PART TWO

MADHVA’S DVAITA VEDANTA

 145

MADHVA^ S DVAITA VEDANTA

CHAPTER-1

1.0.1NTRODUCTION:
The philosophy of Madhvacarya represents theism. Before
the coimnencement of MadhvaciurYa on the Indian philosophical
scene, there had been already well-established systems of
Samkeora amd Kamanuja. After a long cogitation, Madhva
esteddlished his new Dars'ana called Dvaita VedSita. It is one
of the major schools of VedSrita philosophy.
Madhva also known as Anandatirtha or P’
u rnaprajjna belongs
to the 1 3 ^ A.D. It was a period of serious cultural unrest and
political turmoil. There were invasions and forceful
conversions to new faith by the invaders. Hinduism had
absorbed msmy invading races since the earlier times that
entered the coiontry. Madhva influenced the socx^^political
situations of his times. Madhva siddhantha is a buoyant
realism of Vedas, the Opemisads, transcendental Theism,
emotional Theism of Puranas cund Epics. He holds that man is
real agent in this world amd not a false reality. He was a
staunch opponent of Samkaura and Ramanuja; and was considered
-A^ -
t o ^ n e of the great commentators of major Vedamtic texts.
Madhva was a constructive expotinder of the classics of India. ^
1.1.HAGIOGRAPHY (PREDECESSORS OF MADHVA):
Before we elaborate the date, life and works of Madhva,
let us briefly look into the Predecessors of the Acarya. The
following is the traditional Guruparan^sara down to Madhva: 1.
Hamsa (Narayana) , 2.Brahma, 3.The Four Sanas, 4.Durvasas,

B.N. K. Shaxma. Madhva' Teachings in his own words, (Bombay:

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,1979), pp.3-14.
 146

5. JfiSianidhi Tirtha, 6. GtDoidavSJiana Tirtha, 7. Kaivalya

Tirtha, S.Jnahisa TTrtha, 9.Para Tirtha, lO.Satyapraji^
Tirtha, ll.PrajrTa Tirtha, (Gap of about four hundred years),
12.Acyutaprjna alias Purusottama Tirtha and 13. ^Aananda Tirtha
alias Madhvacarya. The last in this line was Purusottama
Tirtha (M. Vi j , v i , 33) alias Acyutaprajna, more cooononly
called Acyutapreksa, who was the Sannyasa-Guru of Madhva.
The very first work on Vedanta in which this teacher
instructed Madhva was taught the Istasiddhi of Vimuktatman
(M.Vij. iv, 44). Hence it is obvious that Madhva himself was
the actual historical founder cind exponent of his system.^
1.2.SRI MADHVA'S PARENTS AND HIS BIRTH:
The native land of Sri Madhvacarya wais the Pajaka
ksethra, a village in Udupi town of South Ceinara district of
Karnataka. Madhyag^cibhatta a pious cmd orthodox Pcuidith
Brahmin was the father of Sri Madhva, cuid Vedavathy was his
mother. They named their son as Vasudeva.^
1.3.DATE AND LIFE OF SRI MADHVACARYA.
Madhva was born in the year 1238 A.D of the Christiam era
cmd passed away or 'became invisible' as the tradition puts
it, in 1317 AD; and 1238-1317 AD.thus appears, to be the most
satisfactory date for Madhva. Narayana Panditacarya one of
the youngest sons of Trivikrauna an illustrious disciple of
Madhva has written an authentic biography of the Acarya. It is
said that as a child he was an extra-ordinaury intellectual. At
the age of sixteen he was conferred Sannyasa and was named as
Purnaprajna by a renowned Advaita teacher called
Acyutapreksacarya.

B.N.K. Sharma, History of Dvaita School of Vedanta and

its Literature,(Delhi: Motilal Banrsidas, 1981), pp.75-77.
C.M.Padmanabhacharya, Life^__ and Teachings of Sri
Madhvacharya,(Udupi: Paryaya Sri Palimar Mutt), pp.3-4.
 147

Htf studied the Sastras and was convinced of the inherent

weakness of the Advaita philosophy. He had keen desire to
resuscitate the auicient Theism of the Vedas'i^tras on the basis
of reinterpretation of the texts.
Madhva opposed Sankara's monistic tenets. He studied the
sacred texts independently auad came to the conclusion that
they do not propagate Mayavada. On the other hand they have
Realistic Theism proclaiming Visnusarvottamatva as their
essence and purport. "Anandatirtha" was another new name that
was given to Madhva by Acyutapr"eksa with which Madhva himself
calls in memy of his works. He is known popularly by the naime
Madhvacarya.
Madhva undertook extensive tours towards South euid North
India. He popularized his new doctrine. During the course of
his tours he challenged many of his opponents in public
disputes and won over them to his side. His successful
disputations were with Vasudeva Pandita, Vadisimha and
Buddhisagara. The eminent scholars like Sobhana Bhatta under
the name Padmanabhatirtha, Swami Sastri \inder the name of
Narahcuritirtha, and Madhva's own preceptor Acyutapriksacarya
.were all got converted and became the staunch followers of the
theism of Madhva.
Sri Madhva firmly established his philosophical doctrines
through his substantial works that has since then become a
strong center of the Dvaita Vedahta. He lived for seventy-nine
years. He departed for Badari. On the ninth day of the bright
half of Magha, in Pingala, 1317 A.D. , he became invisible
while preaching the Opauiisads. Madhva proclaims himself as the
third incarnation of Vayu after Hanuman and Bhima.*

Helmuth Von Glasenapp, Visnu Faith, ed.K.T. Pandurangi,

(Bcmgalore:Dvaita Vedanta* Studies and Research
Foudation,1992) , p.l.
 14 8

Madhva in short was a many-sided personality. Sri Madhva

had many disciples. He ordained of them to SeUinyas. They were:
Padmanabhatirtha, Naraharitirtha and Aksol^atrrtha;
Padmanabhatirtha was a great scholar at the court of King
Mahadeva of Yadva Dynasty and lived in Paithan. He was chiefly
responsible for the propagation of Dvaita Vedanta in
Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Tautiil Nadu and Maharastra.
After "Madhvacharya", a few great commentators wrote
scholarly commentaries and highlighted Dvaita doctrines.
--- - ^
Prominent among them are Jayt^rtha, Vyasaraja, Raghuttama,
Vadiraja, Vidya^dhisa, Raghavendra, Jagannatha yati and a few
others. Harida^sa literature has been smother feature of Dvaita
Vedanta. Great Mystics like Sripadaraja, Vyasaraja,
Purandaradasa, Vijayadasa, Jagannathadasa have contributed to
HaridiTsa literature. This literature is in Kamnada language
and in the form of Songs; auid it enkindles Bhakti. It has
contributed to Indian Music considerably.®
1.4.MADHVA AS A WRITER, THINKER AND A MYSTIC:
Madhva was a prolific writer in Sanskrit. He commanded
prose euid verse with equal ease. His prose is terse and
telling. He is known for brevity of expression and he
scrupulously avoids the ornate style. His verses have
solemnity, dignity and deep spiritual eloquence. He liked
debates and disputations with scholars of the day and was an
adept in logical and dialectical s\jbtleties.
Madhva had a brilliant insight into the problems of
philosophy. His knowledge of the sacred literature of his
country was accurate and exhaustive. He quotes profusely from
an exceptionally wide range of works the Mantras, Brahmanas,
Khilas, Aranyakas, Upanisads, Epics, Purahas, Pancaratras and

K .T .Pandurangi, Dvaita Vedanta Darsana of Sri Madhvacharaya,

pp.1-3
 149

a variety of ancillary literatures. Among Ved^tins, he has

drawn to the laurgest extent upon the ^ g Veda. In Madhva
there is a de^ laystic strain that cooies out occasionally in
his writings. Flashes of his mysticism are evident in the
outpourings of his heart to God in his Dvadasa-Stotra.
1.5.WORKS OF MADHVA.
Madhva, as already said, is the most prolific writer in
Sanskrit. He is one of the greatest Bhasyakaras of the Vedanta
system. The works of Madhva are thirty-seven in nxambers. They
could be listed as follows:
1 .Commentaries on Prasthanatraya:
a) Works on Gita-PrastHina
i) . Bhagavadgita-bhasya
ii) .BhiTgavata-tiatparyanirnaya
b) Works on Sutr.aprasthaha
i) , BreJima-sutra-bhasya
ii) .Brhama-sutra-Anxjbhasya
iii) Brahma-sutra-Anuvj^ikhyana
N3 B yaVim ^53-fcV 6^- < ^ v \u .'< Y S .K -V » s iM riy 'S M a --'V /iV a J ra .v 2 < a .
c) Works on Upanisad-prasthana
i) Aitareya-xjpauiisad-bhasya
ii) BrhadaranyeJca-upanisad-bhasya
iii) Chandogya-upanisad-bhasya
iv) Taittiriya-ijpanisad-bHasya
v) I^vasya-upeinisad-bhasya
vi) KatheJca-upanisad-bhasya
vii) Atharvana- (Mundaka) -upanisad-bhasya
viii) Manduka- (Mahdukya) -upanisad-bHasya
ix) Satprasna-upanisad-bhasya
x) Talavakara- (Kena)-upanisad-bhasya
2.Da.sa. PraJcarana:
*

a)Katha-laksana-on the means of polemics

b) Pramaha-lcJcsana-on the norms of knowledge
 151

Among the works of MadhviTca^rya the greatest, by general

agreonent, is Anu-vyakhy5ia. On Madhva's works brilliant
commentaries have been written by Jayatirtha called Tikas. In
particular, his commentary on Anuvyakhyana, called Nyayasudha,
is of highest merit. Vyasatirtha also has written brilliant
commentaries on Madhva's works. Or. S.N. Dasgupta says,
"Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha present the highest dialectical
skill... almost unrivalled in the whole field of Indiaui
thought".®
1.6.THE STYLE OF MADHYA'S WRITINGS.
Madhva is a <±Lfficult Hindu philosophical writer in Vedantar
syst^ because of his aphoristic style. To understand his
writings euid thought, one will have to go into some initiation
and seek the help of commentaries.^

S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Philosophy, Vol. IV, (Delhi: Motilal

B2uiarsidass,1975), Preface,p.viii;Dominic, God-World-Soul, Acc.
To St. Thomas and Sri. Madhvacarya,(1995), pp.428-431.
\ B.N.K.Sharma, Madhva's Teachings, pp.25-30.
 152

CHAPTER-2

DVAITA IN OUTLINE,

2.1.A BACKGROUND TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF MADHVACARYA:

The position of Madhvacarya is this: 'Braihman is the
groiand of the universe. The viniverse consists of c^ana
(spirit) and acetana (matter). It is as real as Brahman. It is
not mithya. The soul is also real. It asserts itself as real.
In what sense real? There are three senses in which a thing
Ccmi be real. A thing is real if it has an existence of its
own; if it has knowledge (pramiti) or if it has its own
fxinction (pravrtti) . Cetana is real in all these three senses
and acetana is real in the first and the last senses. But in
every sense of the term, the reality of the world is
dependent. A depenedent reality, if it is existent, should
have its source in something else. This source is independent
(svatantra) . It is changeless. It is perfect that is Brcdimam.
Brhaman is immanent in the world emd the latter has reality
from it. By Itself Brhamsui is transcend^t. Being^ both
immcment cuid transcendent It is the necessary presupposition
of the world. Without It the world is not. But with It the
world is. In virtue of this conception of the dependent nature
of the world this system is called Dvaita.^
We can sum xsp the Dvaita system of Madhvaca^rya thus:
'This en^irical world is real and jiva (soul) is really
different from Brahman ajid non-identical with Him. Both cit
(spirit) and acit (matter) altogether are different realities

H.N.Raghavendrachar,. The Dvaita Philosophy and its

place in the Vedanta, (Mysore: University of Mysore, 1941) ,
p.12.
 153

from Brahman. His system advocates that there exists the

reality of five-fold differences (bhSda) between - l.Soul and
G o d . 2. Soul and Soul. 3. Soul and matter. 4. God euid matter
and 5.One material thing and another. Bheda is the central
concept of his system suid because of this reason it is
called Dualism or the Dvaita philosophy. The system of Madhva
can rightly be called as pluralistic, realistic, and theistic
because he believes in the reality of the external world and
the personal God who alone is Svatsuitra (independent) and all
other real beings altogether depend on Him alone.
2.2.SRI MADHYA'S DVAITA VED^TA IN SUMMARY:
The Dvaita Vedanta of Madhvacarya, is pluralistic,
theistic and realistic philosophy and its philosophical tenets
are derived from three authoritative aspects called Prasthahas
- Sutraprasthana, l]^anisadprasthana, Gitaprasthaha auid from
Puranas and MeJiibharata. H.V. Glasenapp quotes the immortal
lines of Madhva's doctrine that are summarized in the
celebrated verse by Vyasa-r¥ya one of the eminent exponents of
Madhvacarya: -
'‘
^Sr±man-Madhra-mate Harih para.ta.xah Satr^am jagat,
-tattvato bhedo,Ji-ra-gana, Harer anucarab, aicocca-bbavam
gatah, muktir aaija-SiikhanubbUtlr, amala bbaktls' Ca tat-
sadhanam aksadl-txityaiaPramaham, akhi 1amanyalka-yr^yo Harih".
This memorial-verse attributed to Sri V^satirtha,
summarizes the quintessence of Madhva's philosophy in nine
points (nava prameya-ratnahi). Sriman Madhva teaches that
Visnu (Hari) is the supreme God, the world is real and the
difference between God and soul does actually exist; all the
living beings are dependent upon Visnu, and they are divided
into higher and lower classes; Liberation consists in the
enjoyment of the bliss that is inherent in oneself; pure
devotion is the means of attaining it. The meauis of knowledge
 154

(praitianas) are perception, inference, and verbal testimony

(revealed scripture). The sole purport of the entire Vedic
revelation is Hari.^
2.3. 'REALITY' (TRUTH) IN MADHVACARYA:
Essentially as an Epistemological animal, man has an
unc[uenchable and irrepressible thirst for knowledge. Every
system of philosophy deals with the problem of knowledge and
gives prime iir^jortance to it and therefore the basic form of
every philosophical system is to discuss on the nature, scope,
and varieties of knowledge, the reliable or unreliability of
human knowing and the validity of knowledge. Therefore man
initially takes recourse to Epistemology in pursuing and
searching the Truth. Madhvacaxya's philosophical thoughts and
his doctrine of the Supreme Being (God) man (jiva) and world
(jagat) without exception are built upon Epistemological and
Metaphysical foundations.
The hxjmeui soul is for the eternal and unmixed bliss of
mukti or liberation, which can be attained only through
constant devotion to God. Such devotion is dependent on the
knowledge of the Lord cmd this knowledge is possible only
through the instruments of valid knowledge. We may ment.±on
here the nature and validity of the Pramaiias in the philosophy
of Dvaita.
Knowledge is dependent on its object. The relation
between knowledge smd its object is natural. There are two
types of knowledge, svarupa-jnana, and vyttijnaha. The former
is generated by Sakf i and the .latter by the external sense
organs and manas (mind). The former is as a rule true, and the
latter is true or untrue according to the conditions. The
falsity of knowledge consists in grasping the real as unreal

Ibid.,,p.116;H.V. Glasenapp, O p .C i t p p .68-69.

 155

and the unreal as unreal. True knowledge is generated by

praaianas. There are three przunanas pratyaksa, anumana, and
'agauna.
The object of knowledge according to Madhva is a
qualified entity. It consists of having substantive-
attributive aspects. The attributes of a thing are identical
with it. Yet they are distinguished as attributes owing to
visesa. Visesa is in all things, including even Braihinan. In
each thing its number is infinite. The world is real. It
consists of different entities. Difference is real. The
entities of the world may be brought under two heads, ceteuia,
and acetana. Cetcma is that which knows. There are many
cetanas. There sure three kinds of them, good, bad, and of
doubtful character. Acetcuia is that which does not know. There
are three kinds of ad€tana things, eternal, eternal-non—
eternal, and non-eternal. The Veda is eternal. Space, time,
and prakrti are eternal-non-eternal. The products of preJtrti
are non-etemal. A product has two kinds of causes, material,
and efficient cause. The relation between a product euid its
material cause is identity in difference. Non-existence also
is real. The world is dependent and points to an Independent
Reality as its source. The Independent is Brahmeui and it is
the ground of all that is dependent. The world being dependent
is different from Braihman.
The bondage of a cetana is caused by its ignorance of the
truth that Brahman is the sole grotjnd of all including itself.
It becomes free with the realization of this truth. The course
of the discipline that leads to this realization presupposes
moral perfection it consists of, in order that study of sastra
(Havana) , philosophical reflection (maneuia) , amd the
application to and the teaching of philosophy (nididhyasana) .
With this discipline a cetcUia realizes Brcdiman as its ground
 [56

(biinba) and with the fullness of its devotion (bhakti) to

Brahmam obtains the grace of Brahman and with it ouid cetana
has the enjoyment (bhoga) of perfection according to its
capacity (yogyata). This is its mukti.^
2.4.ORDERS OF REALITY:
According to Madhva there are two orders of reality-
1.Independent and 2.Dependent. We are confronted with
diversities in the world like the 'other selves' like us
around us too have greater impacts upon u s . Our apprehension
of the 'reality' is as 'many' and not as 'one' . Any attempt
to reduce 'many' to a mere appearance ends up in nihilism,
which is an escapist philosophy. Madhva stresses on the
distinction between the 'Independent' emd 'Dependent'
Realities. He is a critical realist and considers everything
to be real. For Madhva, there are three pramahas of knowledge,
they are, Pratyaksa (perception), Anumana (inference) and
Saksi (internal witness). In all these there underlies what
is called Saksi.
2.5.THE SAKSI:
m
According to Madhva, S^si is the highest instrument of
all the valid knowledge and the experiences of man. It
exsunines the knowledge that is derived through the senses.
Knowledge derived through saksi remains incontrovertible and
non-contradictable. For Madhva, 'Saksi-pratyaksa' is
fiandcunentally an internal experience of judgment and values.
2.6 THE UNIVERSE:
The universe we experience is a mysterious universe. The
Supreme Being Brahman (God) is the creator-sustainer of this
vast universe. This Independent and ultimate principj^l<f
controls auid connects all other dependent reals. Thus Madhva

Ibid., pp.119-120.
 157

dichotomizes the reality as a whole, into 'Sva-tantra and

'Para-tantra in his B.S.B.l, 2, 17. Madhva maintains that in
order to preserve the trans-empirical oneness of Brathman, it
is not necessary to deny the reality of the world-experience
2und in no way the finite by reason of its metaphysical
dependence challenge or constitute to the ideology of the
Absolute Brahman; and this Upanisadic Brahman remains the One
without the second.
2.7.THE PRAMANAS:
#
The greatest yearning of the hiaman soul is for the
eternal and lonmixed bliss of mukti or liberation, which can be
attained only through constant devotion to God. Such devotion
is possible only when we have the knowledge of the Lord and
this knowledge is possible only through the instruments of
valid knowledge. This is the need for a detailed study of the
nature and validity of the Pramanas in the philosophy of
Dvaita .*
The starting point of Tattvas^stras or the most classical
Indian systems including Dvaita Vedanta is the enquiry into
the natiire of reality auid discussion on the vaorieties and
sources of the nature of knowledge. The Indian systems have
recognized the very ixiportance of the Pramaha - vicara. Among
the many works of Madhva there are long discussions on the
problem of knowledge especially in his short treatise called
"Pramanalaksana". According to him, it is the philosophical
inquiry that tests the truth in the light of proofs.
Madhva opens his short treatise on knowledge
"PranianalaJcgana" with the statement: "Pramwa is a valid
knowledge (Yatha^rtham Pramaham) . It is the revelation or

Nagaraja Rao, The Epistemology of Dvaita Ved£ita, (Madras: The

Adyar Library &Research Centre,1976), p.12, Dominic,
Op.Cit.,p.28.
 158

cognition of an object as it is, i.e. a cognition, which does

not go beyond the object of knowledge. In this sense, Sri
Madhva uses the word Pramana in two senses: a) True and
objective knowledge, b) Means of obtaining true knowledge. The
first he calls Kevala Pramana and the second Anu Praniaha
(Pramazialaksana (Prl.) Yatharthajjnam Kevalam tat Sadhanam
anuprmanam.^
The other schools of Indian philosophy vinderstand that
the term Pramana applies to the means of valid knowledge only.
Madhva admits three distinct means of knowledge (auiu pramana) .
They are perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), and
verbal testimony (sabda). Kevala pramana is divided into four
types, in the descending order of merit as Is^ra-JnSia,
Laksmi-jnana, Yogi-jnana, cu:id Ayogi-jnana, on the basis of
intrinsic differences in quality, luminosity, cuid range. The
first two are in the nature of Svarupa-jnana alone, while the
other two include Vrtti-j^Jaha (sensory knowledge) also,
f^ara-jnana or the .knowledge possessed by Isvara is all
comprehensive, veridical, eternal, luminous and fully valid.
Ladcsmi-jnana is next only to God's, in these respects and is
dependent on God. Yogi-jnana is that knowledge which is
obtained by yogins through their yogic power as a result of
their meditation on Is"vara. The ramifications of yogi-jnaha
include those of Rju, Tattvika and Atattvika souls, and Ayogi-
jnana, which is invalid knowledge, is possessed by other souls
like mukti-yogyas, Nitya samsarins and TamoyogySis.®
"Pramana is that which grasps its object as it is. An
object is so called because it is grasped by Prauna. Both Prama

Dominic,Op.Cit.,p.28.
B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy of Sri Madhvacarya, (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1991), p.130; N^ara ja Rao, Op.Cit., pp.19-26;
Dominic,Op.Cit.,pp.28-29.
 159

and its instrument are seen to grasp the same object. The
instrument is viewed as grasping the object, because it
generates the Pruna that grasps the same. So grasping the
object is, immediate in the case of Prama, and mediate in the
case of the instrument. If yathartha is Pramaha, then it
inevitably follows that Prama is Pramaha in the sense of its
0
being immediate, and its instrtjment is Pramaha because it
generates Pramaha knowledge. The definitions of the previous
thinkers suffer from the defect that they all exclude Prama
from the field of Pramaija.
So both Prama suid its instrument are Pramaha. The former
is immediate. 'Hie latter is mediate. To indicate this
distinction the former is called kevalapramara, and the latter
anupramana.
2 . 8 . ISVALAPRAIANA:
Prama is k'evaO^amana# According to this system there eu:e
four types of kevalapramSia belonging respectively to
Laksmi, Yogin, and Ayogin. An Ayogin is a being like
ovurselves. There are different kinds of Prama. They aure the
Prama that is produced by Saksi including self-consciousness,
the Prama that is produced by meuias with or without the help
of the external sense orgsuis, and the Prama produced by
euiumana and agama.^
2.9.ANU PRAl&IAS:
They are the means of obtaining true knowledge. They are
three in number: l.PratyaJcsa (Sense perception) , 2.AnumSna
(Inference), euid 3. Agama (Scripture). "Perception is the
flawless contact of sense-organs with their appropriate

Raghavendrachar^ Op.cit,p.l53.
 160

objects. Flawless reasoning is inference. Flawless word,

conveying valid sense, is Agama.°
2 . 1 0 . PERCEPTION (PRATTAK^) :
Perception, as a process of knowledge, is defined by
Madhva as the "contact between the defectless object and the
defectless sense"(Prl-"Nirdosarthehdriya sauinikarsam
pratyaksam") . Thus Pratyaksa is the defectless sense orgaui
(indriya). The knowledge that is derived from this sense-
object contact is perceptual knowledge. This perceptual
knowledge to be valid, both senses and objects are to be free
from defects. The defects in objects and senses bring out the
invalid knowledge that produces illusion or doubt.
There are seven senses (indriyas) of knowledge according
to Madhva. The five external senses are: - Sight, hesuring,
smell, taste, touch, and the mind (manas) , and S^sin
(internal witness) are the internal senses.
2 . 1 1 . MIND (MANAS):
It co-ordinates the knowledge that is derived by the five
external senses and it acts as a mesuns to recollection or
memory. Thus it is a seat of memory. Manas (mind) also works
as o^v\ intermediaury between the external object and the
knowing-subject. As it is the internal instrument it is also
called as " a n t a ^ a r a n a " . Through this antsQikarana that the
internal witness (Saksin) directs the energies of the
knowledge and activity.
2 .1 2 .S A K S I N (INTERNAL WITNESS) -THE SEVENTH SENSE:
According to Madhva, Saksi is the ultimate knowing agent
or source of knowledge. Saksin is said to be the purest form
of Indriya. It is called as witnessing consciousness. It

Prl. ,Madhvacarya, Sriinad ^ Visnu-Tattva-Vinlrnaya, Trans.

