscosity and
having a volume mix ratio of 1:1. When the viscosities are
different it is often possible to match them by adjusting
temperatures, e.g. base might be at 60ºC and curing agent at
40ºC.

Most problems tend to occur when mix ratios of higher than

3:1 are used where small changes in amount of smaller
component can have a major effect on film properties.

Heaters are sometimes used to reduce viscosity of the coating

and improve its rate of flow. These heaters can be installed
in-line, at the material container, or both. Often, the material
hoses are heat-traced (i.e. with an electrically heated wire
attached) and/or insulated to help maintain the desired
material temperature.

Purge Pump
Most variable-ratio units are equipped with a purge pump
that delivers solvent to clean out the mixing and delivery end
of the system. Without such a cleaning device, guns that
clog, or are left unused for just a few seconds may be
jammed with solid material.

The purge pump is connected on one end to a container of

solvent and at the other end, to the back of the mixing
manifold. In the event of a ‘shut-down’ or whenever there is
an interruption in the work, the purge pump can be activated
to deliver solvent to flush out the mixed material.

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Plural-Component Spray Guns

Plural-component spray guns are generally high-pressure
units, working on the principle of airless spray.

The materials may be mixed:

o Internally, where the coating components are blended

together by passing the materials through a static
mixer just at or inside the gun itself, or

o Externally, where the coating components are

separately sprayed from the gun, then mix in the spray
pattern immediately in front of the gun

External mixing is often used for polyester or vinyl ester

systems where the initiator is organic peroxide, which is
injected into spray fan. Care must be taken to ensure the
injection of peroxide equally into the entire fan, to prevent
deposition of un-reacted material on the surface.

External mix spray guns are used sometimes in applications

where the addition of chopped glass fibers to the sprayed
coating is desired. In these cases, a chopper attachment, a
rotating cutter device, is used.

The chopper unit is most often air powered and attached to

the top of the gun. A glass-fiber rope, called roving, is fed
into the chopper, where it is chopped into shreds of the
desired length, and propelled into the spray pattern of the
coating. The blended mixture of glass fibers and the coating
is then delivered to the surface being coated. This glass
fiber/coating system is overcoated by a gel coat of the
coating resin without the glass fiber. The gel coat can be
applied by a conventional spray unit or by an airless system.

This type of system will be discussed in detail in the

discussion of GRP (glass fiber) linings.

Manifold Mixing System

In a manifold mixing system, the coating components are
drawn from their containers, brought together in a manifold,
mixed, and then delivered to the spray gun or spray head for
spraying.

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These manifolds usually contain a static in-line mixer, which

work by cutting the coating stream in half and turning it 90
degrees. This is done numerous times such that the
components are mixed thoroughly when they exit the spray
gun.

These mixing devices can be used with either conventional

air spray or airless spray and are used more commonly for
high-viscosity materials. In some manifolds, the ratio or
proportion in which the separate coating components are
mixed can vary from 1:1 to 18:1 mix or greater.

Manifold mixing systems are used in field coating

applications and in fixed coating facilities. Many of the
100% solids elastomeric and epoxy coatings applied to
concrete to provide secondary containment are applied with
plural-component spray equipment.

Hot Spray Systems

Coating viscosity is generally reduced for spraying by the
addition of thinners (solvents). The same effect may be
achieved by heating the fluid coatings prior to application,
with the twin benefits of being cheaper, since less solvent is
purchased, and safer because the use of volatile fluids is
reduced. Coatings that are not thinned using solvent are also
better able to comply with VOC regulations.

Heated coatings are used in both air spray and airless spray
applications. Heating is accomplished by the use of in-line
heaters attached to the fluid lines, or by use of a ‘hot-box’,
which heats the coating before it is passed through the fluid
lines. The hot-box may be heated by electrical trace lines, or
any other convenient power source.

The increased temperature of the liquid generally reduces

viscosity, allowing the coatings to be pumped with less force,
and applied at a faster rate. One side effect is that coatings
are propelled through relatively cool air towards a cool
surface. They cool rapidly after reaching the surface, and
viscosity increases, helping the coating ‘hold up’ (remain in
place), reducing runs and sags, making a thicker and more
uniform film.

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When heaters are used, the coating must not be heated to a

temperature higher than allowed by the specification or
recommended by the manufacturer.

In-Line Coating Heaters

Coating heaters come in a number of sizes, shapes, and
forms. They generally preheat the coating to temperatures in
the range of 120°F to 200 °F (50°C to 93°C).

The coating may pass through a stationary heater situated

between the pump and the spray gun. In-line heaters are most
often mounted on the pump, and are generally electrically
operated. One pump-mounted unit commonly used has 4,000-
watt, thermostatically controlled heaters that can raise the
temperature of either component to 160°F (70°C). There is
likely to be a considerable heat loss when such heating units
are used, depending on the length of the hose. Using insulated
hoses helps to reduce the heat loss.

Spray hoses may also be heat-traced, and insulated. When

spraying is interrupted, the coatings may be re-circulated to
maintain temperatures and prevent settlement in the hoses.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Some advantages of heated spray include:

o Coatings may have more uniform viscosity

o Improved film integrity can be achieved by using

fewer solvents

o Drying time may be shorter

o Coatings can be sprayed at lower ambient

temperatures

o There may be less solvent fumes because no solvents

are added

o Coating thickness may increase per unit of application

o Finer atomization with lower application pressures

may be possible

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Disadvantages of heated spray include:

o The coating may be damaged by incorrect heating.

o Poor mixing ratios can result if the equipment

metering devices fail, or are not set properly.

o Careful working procedures are necessary because of

shortened pot life, especially in the heater unit. (If
heater unit is operating at 60ºC then pot life will be
approximately 16 times less than at 20ºC, i.e. 3 hours
would reduce to around 10 minutes.)

Heated coatings may be applied by either airless or

conventional air spray. Many shop and factory finish units
use in-line heaters as standard procedure, to achieve better
quality finishes while using less solvent and emitting fewer
VOCs.

Heated coatings are not often applied to large structural steel

units, offshore rigs, and large storage tanks. They are more
often used for the application of internal linings, particularly
solvent free epoxy tank linings applied at low temperatures.

Electrostatic Spray
Electrostatic spray may be used with either conventional air
spray, airless, or air-assisted airless spray equipment, in
manual or automatic settings. Spray guns are specifically
designed to apply an electrostatic charge to the atomized
particles of coating material.