S.S.Raghavacar, (Mangalore: Sri Ramakrishna Ashrama.1959) , VTV
No. 81,pp.18-21.
 161

directly perceives. In the individual soul Saksin is the

essential attribute of consciousness. It functions in two
stages. In the first stage it produces the knowledge. In the
second stage it ascertains its presence and validity.
Therefore Saksin is the first perceiver of the objects that
are presented to all other senses. The perception of Saksin is
indirect. And also Saksin perceives directly those objects
that cannot be perceived by other senses. These objects are,
l.The nature of the self (Atman) and its attributes; the five
senses, manas (mind) and its attributes,v i z , pleas\are(sukl)a) ,
time (Kala) and the unmanifested ether (avyakrta-akas'a) . The
most important characteristic mark of the S^si perception
would be the 'I- Consciousness' . The Saksin looks at the
'Self' as an object here and therefore it is the self-
knowledge .
How is the consciousness belonging to the self is
distinguished from the self as such? Madhva says, it is by
the virtue of Visesa. Thus perception of the self as an object
by the s ^ s i n is rendered possible. The sUcsin unites all our
various cognitions. Secondly, the saksin is conpletely free
from defects euid therefore posses eJssolute validity. According
to Madhva the perceptual knowledge is immediate knowledge
called Saksatkara.
2 . 1 3 . INFERENCE (ANUbANA) :
Anumaha is a faultless proof or deduction according to
Madhva.’ Hetu, yukti, linga, and vyapya mean the same. In
these things hetu (middle term) is along with its sadhya
(major term and conclusion or the proved) . Thus hetu along
with siTdhya is the necessary condition of anumana that is
drawn. There is an invariable relation between hetu auid

Prl :Nirdosapapattir anioma; S .S .RaTghavacar ,VTV No. 81 ,p. 18.

 162

sadhya. This is called Vyapti (concomitance). And this

concomitance is the nerve of the inference (auiumana) .
2 . 1 4 . VERBAL TESTIMONY (S^DA-W ORD OR AGAMA) :
Madhva defines the verbal testimony as 'faultless s ^ d a
or word (Prl. Nirdosasabda agamah) . Sabda includes a word, a
phrase, a sentence, a whole speech. Sabda conveys a definite
meaning expressing a thing as it is. Verbal testimony (agama)
is of two kinds. Pauru^eya (non-eternal or smrti) testimony
and apaures'eya (eternal or Vedic) testimony. The paurus'eya or
personal testimony is a human testimony. It is valid if it is
in conformity with apaurus'eya agama, i.e. VeHas or sruti. So
far as philosophical and religious questions are concerned,
the pauru^eya Igamas, which Sri Madhva considers as
authoritative, are a) Mula Ramayana b) Mahabharata c)
Pancar'atra 'agama. Other smrtis and puranas which are in
conformity with the Vedas suid with cJsove conditions, insofar
as they are in conformity, are also authoritative.
Apauruseya "Sgamas are non-personal, which means they
don't have author, hvunan or divine (VTV. No. 13-16). The sacred
texts, i.e. the four Vedas are apax2rus*eya; they are
beginningless and eternal (VTV.No. 41) . They are ipso facto
true. These four V^das (sacred texts) are called
s v a t a h p r a m ^ a , i.e their truth is self-evident (VTV. No.21) .
According to Dvaita Vedanta, these sacred texts carry their
own mark of truthfulness and they are non-dependent on smy
other for their author (Cf. VTV. No.22-23) . These sacred texts
alone give us access to God and to the knowledge of the supra-
sensible realities.

C.R.Krishna Rao, Sri Madhva, His Life and Doctrine, (Udupi:Sri

Madhva Muni Seva S£mgha,1929),p.48; Dominic,Op.Cit.,p.32.
Dominic, Op.Cit. ,p. 32-33 .
 163

2 . 1 5 . RELATIVE STRENGTH OF THE ANU

«
PRAMANAS: - m

Dvaita recognizes, Pratyaksa (sense perception), Anumaha

(inference) and ^ a m a (sabda- word - scripture - Sruti suid
Smrti) as the three Pramanas or sources of knowledge. These
three Pramanas have validity in their own spheres. Pratyaksa,
for instance, has authority in matters en^sirical and Sruti in
matters of transcendental truths.
According to Madhva, within the realm of the perceptual
world, pratyaksa has unquestioned authority and in the same
mauiner the transcendental reality is known only through sruti.
In the scheme of the pramanas, Madhva gives a special place to
pratyaksa. Both anuitiaha cuid Sruti can be wrong, if they go
against the verdict of pratyaksa. Sruti has to be interpreted
in a manner consistent with pratyaiksa (Cf.VTV. No.81-82 and
T.P. Ramachandran, Dvaita Vedanta, p.28) . Madhva would hold
that ' the texts in the l^anisads which "apparently" speak of
the God-soul identity should be interpreted in accordcuice with
esqjerience.
2 . 1 6 . MEMORY- SOURCE OF VALID KNOWLEDGE:
According to Madhva, memory is a pramana or source of
valid knowledge. Memory comes under perception-pratyaksa and
it is a direct perception called Manaisa-Pratyaksa. The
samskaras (iinpressions) generally cause memory that are left
on the mind by the first experiences. And the mind perceives
them iiranediately or directly. Therefore memory is a valid
source of knowledge. The inference (suiumana) and the
secondcuray scriptiares (smrti) both depend on memory. Vyapti is
based on o\ir memory of uniform instances. Thus both a n u m w a
and smrti will have validity only when memory is considered as
a soturce of valid knowledge.

S .S .RaghavacHir, VTV. No.81-82, pp.18-22; Dominic, Op.Cit.,

p.33.
 IM

2 . 1 7 . DOCTRINE OF S A K S I:
Pranianas give us valid knowledge of things "as they are.
Madhva holds that validity is intrinsic to prarnaha, which is
defined as Yathartham, yet there is the possibility of error
in experience. Right knowledge must carry its own proof. If
the right knowledge depends for its validity on the extrinsic
factors, the process will be endless regress. Right
knowledge to be valid, it should be "Svatahpramanya- self
valid. The knowledge derived through the mind and senses is
open to msiny limitations, so knowledge as an activity of the
m ind cannot be invested with any kind of self-luminosity
(svaprakas'a) or self-validity (svapramahya) .
The acceptance of Saksi is rendered necesssury, says
M a d h v a , by the very limitations of other meains of knowledge
open to us viz., the mind, and the senses. Our experiences
show that knowledge derived through the sense orgsuis,
inferences and verbal testimony and interpreted by the mind,
is not always free from doiobt, miscarriage or misapprehension.
Different persons require different degrees of certification
of validity of their knowledge. Even tire appeal to non­
contradiction would be no avail; since" non-contradiction, in
the sense of a particular knowledge having ranained
uncontradicted so far, is no proof of its non-liability to
contradiction in future.
At this juncture what can be the ultimate suid absolute
principle or test of the validity of knowledge that has the
power to endolrse the validity of its contents? Is the
question. According to Madhva, such a power only can belong to
princi^lie of truth-determination that is not materiAll^f
cons^£i3£ke«L.. like the mind and that can be credited #ith

B.N.K.Sharma, Teaching, p.47-48.

 165

absolute validity in all judgments. This ultimate principle of

knowledge and validation is the inner sense (organ) , of the
self of mem (his "Svarupendriyam") , which Madhva calls as
"Saksi". This s'^si is the ”jfiahagrahaka-intuitor of knowledge
and the jnahapramahya-grahaka of the validity of knowledge.
2 . 1 8 . ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING OF SRKSl:
*
'Saskin' etymologically means a 'witness', 'a seer' or
one endowed with vision. It is defined as "Saksadiksate iti
sadcsi" in Dvaita Vedaiita (Cf. Gitabhasyam IX, 18) . For, the
Saksi is no other than the Self (pramSta) . It is also its
Caitanya-indriya (essential sense organ partedcing of the
nat\ure of consciousness) . Its distinction into Self euid its
organ is one of reference suid not essence. Thus the essential
attribute of the Self (Praniata) is the consciousness that is
called 'Baskin' . Saksin is the faculty of the knowing self or
cognition.^® Thus It (Saksi) may be identified, as the
'J^perceiver' of all our conscious states auid their validity
where such validity is present cuid is desired to be grasped.
Whereas, the judgments of the Saksi cannot be doubted and have
never been shown to have been in the wrong and invalidated at
auiy time in life."

2 . 1 9 . SAKSI AS THE ULTIMATE CRITIRION OF TRUTH:

9

As manas (mind) is insentient (jada) and it cannot

reveal the existence and validity of knowledge, it is in the
power of Saksin to reveal the presence and the validity of
knowledge. The constant witness of all the knowledge that is
taking place by the activity of the mind (msuias) and to
ascertain its validity is the work of S ^sin. In his
AnuvyiJchyima Madhva convincingly demonstrates it in this way

B.H.K.Sharma, philosophy p. 160

T. P.Ramachandran, Dvaita Vedanta, (New Delhi: Arnold
Heinnman,1976),p.123.
 166

"The mere awareness of a knowledge does not necessarily reveal

its validity. Such validity is not realized at the very
outset, in sensory amd other forms of knowledge. It is only
when it is intuited by the Saksin, with or without the aid of
tests that the true nature of validity, comes to be clearly
and fully realized and manifested.^®
Saksi-pratyaksa has the infallible quality and self­
validation. The experiences and judgments of the Saksi cannot
be dovibted, invalidated, or mistaken at any time in our
conscious experience. But the fact is that the mind (manas)
and senses as they are materially constituted may likely to
err and they are also open to misconception. Madhva writes in
his Anuvyakhyana, "What is established by the flawless verdict
of Saksi, must be regarded as true cuid valid for all time. The
vexry validation of knowledge depends upon the Saksi which is
the ultimate principle that knows the knowledge".
According to Madhva, vrtti-jtiana cannot reveal or
validate itself and it needs to be tested or Pariksa (in
respect of sensory cuid other forms of vrtti-jnana) for their
validity. This pariksa or test is done by s ^ s i , which is the
spiritual organ of the self. Siksi intuits its experiences amd
thereby establishes the validity of knowledge.Dvaita places
S^si cQsove all dovibts and vacillations suid it is made an
absolute principle of infallibility and so it is not touched
Cl . y JQ ^'

by any tint of uncertainty. In his Anuv^. ;ya-,jMadhva writes:

"whether a given experience is true or false is to be
ascertained by the saksi. If this saksi (the truth-determining
principle) should become tainted even in a single instance,
there can be no certitude at all in epistemology. In order,
therefore, to stabilize and guarantee the validity of all the

AV.iii, p.49, B.N.K. Shanna, Teachings, p.48.

AV, ill, p.49; B .N .K.Sharma, Teachxng, p.50.
 167

accepted values of life and transactions, lay and scientific

carried on their foundations, the saksi will have to be
accepted as the one flawless principle and criterion of
validity by all of us. Once the flawlessness of saksi is
established, there is no fear of any regress in accepting the
s^si as the validating principle, for it is capable of
grasping its validity and the validity of its judgments
without appealing to any further authority, outside
itself" (AV. ii, 3, 28).
The inner tribunal of all knowledge and validity is
saksi. "Without recognizing the Saksi, it would be idle to
talk of knowledge of any kind. Whatever then is proved to
exist on the flawless evidence of Saksi must be accepted as
real and true and not open to sublation. We think, reason, and
feel pleasure and pain. Theses are as self-evident to the
S ^ s i as its own existence.^®
2.20.EPISTEM OLO6ICAL BASIS OF MADHVA.'S PHILOSOPHY:
The truth of the unreality of the world, the identity of
Jiva and Brhameui, all these have to be brought before the bar
of S^si before they can be accepted without question, as
Saksi is the fundamental criterion of validity, of truth and
#
error in the last euialysis of all experiences.
According to Madhva "Therefore scripture (Ageuna) has no
overriding validity where it conflicts with the well-tested
pratyaksa, because, in such cases, the knowledge arising from
sense-perception is the basis or fundamental ground
(upajivya). In other cases where scriptural statements happen
to be the sole proof and guarantor of the truths which fall
exclusively within their purview (and do not fall within the
range of ordinary perception including the saksin), the

AV. p.14b; B.N.K.Sharma, Teachings, p.53.

 16<S

position is reversed (eg. Avataras of God) . In matters which

fall entirely within the scope of worldly e^cperience, it is
perception (of the senses as tested by the sedcsi) that ranains
the basis and the standing-ground (upajivya) with reference to
Agama when its teachings conflict wit±i the testimony of such
pratyaksa"(AV. iii, 4.41).
As regards the identity texts which have jiva and I ^ a r a
as their basic data, the jiva is established by saksi-
pratyaksa by perceiving the joys and sorrows of one's life
though its own intuitive faculty, and Isvara is established
through the causal argument where one comes to know that
Isvara different from him as he hasn't got the powers of
Isvara. Thus, here the Upajivya-pramaiia conflicts or proves
false the concept or interpretation of the identity between
I^ara and Jiva. So we have to accept the difference between
I^ara and Jiva as established by l^a j ivya-pr aiiiaha. Hence,
Madhva writes, "How can the sruti declare an identity (of Jiva
and Breihman) which is in contradiction with the
Uipajivyapramana or basic proof of the s'^si?".^®
And at the end, M a d h v a 'h o l d s , when there are seeming
contradictions in sinati-texts regarding enpirical and
transen^^irical realities, the solution can only be found on
the basis of saksi which is the ultimate source and guarantor
of all knowledge and the touchstone of all truth and validity
at all levels both enpirical amd trauisempirical. The
interpretation of the identity texts when it is in clear
conflict with saksi aind upajivya-prcunanas cannot be held to
mean the identity between jiva and Brahman, but it could
merely describe the close intimacy of mystic communion of the

AV. p.29; B.N.K.Sharma, Teaching, p.63.

 169

human soul with God, for the evidence of S^si-experience smd

jivyapraniai^ are decidedly against Monism.*®
2 . 2 1 . METAPHYSICAL B A SIS OF MADHVA'S THOUGHT.
The metaphysics of Madhva is explained under three
aspects, namely: 1) Reality and Independence 2) Vi^sa euid
Bheda and 3) Causality. There is a philosophical distinction
between the Independent real called Svatantra-tattva and the
Dependent real called Paratantra-tattva. All the reals cannot
be independent; if it is the case there can be strife sind
chaos in the world of reals. There should be an Independent
principal that relates and regulates the dependent reals. It
is the independent real that controls the dependents and not
the dependents that control one smother. The higher principle
connects them all. Thus according to Madhva's metaphysics,
there are the presence of many other things (reals) euid
persons as u s ; and there is the Independent principle namely
God or Brahman that controls them all (Cf. BS. Bh.l, 2,17).
2 . 2 2 . REALITY AND INDEPENDENCE:
Madhva's ontology turns tjpon the two principal ideas of
being- reality and independence. The former presents the idea
tjf reality expressed in space-time relations, pertaining to
the world of matter and souls. The latter is the higher aspect
of reality, which is characteristic of the divine alone. The
* •.
criterion of reality according to Madhva is that it should be
Tjnsuperimposed and given as an object of valid knowledge, as
existing at some point of time auid in some place.
The first criterion of reality should be that it is
capable of being eui object of valid knowledge that is called
Pramitivisayatva. The second criterion of the reality is its
relation to time and space that is called desa-kala-

B.N.K. Sharma, Teaching, p. 74.

B.N. K. Sharma, Philosophy, p. 51.
 170

Sambandhitva. All that exists in time and space is real amd

the unreal has no existence in time and space. The practical
efficiency (arthakriyakaritva) is the second test of reality
for Madhva. It is the real alone that has the capacity to
produces the effect. The cognition of the real silver produces
the effect and not the unreal silver. Thus the criterion of
the identification of the real is its fruitful activity. It
can be illustrated through an exan^le as to no one can produce
vessels out of the illusory silver in the nacre. Though am
illusory appearance of a snake in the rope is found to be
producing certain reactions of fright or fear emd the like,
yet there is always a definite modicum of reality behind it
according to Madhva (Cf. AV.1.4.11).
2 . 2 3 . GRADATION OF REALITY:
The realiti.es are divided into two broad categories in
the ontological scheme of Madhvacairya: God or Brahman, the
only Independent reality (svatantra tattva) and all other
r el i ties are dependent of God (paratsmtra tattva or
paradhinatatva), like Laksmi, Devas, souls and world of
matter. This idea is also seen in^lied in the term Dvaita.
Madhva expresses this in the following sentence: "There are
two orders of reality namely- The Independent and the
Dependent" (Cf. Svatantram asvatauitram ca prcuneyam dvividham
matam, TV.1) .
Madhva accepts that existence is reality, yet he goes
ahead recognizing the fact there must be something more than
mere existence which is the highest expression of reality that
must have metaphysical independence of being, powers,
activities or substantiality as its own right. This is the
highest real or the philosophical Absolute that is the
ultimate explanation for all others. This is the Independent
reality that is imroar.ent in the universe and all other finite
 17!

realities must draw their sxabstance from this. It is in the

Independent reality that all the finite realties are grounded
and their being euid becoming are realized in independent
reality alone (Cf. BT, i i , 5,2; AV, ii, 2,5). This Independent
reality (svatantra-tattva) is none other than Brahman or God,
amd He is described in the Vedanta as "Real of the reals-
Satayasya satyam' and as the 'Eternal of the eternals' -Nityo
Nityanam' . He is the source of all reality, consciousness, ctnd
activity in the finite reals.
The Dependent reals (paratantra) or finite realties are
the world of matter and souls. The finite realities exist,
know, and function only according to God's will. According to
Madhva, the Jiva (soul) auid Prakrti (matter) are eternal but
they exist amd dependent on the grace of God and if that grace
is withdrawn they come to nothing. The matter is insentient
(jada) and it cannot act on its own accord and in the same
mauiner, human souls are not independent existents, agents, and
knowers. Madhva regards them in the philosophical sense as
many 'Reflections'-pratibimba, images-Abasas of the Si:^reme
Reality (biniba) as though all their powers are rooted and
derived from the Supreme sotjrce (Brahmsui) .
2 .2 4 .V I S E S A . AND BHEDA:
Padartha or Categoiry is anything that is named auid about
which an assertion or predication made. Dvaita recognizes ten
metaphysical categories. They are: Substance (dravya), quality
(guna), action (karma), universality (samahya), speciality
(vi^^a) , the specif ied (vis^sta) , the whole (amsin) , potency
(s^ti) , similarity (sadrsya) , and non-existence (abhava) . Of
these first nine are positive categories (bhava-pa<^tha) . They
constitute reality. The last is a negative category (abava
 172

padartha) . Of the positive categories, substcu:ice is the

substratum on which the remaining eight depend.
Dvaita Vedahta considers and gives great iirportance to
the category of 'specialty' (Vis'esa) along with the concept of
difference (bheda). The category of bheda (difference)
signifies the individuality and the Visesa (speciality)
accounts for the inner unity of individual beings in Dvaita.
Every substance necessarily possesses qualities. But qualities
are incapable of existing by themselves. Hence, the relation
between substance and quality is regarded as one of identity.
But, although there is no actual difference between a
substance and its attribute, common practice distinguishes
between the two. Thus we think and speak of the whiteness of
the cloth, and distinguish between cloth and its whiteness.
This discrepancy is explained by means of the category of
Visesa. It is by virtue of visesa that substance auid quality,
which are identical, are spoken of as separate. Thus visesa is
another name for sxobstance and stands for its wonderful
capacity to show distinctions within itself.
Madhva defines Vi:^sa in the following way: "speciality
(vi^sa) is that potency or factor (s'^ti) which enables one,
\andivided being to be described by different terms which are
not synonymous among themselves. Such a factor, called
speciality, exists in all things (AV.1.1. 109-110). Thus for
excunple when we say that the soul is intelligent cuid it is
endowed with being, we mean that the soul has two attributes
of intelligent and being, by this it meauis that the soul is at
once intelligent and being. Here the in-KAfeligent and existence
are not synonymous but they don't e^en introduce the inner
division into one reality that is the soul. According to

T.P. Ramachandran, Op.Cit., p.61)

Ibid., pp. 65-66.
 173

Madhva, "though there is no difference in the reality, by

virtue of vi^sa the Icinguage of difference is rendered
possible"(Cf. VTV. No.457).
Hence, the attributes are not completely distinct from
the substance, if the attributes are con?>letely distinct from
the substance, then it will lead to the infinite regress. The
attributes are neither completely identical with the
sijbstance, because such a view will msdce the substsoice-
attribute relationship a meaningless one. Thus the speciality
is the very nature of sixbstance that exists with innumerable
attributes and it is the cause of various predications.
"Visesa
#
itself is a substantive essence smd also lends itself
to be spoken of as if it were different there from (VTV. No.
458) .
The V i ^ s a s bind together the different qualities of a
stibstcmce ‘into an internal inner unity, i.e., unity-in­
difference between whole and the parts, between the agent and
the action etc.
Vi^sa is this "power of things in themselves" which,
through an underlying identity of essence, enables us to
distinguish 1). A particular from its universal; 2). A quality
from its siibstance; 3) . Motion or power or energy from things
possessing them; 4) . The svarupa from the svarupin and
svari^atvam.
For Madhva, Visesa is but another name for the potency of
the thing in itself whereby it maintains its unity and
continuity through all its modes, predications and aspects
(Cf. Madhva commentary on Brh. 1,4,9). In his Anuvyakya,
Madhva maintains that the thing itself is so constituted that
it can relate itself to and distinguish itself from its modes.