In electrostatic spray operation:

o A high charge (to 75 KV for hand-held guns; to 180

KV for some automated setups) is applied to the
coating particles as they emerge from the spray gun.

o The coating particles are generally given a negative

electrical charge, and the work piece is grounded
(thereby becoming positive relative to the coating
particles).

o When the charged coating is sprayed, the particles are

attracted towards the grounded structure. Because of

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the nature of static electrical charges, the strongest

attraction is to edges and outside corners, with coating
thickness being correspondingly greater at those
points. This effect counteracts the natural tendency of
the coating to shrink away from edges as it dries.

o As coatings are applied, the increasing thickness

begins to insulate the surface of the work piece.
Those surfaces that have not been coated, including
the reverse sides of the object, continue to attract the
charged particles. Using electrostatic spray, the
opposite side of the object may be effectively coated
if the spray distance is not too great.

o Coating film thickness can be controlled to some

extent by

Generally, most of the coating that is sprayed is deposited on

the surface with very little loss. Transfer efficiency of
electrostatic spray is outstanding, and its use is generally
increasing, since improved transfer efficiency corresponds to
reduced solvent emissions.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Electrostatic spray application:

o Is ideally suited for application in plant production

finishing.

o Provides excellent control of DFT. Coating thickness

tends to be self-limiting (only a certain thickness can
be applied before the piece is insulated effectively and
no more paint is attracted). Film thickness is more
uniform than when using other spray methods.

o Provides fairly complete coverage of odd shapes

o Gives efficient use of coating materials, through

reduced coating loss due to overspray

o Better coverage at edges

Disadvantages of electrostatic spray include:

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o It is not generally suitable for maintenance coatings,

or for high-performance coatings applied to complex
structures, although recent developments have led to
increased use in new construction.

o The formulation of each coating is critical; and must

be designed for electrostatic spray. Fineness of grind,
correct mixing, proper solvents, and nonconductive
pigments are major considerations in formulating a
suitable coating.

o Usually, only one coat of material is applied

electrostatically because of the insulating
characteristics of the original material. A second coat
application, or maintenance application using
electrostatic spray may be possible, depending on the
shape and size of the work piece and its ability to hold
an electrostatic charge.

o The equipment is more expensive than comparable

conventional air or airless spray setups.

o Traditionally applicators have been reluctant to use

electrosatic spray because the equipment can be easily
damaged, but new equipment is much more robust
and resistant to handling damaged.

o Because of the very high voltage used, there may be

an electrical shock hazard during application. It
should be noted, however, that the high voltages are
not so dangerous as might be first thought, since
electrostatic charges have very little driving force
(amperage).

An electrical effect known as the ‘Faraday Cage’ effect may

significantly reduce paint coverage inside complex shapes or
box sections. Alternative application strategy should be
adapted to ensure coverage.

Electrostatic spray is very well suited to the application of

powder coatings, and is also discussed in that section of this
module.

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Safety Features
Modern solid-state power units are more efficient than the
conventional type units and much safer to operate. Many of
these units feature variable voltage settings from 0 to 75,000
V, with “fold-back” circuitry that automatically reduces the
voltage to a level that is not hazardous if 95 to 100 mA
current levels are exceeded.

Detectors monitor the current output and reduce the voltage

in the event of a sudden rise in the output current. This
prevents any current discharge in the event of a failure, such
as a cable fracture or breakage of the spray apparatus.

To ensure maximum safety, a ground-sensing circuit

prevents the power supply from operating if the “third wire”
ground is not satisfactory.

In operation, a separate power supply is generally used for

each gun to allow specific voltage control for each operator.

Centrifugal Spray
Centrifugal spray equipment uses a rapidly spinning disc,
brush, or other device to atomize the coating. The coating is
distributed by centrifugal force, so is best applied in
restricted locations, such as the internal surfaces of pipes.

Commonly used centrifugal spray heads are mounted on

wheels with a centering device that allows the spray head to
be positioned at the central point of a pipe. Internal coatings
can then be applied by moving (pulling) the spray head
through the pipe, with coatings fed to the rapidly spinning
head, and thus being discharged sideways onto the prepared
pipe surface. Coating thickness is partially controlled by the
rate at which the operating head is pulled through the pipe.

Centrifugal spray equipment may be used with an added

electrostatic charge. In specially designed spray rooms, the
centrifugal spray head is generally mounted horizontally,
with paint fed to the center of the disc.

In operation, a cloud of atomized coating is thrown from the

spinning disc. The electrostatic charge applied to the
particles on the spinning head attracts them to the grounded

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work piece. Components to be coated in this way are

generally carried to and around the spinning head by a
conveyor. The process can be remarkably efficient, and very
little human intervention is required.

Gunite Application
The application of cementitious materials by a spray or
splatter technique is generally known as ‘guniting’. Gunite
was once a proprietary term belonging to the company1 that
first developed the system.

The process known as ‘guniting’ delivers cementitious

products to concrete or metal surfaces with compressed air,
rather than trowel application or casting in place.

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) has developed an

alternative term, defining the product being applied as either
dry shotcrete or wet shotcrete, depending on moisture
content, and these terms are often used in the concrete
industry.

Application Method
In the gunite process, dry mixtures of shotcrete (cement
powder and aggregate solids) are pre-dampened when they
are first introduced into the system at the gun (see
schematic). As they are propelled through the hose, a
wetting agent (usually water) is added to the dampened
powder at the nozzle.

The nozzle consists of a brass body and ring. The mixture is

propelled through the nozzle and splattered against the
surface, flattening to form a coating layer.

Adjustments to the amount of liquid are critical and require a

skilled operator. Typical liquid content may fall in the range
of 6% to 7%. In general, the gunite surface in the area that
has just been applied shows a silky, glistening sheen if the
mix ratios are correct; a rippling, wet appearance if the

1
Gunite and guniting are terms originally registered and/or
trademarked by the Allentown Pump and Gun Company of
Pennsylvania

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gunite is too wet; and an expanding granular appearance if it

is too dry.

Gelling agents may be added to the mixture to help bind the

materials together, and create better adhesion to the
substance. For corrosion-resistant materials, the additive
may be a resinous formulation called a binder.

Specified thickness of the gunite material varies depending

on the application. Most systems for corrosion resistant
applications have a minimum thickness of 1½-in. (37-mm).
If guniting is used to replace deteriorated concrete, as much
as 6 to 10-in. (150 to 250-mm) of the material must be
applied to bring the surface up to the original grade.

Much like the application of thin-film coatings, there are

specific parts of the application process that must be
controlled. If the mixture is too wet, it will not hang on the
surface (even over anchoring devices). If the mixture is too
dry, it will bounce off rather than adhere to the surface.

The degree to which the material fails to adhere, called

rebound, is critical. Transfer efficiency should be carefully
monitored and rebound kept to a minimum.

Typical Uses
Gunite-applied materials are used:

o To protect secondary containment structures in

chemical process industries, such as in the lining of a
petroleum-cracking tower

o To repair spalled concrete on slabs, jetties or in

swimming pools

o To apply linings to sludge settlement pits when

maintenance is required

o on external surfaces of concrete water pipes, where it

is often rapidly overcoated with solvent free epoxy,
polyurethane, or special primers for ‘green’ (i.e.
uncured) concrete.

Gunited corrosion-resistant cementitious materials are used

in high-temperature linings of exhaust stacks and in

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wastewater treatment plants where hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

and micro-biologically induced corrosion (MIC) occurs.

The coating layer created by guniting is rough, and likely to

contain some voids (fewer if the mix density is good). To
achieve a smooth finish, some secondary treatment such as
troweling is required.

Rebound
Rebound is similar to overspray in coatings applications.

Rebound of gunite-applied material can be dangerous,

returning toward the operator at speeds up to 90-mph (150-
kph). Workers must wear safety glasses and safety clothing.

Working Surfaces Typical Rebound (%)

Floor Slab 5% to 10%
Sloping / Vertical Walls 15% to 30%
Overhead 40% to 50%

Anchoring
On all overhead and most vertical surfaces, anchoring
devices and systems are used to hold the wet gunite product
in place until it can cure. The anchoring system may provide
some additional reinforcing, just as rebar does for regular
concrete.

The density and thickness of the gunite coating, plus the

specific application determines the requirements for
anchoring devices or systems. In some cases, anchoring
devices such as "T" or Longhorn studs are attached to the
substrate in a specific pattern.

Typical anchor spacing for ‘T’-studs is as follows:

o Ceiling or Roof 6 to 8-in. (150 to 200-mm)

o Walls 8 to 12-in. (200 to 300-mm)

• Floor 12 to 16-in. (300 to 400-mm)

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Anchors are placed usually in a random, rather than a

specific, geometric pattern.

A wire mesh may also be required, in addition to the anchors.

The mesh is anchored at least ½-in. (12-mm) away from the
substrate.

When a membrane is used in conjunction with the system, the

anchoring system should be installed first, then coated with the
membrane. Membranes are typically coatings with good
moisture resistance capability, such as coal tar epoxy, or high-
build epoxy.

Gunite products are applied from the ground up to prevent

application over rebound that may have fallen onto the
surface.

The inspector must pay particular attention to:

o Surface preparation

o Installation of studs and other support systems

o Application of membrane coatings

o Correct operation of equipment to control moisture

content

o Rebound, and operator actions to minimize it

Gunite System Advantages

The gunite process offers some advantages over cast or
trowel-applied concrete systems, including:

o Application is 5 to 10 times faster

o The product is seamless and improves protection

o The material easily covers complex configurations

o The product has good insulation qualities

The gunite process also has some potential disadvantages:

o The process is wind sensitive

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o Application requires a five-man crew

o Application requires special equipment

Other Specialized
Application Equipment
High-Volume, Low-Pressure Spray
Systems
High-volume low-pressure spray systems use a high volume
of air delivered at 10-psi (0.7-mPA) or less to atomize a fluid
coating into a soft low-velocity pattern. This reduction in the
air stream, compared with the 40 to 70-psi (0.28 to 0.48-
mPa) typically delivered by conventional air spray methods,
results in:

o A more controlled spray pattern

o Reduced bounce-back

o Reduced overspray

o Reduced VOC emissions

o Savings in materials usage

o Less hazardous waste

o Enhanced transfer efficiency, often more than 65%

Transfer efficiency can be defined as the amount of the

sprayed coating that goes onto the work piece, compared
with the amount lost to overspray and bounce-back.

High transfer efficiency enhances productivity and finish

quality. Reduced overspray improves visibility, which
reduces operator error; improves finish quality; and reduces
material usage and waste disposal. For example, two-thirds
or more of every gallon of coating sprayed by conventional
methods can be lost to overspray, compared with one pint per
gallon or less lost when using HVLP.

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Some authorities have created regulations that control release

of solvent emissions from coatings by mandatory use of
equipment known to have improved transfer efficiency. For
example, Southern California has enacted legislation
requiring all spray equipment to deliver at least 65% transfer
efficiency. Similar legislation is pending in other US states.

In establishing VOC emission requirements, the California

South Coast Air Management District (SCAQMD) specifies
that HVLP and electrostatic as the only two methods that
meet requirements. The District defines HVLP as any spray
finishing that delivers operating pressure between 0.1 to 10-
psi at the air cap. (Note: It is believed that some other
systems have been modified to meet this requirement. These
modified units use a low-pressure airless pump and a
modified version of an air-assisted airless gun.)

HVLP generally is compared to a conventional air spray

system. Both use compressed air for atomization. The major
difference is that HVLP is limited to a maximum of 10 psi.
Conventional air spray is limited only by the available air
supply; pressures of 50 to 60-psi (3.4 to 4.2-mPa) or higher
are common in conventional air spray systems.

In general, HVLP can be used with most low to medium

solids materials such as two-component epoxy, urethane,
acrylic, and many single component materials such as
enamels, lacquers, or stains.

Air-Assisted Airless Spray

Air-assisted airless technology combines the best features of
conventional air spray and airless spray to create a new spray
finishing capability.

Conventional air spray produces a very high quality finish,

but uses large volumes of air (8 to 30 cfm / 3.8 to 15 litres
per second). The turbulence generated by air spray can
create excessive overspray, resulting in a loss of materials
and lower transfer efficiency.

Airless spray minimizes overspray and improves transfer

efficiency, using high fluid pressure to force the coating
through a small orifice to achieve atomization. The degree

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of atomization achieved depends on the tip size and fluid

pressure. In general, the paint particles in airless spray are
not atomized as finely as with air spray, which makes airless
less appropriate for fine-finish work. In addition, there is
often some aeration of films due to the air blown into the
spray fan, creating micro air bubbles at the substrate surface.

Production rates achieved with airless spray equipment are

better than conventional air-spray, and lower than airless
spray.

Air-assisted airless equipment achieves a balance between

the characteristics and capabilities of the two main spray
application methods.

The major components of an air-assisted airless gun are an

airless tip and the air cap. A regular airless fluid spray tip is
used to atomize the coating and to shape it into a fan pattern
at low fluid pressure, usually below 1,000 psi (7 MPa).