B.T. xi,7,49;Puthiadam, Vishnu the Ever Free, pp.40-41;

B.H.K.Sharma Philosophy, p. 13.
 174

predicates or properties without invoking the aid of any other

relation or a 'third entity' because of Vis'esa^f. AV.ii,2,13).
Vis'esa cannot be mistaken for new or additional
attributes of things. If visesa is different from the stibject,
it breaks its integrity. If it is non-different from it, we
cannot call it visesa. B.N.K. Sharma, would hold that
'Vi^sa' is thus, a category of thought or a power of things
inherent in them which, by definition, is intended to justify
and rationalize the difference-cum-identity. Thus the
substance in its own power self-expresses in terms of subject-
property relation called dharmadharmibhava. So the vi^esas has
the function of both distinguishing and uniting the substance
euid the attributes in the philosophy of Madhva. He has thus
made a striking effort to rise above the 'dualism' of
substance and attributes and combine them into a homogeneous
whole that admits, however, of logical, conceptual euid
linguistic distinction, wherever necessary, through the self-
differentiation capacity of s\jbstcuices themselves, to be known
as 'Vi^sas' or relative particulars. Thus Madhva's
cont.ribution is very immense as regards his new and originsd.
solution to the problem of relation between substance and
attributes.
2 .2 5 . BHEDA (DIFFERENCE) :
The Dvaita Vedanta maintains that difference or Bheda
characterizes the whole relam of reality.According to it,
each substance is landivided in itself and is divided from all
other sijbstances. The term 'Dvaita' comes from the root 'Dvi'
literally means two. Though Dvaita literally means two yet it
implies that there is the difference (bheda) between every two
entities aund strongest evidence to this is seen in the

Radhakrishnaft)Indian Philosophy, Vol. II,(Bombay: Blackie &

Son,1983),p.746; B.N.K. Sharma, Philosophy, p.90;Ibid., p.73.

*74
 175

perceptual experience. Thus things in the world are many and

varied and they have among them both the qucuititative zmd
qualitative difference.
Madhva understands that the 'difference' is not merely a
component part of reality, but constitutes its very nature or
essence (VTV. No.122). To know a thing is to know it as it is
distinct from all others. Generally some things are distinct
from others and some in a particular way because the
difference constitutes the very essence of things
(dharmisvarupa) ; and it is not merely an attribute of them
related from outside.
"If difference were not the nature of things, then, when
an object is perceived, its distinction from all else (in a
general way) would not be known. In that case, the perceiver
himself might come to have a doubt whether he is his own self
or the perceived object. But no one falls into such errors or
doxjbts. This shows that difference is realized in the first
perception of things, at least in a general way (VTV. No. 124-
126) . Therefore every thing is unique and each object has a
its own nature. The uniqueness of each thing constitutes the
'difference from all other objects. The objects are entirely
different from one auiother euid two things cannot be alike.
There sure number of souls that lim itless and the modifications
of the matter are also numerous in many states. Therefore the
metaphysics of Madhva is pluralistic.
The three major realities such as: God (Isvara), Souls
(Jivas) and Matter (Jada) constitute the system of Madhva.
These realities are conceived as the three distinct entities.
There are two types of differences that exist in them. They
are: 1. The difference of one thing from those of another kind
(Sajatiya bheda), 2.The difference from those of another kind
(Vijatiya bheda). Therefore we find the 'five-fold difference'
 176

called Panca-bheda among those three major realities as:

1.Between God and Soul, 2.Between God euid Matter, 3.Between
Soul and Matter, 4. Between one Soul auid Another aund 5. Between
one form of Matter and another. These differences among the
realities are real, eternal and irreducible (Cf. VTV. No.340).
The doatrine of five-fold difference (Panca-bheda) is one of
the cardinal tenets of Madhva's Dvaita metaphysics auid this
five-fold (Panca-bheda) is collectively spoken of by Madhva as
"Pra-panca"(Cf. VTV. No. 325).
2 . 2 6 . CAUSATION (KARANATA) :
Madhv's Prama^na-candrika, one of the most illuminating
cuid the most authentic treatise on his logic, defines 'cause'
as the unconditional, invariable antecedent of the effect.
The 'effect' which is the co\anter-positive of negation prior
to existence meaning that the 'effect' is that which does not
exist before it caused to be (Ananyathasiddhatve sati
karyaniyata purvavrtti karanam karyam pragabhava pratiyogi) .
Therefore we find there is some type of logical necessity in
the relation between cause and effect. The condition of
'invariability' associated with the ides of 'cause' in its
definition very well suggests the character of this relation
as entailment or involving necessity. The Ny?ya doctrine of
asatkaryava^a asserts, even in cases of material-causality,
that the 'effect' is absolutely non-existent in the 'cause' .
But if it so, holds Dvaita Vedanta, then anything cam be
produced out of nothing, which is impossibility. On the other
hand, it is also illogical to justify the Saurikya claim that
the effect always exists, though in a nascent form, in the
cause prior to its meuiifestation (satkaryavada) because by
adopting this standpoint anything can be conceived as capable
of being produced from anything without any limitations,
whatsoever, regarding its nature. The Madhva philosopher,
 177

therefore, takes a middle course that contains all the virtues

of the two antagonistic systems and rejects their inherent
vices. The effect, according to Madhvites, is both existent as
well as non-existent. Prior to its production the effect
exists in the form of the cause and is non-existent as an
’effect', whereas, after its creation the 'effect' exists in
its form as 'effect' auid is non-existent as 'cause'. The cause
and effect are, therefore, different aspects of the same
principle.
The causation theory that Madhva propounded is a
combination of Sat-k'arya-v^da (Parinima vada) of Sankya school
and Asat-karya-vada (Arambha-vada_ of Nyaya school. Therefore
his theory is called as Sat-Asat-Karya-Vada.
The iirplication of Causation is a change, a beginning and
an end and by a change it does not mean merely something
appearing but a Substratum is presupposed that changes in form
or state (Ex nihilo nihil fit). Causation cannot be possible
auid meaningful without the assuir^tion of continuity of the
cause in and through the changes it has xindergone. Therefore
according to Dvaita, the effect was present already in the
.cause, as it has followed from the cause. Dvaita Vedanta does
not accept the saftkya view of the edssolute identity of cause
2uid effect because that may mean causal effect superfluous and
the causation very meaningless. Again Dvaita also does not
acc^t the Nyaya insistence on the total non-existence of
effect prior to its production that will sunder the connection
between the cause and effect. Therefore Madhva maintains that
the effect is partially non-existent in its definite form amd
shape as it exists or while it is being existent in the form
of the cause.

K.Narain, An outline of Madhva Philosophy,(Delhi: Munshiram

Manoharlal,1986), pp.71-72.
 178

Thus, the effect is existent in the cause in substance,

but non-existent in it in its special form as a ring is
present in gold as gold, but non-existent in it as a ring.
Thus the relation between the material cause (gold) and its
effect (ring) is 'identity and difference' (bhedabheda) and
not absolute difference. The stabstance remains the same, but
it puts forth-new forms, forms that are not already present in
it. This is made possible by the presence of visesa (In
respect of permanent attributes the relation is taken to be
one of 'colorful identity' (savisesabheda) rather than
absolute identity (nirvi^sabheda) which would make them
tautologous. This clear and unequivocal stand has to be kept
in mind in interpreting Madhva's doctrine of creation of
eternal substances like jiva, praJcrti, avyaki^takasa etc. , in
terms of
what has been defined by Madhva as "Paradhina-
27
Visesapti". That peculiar power of a substance to put forth
variations from within its own structtxre. So the causation
theoiry of Dvaita is called Visesapti-the emergence (^ti) of
new traits or Visesas (features). Therefore Dvaita Vedimta
would explain the origin of world as the emergence (apti) from
Matter (Prakrti) of the newer and the newer forms (Visesas) .
This emergence depends for its operation at its every stage
only on the will of God and this world creation conception is
called Paradhina v i s e ^ t i in Dvaita Vedanta.
The Dvaita theory of Sad-asat-k'arya-vada is applicable
only in the case of material' causality (upadana-karana) and
not instrumental causality (nimitta k^rana) . Like other
systems of Indian philosophy, the Madhva School also
recognizes two kinds of causes, namely, the material cause
(upiidaina-karana) , and the instrumental cause (nimitta-karana) .

B.N.K. Sharma. Philosophy, footnote, 7,p.72.

 179

The cause, which undergoes transformation, is knovm as

material cause, i.e. the praJerti as the catise of the univ«rs«.
Here the material-cause (prakrti or primordial matter) is
trauisformed (parinama) into the effect (universe) . On the
other hsind, the 'instrumental-cause' is that which being an
unconditional and invariable antecedent does not create its
effect through a process of its traumsformation. The process of
creating effect, in this case, is not self-modification but
activity on the part of the 'Cause' , which results in the
production of the 'effect' . For Madhva these two causes are
different. The material cause in the prakrti or primordial
matter auid the ins tnsnental-cause is Visnu. Visnu as the
efficient cause crates the world (universe) from the materiaLl-
cause, the prsJcrti. Hence, Madhva rejects the view of Sankara,
RamSiuja etc who consider Brahman as both the material and the
instrumental cause.
2 . 2 7 . CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF MADHVA'S CONTRIBUTION:
The theory of 'perception and knowledge' is the
philosophic foiindation of Madhva's dualism. He holds that to
perceive is to become aware of something as being unique and
different (bhinna) from other things as well as from the self
that perceives. Thus the articulation of perceived differences
between things as well as between things and the perceiving
self is the genxiine knowledge. It is true that the lim its of
senses are the limits of knowledge. To deny perception is to
deny the very possibility of knowledge. According to Madhva,
those who affirm the identity but deny the difference are in
the absurd position of claiming knowledge by rejecting its
very foijndation, which means perception and perception
necessarily implies the perceiver amd the perceived as

K.Narain Op.cit. p.72-73.

 180

distinct existents. Madhva like any empirical philosopher

holds that all knowledge is relative i.e. relative to some
knower and to things that are known. He rejects the non-dual
knowledge as vintenaJsle. Thus we see in him as the
epistemological and the ontological realist. In reality the
world is constituted of different selves and material objects
besides we perceive it to be so. Therefore the empirical world
is real and pluralistic for Madhva.^®
Madhva's conprehensive definition of 'pramSia' and its
clear distinction into ’Kevala' and 'Anu' and, above all, his
conception of Saksi as the ultimate criterion of all knowledge
and validity are front-rank contributions to epistemology. His
greatest contribution to epist^ology is the doctrine of
Saksin that alone is the criterion of all knowledge and
validity. To put it in the words of B.N.K Sharma, Madhva has
thus gone far ahead of his contemporaries emd ccxnpeers in
having postulated a new principle of truth-determination in
epistemology in the form of S ^ s i , as the ultimate criterion
of truth which is infallible and intrinsically valid. Its
raison d'etre are (1) that it alone can be the ultimate
guarantor of the validity of all other Pramahas (as it is the
last word on validation, not only of ordinary experiences,
senses-perception euid inference, but even of the teachings of
the scripture) , (2) that it is the logical fulfillment and
culmination of amy really self-con^lete theory of knowledge
and (3) that it is the only means of intuitive perception of
certain super sensuous categories like Time, Space, the nature
of the selfand its attributes, the amd the mind amd its
modes, all knowledge of pleasiare and pain etc.

Puligandla, Foundations of Indian philosophy, pp.237-238.

 181

Therefore,"there is nothing approaching it in any other system

of Indian philosophy.
It remains Madhva's unique contribution to the theory of
knowledge. Its repercussions on realism in modern thought are
sure to be fruitful, if properly exploited.“
Ontologically speaking, the keynote of Madhva's
philosophy has always been the acceptance of the ONE
INDEPENDENT REAL as the "Parasiddhanta" and all the rest as of
secondary importcUice (Cf. MG^i.24) . Vlhat we see in Madhva is,
he is original in his ontological theory of Svatantra and
Paratantra entities and his philosophical ideology of a
Svatantra Advitiya Brsdunan. By applying the doctrine of
Savi^sabhSda to Brahman Madhva preserved its complete
homogeneity without sacrificing the infinite richness of its
qualitative content thereby introducing a more dynamic,
colorful conception of Brahman through the doctrine of
identity-in-difference, for the first tim e of Indian thought.
His theory of "Vii^sa" is the life-breath of the doctrine of
identity-in-difference. Without it, it would be impossible to
conceive of am identity-in-dif f erence, in any school of
thoxjght ancient or modem. Since no other school has a c c ^ t e d
"Vis'e^a" , the credit for the philosophical conception of
"identity-in-difference" should also go to Madhva. This theory
of V i ^ s a s is his most outsteuiding contribution to the stock
of philosophical ideas in Indian thought. Its elasticity euid
resilience to admit of internal distinctions of reference,
without the disadvcmtage of "difference" "difference-cum-
identity", "Samav^a" or "fictitious difference"
(kalpanikabhSds) , through the inner resources of the sxjbstance
itself, replaces many worn-out auid outmoded conceptions of

B.N.K.Sharma philosophy, pp.45, 169.

 182

time, space, causation suid creation by more satisfactory ones.

This is no small contribution to thought.
2 . 2 8 . GOD OR BRAHMAN IN MADHVAC^YA:
The problem of the existence of God was not a posited
problem in the Hindu tradition of the Middle Ages. We do not
come across the cjuestion in the writings of Madhva as: Is
there an Absolute Being? The contemporaries of Madhva took for
granted the existence of God just relying on the 'Sacred
texts' .
The hotly debated issue during the time of Madhva was
regarding the 'Knowledgebility of God' or through which
pramahas or meeins of knowledge we can come to know the
Absolute Being? It was because, Nayayikas had maintained that
God is known through reasoning or inference alone, eund the
Vedahtins asserted that the Absolute could be known through
the sacred texts (revelation).
According to Madhva, "God is the Independent Being
possesssed of all adequate and unrestricted power in regard to
the Cit and Acit surid who is all-knowing. He is the One who
controls the cit auid Acit (sentient and insentient reals)
which are of a different nature from him"(TD. P. 66). This
gives a neat sund pithy definition of God. Cit and Acit sure
imlike God in that they are of limited powers, dependent and
n ot all- knowing. "The Independent Being must, necessarily, be
infinite in Its attributes (N.V. p.4) . For, an Independent
Being Ccuinot possibly wish to be finite and limited in any
sense".
2.28.1.VISNU IS KNOWABLE:
4 •

Madhva says, "I offer adoration always to Narayana, who

is cognizable in all his uniqueness only through the right

Ibid. ,pp.44-45.
N.V. p.4, B.N.K.Sharma Teaching, p.110.
 183

scriptures, who wholly transcends the Ksara and the ak^ara and
who is flawless and abounds in all excellent attributes (Kyara
means 'Individual selves, 2.Aksara is Laksmi his divine
consort. His transcendece of both Laksmi and the individual
selves iir^lies a fortiori his transcendence of inanimate
nature.
"Vi^iju whom all names enter is said to be supreme. All
names refer to him who is different from all. ffe, who is
independent amd eternally same, is the highest Visnu. In such
texts, as all other names signify only him, it is pointed out
that no other being can be the Lord of all. The Pauraunopanisad
says: 'That Visnu who is free from all inperfection, who is am
embodiment of all auspicious attributes, who is independent
and under whose control eveirything else is, is the supreme
Godhead.
"Visnu cam only be known through the Sacred Texts and by
the devotees alone"(B.S . B h .1.i .3). Madhva would maintain that
he who is ignoramt of Vedas camnot understand the great Visnu
amd sacred texts alone teach about the knowable of Supreme
Being. If one asserts that the Absolute Being is unknowable,
then ioplicitly he denies that Braihman is real. The very first
sutra of Brhama- Sutra enjoins am enquieiry into Brahman and
takes it for granted that Brahman is knowable.
Again "reason will not be able to prove the existence 9^
God. It can always be countered by other re;[^«»ns. If op^
should prove God to be all knowing, amother <^^uld as well
reason that He must be of limited knowledge, any other
individual. A creator God need not necessau:ji.ly bp knowing each
amd every creature; just as a gardener do^^ not know all about

S. S. Raghavacar, VTV. No.l, Cf. Braihmasutrabhasya, l.i. I- B.

S . B h . VTV.Raghavacar, p .1.
34
S.S. Raghavacar,VTV, Nos.451, 454, pp.93-94.
 184

the trees and plants in his garden. All theistic proofs are
thus inclusive and vagarious.“ Thus Madhva would strongly
maintain that 'Visnu is am object of our knowledge or knowable
though He can never be fully conprehended. He fully rejects
the agnostic position as it contradicts the very nature of
reality and knowledge and opposes the V^dic testimony.
2 .2 8 .2 .VISNU 9 a
IS NOT KNOWN BY PERCEPTION (PRATYAKSA- 9

j SSNA) :

It is through the contact of the senses with the object,

the perception (Pratyaksa-Jfiana) arises; and such sense object
is limited to the sphere of the sensible. The Absolute Being
(Brahman) stands beyond the sphere of the sensible and out
side the domain of the individual self, therefore It cannot be
reached by any perception of the senses.
In his Visnu-Tava-VinXrnaya, No. 3, Madhva writes as:
"Visnu csuinot be apprehended by mere reasoning or by sensuous
perception and not by one devoid of the qualifications
specified. He can be apprehended only through the scriptures
and only devotees. There is no other way.^®
2 .2 8 . 3 .REASONING AND ODR KNOWLEDGE OF Vl^fU .
The common assertion of Madhva is that 'Visnu cannot be
apprehended by mere reason as it is mentioned in V i ^ u - t a va -
vinirnaya (Cf. VTV. No. 3, Ra^vacar, p.2) . Here, like a true
Vedahtin, Madhva challenges the power of unaided hiaman reason
to prove the existence and nature of God. This does not meeui
that reason is futile. All vedantins have waxed eloquent on
the futility of reason to establish God. Philosophers in the
West too, have adduced various proofs like the ontological
proof, the cosmological proof and so forth which have all been

A.V. p.5, B.M.K.Sharma Teachings, p.110.

S .S .Raghavacar VTV. No 3,p.2.
 185

criticized by other philosophers like Kant. The limitations of

reason euid the claims of intuition have been loudly
proclaimed. Since reason holds an inportemt position in
the interpretation of Srutis, what is meant by this is that it
is beyond the power of reason to make the existence of the
divine suiything more than a very reasonable presxarnption and
hypothesis. It could suggest very strongly to all thinking men
that there must be a God that adduces fairly sound reasons in
its support, which cannot be easily dislodged. There it must
stop. It cannot give us fullness of details about the nature
of God, suid of His infinite attributes and powers and
personality: Yavan yascasmi tattvatah as the Gita (18,55) so
impressively puts it. That is left to the Sruti to give us
complete and convincing knowledge in detail about the Supreme
(asamasayam samagram, as the Gita (vii,l.) so aptly puts it).
Madhva concedes that reason can go thus far when he describes
how the idea of God is formed in our minds: ita idam adhikam
itopidam iti sarvadhikatvena, tato adhikabhavena,
avas'efitatveha... (B.T . x. p.71) . "Reason also can be adduced to
show that Bradman should be conceived as Saguira. It should
-.possess attributes like omniscience insofar as it is the
creator of everything in the universe. Creatorship presupposes
full knowledge of the effect to be, its accessories, natiore of
effort, the expected result, euid the putting forth of
necessary will and effort to accomplish the work. It follows
that the all-creator must be all knowing, all powerful and
capable of accomplishing whatever He will. This is what
"Saguana" stsuids for.^’ Dvaitins also accept the Vedic
teaching (Sruti) that 'He who ignores the Sacred texts cannot
know Visnu'.
c V

K.N.p.lOb, B.N.K.Sharma Teachings, pp. 111-112,118.