At this low pressure, good atomization is obtained, but the

spray pattern is not acceptable because it creates heavy edges
called tails.

To eliminate the tails and to assist the atomization, air is

added at low volume (1 to 3 cfm) and low pressure, usually
between 10 to 30 psi (69 to 207 kPa).

This “air-assist” is directed to the airless spray pattern

through horns on a special air cap, which eliminates the tails
and develops a proper spray pattern.

Some advantages of air-assisted airless spray include:

o Good finish appearance

o Excellent transfer efficiency (30 to 35% better than air

spray)

o Wide range of fluid flow rates (5 to 50 fl. oz/min

[0.15 to 1.5 L/min])

o Reduced overspray

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o Less tip wear and longer pump life due to lower fluid
pressure compared with regular airless

o Very efficient method of atomizing liquid

Air-assisted airless spray guns have been used to apply

alkyds, lacquers, catalyzed varnishes, urethanes, epoxies,
water-based coatings, and zincs.

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Maintenance Coatings
Operations
For purposes of this discussion, maintenance coating
operations are defined as:
The application of coatings over a substrate that has been previously coated, or
has been in service and corroded through exposure to the environment.

Maintenance coating operations are generally performed on

structures or components that have been in service, where the
coating has deteriorated to a point where replacement or
renewal is necessary.

There are other possible maintenance situations, including:

o Structure was not coated when first put into service,

and better protection is now required

o Some or all of the structure has deteriorated past the

point of maintenance, and must now be renewed.

o The coatings are applied to bring the new component

into alignment with the rest of the structure.

o Existing coatings have failed for some reason, and

must be replaced

o The structure or vessel is to change its use, and

coatings with different properties are required

Often the structure or equipment to be recoated or repaired

has been installed in a hostile environment and has been
subjected to contamination such as (but not limited to) oil,
grease, chemicals, saltwater, or sulfurous emissions from an
industrial process.

There are many similarities between surface preparation and

coatings application on new surfaces and on old, exposed
surfaces. In this section, we shall discuss the particular
aspects of coating application that are specific to
maintenance, remembering always the similarities with the
general principles discussed elsewhere.

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Reasons for Maintenance Coating

Generally, maintenance coating operations are performed to:

o Maintain an existing coating system so it will

continue to provide the degree of protection originally
intended

o Refresh the visual appearance of the coating system

Maintenance is an essential activity on any plant or facility

or piece of equipment. It is well understood that mechanical
maintenance is required to keep equipment in good working
order, and to preserve the asset value that exists in structures
or equipment.

Maintenance for preservation often includes the use of

protective coatings.

All commonly used coatings have a finite life. Knowing this

fact, owners, specifiers and engineers are faced with several
choices. They must decide:

o What is the design life of the structure or equipment?

o How many times in the life of the structure is

maintenance painting required?

o Is access for maintenance easy, or a problem?

o Will the design account for on-going maintenance?

These and many other decisions are – or should be – made at

the time a structure is designed and built. Often, the results
of planning are not clearly communicated to the operational
team. Maintenance then becomes a matter of decision
making on a case-by-case basis as the need becomes clear.

Maintenance painting is often prioritized after a risk

assessment analysis of the areas under review. Maintenance
engineers try to define the impact that failure due to
corrosion would have, and ensure coating work is performed
where the risk is greatest.

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For these reasons, and others, there are many difficulties

associated with maintenance painting operations. In this
section, we shall discuss some of the special problems of
maintenance painting, and some potential solutions.

General principle of maintenance painting is often that it is

most cost efficient to paint earlier (say, 5% breakdown) than
later (20% breakdown) because of reduced overall surface
preparation costs.

It is worthwhile noting that in most instances, independent of

system and surface preparation methods, performance equal
to new construction coating systems is not achieved for to a
number of reasons, including:

o No control of environment during application or

curing.

o Difficult access to the surfaces to be coated.

o Compromised surface preparation.

o Presence of soluble salts or other contaminants on the

surface.

Elements of Maintenance Coating

Operation
Maintenance coating operations may range from a carefully
programmed and controlled system of industrial maintenance
to random ‘hit-or-miss’ activities.

Good practice in maintenance coating operations follows the

same general steps as for coating at the construction stage,
namely:

o Coating selection

o Specification

o Pre-job conference

o Pre-inspection of the structure to be coated

o Surface preparation

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o Application

o Inspection and reporting

Coating Selection
Because of the extra difficulties in maintenance coating
situations, additional constraints are imposed on coating
selection. For example, any coating used must be compatible
with the existing coating system, or an intermediate barrier
coat must be applied.

For example, if the existing coating is an alkyd, then the

application of topcoats that contain ‘strong’ solvents could
degrade the alkyd, unless a tie coat is used. There may not
be enough time to add a tie-coat or the additional cost of
applying a tie-coat may not be acceptable. The problem is
increased if the original coatings were not properly applied.
Alkyd coatings that are applied too thickly do not fully dry
through, and are therefore more susceptible to solvent attack
than they should be.

Often it is necessary to test the existing coating to determine

its basic composition before selecting compatible topcoats.
This could be done with a simple field-test kit or by more
sophisticated instrumental analysis. Simple tests include
solvent application, or burning paint ships or other small
samples. Sophisticated analysis is performed in a laboratory,
using techniques such as atomic absorption, described in the
Coatings Technology module of this program.

If the existing coating presents a hard, impervious surface, it

may be necessary to use a solvent wipe to soften the surface,
or abrasive paper (or discs) to roughen the surface. It may
even be necessary, where allowed, to apply a light abrasive
blast to create an anchor pattern to which the maintenance
coating can adhere.

Abrasive blasting may be prohibited in certain plant areas, or

not be economically feasible. Surface preparation would
then be limited to hand-or power-tool cleaning.

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In this case, the owner may wish to select a coating that is

suited for application over power-tooled or hand-cleaned
surfaces, i.e. a coating that has good wetting properties and is
tolerant of limited surface preparation.

Coatings selected for maintenance are often ‘patch tested’ to

determine their suitability for the specific service situation.
Care must be taken to ensure that the patch test area is truly
representative of the surfaces to be maintained. If necessary,
several patch areas should be coated.

Surfaces should be prepared in the same way as intended for

full maintenance work, and coatings applied to the same
standards as intended or specified. Close inspection of the
patches should be made during and immediately after
application, and at intervals up to one year after the trial
application.

Typical defects that might be found include:

o Lifting and curling of edges of existing coatings

o Blisters formed beneath maintenance ‘patch’, or

within film of existing coatings

o Poor adhesion of maintenance coatings

o Wrinkling

o Splitting

In a satisfactory patch test result, the newly applied coatings

will not show any visible defects, and will have good
adhesion to the existing surface when tested after the
coatings have fully cured.