 186

Madhva refutes the Sankhya and Caravaka views on the

production of the Universe, the principles of causality auid
order in the world auid strongly maintains that the
unconscious matter could not have been the cause of the world
(Cf. B.S. Bh. II .ii; Tattvadipika, p. 195). And again he
holds that dependent and limited souls could not have produced
the world and the contingent beings could never be the first
cause (Cf. B. S. Bh. XI.i.25).
The whole of human activity or striving is towards the
supreme Good, the excellent, the unconditioned. The Dvaita
attitude to reasoning and revelation and the respective
relation of these two sources of knowledge as regards our
knowledge of God may be seen from the analysis of Karya; the
notion of karya means either that which is desired (the end or
object of our desire) or the means or the action to reach the
desired end- the - supreme Good-God. Thus the inner dynamism
of our activity can be made as a valid proof God's existence.
2 .2 8 .4 .REFUTATION OF THE PROOFS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD:
Madhva strongly maintains that 'Reason will not be able
to prove the existence of God or His existence cannot be
proved by inference, because the opposite also cam be proved
by inference.^* Again Madhva writes: " An Independent
inference that is, an inference not aided by Sruti, cannot
prove the existence of God, because using the same method auid
with the same necessity one can show that the being (cause) in
question is only hxjman smd not God. Reasoning is not capable
of reaching the Lord of the universe (Cf. Av. No. 114).
According to Nyaya this world as a product must have a
cause and that cause is God. But Madhva on the other hand
implicitly limits the principle of causality to the verifiable

A.V.p.5, Sharma, Teachings, p.5;

S .S .Raghavacar, VTV. No. 62, p. 14.
 187

sensible realities' sphere. For him, we should not trcunsfer

the cause-effect relationship to the si:per-sensible -God.
Certainly Madhva admits that every effect has a cause, but he
would question as to 'can we truly prove that the whole world
is an effect? Madhva dismisses the proposition that the world
calls for an omniscient cause, suid such proposition is
invalid. He holds that the cause of the world knows the world,
but the cause is omniscient is not proved. Now therefore we
clearly \inderstand that Madhva's Vaisnava Vedahtic tradition
euid his much conviction as 'Visnu alone is the supreme Lord'
has prevented him from showing any synpathy to the rational
proofs regarding the Caxise and effect.
2 .2 8 .5 .THE NATURE OF GOD:
The enquiexry of Madhva into the problem of God is sacred-
text-centered (sruti) , and his conviction is that S ^ t i alone
can give us the knowledge of Sxjpreme Being. Therefore
according to him, it is through the Sruti, we should approach
into the inner mystery of God. But as far as the Svprane Being
is concerned, the sacred texts can never be independent
sources of knowledge.
2 .2 8 . 6. THE (XIESESS OF GOD:
Madhva teaches that the whole of true sacred scripture-
sad^ma (sruti) and Smrti (secondaury accounts) speak auid teach
of only Supreme or Absolute Being-God. This Supreme Being is
Visnu, who is identical with Brahman. "Visnu whom all names
enter, is said to be Supreme. All neunes refer to him who is
different from all. He, who is independent euid eternally same,
is the highest Vi^nu. In such texts, as all other names
signify only him, it is pointed out that no other being can be
the Lord of all. All this follows from the fact that in all
the Vedas there is the assertion that Visnu is free from
 188

imperfections, that in all of them there is the non-existence

of the statement that he was non-eacistent before creation,
that in all the Vedas the defects aind the non-existence before
creation of all other entities are asserted and that they are
not said to be the significance of all names.
The sacred texts teach that Visnu is the abode of all
good qualities and nowhere in s'ruti a reference is made of a
distinction between an attributeless Brahman and a Brahman
with qualities. Thus Madhva writes: "It is wrong to say that
one and the same Brahman is said to be endowed with qualities
of producing the world, of being seen and exposed when a soul
is in the state of ignorance, though in a state of knowledge.
Brahman is said to be attributeless, unseen auid inexpressible
(Tattvadijtpika, pp.40-43).
Madhva strongly asserts that Supreme Being (God) is the
cause of the origin, support cuid destruction of this entire
iiniverse (world) . A n d through this definition it is implicitly
affirmed that Visnu alone and not euiother being is the cause
of this world. He declares that Visnu alone is the cause of
4 e

the world. Madhva fully believes and it is self-evident to him

that Visnu is c»iniscient, luminous and He in no way is veiled
b y Maya, a light aind darkness cannot exist together is self
evident. "How Cem the Supreme Brahmem remain primarily
Infinite (Purna) if it were to be limited by Maya".*^
2 .2 8 . 7. THE BODY OF VISNU:
• 0

Now what Madhva wants to justify is that 'Visnu is the

cause- of this universe and he must have a body. The Sacred
texts tell us that Visnu has body. Madhva removes the material
bodies from Visnu and holds that Lord Visnu is different from
matter (Cf. Bh.III. ii.l5). According to him Visnu pervades

S.S. Raghavacar, VTV. Nos. 451-452,p.93.

A.V. p.5, Sharma Teachings, p. 116.
 189

over matter cuid He is the inner ’principle of the activity of

natter. The word 'body' us\ially means that it comes froa the
union of male and female principle. As regards to Visnu, it is
better to say that He has no body (Cf. Jayatirtha on B.S. Bh.
III.iii.14-15).
Here we have to concentrate on the 'Othereness' (from
matter) of the body of Visnu. Visnu is not subject to birth or
death, change or decay like u s . In his A n u v y ^ h a y a n a , Madhva
positively means that the body of Vi^nu consists in nothing
but His attributes as: "Narayana, whose body is nothing but
the totality of his attributes (A.V. 1.1). He also says that
the head, arms auid trunk of Visnu axe made out of being,
knowledge and Ananda (bliss)(Cf. B.S. Bh. II.ii.4).
Madhva denies the teaching that the spiritiaal souls ound
matter that form the body of the Svipreme Being. According to
him only the infinite attribute of the Lord Visnu form Hi4
body. The attributes, the members are not distinct from one
another or the Supreme Being. The souls and matter depend on
God and He is the indwelling principle of all these realities
and these realities do not form the body of Visnu.
2 .2 8 .8 .V I ^ O THE OCEAN OF ATTRIBUTES:
Madhva's one of the loved words is 'Purna' in all his
writings. The Param'Spanisad says:" That Visnu who is free from
all inperf ections, who is an embodiment of all auspicious
attributes, who is independent and lander whose control
everything else is, is the Supreme God head". And again " He
has all excellent attributes in all their fullness eternally.
He is always free from in^erfections. That Supreme Visnu is
independent smd transcends birth and death. Thus according to
Madhva the Supreme Visnu is the fullness, the ocean of good

S. S.Ragavach^, VTV. Nos. 454-455, p. 94.

 190

qualities and He is has no defects all. Thus in the view of

Madhva, every word and varna of the Sacred text primarily mean
the Supreme Lord Vi^nu and his qualities (Sarvanainata) .
Though there are certain statements in the sacred texts
that term Brahman as Keval, simple and Nirguna (without
attributes), Madhva holds that such words do not intent to
teach the qualitylessness of the Supreme Being. The term
'Kevala means here that Vi^iju is not mixed with matter (Kevalo
vimisrah) cund according to the sacred texts, 'Nirguga' Brahman
means that Vi^nu is devoid of all material c[ualities such as
sattva and rajas.
CXir experiences show us that every object is individual,
particual and is endowed with attributes. Thus it is clear
that the infinite Visnu should also be endowed with infinite
qualities, and the purport of the sacred texts is that the
Absolute Being has attributes. Madhva propagates that, one of
the essential traits of the Supreme Lord Visnu is his
independence (Svatantrya) and because of this independence and
power of God, we can argue that He is without defects and has
many attributes. Therefore Madhva would declare: "It is
impossible to enxamerate or speak of qualities of the Lord for
they are innumerable; all the qualities declared or undeclared
in Sruti are found in him (B.S Bh. II.i.38). "The attributes
and actions of BraQiman are the same as itself. They are
different. There is no mutual difference, either, among them.
There is an intrinsic peculiarity in things (called visesas)
b y which, even in the absence of actual difference, a relation
of 'substance and attributes' is rendered possible for
purposes of reference"*^
2 .2 8 . 9. VISNU IS SAT:

V.T.N. p.31, Sharma Teachings, p.120.

 191

Madhva, commenting on Bralima. ^ .Sutra (B.S . I.i.15) in his

Anuvyakhyaha, teaches that ''Visnu alone is designated by^ the
msuitravarna as Satyam, Jnaham auid Anantam. Madhva calls Vistm
as 'Sat' (Existence) because he alone causes existence and the
existences is called sadbhava. Here, probably Madhva means to
say that Visnu causes the appearances of realties or the
manifestation of the realities in the universe.
In the writings of Anuvyakhyana, Madhva holds that 'sat'
stands for the principle of life smd of destruction. For him,
the Supreme Being is not merely alive but also he causes life.
Thus the term 'sat' is applied functionally to Visnu; He
exists, Me is alive. Me causes other things to appear. And it
is on Visnu alone all things are dependent for their
existence; and the supreme Lord Visnu alone causes both life
and destruction.
2.28.10.VIJVS n A of VISNU:
»•
The sacred texts clearly teach this truth that Visnu is
omniscient (having infinite knowledge) and 'Sarvajna' is an
epithet given to the Lord Visnu. VisQU is the conscious and
omniscient, from the fact that he is the cause of this
universe. Therefore the form of this Stjpreme Being is that of
Tinmixed knowledge (najlFianami^ajfiiuieh (Cf. B.S. Bh. II. li.
41; III.ii.l6). We come to know the knowledge of the S u p r ^ e
Being as eternal, embracing the totality of beings and totally
independent in the PramanalsJcsana. All other realities or
beings only know only through their dependency on Visnu. The
knowledge of the supreme Lord is creative in the world.
Because the world is produced by the knowledge of the Lord
Visnu, it is called mayamaya (Prajnavinirmitah yasmat ato
mayamayam jagat, Visnutattva vinirnaya.^*

S.S.Raghavavacar,VTV. No.263,p.57.
 192

2.28.11.ANANDA O F VISNU:
9*
The supreme Lord Vi^^u is ri^tly called as 'endless
(anainta) , because Vlsnu is the fullness of bliss (Ananada) and
He is said to be plentitude of joy(AV. 197. B.S. Bh. I.iii.9,
Tattvadipika, p . 116). Visnu has the limitless bliss, and the
terms such as " E^urnatva", "nihsimatva" and " Mahatmaya" etc,
express his greatness, perfection, supremacy and infinitude
etc. The supreme Visnu alone is called 'anandamaya' because He
is the abundance of bliss (ananda) (Cf. AV. 179; B.S
Bh.I.i.l3). Here the suffix 'Maya" expresses the nature of
reality. Thus when we say that V±sj}u is anandamaya, here it
means that he has the nature of 'bliss' and bliss is the
characteristic of Visnu. So it is said that all other beings
from Sri to the least blade of grass enjoy only a drop of
bliss (B.S. Bh. I.ii.15). At the root of Visma's activity, his
bliss overflows.
2 .2 8 .1 2 .AISVARYA OF VISNU:
m^
In the Pemcaratra (samhitas) , the aisvarya (Lordship) of
Vi^nu is spoken, because of this quality, Visnu produces the
world independently of all other causes. Besides this ine8uiing
as ai^arya (Lordship) Madhva has other new significamce to
it. In the sacred tests we read Vi^nu is at once a unity (a
whole) and members, and He is minute and great. These
attributes though opposed to each other in our experience, are
not mutually exclusive in Visnu, it is because of his a i s W r y a
or Lordship. According to Madhva, the aisvarya of Visnu
enables him to be active and yet unchangeable.
Visnu's omnipotence is also connected with his Lordship,
• •

and he known as Sarvasaktiman, acintyasaktiman, auid

Vicitrassdctiman. The power of Visnu is all embracing, varied
 193

and unthinkable. Also Visnu with his 'bala' produces the world
without fatigue.
2 .2 8 .1 3 .V IS m IS NITYA(ETESNAL) :
Vis^u is eternal of eternals (Katha. V.5-13) . Visnu is
beginningless auid endless. Madhva says in the Katha Bh.
'that the world is eternal like an ever flowing stream
(pravihanitya) but Visnu is deathless (Amrtah. P.19). He alone
is primarily deathless. Visnu is taught as the beginningless,
endless and vmchangeable in his existence. Just as the same
svin is present in many objects so also Visnu is Omnipresent by
one and the same form (Cf. B.S. Bh. Il.iii, 22,23). This type
of omnipresent is possible because of his Lordship. He said to
be the indwelling principle of all beings, the ruler of all
euid the principle agent of all activities. The Lord Visnu is
also present even in the deepest hell, though by no mesuns he
suffers the pain of hell (B.S. Bh. III.i.7), and again he is
present in all beings stnd all beings are in Visnu (Cf.
IslUp.Bh. 1&5).
2 .2 8 .1 4 .VISNU
•«
IS SVATANTRA- INDEPENDENT BEALITY:
Madhva maintains that Visnu is the abode of all
auspicious attributes. His Independence or freedom is the most
divine of all perfections and the perfection that sets him
apart from all other beings. Madhva divides realities into two
irreducible groups in his TattvasankhySia as: 1.Independent 2.
Dependent beings. Visnu alone is said to be independent being
emd all other relities are dependent of Visnu. Vi;Sv»u is
independent or svatantrya, as regards his essential nature,
knowledge and activity cure concerned; and again as Independent
being Visnu is not dependent on another as regards his
existence (satta) activity and knowledge are also concerned.
Thus it is clear in Madhvaa, that Visnu is self-sufficient
 194

because of his existence, knowledge and activities. Visnu

never originates which meauis that He does not pass from an
Tinmamifest state to a manifest form. He is said to be always
real and self-manifest. The actualizing source, the source
from which knowledge springs must be found or sought in Visnu
alone.
It is because of his independence, Vi^nu is self-
sufficient, Absolute, essential sovereign, has omnipotence,
will, has total control over all' other realities. He is
perfectly separated and transcends all other realities in the
universe. Vispu has the total independence, and because of
this he is the cause of he world and is the principle cause of
all the activities of finite beings (Cf. BVv»- G. Bh. II. 24.
IV. 12) . The liberated as well as the lost souls experience
the absolute sovereignty of the Lord Visnu. Lord Visnu is
supremely free and he gives final freedom to souls because no
conditioned or unfree being can give freedom to auiy of the
realities.
2 .2 8 .1 5 .PERFECTIONS: SIMILARITY AND DEFFERENCE:
Madhva more auixiously points out the difference between
Visnu, and other beings with their perfections. Through
nixnerical and quantitative expressions Madhva stresses the
absolute perfection of Visnu. According to the Upanisadic
teaching, there is a difference between the knowledge of a
soul and the knowledge of the Supreme Being. It is through a
drop of the bliss of Brahman, all other beings live. Thus it
is clear from the teachings of the sacred tests (sruti) that
th^ perfections of the Supreme Being is far superior (para)
and different from those of other bein gs . The attributes of
the supreme God form the support, the sustenance, and the
regulating source of the attributes of all creatures
 195

(Tattvadlpika). Though the perfections of other beings are

perceptible, the limitless attributes of Visnu are invisible.
2 .2 8 .1 6 . INNER SIMPLICITY OF VISNU
# • AND THE MJLTIPLICITT OF
PERFECTIONS:
It is clear that the attributes of Visnu do not in any
way introduce real separation or division in the substance of
Vi^nu and there can be by virtue of them the possibility of
the leuiguage of difference. Thus each attribute is- cui
expression of Vi^i}u's essential nature. The attributes and
nature are essentially with Visnu. Though there are many
attributes in Vi^^u yet there is also oneness amd harmony
among all the attributers of Visnu.
The sijbstance-attribute relation is also applicable to
all the entities in the world. Though the Lord Visnu is
endowed with numberless perfections, still he is said to be
without any inner difference or distinction and this is very
specific to him. According to Madhva, the suprene Lord Visnu
is one and Siiople, yet in diversity, his simplicity euid \inity
find their dynamic eaq>ression. Visnu's infinite perfections
fona one harmonious unity and each of his attributes is
-related to him by savis'esa-abheda's relation and each
attribute has for essence all other attributes and each of
attributes possesses Visnu's divine infinitude.
2 .2 8 .1 7 .V IS m IS THE CAUSE OF THE ORIGIN, SUPPORT AND
DESTRUCTION OF THE WORLD(UNIVERSE):
Madhva follows the Vaisnava-Vedahta tradition and
affirmes strongly that Visnu alone is the Cause, support, -
Dissolution of the world, and this we come to know through the
teaching of the sacred texts (s^ti) . The origination of the
world, support, dissolution, government, knowledge, ignorance,
bondage and souls (jivAs) are from Lord Visnu. Madhva proves
 1%

his theocentrism thought from quoting the passages from the

sacred texts (sruti) .
2 .2 8 .1 8 .REFUTATION OF OPPOSHHG VIEWS:
At the time of the growth of Madhva philosophy, there
were diverse schools of thought which affirmed that Visnu was
not the cause and origin of the world. According to atheistic
Sankhya philosophy, 'Prakrti' alone and of the mere presence
of Purusa the world came to b e " . The materialists held that
the world comes into existence by the varied combinations of
the atoms. The Budhists or sunyavadins propagated that the
world results from void or Suhaya; and according V i j n ^ av a d i ns
assertions', the universe exists because of the modification
of vijnaha. According Saivaites, Siva is said to be the cause
of the universe. The Saktas held that the world originated
f rom Sakti. Madhva spesJcs cdaout all these views of the schools
of thought in his Brahma Sutra Bhasya «md he refutes them all
one b y one.
Madhva sees this world as an 'ordered' and 'purposeful
t hi n g ' ; thus the producer of such a world must be endowed with
knowl€Kige. Therefore be it Prakrti or the atoms of the various
eleme n t s, they cannot in themselves be the cause for the
existence of this universe. The author of this world is
endowed with knowledge, omnipotence, and independence.
Therefore no finite beings or souls can be the cause of this
u n iv e r s e.
2 .2 8 .1 9 .VISNU IS ONLY THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF THE WORLD:
«•
According to Madhva, Visnu cannot be the upadanakarsma
(parts) of this world and he openly and explicitly holds on to
this view. He maintains that change is possible only where
there is (inner) division; our experiences testify to the fact
that the changeable entities are divided. But Visnu is
 197

unchangecQdle because he is undivided or he has no parts - if

he is in parts then he is imperfect <Cf. B.S. Ki. II.ili,7|.
And again chsuige means a type of dependence. The supreme Lord
Visnu is totally and unconditionally independent and therefore
he is not changeable. But it is in the nature of God that the
vmchangectble Lord Visnu effects the chsuigeable realities. Lord
Visnu is the power in all beings who is endowed with power,
yet he himself is with no parts (Cf. B.S. Bh. II.iii.9).
If Visnu is the material supportive cause of this
universe then such a cause He is necessarily svibjected to
change. Madhva clarifies the point that the material world
could not have come front Visnu, because a non-conscious being
(material being) can never be the evolutes of a conscious
being who is Vi^nu. His understanding is that there is the
great gulf between spirit and matter so it is inpossible for a
spirit to evolve in to a material being that is this world.
Madhva strongly teaches that the universe is real emd it
is not illusory reality at a l l . Brahmeui is the real producer
of this universe. As regards the magic cuid an illusory
activity, Madhva propagates that only impotent beings,
incapad»le of producing real effects take recourse to magic and
other illusory activities. Visnu is the svpr^ne real and He
does not need magic or yogic power. So the Brodimavivartavada
is also rejected.
2.29.ORIGINATION OF THE WORLD:
According to Madhva, souls, matter, time, space, and
certain other realities cure eternal and also they are coeval
(lasting for the same period of time), with the supreme Visnu;
and again these realities are eternally dependent of Visnu.
The svibsteuice, karma, time, the essential nature of a being
and soul (jiva) all these exist through the favor of V i ^ u ,
and in the absence of Visnu these realities do not exist. The
 198

above mentioned concepts are found in Bhagavata and Purama,

and Madhva quotes than very often.
Madhva never says that Visnu causes all the beings to
exist. What he means is that the real origin of the universe
means Srsti of everything as a result of the evolution of
PreJcrti and of the union of souls with bodies in the world;
and all these happen because of the supreme Lord. Visnu does
not produce the realities out of nothing. Already existing
realities acquire the new state of being, a change in the
dependence on the will of another (paradhinavisfel^ti) . All
the eternal realties are eternally dependent on Vi^nu who is
their Satta. Madhva holds that dependence of these realties on
Vi^gu is not thought to be causation.
2 .2 9 .1 .V lS •m^J IS THE SUPPORTER AND RULER OF THE WORLD:
Often Madhva uses a sort of formula in his writings that
Visnu, the Supreme Lord is only source of the origin, support,
government, destruction of the world and of ignorance, bondage
cuid liberation of jiva>(souls). JayatXrtha comments on the VTV
saying "concerning souls, origination signifies the production
of the body, sthiti meeuis the permanence of the soul in the
bodily state, niyati-government stands for the binding of the
soul by means of injunctions and prohibitions. As regards the
inonortal gods, their origin consists in their appearance,
their sthiti in the cJbsence of death, their niyati in their
subordination to the commands of Vi^qu"(VTV. Tika, 342-3).
The supreme Lord exercises the supporting causality
(dharakatva) so that he keeps all manifest realities in that
state. Here the Lord supporting this world seem to mean the
permanence of the world in its manifest state. The Lord is
in^erishable, as imperishsQjle Lord he supports all beings by
being present in them in many way s. If Visnu does not wish to
support the world, then he puts it down and it disappears. It
 199

is the command of the Lord that supports all things; cmd it is

the independent and omnipotent will of Visnu that Is the
source and support of all the realities in the tiniverse.
According to Madhva, Visnu is present in all beings and
not merely in general manner. He strongly teaches that the
Lord Vi^nu is present in the heart and at the root of the
hearing faculty; he is present in the eye and all the senses
also. All those people endowed with real knowledge know that
all their actions and actions in the universe are from the
Lord Visyu. Madhva maintains that at the command of the Lord
Vif^u each being, and even each faculty has a presiding deity;
auid these deities are also the instruments in the hands of
Visi}u for the support amd government of the universe. Madhva
follows the VedSntic tradition and holds that the Brahmsui is
the cause of the destruction of the manifest world.
2 .2 9 .2 .PURPOSE OF CREATION:
Madhva propagates that, 'Vi^nu is the Absolute Bliss
(ihanda) and his desires are eternally fulfilled. Thus Visnu,
from his work of producing the world does not derive any
profit or utility. But no intelligent being does anything
without a purpose. Therefore we can legitimately eisk aquestion
as "what is the motive of Vi^^u in creating the world? To this
Madhva would cmswer '"isvara engages in the work of creating
the world out of play (lila) and not for the sake of gaining
any particle of profit (B.S.Bh. II.i.33,34). The play of Lord
Visnu is rooted in his bliss. Therefore according to Madhva,
this world is originated from the bliss of Visnu; and the
Lord's play is an overflow of divine bliss. But here it should
be borne in mind that the Lord is not in need of play smd he
does not derive some pleasure from such a play or lila. The
Lord is free; therefore he acts freely because of his blissful
nat\xre and his creative act is nothing more than sui act of his
 200

will (Av. I I .i .108) . What Madhva is trying to tell us is that

Gkjd is the reason for creation; and no extrinsic notive
determines the Lord to produce this universe. Madhva
understands that, Visnu intends the liberation of the good
beings and damnation of the wicked ones.
2 .2 9 .3 . CREATION AND USE OF S^HANAS:
The sacred texts (s"ruti) teach us that the Lord Visnu
uses various means like Prakrti, space, and time in his work
of creation; and God creates human beings in accordcUice to
their Karma. Though Visnu makes use of these mesins or
instrxjments (Prakj-ti, space, and tdune) in his creative work,
their power to be meeuis or instrxunents come from him alone auid
from his will to use them (Cf.B.S.Bh.ii.39, Svecchaniyam,
Av.II.92). As it is already mentioned above the Lord Visnu is
free and his freedom is such that he could have created the
universe with or without these instruments (Av. 94) . For
example, as a man though he is capable of walking on foot with
no aid uses a stick to lean on out of sport, so also the Lord
uses Prakrti as the material cause of the world (Cf. Bh. G.
Bh. 1 , 8 ) .
It is by the very fact that Visnu uses many neans and
instruments in his work of creation, he manifests his glory
and majesty. Karma does not bind Vi^iju as it binds other
dependent beings; and it depends on the Supreme Visnu for its
existence. The supreme Visnu takes the Karma of the souls
(jivas) into consideration while creating the universe.
According to Dvaita Vedanta, Karma exists under the sovereign
will of the Lord (Nyaya Sudha. II.i.37).
Madhva uses the 'Svatantraya' of Visnu as a key to the
solution of these problems such a s ; the actual origin of the
world, the motive of creation, God's use of instruments in the
work of producing the Universe etc. Madhva takes up many
 201

cosmogenic myths that are foiand in sacred tests (slniti) and

interprets them according to his faith in Visnu in his
commentaries. When Madhva holds that Visnu alone is the Lord
and God, this type of the process of Vaisnavaisation is
unavoidable. Madhva starts from the Sankhya system to explain
the principle theory of the process of the world origination
and evolution; and he changes the Sankhya ideas very
radically. He maintains that Prakrti is only the material
cause of the vmiverse and the ultimate cause of everything is
the supreme Vi§nu alone. At the command of Vif nu Prakrti
evolves into various stages; auid the matter and spirit come
together for their existence.
2 .2 9 . 4 .ANAlfDA- LILA OF VISNU:
0^
The purpose of the production of this world is God's
ananda-lila. But for the finite spirits, creation means as the
liberation of the good souls and damnation of the wicked ones.
Madhva also accepts the existence of evil, suffering, pain,
and sin in the world; eind the explsuiation for the existence of
evil should be sought in the karma principle. Karma itself
totally dependent of the Lord Vis^u auid he is present and
'active in every being; therefore we must look for a deeper
reason for the existence of evil. Can the svarupa-bKeda of
finite spirits of Dvaita belief explain the evil? According to
the theory of Svarupa-bheda, some souls by nature are good and
others wicked incapable of reaching mxjkti or liberation. As
the actions proceed from the nature of beings, now it is clear
that evil and wickedness flow from the wicked spirits. We may
again pose a question here as to "are not the mukti-ayogya
jivee (souls) too dependent on Visnu eternally? And their
'satta' is dependent on Visnu? So is it true that ultimately
the Svarupa of beings explain the evil in this universe?
 202

Madhva's basic belief is that the supreme Lord Visnu is

the principle agent in all beings euid induced by Vi^nu alone
all the beings act. Madhva explicitly accepts that at the
command of Vi^nu, Siva and others composed the duragamas in
order to keep the wicked jivas (souls) in ignorance. If we
accept this proposition, can we not hold that Visnu himself as
the cause of evil? Now it is clear that no religious man can
accept such a position. Vis^u is impartial and goodness
itself. Thus it is clear that when Madhva faces the problem of
evil, he only shifts from karma to Svarupabhida and back to
kazrma itself. And at the same time Madhva maintains that all
things euid beings are totally dependent on God, and God is the
ultimate cause of the activities of finite beings. Thus it is
clear that Madhva silently accepts the fact that the problem
of evil cannot be satisfactorily solved at the level of humsui
thinking.
2. 29. 5. CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD IN MADHVA:
The Supreme Lord according to Madhva is the eteirnal Lord
of the eternal realities, viz., the Jivas (souls) and Prakrti
(Primary matter) . Vis^u is the Sarvana^inata (Visnu.. as the
primary purport of every word) . It is only relation to this
world, Visnu's SaurvanSnata, his attributes and his
vinmanifestations cam be coirprehended.
Starting from the foundations of Sense-perception ouid
S^syantibhava and infernce resting on them and interpreting
the truths of Scripture in accordance with the authority of
Saksi-pram^a sund Upa-jivya-pramSia, Sri Madhva arrives at a
realistic metaphysics in which God, as Svatantra, occupies the
central position, with matter and souls keeping their
legitimate positions under him. This reality as a whole is
expressed in a system of fivefold distinction, which gives it
 203

its philosophical designation of "Prapauica". This valuable

five fold difference is "Prapanca."
The word "Prapauica",is derived from the s\ibstantive
"pancan" with the suffix "da" (a) signifying 'kind' . The
prefix "pra" denotes 'excellence' or value. It is excellent in
the sense that knowledge of this fivefold difference
constitutes right knowledge that leads to Moksa."This fivefold
difference is the difference that exists as between Jivas,
Jadas (material principles) euid Brahman on the one hand and
mutually among Jivas and Jadas themselves on the other".
Visnu alone is the cause of production (srsti), support
(sthiti) and dissolution (samhara) of the universe, for such
is the teaching of the Sacred tradition(Cf. AV.I.1.90; BS.
Bh.I.l, 2). According to Madhva, there are eight cosmic powers
that proceed from the sxjpreme Visnu: 1.Creation (srsti) ,
2.Sustenance (sthiti), 3.Dissolution (seunhara) , 4.Control
(niyama), 5.Obscuration (ajnana), 6.Enlightenment (jSiana), 7.
Bondage (bandha) and 8. Liberation (moksa) (Cf. B S . Bh. I
1 .2 ) .
2.29.6.REFUTATIOtf OF THE RIVAL SCHOOLS:
Through his philosophico-theologico arguments Madhva
refutes the schools of thought which affirmed that Vi^Qu is
not the cause of the origin of this world. He strongly
affirmed that this world is an ordered and purposeful 'thing'
and the producer of this such world should be endowed with
knowledge and thereby he proved that Prakfti, atoms, void,
vij^aijay^va, s ^ t i cannot be the cause of this universe.
Visnu has not created this world by self-division
(dhevidhabuti) or by transformation (vikrti) into this
pluralistic world and into matter and jivas (souls). God is

45
S .S .Raghavacar,V T V . Nos. 325, 340, B.H.K.Sharma Teachings, p.78.
 204

iinaltercJsle, flawless, absolutely perfect and he cannot be

t r a n s f o m e d hiaself into this bad world that is affected by
many and varied defects. According to Madhvs's \inderstanding,
God's creative activity touches the intrinsic nature of
Prakyti and his activity lasts always. In his Brahma^sutra
Bha^ya, Madhva holds that the supreme Lord alone is the motive
behind this universe; he, as the author of this world is
endowed with knowledge and he is omnipotent and independent
Absolute Being. The supreme God possesses the absolute power
and he alone determines the affairs of this world. No finite
being or souls (as they do not possess the absolute power) can
b e the cause of this \oniverse.
Madhva strongly believes that as it is taught in Sruti,
Visnu alone is the Supreme Being; he alone is the cause of all
things and Siva as an lanembodied being cannot cause the world;
neither he is the author of this world. The world of duality
is con^rehended by the sijpreme Lord and is protected by him
a nd hence it is not a product of illusory imagination.^®
"This scheme of Pancabheda is not illusory—as it is
cognized by God, maintained and controlled b y Him; for there
^ -
caun be no illusions for God." In this passage Sri Madhva
controverts the position that the world is an illusory
projection of the cosmic mind. Our sacred literature is full
of references to the creation, preservation, regulation, and
control of the world of matter and souls by a Supreme Being.
The material world is the field or environment provided for
the spiritual evolution of souls. God cannot possibly have
given us an illusory environment to develop in; nor could He
be mistaken in perceiving the world in which we live, move and
have our being and taJcing the trovible to help, guide and

46
S.S.Raghavachar,VTV. No. 328,p.71.
 205

control our lives therein in various ways. There is enough

evidence in the Scriptmre that God perceives us and the world
in which we live (Cf. Svet. Up. I, 3.iii, 12; v.5) as factual
realities. What is thus directly perceived by a cosmic mind
cannot be illusory: "A magician does not perceive his own
magical creations. God perceives the Universe, always. So, it
is not illusory like a magician's projections." (VTV.p.28).
This passage reinforces the above argument by showing the
difference between a real creation and a false appearance,
such as it projected by a magician. A magician does not
actually see such objects as magical elements projected by
him. But God sees the world as the world and sustains it (Cf.
Gita: xv.l3) . If this universe is to be regarded as imagined
by our delusion (as the illusory snake in the rope) , it would
require the acceptance of a real universe (as the prototype of
the imagined one) and a real sxibstratum (i.e. , to say, two
reals)". "No theory of illusions can be demonstrated without
at least two reals: a substratvmi (adhisthana) of the illusion
and a prototype (pradhi^) of the superimposed object
(aropya)
2 .2 9 .7 .THE MEANING AND NATURE OF CREATION:
According to Madhva, there are two orders of causes and
they eure distinguished as, 1.Material Cause (UjpadanakiTrana)
2uid 2.Efficient Cause (NimittcJcarana) The In material cause
Prakrti undergoes transformation and it acquires (l^ti) new
specifications (vi^sas) . The independent Visnu alone is the
active power who transforms prakrti in its acquisition of new
specifications (vis'esas) . The acquisition of specifications is
dependent (paradhina) on another that is Visnu (efficient
cause). Therefore it is through the material cause (prakrti)

B.N.K.Shazma, Teachings, pp.79-80.

 206

and efficient cause (Visnu-nimitta) the origination of the

world tsJces place in Dvaita Vedanta. Thus this material world
is neither a trainsformation (parinama) of Visnu or a
production out of nothing. This world (srsti) is the result of
the evolution of Prakrti and of the union of souls with
bodies. It is through the action of Brahman what is in the
womb of matter and souls are actualized. Therefore, in the
work of creation the existing realities acquire a new state of
being only depending on the will of Brahman.
Madhva uses the term "cause" in the sense that a world
of imperfect beings and of ceasless chainge is explicable only
as they are dependent on a Supreme Being. He, Himself is
unchanging euid perfect in every way and his constsmt presence
in them educes the series of forms latent in matter and brings
the souls nearer to their self-development at every step; 2m d
thus brings them into full play and actual mauiifestations (Cf.
BSE, ii.3.31) .
2 ,2 9 .8 . 'ETERNAL CREATION' THRO' PARADHINAVI^S^TI:
According Madhva, all the other beings both eternal auid
non-eternals are oibsolutely dependent on independent Visra.
Here dependency is a relation that is true of eternals auid
non-eternals (Cf. Sharma Philosophy, p.225).
Questions can be posed here as to how can God as creator
exercise his control over the co-existent eternal entities?
How is the existence of eternal and uncreated substcuices like
space, time, souls (jives) as well as finite realities be
derived from one Supreme source of all? To this Madhva
answers, the concept of being is distinguished into two kinds,
1. Production of siibstance or creation out of nothing (de
novo) : - Madhva rejects this concept of creation out of
nothing. For him God cannot create the world out nothing. If
this world is created out of nothing, then one should presume
 207

as consequence that this world would be completely annihilated

at the end of the world. And again the creation in tiae may
also mean that is open to various difficulties and
inconsistencies (a question asked here, 'what makes Brahman to
come out and create the universe at a particular time?) . 2.
Production, for its acquisition of a change or modification of
state depends on the will of Visnu-God (paradhina vis'esapti) .
Madhva gives answer to the question of creation) through this
theory.
2 .2 9 . 9 .MEANING OF THE DOCTRINE OF PAI^HINA V I^SA P TI:
According to Madhva, time, space, matter, jivas and Veclas
are eternal entities (Nityapadarthas or Anadinitya) which aire
conceived to be existing from eternity without beginning or
end. There are also non-eternal (anitya) entities that are
created at a particulcu: time and place and they have a
beginning and an end. These amitya entities come into being in
their entirety, they vindergo change in their nature, and they
also are euinihilated. So these n o n - etemal entities are
created ones. If so, how then 'creation' is applied to the
eternal entities (space, time, matter, jiv«s etc.?) . At
juncture, Madhva introduces his new theory of 'Eternal
creation' or creation of eternal entities through p a r a d h i M
vxseq^ti .
According to Madhva, Visnu is the miula (root) of this
\jniverse only through his efficient (causative) causality and
he does not undergo amy type of transformation. Vi^pu is the
cause of this universe, just as the soul of a seed (brja-jiva)
is the cause of a shoot. It should be clearly borne in mind
that Visnu is not like the one who is the cause for the body
of a son (Cf.Ch. Up. Bh. VI, 8).
2 .2 9 .1 0 . CRITIQUE OF BRAHMA-PARIimOiVAbA AND VIVARTA-VSOA:
 208

Madhva strongly holds that Visnu cannot be the Supportive

(material) cause of the world nor the world is a modification
of the Sijpreme Being (Brahma-ParinSna) . He writes: "Whatever
is not in keeping with the majesty of the Lord, what is
opposed to his Lordship is evidently unfit for him. All proofs
and statements should be understood in consonance with his
Sovereigneity (Cf. AV. I. 4, 58ff) . If we accept Brahman's
modifications, it is a real insult to his Lordship and it is a
sort of pantheism that pulls him down and utterly negates his
independence. Thus we cannot conceive any modification as
regards Brahman and it is inconsistent to assiame that Brahman
'as the perfect one in himself' , out of his own free-will
chooses to transmute himself into this loniverse of beings auid
objects which are in the state of sin, evil, misery, with msmy
limitations, bondage suid real sufferings. He is partless and
indivisible and not even a part of him can be modified into
the world. Thus Madhva strongly refutes and rejects the
Pariti^navada that holds that Brahman is himself the stuff of
which this world is made. According to the scripttores and
reason, there is unbridgeable gulf between spirit and matter,
cit and jada (Cf. AV.I,4,11). Visnu is essentially Saccidano-vicia.
and so as a perfect Being of pure intelligence and bliss. Thus
nothing can evolve out of him as an effect that is inert and
wholly lacks in intelligence suid which is the abode of much
misery and sxibject to endless change. Thus there is the
material cause of this universe else where other them Brzdiman.
Therefore we see Madhva rejecting the Brahma-Parinama-vada
londer auiy form, aspects, modes or powers that are considered
as essential organic parts of Brahman.
2.29.11. CRITIQUE OF VIVaJ?TA-VabA:
Advaitins maintain that Brahman (all Absolute) is the
real siabstratum of this world and this world is only an
 209

illusory appearance superijnposed on the reality of BrsJiman (it

is called Vivarta—uada) . Brahman really does not act or
produce this world. His activity and the effect of this
activity are illusory, though they have a real substratum,
which is nothing but his own absolute reality. The sub schools
of Advaita have explained in different ways the illusory
appearcunce of the world. Braihman because of its niaya (illusory
power) appears as the world or throws up an illusory world, or
the jiva (souls) because of their ignorance think of the world
as real. In any case the Advaitins do not accept the reality
of the world. Madhva dism isses this view. First of all, for
Madhva, the world is real, it has a reality of its own
distinct from the reality of Brahmcui, though dependent on him.
The real Bradim«ui is a real cause and the real activity of
Brahman produces a real effect.^® Thus for Madhva, the clear
fact that Prsdcrti is a metaphysically dependent principle like
space euid tim^ (though eternal) is the plurality of causest
(Cf. BS. Bh, II, l,15ff).
2 .2 9 .1 2 .THE DyAITA THEROY OF SAD-ASAT-I^YA-T^bA:
The theory of causality or creation is called^ Sad-Asat-
Karya-Vada in Dvaita VedSvit^'By this we utiderstand that a
product (effect) before its existence is existent with respect
to its cause (or is existed as cause alone) and non-existent
with respect to its state as product (effects)(before a
product came into existence, there was only cause and once
that product comes into existence there is effect alone suid no
cause exists) , but on the other hand, it is existent sifter its
existence as a product (effect) , but it is non-existent as a
cause. According to the Samkhyii^, the effect preexists in the
supportive cause (vpadanakSraz^). Because of the mere presence

Puthiadam, Vi^nu the Ever Free,(Madurai: Dialogue Series,

No.5,1985), pp.176-177.
 210

of the puxusa (Sazmldh iitiatra) Prakrti begins to evolve and to

manifest effects potentially contained in it. In fact nothing
really new comes into existence. The effects are already in
the cause. (This type of theory of causation is known as
SatkaryavS^da) . This extreme view is unacceptable to the
Dvaitins .
2 .2 9 .1 3 .V iq m AND THE INSTRUMENTS (SADHANAS) USED IN
CREATION:
According to Sruti (sacred texts) Brahman makes use of
various means like prakrti, space, and time to produce the
\iniverse. Brahmaxi creates maui in accordance with his Karma.
Does Visnu make use of any independent materials or
instruments in the production of this universe as it is clear
from our experience that a weaver makes use of independent
materials in the production of a piece of cloth? Can we hold
that these instruments or s?dhanas bind the freedom of
Brahman? This world has proceeded to its existence from the
essential power of Visnu (Cf. BS. Bh.II, 1.15).
In relation to the causality of VisQU we cannot speaJc of
suiy independent material or instrument. T h u s , though V i ^ u
makes use of some means or instrviments in his work of
creation, their power to be means or instruments comes from
Visnu alone. Even the very determination that such or such
realities would be used as means of creation come from the
will of Hari, the Lord. (Svecchauiiyauna) (Cf. AV. II, 92; BS.
Bh.II, 1,15). Only the finite and dependent agents are in need
of materials or instruments in order to effect something.
Visnu is the independent agent on whom the instrumentality
(sadhanatva) of the instrvmients depends (BS.Bh, II, 1.15).

Ibid.,pp. 177-178.
 211

Further, the use of materials (sadhanas) in one's

activity is no imperfection; on the contrary, it is a sign of
power auid Lordship provided the materials used aure not
independent of the agent (BS. Bh. II, 1,19). Visnu makes use
of various materials in the production of the world, but all
these are dependent on him even from eternity since he alone
is the independent cause. The freedom of Visnu is such that he
could have created the world with or without these auxilicury
causes or instruments (Cf. AV. II, 1.15). For example, God
uses "Prakrti" as the material cause of the world just as a
man, though capable of walking on foot with no aid, uses a
stick to lean on out of sport (BH. Gi.Bh. , IX,8) By the fact
that God uses many instruments and means in his creative work,
he manifests his glory and majesty.
Madhva again holds that Visnu dispenses everything in
accordance with the karma (adrsta) of each jTva smd that world
is so constituted as to be best-suited instrument of the jTva
to enjoy or to suffer, for their karma. In Madhva's doctrine,
karma does not bind the Lord nor does it limit his freedom,
because the very karma of the jiva depends on the Supreme
Being. "Substance, karaa, time, the essential nature of
beings, jivas exist by his Vi^nu's favor; in its absence they
do not exist (Bh^g. Pur, II, 10,12; AV.I, 1,13). Since the
kaucma being unconscious material principle, it can work or
produce effects only \ander the sovereign will of the Lord
which is the conscious principle.
2.29.14.MADVA'S THEORY OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD:
According to Madhva, the prakrti (the primodial matter)
is eternal amd indestructible; the creation of the world
(srsti) and dissolution (pralaya) happens regulairly in a
recurring rotation. At the end of the world, every world-
creation follows perpetually and after a long respite^ a
 212

new world-creation follows. Therefore, for Madhva, the

evolution (creation) and reabsorption (involution) of the
world happens countless times eternally. Madhva bases for his
theory of the constitution of matter and the evolution of the
world on the '^aitOchya' metaphysics of Upanisads, the Epics and
P uranas.
*

It is the iccha (will) of Visnu to create this laniverse

produces a stir in the prakrti, it disturbs the equilibriiam of
its qualities and thereby sets in motion the evolution
process. Later the primordial matter (prakrti) undergoes
various modifications and it develops by a process of
evolution and involution of effects. In this process of
evolution the unmanifest becomes meuiifest and this manifest
evolves into many forms taking on new qualities (visesas) .
2 .2 9 .1 5 . THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION AND INVOLUTION:
Prakrti, both directly and indirectly is the material
cause of the world. It is the direct material cause of time
euid the three qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas and only
indirectly of Mahat, Ahafnkara, etc. It is both eternal and
pervasive; but not vmlimited. The three guijas are supposed to
b e differentiated at the beginning of creation, in the ratio
of 4 : 2 : 1 (BT, iii.11,14). The evolution of other forms of
matter takes place on account of the disturbance in their
equipoise which gives rise to the twenty-four principles
commonly recognized, viz. mahat, Ahainkara, Buddhi, Mcinas, ten
sensory organs, five-sense-objects and the five great
elements. Mahat is the first and finest evolute of matter and
energy. Ahamkara is the principle of individuation, Buddhi
that of discrimination, and manas of thought. The principle of
Aha^ara is divided into three classes of Vaikarika, Taijasa