Maintenance Coatings
Coatings have been developed specifically for maintenance
work. In general, they are tolerant of low levels of surface
preparation, and not aggressive towards any underlying
coatings. These coatings should, however, be well-bonded to
the surface, or should not be overcoated.

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The best known and most widely used surface tolerant

coatings are slow-drying epoxy coatings pigmented with
aluminum, known as epoxy mastic. Other coatings suitable
for, and used often for, maintenance include:

o penetrating primers, designed to consolidate existing

surfaces, bonding together the friable and deteriorated
coating film or rusty substrate.

o bond coatings, designed to promote adhesion between

aged coatings and newly applied coatings, and
sometimes act as a barrier between incompatible
coatings.

o One-pack versions of more complex coatings, such as

epoxy ester, modified to achieve simplified use and
cure

o Universal primer, intended for brush application to

almost any surface, typically modified alkyd,
sometimes called ‘uralkyd’.

o Moisture-cured urethane coatings, useful at site for

cold or wet weather application

These coatings have one major characteristic in common.

Their performance, while suited to maintenance, is not as
good as might be achieved with more sophisticated coatings
applied over a high level of surface preparation. They are,
however, generally more tolerant, and likely to perform
when the best levels of surface preparation are simply not
practical.

There is a common misconception that using this type of

coating as part of a new construction system provides the
“best of both worlds”, somehow compensating for problems
that might occur with surface preparation standards, or
allowing painting in adverse conditions. In practice this is
not the case and generally increased paint costs are incurred
with no benefit to the owner.

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Pre-Job Conference
A pre-job conference to review and ensure a common
understanding of the specification is a critical step in
ensuring a successful coating job. Such a meeting may be
particularly useful for maintenance painting projects, since
the scope of work is often difficult to define before the
project begins.

The pre-job meeting can define procedures to deal with

unexpected results, as when blast-cleaning of small areas
reveals poor adhesion and much larger areas must be blasted.
Specifications for maintenance coating operations may vary
from job to job, depending on:

o The condition of the surface to be repaired, which

may range from a perfectly-intact coating system to a
100% failed coating, and the surface is badly
deteriorated

o Plant shutdown or inspection

o Effect on plant personnel in the area

o Budget constraints

o Use of in-house or contract labor

o Accessibility to area

o The result desired by the owner

Thus, a maintenance coating specification may call for any

level of work, ranging from hand-cleaning and spot-
recoating of failed areas to blast-cleaning the entire surface
to white metal followed by application of a totally new
coating system.

As always, it is important that all parties involved have read

and understand the coating specification.
It also may be helpful for all parties to visit the job site to
review points in the specification that may require judicious
interpretation and common agreement, such as:

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o Spot repair requirements

o Feathering

o Appearance of repaired areas

Pre-inspection
Before any other work is performed, the surface should be
inspected to identify and mark areas where coatings are
required. It is generally assumed for maintenance that not all
of the existing coatings will be removed. When maintenance
is performed in a timely manner, the most likely scenario is
that perhaps 10-20% of the existing coatings should be
replaced, and the remaining 80-90% should be improved.
The exact decision-making process is a matter for the owner
and the specifier.

Local defects that influence the amount of maintenance

required may include:

o Blistering

o Loss of adhesion

o Underfilm corrosion

o Chalking

o Areas contaminated by grease, chemical salts, dirt, or

other substances

If the coating specification calls for spot repair, it is very

important for the owner, contractor, and inspector to have a
common understanding of the degree of failure that requires
repair.

For example, if the specification requires ‘spot repair of

blistered areas’, does this mean that:

o Every individual blister, no matter how small,

regardless of location, be repaired?

or

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o Any blister of a certain size or larger, or a cluster of

some number of blisters in a certain area, be repaired?

A rather spirited discussion could result if the owner holds

the former view and the contractor holds the latter.

Therefore, it is highly important that a common

understanding of these points be clearly fixed in the minds of
the owner's representative, contractor, and coating inspector.

Pre-job meetings, or even pre-bid meetings, are sometimes

held at site, to allow the contractor to evaluate the condition
of the existing coatings. There are often surprises waiting
when maintenance coating work begins, such as:

o 20% of the area was scheduled for spot blasting, but

much more was uncovered when blasting failed to
locate a sound edge to blasted areas

o Coating removal shows patches of red lead primer

(i.e. hazardous material) from previous maintenance
painting work

o Oil spills around machinery (often containing

silicone) have penetrated the area to such an extent
that radical treatment is required.

o Blast-cleaning reveals that the substrate has

deteriorated to such an extent that replacement is
required, leading to delays and additional engineering
work.

While it is not possible to anticipate all such events, detailed

inspection prior to work beginning may help to reduce their
impact.
Surface Preparation
Once the areas to be repaired have been located and marked,
surface preparation operations may begin.

Many difficulties in obtaining the desired degree of surface

cleanliness may be encountered, such as:

o Heavy build-up of contaminants (grease, oil, dirt,

chemical salts, corrosion products, etc.). These gross

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contaminants must be removed before final surface

preparation by abrasive blasting or power-tool
cleaning may begin

o Necessity of cleaning and coating while equipment is

in service

o Inability to remove the work piece to a clean and dry

work area

o Gauges, dial faces and other sensitive equipment must

be protected during the cleaning and coating operation

o Time constraints due to the need to perform cleaning

and coating operations at the end of a turn-around or
unit outage

o The extent to which the surface has deteriorated

o The type and thickness of coating currently on the

surface

Generally, however, the same tools, equipment, and

techniques used in surface preparation of new construction
may be used in maintenance coating operations.

Solvent/emulsion cleaning and/or water blasting may be used

to remove chalky, friable portions of the old coating system
and grease, dirt, chemical salts, and other contaminants.

Hand- or power-tool and/or abrasive blasting may be used to

open blisters, chip off cracked and peeling paint, remove
tightly adhered mill scale, and provide an anchor pattern.

Feathering
One technique required in maintenance coating operations
that is not generally encountered in new work is feathering.
Feathering is performed at localized repair areas by working
the edges of the repaired area to achieve a smooth transition
from the repair area to the sound coating.

Feathering is probably best achieved by using sandpaper or

grinding disks. Manual or power-tool cleaning techniques
are generally slower than blasting, and many ‘feathered areas
are created by modified blast-cleaning techniques.