Ibid., p. 186.
 213

euid Taitiasa. From Taijasa the ten sense organs are produced,
and the five sense objects (vi^ayas) and the elements aure the
products of Taxnasa-Ahounkeura. The teurunatras steuid for
qualitatively distinct and irreducible sense-qualities with a
definite leaning towards their appropriate objects. These
twenty-four evolutes of Prakrti are the constituents of the
microcosm and the macrocosm of the entire Broihman^a. Madhva
gives a proper reorientation to this theory of material
evolution by linking it up with a systematic hierarchy of
presiding deities from top to bottom. It is under the constsurit
supervision and guidance of these Abhimiihi-d^atas (or
Tattvagbhimanins) that all material transformations and
psychophysical fxinctions are carried on. The Siipreme Bre^iman
itself is ultimately behind all these activities eUid of each
and every one of them (BSB,ii.3.11).
The three forms of matter, viz., Sattva, Rajas and Tamas,
are specially controlled by the three aspects of Cetana-
prakrti, viz., Sri, Bhu and Durga (Cf. BT,x.94.15). The period
of creation is said to be one-eighth of the period of
involution (BT,p.71b). Involution takes place by the merger of
the effects in their causes in the reverse order of
evolution.
2 .2 9 .1 6 . THE FEALITY OF THE WORLD:
According to Madhva, the world is as real as Visnu
himself ouid are intimately related. The creation originates
out of the material causality called prakrti which is
subserveient to the will of Brahaman. The A n k a r a Vedanta and
Madyamik Buddhism schools taught from the transcendental stand
point (piiramarthika Drsti) that this world is not real. For
them, from the absolute stand point of view. Brahman or s w y a

51
B.K.M.Shazma, Philosophy,pp.235-236.
 214

is the only reality and this world-order is a false appearance

caused by avidya or nayi. Through this maya^^da theory, the
Advaitins discredited the reality of creation. They had
classified the reality into: Paraunarthika Vyaval^ika and
Pratibhasika but Madhva rejected these threefold
classifications and affirmed that the realities of the world
and of the reality of creation are metaphysical facts.
Madhva bases his realistic metaphysics on sound
epistemological propositions (premises). The reality of the
world-experience comes as a consequence of Sak|yahubhava.
Pratyaksa gives validity or conclusion to the reality of the
world-e^ e r i en c e (The self validity of knowledge has meaning
through the validity of pratyaksa). In matters concerning to
sensuous perception, pratycJcsa has to be cited with authority.
We perceive the world as real so our perceptual knowledge must
be held true. Thus it is on the firm foundation of Saksi
Pratyaksa, Madhva built his edifice of realistic metaphysics.
Madvha strongly holds that the sacred texts testify to
the reality of the world. The l^anisad especially mention that
Brahman is the creator, preserver, regulator and controller of
this real world creation, world of matter amd souls. The
Upani^ads uphold "a real world, real souls and real God". He
writes " Therefore, nowhere in the Sacred texts the unreality
of the world is proclaimed.“
A nd again, the sacred texts mention that Brahman produced
real beings that are uncountable. For Madh v a, the scheme of
Pancabheda is not illusory". "The world of duality is
comprehended by the Supreme Lord sund is protected by him and
hence it is not a product of illusory imagination". Surely the
Lord cannot be liable to illusions' . "The supreme Self is

52
Raghavachar VTV.No.257,. P.55.
 215

real. The individual self is real. Difference is real,

difference is real, and difference is real".”
Madhva strongly maintains that Visnu provides this
material world as a field for the Spiritual evolution or in
other words liberation of souls. Thus this world is not an
illusory environment for liberation. Visnu perceives human
beings and this world as factual reality. Therefore 'what
Visnu perceives csuTnot be illusory'." It further says: 'the
magician does not see the magic. But the Lord always sees the
universe. Therefore it is to be resolved that it is not a
magically produced illusion.
2 .2 9 .1 7 .V IS m AND SUSTENANCE (STHITI) , RULING(NIYATI) AND
DISSOLUTION(PRALAYA) OF THE WORLD:
Though Visnu is independent from the world yet he has
strong connection with the world. This universe and all other
beings are totally dependent on Visnu(Cf. BS.Bh. II.2.5). The
V a i s ^ v a catechetical formula which Madhva always makes use in
his writings that Visnu alone is the source of origin,
sijpport, government, destruction (of the world) and of
ignorance, bondage and liberation (Mulcti) of jiv«s (sotils) .
Therefore the relationship of Vi^nu is Nitya (eternal) and
aviziabhava (inseparcible) . Madhva comments on the Brahma-Sutras
and writes that Vi^nu is the Sthiti (sxjpporting cause) , niyati
(ruler) and lastly Pralaya (destroyer) of this world. As
Madhva himself says: "If it is said that both the production
cuid the destruction (of the world) depend on Vi^gu, but its
continuation in existence (sthiti) depends on its own proper
nature, without any reference to him (Visnu) that is not
correct, for the very nature of all (beings) depend on him(Cf.
BS. Bh, I, 1,2; AV. 1,1,90) alone.

Ibid.,VTV. Nos, 328,329, 273,p.71.

Ibid.,VTV,No.370,p.78.
 2lf)

The word 'sthiti' derived from the root stha 'to stand'
may be translated as 'permanence in being.' 'That which has
received its origin from Visnu is also sustained by him' can
be the correct meaning of 'sthiti' . The causality of
origination etc., specially rests with Vi^nu. He alone is the
support of the primary matter, souls and time; he supports the
earth, heaven and all the worlds. Also, he is the ruler of
everything (Tat.Pr. on BSBh. 1.1.2). In his commentary on the
2”*^ part of the VTV, Jayatirtha makes certain precisions.
"Concerning the souls, origination signifies the production of
the body, 'sthiti' remains the permanence of the soul in the
bodily state, 'niyati' stands for the binding of the soul by
means of inj\onctions and prohibitions. As regards the iimnortal
gods, their birth consists in their 'appearance' , their
'sthiti' in the absence of death, their 'niyati' in their
subordination to the commands of Vi^pu. Visnu grants to the
different beings their activities too (VTV,Ti.pp.342-343).
From these functions have their origin in Vi^:^u. From these
remarks of Jayatirtha, it appears that for Madhva the 'sthiti'
of the world signifies the permanence of the world in its
manifest state, owing to the supporting causality of
Visnu(dharakatvam) .
Visnu is inperishable Lord, he supports all beings by
being present in them all through many ways. "The world is
called 'antra' , because it is pervaded by V i ^ u , who is the
activating force. He is the muladharaka (primary or root
supporter) of this world. By him is the world made real(satya)
and its nature is maintained by him. Therefore, it is
described as 'asatya' . The all pervading Lord is the reality
of realities. He is to the world what the sian is to the
rainbow. The Upanisad passage concerning him is, "He is the
 217

Real of reals; life-principles are real and of them he is

Real.*®
As V i ^ u is the supporting cause of the viniverse, so is
he the cause of the activity of the beings by 'effective
presence' in the various potencies of these beings. Visnu is
present in the heeurt cmd at the root of the heauring faculty;
he is present in the eyes and in all the senses. Those persons
possessing salvific knowledge (j'fianins) know that all the
activities are from Vi^ju, indwelling in them.®® According to
Madhva,' the deities too are instruments in the hand of Visnu
**
for the support and government of this xaniverse. For Madhva,
Vi^^u is "the over Lord of all(Sourvadhipati) , the protector of
all (scurvapala) euid Lord of all (Sarvesa) . Just as the cause of
the origination of the world, and its supporting cause and
ruler, so is he the cause of its dissolution. What is meant by
the last paurt of this formula is that beings which have
origination from, and are supported by Vi^gu, do not disappear
by thanselves; the cause of their disappearance or
resdssorption is Vi^i}u. As in the origination, support and
ruling of the world, so in its dissolution too, Vi^nu's
-causality (Kartrvam) is at work, "He who was at the beginning
of the world (of the mamifest world) and from whom the world
originated and who protects the world, from him is the
dissolution of the world(Cf. Tat.Di.p.88).
As regards ordinary souls, (souls in body) dissolution
(pralaya) staunds for death(VTV.Ti.p.343) . For all beings,
however, dissolution means the reabsorption into the
unmauiifest state. It is to be noted here that Madhva, like
other \yantins, admits a partial auid a total dissolution. The

Ibid.,VTV. No.263,p.57.
**. Mund. Op. Bh. III,. 1. 4; BSBh. 11.2.3; Puthiadam, Qp.Cit.,
p. 212.
 21S

partial dissolution or reabsorption affects only the three

worlds, viz., the Bhu, Bhuvar and Svarga lokas, although the
gods dwelling in these worlds are not touched by it. But the
total dissolution affects the whole universe. The process of
dissolution is exactly the opposite of the process of
origination; the inferior beings are absorbed into the
superior and finally the whole is covered over by Vi««a.
According to the Br. A. Up. L. 2.1., 'Laksmi, the souls,
prime-matter in the perfect harmony of its three
qualities(sattva, rajas and tamas), actions and the residue of
actions, life breath, the five sense (the internal senses) ,
the Vedas and time remain in an inactive suid unmanifest manner
all through the long night of dissolution(Cf. Br.A. Op. Bh.
1.2.1). The dissolution of the world, even its total
dissolution does not mean annihilation.®’
2 . 3 0 . THE ANTHROPOLOGY OR THE CONCEPTION OF MAN:
In the understanding of Madhva, God conditions 'Man' amd
man is dependent of Him. Maji is a conposite, finite, spiritual
stibstance and matter and he exists here and now in a body; his
body is cm evolute of matter. As he exists in a milieu, other
hxjman beings surround him and he finds his existence in a
world that is in space and time. Thus nan is called as meoiber
of a society. He is agent suid enjoyer as well as subject to
birth and death. The life of man is complicated and complex
because he lives in the midst of inequalities and the evil
filled world.
2 . 3 0 . 1 . THE NATURE OF THE SOUL(JJVA-SVARUPA) :
According to Madhva, the 'Self' is to be established by
Saksyanvibhava. His definition of the self is " He who is only

Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,pp.214-215.
 219

cognizable as "I" is called the jiva. It is he that suffers

suid enjoys. It is he that is bound aund that gets liberated.
"He who enjoys the happiness and suffers the ills of
life, who is eligible for bondage and release, is the Jiva. He
is indeed in a position to know himself, in all his states, as
"I am". This implies that the Jiva is a permanent entity that
endures in and through its changing states of consciousness
and experiences, which constitute the sxom total of its life
here and in the hereafter. The pragmatic necessity of assxaming
a permanent self can well be understood in the light of the
primary instinct to be and to survive. That is why our
Upani^ads emphasize the indestructibility of the self and its
attributes as well (Brh. XJp) . These attributes of the self are
the potential powers of conscious life here auid in the
'beyond' . Without such a continuity and survival of individual
consciousness, the goal of Mukti would be void of meauiing and
purpose (Sharma, Teachings, pp. 87-88) . According to
Jayatirtha, the jTva is that which is endowed with the powers
of agency and enjoyership, which possesses a 'form' but is
different from the physical body; and which reveals as the
'I'(of subject of knowledge) by the witnessing consciousness.
2 .3 0 .2 . SOUL IS DIFFESENT FROM GOD AND MATTER:
Madhva in his TattvassunkhySia says, that the soul is a
dependent, positive, eternal and conscious substance.
According to the Samkhya system the soul is 'Purufa', which is
inactive. Sankara would londerstand that there is only One
conscious being who is Brahman; and Brahman is the Absolute,
the only reality in this world and He is identical with the
true self of man. Madhva maintains that the numberless finite
spiritual beings or souls are dependent on one infinite,.

58
S .S .Raghavachar VTV. No. 290,p.64.
 221

space for it has a form (Akara) . The soul has a form that
consists of bliss and consciousness just as a lamp flame has a
form. Because the soul endows with this form, it occupies the
subtle and gross bodies, which are products of matter or
praJcrti. The size of a soul is atomic (anu-pariniaha) that
makes the soul possible of its trsuismigration.
The knowledge that the soul possesses has its own limits.
When the soul is in the state of bondage, ignorsuice covers the
soul's knowledge. Although bliss is intrinsic to the soul, it
is in right proportion (commensurate) with its limited
consciousness. The natural bliss of the soul in its state of
bondage is mixed up with lot of pain.^^
2 .3 0 .4 . THE COMPLETE DISTINCTION BETWEEN VISNU
•IP AND THE
SOULS.
In Madhva's tmderstanding, whenever we have realities
with opposing attributes, they, must be really distinct. Now
Brahman and the soul have opposing attributes. Therefore, they
cure really distinct. The major needs no expleuiation. The minor
however, needs to be explained. Madhva clearly assigns
opposing attributes to Brahman and the soul. Braihineui (Vi^nu)
is the Omniscient (Sarvajna) , the Omnipotent (Sarvasakta) . He
is the indwelling principle (Antaryaiain) and He is the one
with ever realized, fully realized (SatyeJcama; '^atkama) .
VIhereas the soul (Jiva) has little knowledge (alpajDaha) . It
has only very littly power (alpaseJcta) . It is also non-
independent (asva.teuitra) but Vii^nu dwells in it. It is one
whose desires are not fully realized. The Jiva enjoys only
what is pleasant; experiences pleasvure and pain.^° There is no
need to expose futhrer the differences between Visnu and jiva.

T.P. Ramachandran, Op.Cit.,p.83.

kata. Up. Bh. Pp.14,,15. 17; AV. 1.1.96,100, 101. BSBH.I.2.8,
H etc.S .S .Raghavacar, VTV.No.275.
jjrom wnat nas axreaay been said it is quite clear that Visnu
and the soul cannot possibly be identical. The sacred texts
t o o , Madhva thinks, proclaim with one voice the difference
between Vi^nu suid the souls. The so called identity texts such
as 'aham Brahmasmi, or 'tat tvam asi' do not teach monism. Let
us take for example the text 'tat tvam asi' which is repeated
nine times in the 6*'*' chapter of Cha. Up. Madhva asks his
opponent to read the text and interpret it according to the
rules of interpretation. If he were to do so he would realize
that it means not 'tat tvam asi' but ' atat tvam asi'(thou art
not that). In fact, the father of Svetaketu is teliing his son
that the individual is not identical with Brahman. The
Advaitin is misreading the text when he reads it as 'tat tvam
asi' . All the examples given by the father teach in fact the
reality of this distinction (VTV. No.224). (Just as the bird
and the rope are different, the juices of the many trees are
different, the rivers and the sea are different, the thief and
the property stolen are different, the man auid the Gandhara
country are different, so the soul and God are different) .
Such texts as 'I am Brahman' must be interpreted in relation
to the inner ruler: the inner ruler of the soul is Brahman
(VTV. No.266) .
Madhva rejects too the so-called 'ekajivavada' of the
Advaitins, which states that there is only one soul in the
world. All the other souls are considered to be the imaginary
or dream products of this one jiva (VTV.no. 309ff) . At the end
of this section, we may describe the jiva following the
acco\jnt of Jayatirtha thus: The soul is of the nature of "I"
and is cognized by the internal witness. It is different from
the body etc; it is endowed with a form, and the power of
 223

activity and enjoyment.®^ The soul is 'svaprakasa' (self-

Ixaminous) . The 'self-luminosity of the soul has a 'content' ,
viz. "I" (aham) . The nature of the soul is strength, bliss
splendor cund pure knowledge (BSBH.I I .31) .
2. 30.5. THE S E L F A S THE KNOWER, DOER A N D ENJOYER:
Dvaita Vedanta understands that the soul (jiva) is
subject of knowledge(jnata), agent of action(karta) and the
enjoyer of the fruit of action (Bhokta) . When the soul is in
the state of release, these above characteristics that are
real are also present. The soul (self) is a knower and this is
indicated by the expression "I" (aham) in smy type of statement
as "I know this" etc. Therefore the soul (self) knows objects
other them itself also.
The Dvaita system further holds that the Soul(self) knows
'itself' . "I know myself" is a common expression which is a
sufficient evidence to signify that the self(soul) knows
itself. The statement 'I know myself' does not refer at all to
the body but only refers to the self (soul) . Thus it is
possible for the same self (soul) to the both subject and
object of knowledge. It is only becaxise of the presence of
Vi^sas, the self (soul) makes a distinction between itself as
the subject euid itself as the object. Therefore self-knowledge
is possible cuid it is self-luminosity (sva-preJcas*atva) for
Madhva(Cf. G.T. XIII, 13).
2.30. 6. THE SOUL (jfVATMAN) AND BODY:
Madhva Dvaita maintains, that there are Gross body
(Sthula-Sarira) and a Subtle body (Suiksma or linga ^ r ira) and
every soul that is caught \ip in the humeui situation (Samsara)
has these two types of bodies. The gross body is the external
or sensible body; this body is born, it grows and dies. It is

B.N.K. Sharma, Philosophy,p.177.

 224

composed principally of earth; and other products of matter

too are found in it. This body consists the external sense
orgsu\s auid the faculties of action. The soul at its each birth
possesses a new gross body perfectly in accordance with the
state of its past kairma and it is not united with the soul
from eternity (Cf. B S . Bh.II. 4.22,23)
The Slabtie body (Suksma or linga sarira) is the product
of sxjbtle matter. This s\abtle body has inner subtle faculties
of knowledge and action. The five life breaths, mind (manas)
that give unity to all humcui actions, form part of this subtle
body. This subtle body is united to the soul from eternity amd
will remain ijnited to the soul till its liberation is
attained; and this subtle body wamders with the soul in the
course of its trasmigratory existence (Cf. kath.Up. Bh. P.12).
Both the gross and sxjbtle bodies are evolutes from matter
and in themselves are non-conscious, non-knowing substances.
Matter is sxjbordinate to the spirit, so also both gross and
s\]btle bodies are sub-ordinate to the soul. The soul and
matter are connected from the beginning (Cf. BS. Bh. II.
4.,22,23).
The positive ignorance (Karanfl^fiarira or Avidya) is the
third entity which isconnected with the soul fTom.
beginningless time till the time of release. This third entity
is said to be a part of the 'tamoguna' of matter, auid it
enchains the soul to the state of bondage (Positive ignorsmce
(avidya) here is both real and destructible. It is not sin?3ly
a negative element. It must be recognized as a positive force
in view of its being a product of tamogxina encircling the soul
and getting destroyed by aparoksajn^a. Visnu causes this
third entity to arise and to enchain the soul to the bodies.

Dominic, O p .Cit.,p .298.

 225

Thus the situation of man as man arises when a finite

spiritual soul, gross body sund fine body (subtle) join
together to form a single unit and when this whole CCToposite
is "covered over" by ignorance.®^
2.30.7.THE REASON FOR THE UNION O F SOUL A N D MATTER:
The soul which is in itself knowledge, being and bliss
gets itself united to matter because of its past karma. But
this is only an immediate explanation. In order to avoid
further difficulties, Madhva, like the other Indian thinkers,
says that this union is beginningless. According to Madhva,
all souls (except LeJcsmi) are in beginningless possession of
karmic bodies.*^
The souls are reflection of Visnu and by divine necessity
find in themselves the fullness of their nature iinder the
guidcmce of Visnu's favor by becoming united with the matter.
Therefore karma and the soul's nature cure only the 'secondaury
causes whereas the primary cause of our human situation (soul-
matter union) is Visnu.
As it is already stated above the soul is atomic in size
and it dwells in the heart. Just as sandal paiste spread over
one part of the body extends its refreshing fragrance all over
like wise the soul pervades the whole body from the heart (Cf.
BS. Bh. 11,3,24).
2.30. 8.MAN ' S B I R T H A N D DEATH:
Let us analyze under this section what exactly Madhva
understands by 'birth' and 'death' of man. Generally in one
sense one cannot speak of the birth of meui because both soul
(Jiva) and the original stuff that is matter (body) are
eternal. Both soul and matter do not have death. Thus we
cannot simply hold that neither the soul nor the body is born.

Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,p.237-238.
BS.Bh.II. 3.29, Puthiadam, p.238-239.
 226

According to Dvaita system, the lanion of soul with the subtle

body and gross body is beginningless. So 'when is the first
union of soul with the first gross body? is a question. CXir
study is to be about the perceptible birth or in other words
the union of soul and body that takes place at a particular
time of existence. In the ordinary language this type of union
of soul with a particular gross body (matter) is called
'birth' . In his Bhagavatgita Bhasya and Katl}a Upsmisad Bhasya,
Madhva says that the birth of a soul is in other words,
'dehasambandha' or 'd^asaunaydga' which means 'the relation or
union of soul with the body' (Bh.Gi .Bh. I I .26; 11.29;
Kath.Up.B h . p .14- Birth is the coming into being of a body.
Birth is the entering of a soul into a maternal womb.®^
The term 'dSia' here stcunds for a gross body in Madhva.
In his VTV, he speaks about the birth of the soul that should
be understood as its embodied state and of the origination of
Vasudeva (Visnu) and others. The Parama-sruti says: 'In the
case of Vasudeva origination means just manifestation cuid
nothing else. All others like Brhama have bodies that come
into being through his actuating force. The body of Hari is
unoriginated and eternal. The bodies of beings like Brahma are
not eternal. The other beings have birth in a primary sense.
But the birth of Hsuri is just his manifestation.®®
According to M adhva, Visnu who is seated in the soul
directs the birth of the soul and with Visnu it enters into
the womb and takes birth with Him alone. The nature and
condition of the body into which the soul enters depends on
the state of its past karma. The soul is thought to enter into
food, and through food it enters into the body of the father
and from the father into the mother, and in the mother's womb

Puthiadam,Op. Cit. ,p.240.

S .S .Ra^vachar, VTV. No. 453, p. 94
 227

it enters into a new body. This is the normal birth of a soul

(The whole process of the soul's wandering down frc»n 'svaxrga'
etc. is described in BSBh.III. 1.25-29.
Madhva distinguishes between two types of deaths: the
enpirical, common death, which is the separation of the soul-
subtle body composite from the gross body; and the second
death, which is the separation of the soul from the subtle
body and which takes place at liberation (BSBh.IV. 2.17;
Kath.pp. Bh.p.l4). Death is the decaying of the body
(ibid.p.13). 'SthuladSiaparityaga' is said to be death. In the
same text Madhva clearly distinguishes between the soul's
sepcuration from the gross body and from the subtle-body. The
first death is compared to the putting away of one's old
clothes. As birth is an entrsince into a gross bo<^, so death
is departure from the body. The soul is said to depart from
the body through the heart or through the arteries of the head
(BSBh. IV.2.17) . Commenting on B.S. 1.3.9, Madhva says that
death follows upon the departure of Visnu from the body. The
first death is always followed by birth. The second death,
which is not followed by birth, is the final cuid definitive
separation of the soul from matter and bondage in general.**
2 .3 0 .9 .PLURALITY OF SOULS(SELVES) IS INTRINSIC: -
The next important question about the self is its
plurality: Is there but one soul in the world or are there
many of them? The Advaita philosophy of Sankara unhesitatingly
rejects the doctrine of plurality of selves. But almost all
other system of Indian philosophy such as Jainism, Purva-
Mimainsa, NyayaVais'esika, Sa ^hya-Yoga cuid the theistic schools
of Vedanta of Ramanuja, Madhva, Nifhbarka, Vallabha and
Caitanya hold that pliorality of selves is not merely am

Kath.Op. Bh. P.13; Puthiadam, Op.Cit., PP. 240-241.

 22S

empirical fact. The theistic faiths of Christianity and Islam,

also, accept this position.®’
The souls are countless. Each soul is different in its
individuality and character. In its bondage and liberation
each soul keeps up its difference from other souls. Though
Ramanuja admits plurality of souls in both bondage and
liberation, he denies qualitative difference in the souls'
release state. In the understanding of Advaita, the soulhood
altogether disappears in its release when the soul realizes
its identity with Visnu. The difference in tha nijmber and
characters of the souls is the ultimate concept in the
rigorously realistic and pluralistic philosophy of Madhva
Vedanta. According to Dvaita \onderstanding, our earthly life
presents to us that every person is unique, though every one
is similar to others. Each conscious entity is shaped into
what they are by their own actions (Karmas) . This rigorous
logical system of Madhva would maintain that there is the
intrinsic difference in the spiritual essence itself of all
souls; and these intrinsic difference alone accovints for the
performance of actions, accumulations of enjoyments cuid
character traits in the soul's life of saihsara. And again such
basic or innate 'nature' of the soul will persist in the state
of its liberation also. Madhva calls this type of 'difference
of a basic nature' of soul as 'SvarG^a-Bheda' ; and according
to him this Svarupa-Bheda alone can accommodate the soul's
numerical plurality with its 'freedom of will' and
'qualitative diversity.'
Every soul is a reflection (Pratibimbha) of Vignu and it
has in it a modicum (small or moderate amount) of Visnu's
essential features, such as Truth(satyam) ,

67
B.N.K.Sharma, Teachings, p.88.
 230

suffering and pain yet she is dependent of Visnu. She is

superior to other divine beings by being inferior to Visnu.
Both Vi^nu amd Laksmi co-exist, they are eternally blessed and
are perfect beings. The supreme Visnu rejoices in Laksmi a«id
she has slavific and cosmic functions in the universe.
Others souls (Cetana-Varga) among the mukti-yogyas are
sijbject to bondage of prakrti and they are further divided
into; 1.Released souls and 2. Unreleased souls. Among these
type of souls there is intrinsic gradation. According to
Madhva, among the released souls there is an innate
distinction amd they are: - 1. D e ^ s . They are 'Sarva-Prakas^'
meaning they are fit to realize God as Pervasive one. 2.
Sages. They are Antaihprakasa sund the other souls aire
BahiprakS^.
The non-released souls are salvable (miakti-yogyas) that
means they are fit to attain liberation.®® As regards
gods(devas), they are finite spiritual beings. They have
become gods immediately because of their 'kcunna' and mediately
because of their nature. There are different grades of gods
such as: - Brahma, Sesa, Va^, Gandharva etc. They are bound
to perform certain duties and they have subordinate part to
play in the work of creation. Though they have few extra­
ordinary powers and faculties, they are completely dependent
on Visnu; and Visnu is the inner controller of all these gods.
According to Madhva, one csm conteinplate Vi§nu in these
gods in a special way because it is he who dwells in them and
gives them strength and activity. But worship must belong to
Visnu alone. There is hierarchical order among gods; aaid
different types of gods live in different worlds. Among the
gods 'Vayu' who is the cosmic power has a Superior place. He

B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, p.70.

 231

is the breath or wind that penetrates all the elements of the

world. As the siipporter of all beings he conducts all beings
to Vignu alone. There are rajas souls who ar& of mixed nature.
They are neither wholly good nor entirely bad. They are
neither fit for release nor they are condemned to perennial
bondage and these are called the Nitya-Samsarin (Ever
transmigrating); these souls are ever within the cycle of
birth and death and they experience pleasure and pain also.
For Madhva, the third type of soulsis demons in whom
tamas predominates and they are called Tamoyogya (the
damnable) . Evil is their law of life and on account of this
they au:e condemned to siiffer in hell. The demons possess the
extraordinary powers and they can influence hiuoanbeings
through possessing them. Though the bodies of demons atre
invisible at times they take human forms. The classification
of souls into Traividya is a vmique concept in the theology of
Madhva. But in Dvaita system the last two classes of Traividya
classification of souls have no hope of reden^tion. So it is
clesuc that Madhva does not subscribe to the ideal of the
salvation of all souls (sarva-mpukti) unlike the other Indian
schools of thought who accept it. Dvaita VedSita also accepts
the permanent feature of the evil present in this world. The
diverse philosophical schools of thought raise the question
against the Dvaita concept of damned souls auid their salvation
as to 'How are these damned souls be saved, emd what about the
grace (prasada) of Visnu in respect of them?.The Traividya
classification of Madhva is severely criticized by many
schools of thought. But the Dvaitins justify to these
objections on the basis of factual experience as well as on
the evidence of the scriptures.
2.30.11.THE PROBLEM O F EVIL:
 From the doctrine of Svarupa-Tiiratamya and Traividhyam of
Madhva it is clear that the characteristic marks of this world
are the inequality and evil. By their very nature (svarupa)
souls are not merely different but some of them are evil. This
is the only last solution to the problem of evil in Dvaita
Vedanta.
Evil cannot be attributed to God because he is all pure,
Holy and full of grace. Thus the evil has to be attributed to
soul alone. If we attribute evil to God, then we undermine the
theism. Therefore the 'past karma' can be the correct
explanation to the problem of evil. For Ma dhva, the chain of
past karmas is beginningless and if Vi^^u produces all things
5uid dispenses the fruit of each being according to its past
merit, it does not mean that he is dependent of 'karma' . Visnu
merely dispenses the firuits to each soul according to its
karma of the past. Now is karma is accepted as beginningless
in the problem of evil, it is also reasonable here to seek a
root cause for the variation of karma in quality in each soul
(jTva). For the morality, the freedom of the will is Sine qua
non (essential condition). God does not interfere in the soiil's
freedom of the will (though he is omnipotent God
theoretically) . God gives each soul freedom to follow its own
nature. Thus God limits his self-limitation of Omnipotence and
fxonctions as Anumanta (Sanctioner) ; and the souls are free to
work according to their inner nature and their accrmtulated
good or bad karmas of the past. Here, God as the sanctioner is
to be understood through whom the ultimate power for
everything comes and souls utilize this power according to
their karmas generated by their innate nature (svarupa). This
concept can be illustrated by an analogy of a huge factory in
which though the power (Electricity) flow from the same main
source, the different types of machines within the factory
 233

work according to their capacity amd nature. Thus no chcurge or

criticism can be brought against God here. Thus the soul
itself is an actor (kairta) auid enjoyer (bhokta) of the fruits
of its past good or bad actions. Hence, the presence of good
and evil is to be entirely traceable to the soul itself in
accordance to Svarupa-Taratamya and Traividhyam doctrine of
Madhva.
2 .3 0 .1 2 . SIN (P ^A ) ,EVIL CONDUCT (ADHASMA) AND EVIL (DOSA) :
According to Madhva, a sinner is he who is ignorant of
Visnu and does not know him and fails in offering prescribed
•«
sacrifices to him. In his Bhagavat Gita Bhasya, Madhva says,
'desire (kSaa) is the root of all evil, because it is the
great inducer (preraka) to evils; and it is the cause of many
sins and great enemy in the final liberation (mukti) of
man.'(Cf. Bh. Gi. Bh. 3,37).
For Madhva, the good conduct (dharma) auid bad conduct
(adhrama) is meant Veuma^ama dhsurma. By 'dharma' he would
mecui, 'the caste duties and the duties of one's state of life
done in non-attachment (NiskSnoa) manner in accordance to the
prescription of the sacred texts. The 'adhaxma' is opposite of
'dharma' . It is from the knowledge of truth, the right conduct
arises and that leads the soul to Mukti (liberation) .
The wicked souls originate evil (dosa) because they
consider themselves as independent from Visnu w d they dare to
steal the divinity of Visnu. Therefore 'sin' meant here is
'the self-idolatry' and by 'evil' it is meant, oui attitude amd
action contrary to Visnu's majesty. Therefore in Madhva's
understanding, the ignorance of Visnu is the root of evil and

**. Tapasyahanda, Bhakt^ schools of Vedahta: Sri

Madhvacarya,(Madras: Sri Ramasrishna Math,1990),p.179.
 234

this evil arises from t±ie very basic nature of souls (jiva-
svari^a)
2.31.VISNU
#^ AND THE lAST DESTINY OF MAN:
Madhva Vedanta teaches that the ultimate end of human
life is God. Through his good or bad acts, man turns toward or
devitate from God who is his ultimate end. God alone can
bestow the perfect happiness (ananda-supernatural vision) on
man through his grace (Prasa^da) smd not the creatures. All
finite spiritual beings exept Laksmi are in bondage to
whichever class they may belong, auid they have experienced or
are experiencing sufferings. The g o d s , Yogins and Fathers
(Pitr) are under the bondage euid the desire (kSna) , auiger
(krodha) all these influence them. All these spiritual beings
too have to work for their own liberation (mukti) smd obtain
the same through the grace of Visnu.
2 .3 1 .1 . THE SOURCE AND NATOBE OF BOmJAGE(BANDHA) :
According to Jayatirtha, the word bondage (bandha) meouis
'the uniting or binding of a soul to a subtle body (Cf. VTV.
Ti. P.343) . Thus, as regards man, the state of bondage may
mean the very human situation itself. And again 'bandha' also
means the union of soul with the subtle amd gross bodies and..
all the consequences that flow from this union. So we can say
that 'bondage' is beginningless.
The ignorance (avidya or ajnana) is the cause of soul's
bondage auid Visnu is the one who covers the soul with
ignorance. The ignorsince is also beginningless. When the soul
is ignorant of its relationship to independent Visjnu, its
dependency on Visnu for its, existence, knowledge and
activity, then this ignorance leads it to be in bondage. This
is called Svabhava-ajniuia-vada in Dvaita V e d w t a . Bondage is

Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,pp.336-337.
 235

as real as the cosmos itself and it is a part of the cosmic

activity of Visnu. According to Madhva, the sacred texts auid
the infallible testimony of the 'witnessing self (saksin^
which immediately experiences pain suid sorrow etc, t e s ^ f y to
the reality of man's bondage. If bondage is considered to be
unreal then liberation and sacred texts' teachings cure also
unreal. The consequence of the soul in bondage is that it is
in the transmigratory state; and it is subject to birth,
death, and rebirth. In the Visnu Tattva Vinirnaya, Meuihva
says, "Visnu alone binds through the fetters of transmigration
and he alone is the liberator. He silone is the giver of
freedom. Visnu alone is the supreme Brahman. There is no doubt
about that".
The soul in bondage is also siibject to suffering. There
aure three fold petins or sufferings. l.the bodily amd
psychological, 2.the suffering caused by other earthly beings,
3.the sufferings caused by non-eeu:thly beings. When the soul
forgets its real nature and identifies itself with its 'ego'
(which is a psychosomatic complex), this false identification
brings forth evils like 'desire' , cuiger, attachment (sensible
objects (kama, krodha, r a ^ etc). These evils form the driving
force of our human activities (Bh. Gi. Bh. Ill, 37).
The second consequence of a soul in bondage is that
though a soul is con^jletely dependent on Visnu, it identifies
itself with its 'ego' , imagines itself to be an independent
being from Visnu. The soul here falsely appropriates itself to
all its actions performed. Madhva says, "Those dull persons
who propound this unity of atman do so because they do not
comprehend the truth of the sastras aind are fooled by skill in
argumentation and are dominated by egotism because they are

S.S. Raghavachar,VTV. No.Ill,p.26.

 2 36

overpowered by lust and euiger. As they do not comprehend the

inport of the s^tras, they become rcd>bers of the sastras.
Th«y steal Brahman, are bereft of all ahouida and their minds
are unripe. They perceive only attributelessness and do not
ascribe excellence to Brahaman. The destiny of these persons
who are formed of darkness is darkness itself. How can the
relation of identity with the Supreme in the form, "I am he"
be tenable, when the Supreme is different in essential nat\u:e
and in genus, according to all Srutis ouid from the standpoint
of v a l u e .
Such soul considers itself identical with Visnu. The Ch.
Up. Bh. ^ives a very good description of this proud attitude.
The soul which is inimical to Vi^nu, driven by pride says 'I
am Brediman,' the world is tinreal,' 'I am perfect aind
powerful,' 'the world is without God,' and , finally, 'the
world is not supported by Vis.i^u.' (Ch. Up. Bh.VT,8-9). Madhva
compares this proud attitude of man to the evil deed of theft.
A king punishes an ordinary theif; how much more will he
punish a person who tries to steal the very kingship from him?
In the system of Madhva, this pride is the greatest evil a maui
can coomit, and obstinacy in this attitude will izifallibly
lead him to hell. Men blinded by desire, anger etc. give
themelves up to their 'egos.' (ibid. VI. 16- A king punishes an
ordinaury thief, how much more will he not punish a person who
tries to steal the kingship (Cf.also VTV.No. 220-222).How such
wicked souls are given over to egotism: VTV. No. 223)
In his AV, Madhva says that the jiva cannot remain
without sin as long as it is in 'Saihsara.' Even those jnahis
who have begun to produce fruits are also svibject to sin
(cf.AV. 111,4,28). The heavy biorden of sin is accumulated all

S.S. Raghavachar, VTV, Mo.223,pp.48-49.

Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,pp. 269-270.
 237

through man's transmigratory existence. Jayatijtha would say

that a man cannot but coinrait certain mistakes of rules and
regulations and one cannot avoid fully the negligence that
come from 'mans' speech cuid body.
Bondage is partly cosmic and material reality that
originates from Vi^nu. This bondage produces in man evil
attitude and actions. So all these make the soul to feel that
it is independent from Visnu and identical with him. The root
cause of all these attitudes of soul is positive ignorauice
(avidya) that comes from Supreme Brahman. Thus the liberation
from bondage would mean liberation from 'moral sinfulness,'
the material sxibstance that veil the truth of reality from
huraanbeings. Desire, anger, attachment, pride etc, cure causes
of evil (Jayatirtha call this theory "Svabhavajnavada.' The
positive ignorance which hides the realnature of Visnu euid
also the dependent nature of soul from the sou l, is not an
illusory reality (mithya) but a positive reality coming to the
soul from the 'independent Visnu)
In Madhva's system, bondage differs from soul to soul. In
the concept of bondage, there is difference between a soul
destined for liberation auid a soul destined for traunsmigration
in this world forever. The bondage for liberation is
destructible and the bondage of trasmigration is
industrictible. According to Madhva, some souls are good by
their very nature and others are wicked. The 'asura'souls or
the souls destined to go to hell are wicked by natxore and
these souls manifest their inner wickedness externally. For
Madhva, the actions good or bad that the souls perform really
affect their inner reality. Thus Madhva's concept is that we
have to be liberated from desire, smger, attachment, merits

Ibid. ,p.271.
 238

and demerits, from our two material bodies auid finally from
the positive ignoreuice by which Visnu has covered us from the
beginning.
2. 31.2. THE SOURCE AND NATURE OF LIBERATION(MUKTI OR M[>KSA) :
According to Madhva philosophy, 'Maya' is said to be the
mysterious will of the Lord (BS.Bh. 1,4,25). Visnu is full of
grace (prasada) . As he provides bondage, so also he provides
the release to the soul through his grace. He creates this
physical world for the souls' bondage and as a training ground
for their release. Through this ordeal every souls is destined
to pass through. Vi^pu is Satyasmikalpa, so none can question
his will. Though this way of bondage and release is painful
for the souls, it is the will and pleasure of the Lord that
they should undergo such a painful way. This will and pleasure
of the Lord is called lila (Playful activity or divine sport).
Visnu is aptakama (one whose wants already are fulfilled);
thus he has no purpose in his creative activity exept out of
his overflowing bliss or "Snanda he destines the souls for
their bondage and liberation.
2.31.3.VTSNU, THE GIVER OF LIBERATION.
The Dvaita Vedanta teaches that it is Visnu who creates,
supports the universe; he destines the union of soul and
matter; he veiles the soul by the positive ignorauice and it is
also his work to free the souls from the fetters of
transmigration (VTV. no.109-111). By bondage two elements are
im plied, 1.Ignorance, which veils the souls (ajnana or
avrti), and 2. The union of the soul to matter (bandha). Vis^u
is the origin of these two elements. The knowledge (jnana) and
the liberation (mukti) are most necessary for the souls to be
freed from their bodies. Madhva holds that Vi^nu is the giver
of both knowledge and liberation (mukti). In the terminology
 239

of Jayatirtha, Visnu alone is the jnahopad^a- producer of

knowledge and liberator of good souls.
Madhva says, "Without the favour of Vifnu, liberation
cainnot be attained. To the ignorsmt Visnu grants knowledge to
the knower release emd to the released he grants bliss (Cf.
VTV.no,105, AV.no.15). He also understands that the penitence
and purification (liberation also) are grsuited to the mukti-
yS^as souls. There are two types of releases, the ten^orary
and the final. According to his teaching, there is no final
liberation for the soul from the bonds of matter in the
temporary release cuid as a result, the soul that accumulates
the merits in the past lives is once again born in one of the
two worlds mentioned above and ronains in the same state \intil
it has exhausted all its accxjmulated merits; and again, the
soul returns to its earthly existence once its merits are
exhausted.
2.31.4. 'LIBERATION' IN MADHVA.
'Liberation' is the highest end or 'Liberation is the
highest of the ideal of life of man in Madhva. 'Dharma, artha
emd kama are not edsiding, only mok^a is abiding. Therefore an
intelligent nan must seek to attain that. The ends like dharma
cuce transient and freely mixed with sorrow. Therefore, they do
not bring about supreme happiness. Only moksa is the highest
bliss to be aimed at by those who are wemdering in samsara
(mundane world)
'Liberation' has both a negative and positive aspects of
mecming and liberation would mean freedom from something and
attainment of something in Madhva. The negative connotation of
the souls, liberation would mean, that the soul which is the
reflection of Visnu and which has the nature of being, bliss

S .S .Raghavachar, VTV.Nos.102-104, p.25.

 J4H

euld consciousness is liberated from the extraneous elements

that presently cover the soul. The positive liberation or the
release of the soul would meau\ that the soul attains its
'real' and 'original' nature in all its purity and fullness.
It is through the grace or favour of Visnu when the soul's,
veil of ignorance is removed, the soul's hidden essential
nature is manifested and the soul comes to its own knowledge
and ^ a n d a (bliss) . When Visnu removes the veil of ignorance
from the soul, the soul becomes conscious of its innate
similarity to Visi?u.
According to Madhva, "Having approached near the blissful
One, he (the released soul) shaped according to his desire,
wanders(in delight) through these worlds, eating the food of
his desires; he abides singing the Saman choints. Having come
to the Supreme Light he stands revealed in his own nattural
form. There he moves about eating, playing and rejoicing with
either women or chariots or with selves liberated along with
him or those liberated in earlier epochs.^® This concept of
released soul seems to be 'anthromorphic' (the eternal sensual
enjoyment of various pleasures) in Madhva.
In its release, the soul is in intimate xonion with the
Lord; and its complete going to the Supreme Being has taken
place; the released soul possess the positive bliss that is
obtained only through the prasada (grace) of Hari (here there
is the 'theistic' view of the released souls in Madhva)
2 .3 1 .5 .MEANS TO REACH LIBERATION (SADHANAVICMiA) :
Here the 'means' (sadhana) for the liberation of the
souls only refer to the souls that are fit for release and all
other destined transmigrating souls in this world or souls fit
to go to hell are not fit to make use of these means of

Ibid. ,VTV, nos. 277,279, p.61.