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Frequently, a maintenance coating specification will call for

“spot” abrasive blast cleaning of areas with visible corrosion
and light abrasion (feathering) of the adjacent coated areas.
It is common practice to attempt to feather the edges by light,
localized blast-cleaning

One technique associated with spot blasting is the use of a

straight-bore nozzle, rather than the typical venturi nozzle, in
order to reduce the velocity of the abrasive. Reduced blast
pressures may also minimize the damaging effects of
abrasive on the adjacent coating.

The process of “spot” blast cleaning and feathering of the

coating may damage the adjacent coating by causing unseen
cracking of the coating at the impact points, ultimately
resulting in loss of adhesion.

As with other techniques, the contractor may prepare a

sample area to demonstrate his interpretation of how the
feathering will be done.

If this does not meet with the approval of the owner's

representative, additional work should be done until an
example is attained that is representative of the owner’s and
contractor’s agreed-upon feathered repair. The coating
inspector and others can then refer to this example when
evaluating repaired areas.

Curling
The coating to be applied may be incompatible with part or
all of the existing coating system. If so, curling may occur.

Curling is the expansion and lifting of edges of the existing

coating in reaction to solvents in the newly applied coating.

Careful selection of compatible coatings should prevent

occurrence of curling. If not, the owner's representative and
the contractor should agree a procedure that meets the
owner's approval. Further smoothing of the curled edges is
likely to be required.

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 42

Surface Preparation Standards

Standards that are used to specify and judge surface

preparation for maintenance painting requires some special
considerations, and a clear common understanding between
the owner, contractor, and coating inspector involves
standards of surface preparation cleanliness.

The definitions of blast cleaning standards are generally the

same, regardless of whether new work or maintenance work
is being performed. It should be noted, though, that some
surface preparation standards might be specifically
applicable to preparation of unpainted surfaces. Others are
designed specifically for previously painted surfaces. For
example, ISO 8501-12 is focused on surfaces that are not
previously painted, or where the coating is completely
removed by blast-cleaning. ISO 8501-23 specifically relates
to localized removal of existing coatings for surface
preparation when maintenance is required.

Different parts of standards may be used for maintenance. It

is common to use white metal (Sa3) or near-white metal
(Sa2½) blast standards for steel in new construction. It is
much more common to see commercial (Sa2) or brush-off
(Sa1) blast standards specified for maintenance painting.
Maintenance workers and inspectors should review the
specified standards particularly, since the use of unfamiliar
requirements may create dispute or discussion

The surface color of a surface that is abrasive blasted varies

according to the degree of rust or other contamination
removed, and to the type of abrasive used. Pictorial
standards are available to help with recognition of these

2
ISO 8501-1 1988 Preparation of Steel Substrates Before Application of
Paints and Related Products - Visual Assess. of Surface Cleanliness - Part 1:
Rust Grades and Prep Grades of Uncoated Steel Substrates and of Steel
Substrates After Overall Removal of Previous Coatings
3
ISO 8501-2 1994 Preparation of Steel Substrates Before Application of
Paints and Related Products - Visual Assessment of Surface Cleanliness - Part
2: Preparation Grades of Previously Coated Steel Substrates After Localized
Removal of Previous Coatings

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effects. SSPC VIS-1, and ISO 8501-14 (Supplement)

provide pictures of surfaces blast-cleaned to the same
standard using different abrasives.

The inspector should be familiar with both the written

standards and the pictorial standards that are specified

Defective Substrates
Some deterioration of the substrate is often encountered
during maintenance. Concrete that has spalled, leaving
exposed rebar leaves a surface that is difficult to coat, and
may need some rebuilding prior to maintenance coating.
Steel may have corroded to an extent where some localized
replacement is necessary. Where severe corrosion has
occurred, the substrate metal may be roughened and pitted to
a great extent, making both cleaning and recoating difficult.

In such cases, the parties involved in maintenance (owner,

contractor, inspector, etc.) must reach a general agreement
that allows for a change in the scope of work, or make
decisions on a case-by-case basis. It is extremely difficult to
write a specification that anticipates all conditions that may
be encountered, and this is especially true of maintenance
work. Job site meetings, or a thorough pre-job meeting can
be helpful to establish a pattern of communication on these
issues.

The preparation of sample areas is another useful aid. Work

on sample areas can be measured, and agreement reached
over the correct way to deal with specific problems. The
spalled concrete may require rebuilding, with fresh concrete,
followed by a wait of several weeks before coating. Pitted
steel may be coated with several extra stripe-coats to ensure
adequate cover of the peak areas.

When a suitable method of dealing with specific problems is

found, the sample area can be preserved as a reference point,
and used during the work to show an agreed and acceptable
standard of working.

4
ISO 8501-1 Amendment 1 1994
Supplement 1: Representative Photographic Examples of the Change of
Appearance Imparted to Steel when Blast-Cleaned with Different Abrasives

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Whatever the agreed solution, maintenance work is often not

as simple as may be implied by the specification. Co-
operation between the contractual parties makes a big step
towards successful completion of the work.

Soluble Salts
During service exposure, surfaces become contaminated with
many chemicals. The specific chemicals concerned are
determined by the environment in which the exposure
occurs. In a marine environment, chloride contamination can
be expected. In an industrial environment, sulfurous deposits
react to form sulfates.

These compounds rest on the surface of steel, and have two

almost immediate effects. They:

o Dissolve in ambient water to create a more efficient

electrolyte, thereby promoting corrosion

o React with the anodic and cathodic areas, become

associated with the steel in the form of ferrous or
ferric compounds, such as ferrous chloride and ferrous
sulfate.

These same effects may be found on steel that is being

coated for the first time, particularly if it has traveled by deck
cargo on the ocean, or laid exposed at a steel stockyard for an
extended period. It is in maintenance coating, however, that
the full impact of the soluble salts is noticed.

If salts remain on the surface after it is coated, they are

potentially reactive. They are able to add to the forces that
draw water through the coating, then encourage the corrosion
reaction that disrupts the coating, causing loss of adhesion.

Because the contaminating chemical salts have reacted with

the parent metal (i.e. the substrate), they are somewhat
bonded to it. This means that they cannot easily be removed
by normal surface preparation methods. Dry blast-cleaning
can be repeated many times on a heavily contaminated
surface without removing all of the ferrous salts.

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Water-blasting is known to be more effective at removing

soluble salts during surface preparation. For this reason,
high-pressure water cleaning is often used in conjunction
with other methods of surface preparation, and high-pressure
water-jetting is often used as a method of surface
preparation.

One additional effect that may be encountered in

maintenance work is apparent permeation of the steel by
contaminants from the service exposure. Some service
situations in which this may be a particular problem include,
but are not necessarily limited to:

o Sour crude storage tanks

o Cooling towers

o Fertilizer plants

o Steel coated with bituminous products

The effect of ‘permeation’ is difficulty in removal of

contaminants. For example, blast-cleaning bitumen coated
surfaces to white metal (Sa3) standard may create a visually
clean surface, but the bitumen may still be present in
sufficient quantity to bleed through the primer coats, creating
a yellow’ or brown discoloration. Further cleaning may still
be insufficient to easily remove the contamination.

Permeation is often caused by exposure of the surface in high

heat conditions. Visual inspection may not be enough to
identify remaining contaminants.

After surface preparation, the surface that is still

contaminated often deteriorates more quickly than would be
expected, showing dark corrosion effects rapidly. The
surface is said to ‘turn’ much more quickly than it would
otherwise.

With this condition, the owner may call for tests to determine
the presence of soluble chemical salts, or combustion
products. A solution may be to use high-pressure water
jetting to remove the contamination prior to abrasive blast
cleaning.

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 46

Application
The requirements of safety and workmanship for application,
inspection and reporting are generally the same for
maintenance coating as those for new work.

Inspection
The same general tools, techniques, and requirements for
inspection apply in maintenance work as those in new work.
However, some variations in technique may be required.

Dry Film Thickness measurement

To properly determine thickness of a maintenance coating,
for example, it is necessary to know the thickness of the
existing coatings that are being overcoated. Using a non-
destructive magnetic thickness gauge:

o Take initial readings over the old coating after surface

preparation has been performed.

o Take readings over the surface after the coating has

been applied, taking care that these readings are taken
in the same location as the first readings.

o Subtract the initial readings from the final readings to

obtain an estimate of the thickness of the newly
applied coating.

Using this method, DFT can be reliably measured, if enough

measurements are made before work begins, and the same
location can be used for measurement of the new coating
thickness.

Another method to estimate the thickness of maintenance

coatings is to measure the wet film thickness, then calculate
the average DFT based on the volume solids. This method
provides only an overall average, and does not account for
individual areas where DFT may be higher or lower than the
average.

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 47

Adhesion Testing
Adhesion tests (pull-off ASTM D4541 and/or cross-hatch
ASTM D3359), if allowed, may be performed to determine
the adhesive strength between:

o The coating to be repaired and the substrate

o new and old coatings

The first of these indicates when the existing coating is

adequate to remain as part of the maintained coating system;
the second measures the success of the maintenance coating
operation.

Where adhesion values are significantly reduced since the

existing coating was first applied, the coating is suspect, and
unlikely to remain stable. This is particularly true since
modern coatings such as epoxy high-build or polyurethane
exert significant stress, and tend to pull underlying weakly
adherent coatings from the substrate.

For example, multi-coat epoxy systems applied directly to

blast-cleaned steel may be expected to have a tensile
adhesion value of 700-psi (4.8-Mpa) or better. Over time,
this may reduce with the coating in service. If the adhesion
value of the aged epoxy coating is less than, say, 200-psi
(1.4-Mpa), then it is probably unwise to overcoat with a
normal maintenance coating system.

[Note, these figures refer to a mechanical pull-off tester such

as Elcometer 106. If a hydraulic or pneumatic tester is used
then greater values (up to double) would be expected.]

Specification of the adhesion values that are acceptable prior

to overcoating must be made by the owner or his
representatives. There is no recognized guideline for such
values.

Some coating suppliers manufacture penetrating primers,

specifically devised for maintenance purposes, which are
intended to promote adhesion in weakly adherent coating
systems. Some users have reported good results with these

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 48

products, with tensile adhesion values for the whole system

better after application of maintenance coatings than before.

When adhesion testing is used in this way, inspectors must

be familiar with the equipment used, and be able to obtain
reliable and consistently accurate results. The subject of
making adhesion tests is described in the inspection module
of this program.

Scaffold and Work platforms

Much maintenance work is performed from elevated
platforms of some kind. Work platforms are sometimes
permanent features, such as those that can be seen under
most modern bridges. Others are temporary, and erected at
site when work is to be performed, and subsequently
removed.

Scaffold provided for access is often a substantial cost

element of maintenance painting work. It must provide a
safe working platform that conforms to regulations, and is
present throughout performance of the work. On large
complex structures, the scaffold may be moved as the work
progresses, requiring the presence of a team of scaffold
workers to dismantle and re-erect the scaffold as required.

Scaffold structures and work platforms are subject to safety

inspections in most countries. Workers using these access
devices should ensure that the structure has been inspected
and certified as safe for working. A signed permit should be
available for inspection to ensure compliance with the legal
requirements.

In the case of scaffold structures, this often takes the form of

a green tag fixed to the scaffold near to ladders or entry
points. If the structure is not safe for working, a red tag may
be displayed. This may be due to dismantling or erection
work taking place, or to some safety problem with the
scaffold.

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 49

Containment
One feature of maintenance operations that is increasingly
common is the use of containment to control the environment
around structures while work is performed. Increased
environmental regulations have been introduced to restrict
emissions from all industry, but blasting and painting is
recognized as a specific problem area.

Whenever maintenance coating work is performed, it is

likely to be performed at site. With the exception of small
components such as pumps, motors, and small vessels, the
work is performed at the normal location of the structure.

Surface preparation for new construction produces emissions

associated with the equipment and materials used, such as
dust from the blast-abrasive, and VOCs from the coatings
applied. Maintenance work adds to that the dust and small
particles of old coating, often containing lead or other heavy
metals. Moreover, if those contaminants are not collected,
they land on the ground, or in water, and generate pollution.

Regulations associated with ground water and environmental

air combine to make reduction of emissions essential.

At its simplest, containment may be a series of tarpaulins

roped together and fastened around the structure itself or
scaffold used for work access. The addition of a clean air
inlet, and a suction device to remove dirty air to a collection
and filtering device may be necessary.

Control of the quality and quantity of air entering and

leaving the structure is required. Generally a slight negative
pressure within the structure is required if the suction is to be
effective.

In cold climates, the containment may serve another

function. Incoming air may be heated, to maintain working
temperatures, and the covers keep the rain away. In many
environments, total containment is essential if work is to be
performed in winter, or in the rainy season.

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There are an increasing number of sophisticated containment

structures available for use in maintenance painting work.
Hazardous Materials
Many coatings and other materials used in previous decades
are now known to be hazardous. Amongst the most common
of these materials is lead and other heavy metals used in
coatings, and asbestos used in construction (but also used –
in fiber form - as a reinforcement in coatings and in
concrete).

Removal of hazardous materials has many implications for

workers, including:

o The need for frequent medical checks

o Special provision for washing and changing facilities

at site

o Collection and disposal of hazardous waste

o Site monitoring of dust emissions, soil contamination

and the effective containment of work processes

These additional activities have many implications, not least

of which are the extra time and costs required to comply with
health and safety regulations.

Historic Structures
There are many historic structures throughout the world that
must be coated for preservation. Often, these structures are
made of relatively unfamiliar substrates, such as cast iron,
bronze, or sandstone. A major priority with such structures
is generally to also preserve, or restore, their appearance.

When conventional coatings are used as part of the

preservation strategy, effective encapsulation of the structure
is often required. To achieve the required standard of
encapsulation, joints and seams must be sealed, and caulking
of joints may be required. Caulking materials should be
compatible with the coatings used.

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The problems associated with maintaining historic structures

often result in innovative solutions, that subsequently benefit
the day-to-day surface preparation and coating operation.
For example, much of the high-pressure water cleaning
technology was developed partially as a means to achieve
good surface preparation near public buildings without the
dust hazards of sand-blasting.

Maintenance of such structures is a specialized job, and

requires specific expertise. Previous experience is often
found in publications and papers, and specifiers should
devote time to research to establish the best methods and
materials for their specific purpose.
Maintenance of Porous Surfaces
Maintenance of aged and deteriorated coatings on wood,
concrete or other porous substrates may be difficult. In
addition to the need to adequately prepare the surface, the
presence of moisture in the porous substrate may prevent
adequate penetration or adhesion of the maintenance
coatings.
If coatings are applied over a porous surface that contains
moisture, or can absorb moisture, there is a strong probability
that the moisture may subsequently expand, creating blisters
beneath the coating. This is a common cause of problems
with coatings on concrete slabs that do not have an effective
damp-proof membrane

Porous substrates that have been exposed in their service

environment may also be contaminated with products to
which they have been exposed. Liquid materials, ranging
from water to acid, sewage, process chemicals or saltwater
are able to penetrate the substrate wherever the existing
coating has failed to protect the surface.

Generally, coatings have failed in some locations, however

minor, before maintenance work is commissioned. If the
contamination is simply water, then drying out the surface
and the substrate is perhaps possible. Removal of other
contamination may be more difficult.

One special case is the nuclear industry, where

contamination with nuclear waste may embed radiation deep

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into the concrete that is widely used for construction. Once

such a surface has become contaminated, removal of the
radiation is very difficult. The nuclear industry is concerned
to maintain its protective coatings at a very high level, to
ensure that underlying concrete is totally protected in case of
a spill.
Summary
While there are many similarities between maintenance and
new coating work, some important additional considerations
include:

o Coating selection

o Compatible with existing coating (ASTM D-5064-90,

Standard Practice for Conducting a Patch Test to
Assess Coating Compatibility)

o Patch testing may be desirable

o Surface preparation and application

o Time constraints

o Heavy contamination by service conditions

o Feathering of spot repairs may be desirable

o May have to work while facility is in operation

Standards for Maintenance Painting

NACE currently has two task groups working on
maintenance reports, which can be valuable to the owner,
contractor, coating supplier, and the inspector:

o T-6H-27: Combating Adhesion Problems When

Applying New onto Existing Finish Coats of Paint

o T-6H-36: Coatings Over Non-Abrasive Cleaned Steel

Surfaces

SSPC has published a guide devoted to maintenance paints.

o SSPC PA-1, Part 10

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 53

Some standards used for maintenance

coating work
Standards Standard
Organization
AAMA AAMA 610.1-1979 1979 Voluntary Guide
Specification for Cleaning and Maintenance of Painted
Aluminum Extrusions and Curtain Wall Panels
AWWA ANSI/AWWA C653-97 1997 Disinfection of Water
Treatment Plants
ASTM ASTM D5962-96(R1999) 10-JUN-1996 Standard
Guide for Maintaining Unqualified Coatings (Paints)
Within Level I Areas of a Nuclear Power Facility
ASTM E2052-99 10-DEC-1999 Standard Guide for
Evaluation, Management, and Control of Lead Hazards
in Facilities
ASTM F502-93(R1998) 15-JAN-1993 Standard Test
Method for Effects of Cleaning and Chemical
Maintenance Materials on Painted Aircraft Surfaces
ASTM Manual 8 : Manual on Maintenance Coatings
for Nuclear Power Plants
ASTM PS53-97 25-FEB-1997 Provisional Standard
Guide for Identification and Management of Lead
Hazards in Facilities
British Standards BS 6150 1991 Code of Practice for Painting of
Buildings
CGSB CGSB 85-GP-14M 1-APR-1978 Painting,
Maintenance, Exterior Steel Exposed to Normally Dry
Weather
CGSB 85-GP-2M 1-APR-1978 Painting
(Maintenance) of Exterior Painted Wooden Surfaces
Federal Standard FED A-A-50542 8-FEB-1993 Coating System:
(USA) Reflective, Slip-Resistant, Chemical-Resistant
Urethane for Maintenance Facility Floors
ISO ISO 12944-8 15-MAY-1998 Paints & Varnishes -
Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective
Paint Systems - Part 8: Development of Specifications
for New Work & Maintenance
NACE NACE EG1-95 1995 Emergency Guideline --
Maintenance Painting of Electrical Substation
Apparatus Including Flow Coating of Transformer
Radiators
NACE 6G197 1997 Design, Installation, and
Maintenance of Coating Systems for Concrete Used in
Secondary Containment
NACE RP0297-97 27-JUN-1997 Maintenance
Painting of Electrical Substation Apparatus Including
Flow Coating of Transformer Radiators
NIBS NIBS LBP O&M MANUAL 1-MAY-1995 Lead-
Based Paint Operations & Maintenance Work Practices
Manual for Homes and Buildings
SSPC SSPC 95-01 1995 Steel Structures Painting Manual -
Volume 2 - Systems and Specifications, Seventh
Edition - Includes All Current Supplements

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Coatings Application 2 – Advanced Modules, IPC Project Page 54

SSPC 98-05 1998 Surface Preparation and Coating of

Concrete
SSPC 97-04 1997 Design, Installation, and
Maintenance of Coating Systems Used in Secondary
Containment, Joint SSPC/NACE Technical Committee
Report
SSPC PA5 1996 SEE SSPC 96-02 - Guide to
Maintenance Painting Programs - Included in a set (96-
02) with PA 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and QP1 and QP2I

© NACE International, 2001