Puthiadam, Op. Cit. ,p. 279 .
 241

liberation. The transmigrating and damned souls, by their very

natTjre and of their karma are not capable of reaching the
final bliss of mok^a. The activity of work, the way of
knowledge and finally the way of devotion of the Lord from
man's side would be important as the means of his soul's
release in Madhva's understanding. Man's means of his soul's
release are called, l.Vairagya (non-attachment), 2. Karma -
marga (the way of works) , 3. JRana-niarga (the way of
Knowledge), 4. Bhakti-marga (The way of devotion).
The non-attachment (Vairagya) to the body, bodily
pleasures and cravings of body is recognized as the primary
first step in Sadhana in Madhva. According to Madhva, am
aspirant cannot attain moksa until he realizes his utter
dependency of own body, kith and kin, worldly wealth cmd his
own self — on God alone. Thus the aspireuit in his way of
liberation should have a sense of aversion towards the
perishable eeucthly pleasures and turn his mind always on the
S\]preme Being-God.
The way of Works (Karmamarga or kaunnayoga) would require
the aispircuit to perform his action as imposed on him according
_to his caste or state of life (Vama-asreuna) . His mind has to
be devoted to God amd he should be without amy desire for the
fruits or the results of his actions (Niskaina kairma or
disinterested action) . Here it means that the soul (jiva) in
its path of releasement should perform all the prescribed
actions amd should avoid the prohibited actions also. An
action to be salvific, it should be performed without any
desire for its fruits. When obligatory actions are performed
without any desire for their fruits, then the aspirant will
not have rebirth in samsara. According to the Dvaita syst»i,
knowledge and action (Jnaha-purva-kairma) go hauid in hand and
the action is subordinate to knowledge. The desireless action
 242

(Niskaina karma) leads an aspirsuit to knowledge (jRaha) which

further leads him to Bhakti (devotion) smd ultimately that
results in the vision of the Svipreme Being.
In the concept of J)ffana aiSrga, Madhva maintains that the
knowledge is superior to action and therefore it has the
greater efficacy in our search for liberation (mukti). The
true knowledge consists in Madhva system, when the aspirant is
convinced of Visnu as the independent reality and he as a
reflection (pratibimba) to what is reflected (bimba) . In his
essential nature, action and knowledge, the aspirant is
dependent on Visnu. And again he is required to have knowledge
of the different grades of gods and what type of devotion to
be given to them after Vis^u is also most necessary for
liberation. Thus this type of intellectual knowledge leads the
aspirant to devotion (Bhakti). It is through the study of Holy
Scriptures under the able teacher (guru) by the caste
qualified persons with moral disposition, the knowledge of
Vi^rju and soul' mukti is attained.
The jf^luiamarga (the way of knowledge) consists of three
steps, namely:1.Sravana(study or hearing of the Sruti by a
coir5>etent gtiru) 2.ManeUia(deep reflection on the truths heard
from guru of Sruti) and 3. N i d i d h ^ s a n a (steady ctnd oontinuos
meditation on the attributes of God or the direct experience
or vision of God is experienced).
In the attainment of true knowledge of God is the fourth
exercise which is called 'Upasana' which according to Madhva
takes the form of either remembrance (smrti) or of meditation
(dhyaha) . In Madhva, UpaseUia signifies the reverential
approach of the soul to the Lord. The soul desires to honour
and serve the Lord. But it vants to know the grandeur of the
Lord. The soul first of all knows the Lord as the author of
all, the author of one's body, the father of all. Out of this
 243

consciousness is born personal attachment and engagement. The

soul asks itself: What should I do? The sacred texts suiswer;
continuous TjpascUia. (AV.Ill, 3.5).’®
Thus according to Madhva, the person who practices the
l^aseuia on the right lines and under the able and proper
guidcuice of the teacher, would eventually attain God-
realization. There are three orders of UpXsama, namely,
1.Internal, 2.Outward, amd 3.All pervasive. These three orders
of Upaisanas are exercised in accordeuice to one's individual
different (internal) capacities. Some individuals meditate God
as all pervasive one, some others meditate him to be in their
hearts, and others meditate him in the external pratikeis,
images etc.
As regards the Pratikopaisana (worship of Visnu's image) ,
Madhva maintained that the proper way of meditation (upasauia)
is to meditate on Brhcunan as being present in that image euid
not that image as Breihmsui. One should not identify the Supreme
Being with anything, which is not Brahman at all. According to
his interpretation, the Svipreme Being should always be
meditated \jpon as "Brahman", i.e., as being endowed with
infinite attributes and as transcending all. B.N.K Shaxma
says,"No Christian missionairy could have been more critical of
the profanity of idol worship than Madhva has been here".’*
Teaching about the concept of the BimboplTsana, Madhva
maintains that this type of Upasana is higher than
pratikopasana meditation. The jiva(soul) here has eternal and
intimate relation of constant dependence on Brahman for its
being and becoming. The relation of soul to BradTiiicUi is
indissolxjble euid perpetiial (svarupasambandha) . The intrinsic
dependence of soul on Braihman is rooted in the very essence of

Ibid. ,PP.290.
B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, p.412.
 244

the soul with its essential characteristics of consciousness

euid imanda (bliss) that becomes fully manifested in moksa. Each
individual is th« reflection (pratibiroba) of God who is
reflected (bimba). When each individual soul realizes this
visualization of the Lord in his bimba (ref lected) then the
final release is possible. "The "Bimba" form is defined as
that form of the Lord in the heart of which the Jiva is the
Pratibimba.®°
2 .3 1 . 6. THE WAY OF DEVOTION (BHAKTI-M^GA) :
According to Madhva, both knowledge (jnana) of Visnu auid
devotion (bhakti) to Visnu exist together and between them
there is certain mutual interdependency. Visiju is perfect of
all beings therefore he is dearer to humans than all other
beings. Bakti is a steady aund continuous flow of love of Vi^nu
that cannot be obstructed by smy hurdles or hindrance. This
kind of love for God transcends our selfish loves. Before the
love of God no kith and kin or possessions can come. Our
selfless love is based on the all-surpassing majesty of God
because he is the abode of all perfection.
The power of bhakti is so great 'that the devotees are in
Visnu auid V i s w in them. The devotees are under the full
control of the Lord amd the Lord in his turn is under the
control of the devotees. Madhva and Jayatirtha tell us that
the devotee is conscious of his dependence on Visnu, whereas
the non-devotee is not conscious of his dependence. There aure
different types and grads of bhakti (devotion) . Bhadcti differs
from one class of soul to another. The gods and the Apsauras
manifest their devotion to Visnu
r•
through their love (sneha) or
with the attitude of 'a woman in love with her husbauid'
(kamitvena). Bhakti can take different shapes in the soul: the

80
Ibid.,p.416.
 245

hxjmble attitude of a servant to his Lord, of a son to his

father, of a disciple to his teacher. From the point of view
of the intensity of devotion Madhva distinguishes between the
higher, middle and lower types of bhaktas (uttama, madhyama and
adhama(these different types and grades of bhakti depend upon
the intrinsic 'adhikaratva' of the souls. Devotion is directed
not only to Visnu but also to other superior beings like
Laksmi, Braduna and Vayu. Such bhakti is salvific when
practiced in the right way. Visnu alone is the absolute being
and absolute devotion can be practiced only toweurds him.
Devotion to Vayu is specially recommended because Madhva
considers god Vayu as a sort of 'mediator' lAo leads the souls
to Visnu. BheJcti is both the means to liberation and the very
goal. Bhakti leads us on the path of knowledge and obtains for
us Visnu's grace. But it is also the end or goal. Even the
liberated jiva, is filled with bhakti. He grows in bhakti. Its
very essence is felicity. Now bhakti is no more a means. But
neither the true knowledge of Visnu nor real bhakti towards
him is possible without the elective of favour of Vi§nu.
In the pluralistic, ontological theology of Madhva, there
is also the need of a respect or love towards oneself. He
terms it 'svaTdara' : self respect or legitimate desire for
one's own good. If a person does not desire his own good, then
there will be no desire for 'mukti' too in him (AVIII 3.103).
One's respect for oneself and the devotion one has for the
gods must find their fulfillment in one's highest devotion to
the Lord. The progress toward liberation is a step by step
ascent to Visnu through the various grades of beings. 'Bhakti'
is the force that sustains the movement.®^
2.31.7.THE FAVOUR OF VISNU
0• (PRASADA) :

Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,PP.298-301.
 246

It is through the three margas such as: 1.karma marga(the

way of action), 2. JfTaha marga(the way of knowledge) and the
3. Bhadcti marga(the way of devotion) the soul is released and
moved by these margas Visnu shows his favour(prasada or priti)
to the souls. It is the favour of Visnu alone that ultimately
grants release or liberation to soul cuid without his favour or
his good will no release is possible. Madhva uses the words
like 'priti' 'anugraha' for the commonly used word 'prasada'
The term 'prasada' means a benevolent disposition from a
higher or superior person to the lower or humble person who
humbly acknowledges being so and through such benevolent
attitude the e^cpected result takes place in the lower person.
This same principle is applied as regards the favour of Visnu
whereby his prasada is the ultimate cause of liberation or
removal of positive ignorance in the soul. Thus the favour of
Visnu is a positive entity in the soul and the liberation that
is caused by the grace of Visnu is real in the soul. When the
soul acknowledges the superiority of Visnu, then it receives
Vis^u's prasada (grace and work play importauit role in Madhva
system).
2.31. B. THE FUNCTION OF THE SAVING FAVOUR OF VISNU:
*
Visiyj causes the beginningless bondage, so also it is he
who releases soul from its bondage and gives it the final
liberation; and it is through the soul's immediate knowledge
of Visnu (brahmas^satkaira) its release is attained. Visnu,
because he is omnipotent, he alone can destroy the bondage of
the soul. According to Madhva, the saving favour of Vi^Qu is
exercised in three ways. In the first instance Visnu grants to
the ignorant the knowledge of him and secondly he gives
release from ignorance to the knower of him, and finally
grants the bliss or ^eunda to the liberated or released jivas.
So here it is clear that though a soul may be released from
 247

ignorauice but may remain without the final bliss (ahdan da) .
The soul is tjnited to its source, that is Visnu, because his
activity of liberating the soul is essentially his actiiKi.
T h r o u ^ his grace alone Visnu liberates the souls that aire fit
for liberation and strength for their ajianda (bliss) .
2.31. 9. THE STATUS OR THE CONDITION OF THE RELEASED SOULS:
Madhva shows the distinction between the released souls
and Visnu. In his Visnu-Tatva-VinXrnaya he says, "Just as pure
water poured into pure water acquires community of nature with
it, even so the man of wisdom shakes off merits and demerits
aind as a piore soul attains to the highest similarity. The Lord
is the support for the inmortals i.e., liberated souls.
So the soul by its release does not identify with Visnu
but it has its union with Visnu in its highest simileurity and
union. In the state of the release the mind of the soul is in
tune with the mind of Brahman (Cf. VTV.no.294) . The relectsed
soul is con5>letely dependent on Absolutely Independent
Brahman.
As regaurds the bodies of the released souls, Madhva has
the opinion that the released souls possess head, body, hands
and feet that sure formed out of knowledge and felicity (great
happiness or bliss). These released souls are free of their
every defect amd play is their only activity. The spiritual
body of Visnu is formed out of pure knowledge and the released
souls because they possess the spiritual faculties, they also
come to know the pure form of Visnu. The released souls only
in order to keep themselves in the state of bliss or ahanda,
engage in eleven activities. Only their law of inner bliss
regulates and rules their actions and no external laws Ccui

S .S .Raghavachar, VTV.Nos.282-283, p. 62.

 248

bind them. The released souls are active and free and they
h a v e pure desire of Visiju.
Madhva maintains a gradation in the bliss
(axiandatSratamya) and status of the released souls and this
shows the difference in nature-fitness (svarupa yogyata) of
each individual soul. There are different classes of souls and
as well as there is the distinction in nature that exists
between the seune classes of souls. As the differences aind the
nature between souls are beginningless and without end, so
clIso there is the difference and distinction between the
released souls. Dvaita Vedahta teaches that the means to
aciiieve release used by gods and humeuis differ according to
their proportion. The god BrcQima, who is the highest among the
mu k ti yoi^a souls, seems to occupy the first place in the
hierarchy of the released souls.
Madhva also speaks of another way of expressing the idea
of gradation eunong the released souls in his Vaisnava doctrine
namely, four other grades in the state of souls' release. The
released souls are rcuiked in an ascending order in cis much as
ttiey are in Visnu's world (salSkya) , or so close to him
(sSmipya) , or simileur to Visnu (sart^ya) , or \onited to him
(sayujya) . In 'salokya-zmokti state' , the released souls are
adbnitted into the world of Visnu, which means Vaikuntha. In
the second stage, these souls remain in the proximity and
presence of Visnu and cure servants of the him. In 'sarupya-
mu k ti state (similar to Visnu) the desire of the souls are to
be assimilated to Visnu; and this .is realized because of the
gift of a body similar to that of him. In this resemblance
st:ate the released souls experience a special happiness or
ananda. In sayu jya-mukti (union to Vi^iju) the released
penetrate into the body of Visnu; and their special bliss
consists in this close union and this fact they know by means
 249

of the very divine faculties given to them. Madhva understands

that at this stage the released are vinited to the bo<^ of the
Lord and their happiness here is neither material, nor purely
selfish.
Can there exist inequality, jealousy and strife among the
released souls? The Madhvas are quite conscious of this
objection amd they hold that since the released state is a
state of pijre bliss there should not be any place for
dissatisfaction, discontentment and rivalry among them. In the
liberated state each soul looks at Visnu and each feels that
the Lord is txirned towards it just as the sun looks at each of
the beings. Because the released souls now know Vi^nu
directly, they are defectless, faultless amd help the other
souls. In the attainment of bliss, the superior and the higher
souls have been of help to the lower and inferior souls.
Because of their devotion euid love towards Vi^pu, the
liberated sotils affect their attitude to other liberated soxils
as well. The liberated souls in the hierarchic order reflect
the perfection of Lord. The inferior souls are reflections of
Vi^^u and of the sx^erior souls as well. The higher souls
'direct the lower grade souls. Moreover it is the vision of
Lord that fills each soul with bliss according to its capacity
and fitness. Thus according to Madhva, the released souls
remain in unchanging ananda united to God and in harmony with
the other liberated souls for all eternity. In conclusion we
can say that according to Madhva, the contamination of matter
is bondage and freedom from it is the liberation of the soul.
The soul's truenature consists in satta, citta, and *ananda
(bliss) and these will be manifested when the soul is
liberated.
To achieve this one has to make a beginning with
vihiteJcarma that is to say, discharge his rightful duties.
 251)

obtain jHaha, i.e. enlightenment, practice bhakti (devotion),

sama, dama etc., self-cultiire, amd moral puirity and finally
^rainagati, i.e. con^lete dedication of every thing that one
does at the feet of God including himself. The Ovaita provides
a highly ethical and hvunane social life with a spiritual goal.
Following Sri Madhvacharya, good many eminent scholars and
saints have enriched Dvaita Ved^ta. Sri Jayatirtha, Sri
Vyasaraja, Sri Vadiraja, Sri Raghuttama, Sri Vi d ^d h i s a , Sri
RaghavSidra and many other saint-philosophers have enriched
Dvaita literature.
A popular movement of Haridasa led by Pureundarad^a has
produced a rich literature of Kannada songs with the melody of
music and the depth of devotion. Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa,
Vijayadasa, Gopaladasa, Jageuinathadasa are some of the great
names in this field. These have made rich contribution to
bhaki literature and carjiatic music.

K.T. Pandurangi, Philosophy of Madhvacharya, a brief outline, pp.27-

28.
 251

C HAP TER — 3.

THE CONCEPTION OF B RA HM AN AS ^ ETERNAL THOU^

(PURUSHOTTAMA-SUPREME) .

3 . 0 . INTRODUCTION:
In the life of hijmanity, God or Brzihinan is a significant
factor. The great majorities of the people across the world
and especially in this multi-religious country of ours people
are theists and they do believe in God auid His Supremacy. In
the system of Dvaita Vedanta of Sri MadhvScarya, God or
Brahman has an in^ortamt place and He plays prominent part in
the life and activities of the people. Madhva always considers
Brsdiman in relation to Jiva (Soul) and the Jagat (World) .
According to him, God is transcendent and He is immanet as
well. Brahman pervades the entire universe through His
omnipresence; He is the Satta or the ground for the existence
of jivas (souls) and the world of beings. The souls (jivas)
aind the world of beings depend on Brhaman for their
sustenance. The contention of Dvaita D a r s w a is that Brahman
is the goal or end of their lives and it is through Him alone
that their liberation (mukti) from this world of papa (sin)
and sxaffering (dukkha) is to be attained.
Madhvacarya identifies God or BrsQiman with Vi^nu. Visnu
is Sarvottama or Supreme. He is Lord and Superior to all
others. He is our father, mother and preceptor. We need to
direct our minds towards Him instead of wasting auid worrying
about petty things of this world. He alone is absolutely
independent with regard to His svari^a (nature) , , Pramiti
(knowledge) and Pravrtti (action). And everything else exists
 252

cind acts according to the will of Visnu. Madhva mainly quotes

the S ^ t i aind Ithihasa Purana passages to elaborate the above
p o ints. The Sacred literature in its entirety declares Visnu's
supranacy. Madhva teaches that all names are the names of
Visnu. As all rivers flow towards the sea so also all the
names convey Purushottama (Supremacy) of Visnu. While
discussing about
Visnu's
#V
Purushottamatva (supremacy) of
Visnu,Madhva repeatedly stresses Visnu's Gunaparipurnatva and
Nirdoshatva and maintains that Visnu's auspicious attributes
are limitless in number; and each of his attributes is also
limitless .^
I
The conce|>tion of God in Dvaita V e d ^ t a is personal. But
this 'Personal' conception of God does not limit Visnu's
transcendent power and glory. Visnu is Supreme Reality and he
possesses all excellences such as infinite knowledge, bliss,
power and con^^assion etc. It is he who manifests, maintains
cuid withdraws this entire Universe. He controls this universe
in all its aspects. Madhva teaches that it is because of
Visnu's grace (prasada) that the Jivas (self-soul) and matter
(jada) exist. He alone is Independent (Svatantra) euid all else
are Dependent Reals (As'vmtantra or Peiratantra) . The world of
matter and the jivas (souls) are subordinate emd dependent on
Vi^nu. Only God alone exists independently. He is one without
the second. Visnu, according to Madhva, manifests himself in
various forms. He incarnates himself as avat^as and is
present in sacred images. Visnu . is the efficient cause of the
universe and not its material cause. Thus Visnu is Supreme
(Purushottama) and he is infinite. We cannot grasp Visnu
completely by our finite intellect because we are finite human
selves. But Madhva maintains that Visnu . is not wholly

K.T. Pandurangi, Philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya a brief

outline, PP.6-7).
 253

unknowable. Through the study and meams of Veijas (Scriptures) ,

Vi^^u can be apprehended to some extent.
As regards Vifpu's attributes, there is no fundamental
distinction between him and his attributes; and this is
understood by the principle called ’Visesa' . In his
Visnutattvavinirnaya, Madhva holds that it is through the
grace of God alone that the self (jiva) can be redeemed and
everything else is only a means to it. The opening verse of
Visnutattvavinirnaya is the verse of adoration to the
transcendent perfection of Narayana, the supreme Reality.^
Madhvacairya writes in his Anubhasya or sarvaslstrartha
Sangrahali: "Sarvadosoj^hitastasmad bhagvah purusottamah tokta
gunascaviruddha staisya vedena saurvasah"-Bhagavah Purusottama,
therefore, is free from all flaws. All His attributes declaured
by the Vedas are non-contradictory in every way.^ This
adoration is eui indication to an end in himself who is Visnu.
The supremcacy of Visnu amd the st^remacy of the pathway of
devotion to him are the two main foundations in the structure
of Dvaita Vedanta that Madhva expotjnded.
3 . 1 . MADHVA'S PHILOSOPHY OF GOD;
~”Sr±aan-Madhva.-matB Harxh pa.xa.ta.ras styam jagat, tattvato
hbSdo, j±va-gax^, Haxar axxacaira, zu-cocca-hlSivam. gatah,
muktix naija-sukhShijbbutlr, amala bbakt±s ca tat-sadbanam
aJcsadl-trltayam pramSnam, akh±lamSnaya±ka-v‘
S<fyo Harxh'.
Madhva teaches that Visnu is the highest God, the world
is real and the difference between God and soul does actually
exist; all the living beings are dependent upon Vi^u, and
they are divided into higher and lower classes; the salvation
is in the soul experiencing its own joy from nattire; the means

^ S.S.Raghavachar, VTV.No.1 ,p.1.

S.S.Raghavach^,SriMadhva'sAntibhai^a, (I^axmapraksah, 1973)
p.31.
 254

to attain salvation is pure love of God; means to knowledge

eure sensory perception, inference and holy tradition; Visnu is
to b e perceived in his natiore through all the holy scriptures,
and only through them (The memorial-verse which siommerizes the
quintessence of Madhv's philosophy in nine points(nava
prameya-ratnani) , is quoted by Baladeva Vidyabhusana at the
end of his Prameya-ratnavali. The same author gives another
verse almost exactly similar in its contents at the beginning
(stanza I, 8) of his w o r k /

3 . 2 . THE NATURE OF GOD.

3 .2 .1 . DEFINITION OF GOD OR BRAHMAN:

God is the being that effectuates creation, preservation,
d e s t m c t i o n and governance of the world, knowledge, ignorance,
bon d and salvation (on BDS. I, 1, 2). It is the one what is
perfect and makes everything else perfect (bpnhati brmhayati
ca, on B.S. II, 3, 5, cf. Atharvas'ira-l^ 4). It is the one in
which all perfections are present in the highest perfection
(brhanta hy asmin guna" ity sruteh, BS-Nyayavivarana I, 1)
3 . 2 . 2 . BRAHMA - V I S ^ - NARAYAN:
Madhva came forward to prove that Brahman, who is
spoken of in ^pani^hads, is none else than Visnu of Vedas and
so the first point he proved is the identity of Brahman with
the Vishnu of Vedas (Br.S o o .BhSshya 1-1-1).
Another favorite word of Madhva is Nairayai}. Madhva has
chosen the word Nairayaoj for many reasons. That word fully
expresses all that Madhva wanted to say about God. In fact.

^ Glasenapp, Op.Cit.,PP.68, 82.

Ibid. ,p.101; B.N.K.Sharma, Teachings,p.110 ; Bannanje
Govindacharya, Madhvacharya, Trans. K.Krishnamurthy &
Opadhyaya, (Udupi:PejavarMutt,1984) ,pp. 24 ,25 ;C.M. Padmanabhacharya.,
Op.Cit.,pp.146-147.
 255

that word Narayaij speaks of absolute perfectness and poornatva

of God. Madhva's God is ALL -FULL and His God-ness or God-hood
consists in His being completely sind absolutely full in all
respects. According to him Para-Brahman of VSdahtin is nobody
else but Visnu proclaimed in Vedas as the Highes God (Rigveda
X-82 - 1-6) .Veda-Vyas's two Sootras (^horisms) - "Sa, Vishnu
rahahi" and " Tam, BrahmetyachaJchate" the 2 sutras of Daivee
Meemahsa proclaim in clearest terms that Vishnu and Brahman
are identical.®
3 .3 .V I§ ^ I S THE CENTRAL TEACHING OF VEDAS:
According to Madhva, Visnu is the centred, teaching of
Sruti and Smrti; and if we question the Holy Scripture eibout
God we get the answer, "The word God is only applied to
Vi^nu" (brahma-sabdam ca Visnav eva)^ Vasudeva etc.
3 . 4 . VISNU I S SRUTI-CENTERED:
Madhva's problem ofVisnu (Brahman) is Scripture (Sruti)
Centered; and in his BS.Bh.3.5, he teaches that only Sruti can
give us the true knowledge of Visnu.
3.5. THE SACRED TEXTS ( SADAGAMAS) :
In Madhva Vedsuita the primary content of the Vedas
'(Sacred texts-Sadagamas) is Visnu. Though Siva is the highest
god in many of the purai^s yet Madhva tries to prove through
his exegesis of the sacred texts (sadagamas) the
Purushottamattva or the Supremacy of Visnu. Everything in the
Holy Scriptures refers to Vishnu; thus, whatever names of Gods

Anu. Vya. 1-1-81 j Chh. Op. M. B. 1-1-1; Br.Dp.M.B. 1-1-1; Alur

Venkat Rao, Sri Madhwacharya's P o o m a Brahma Philosophy,
(Dharwar: Nava Jeevan Grantha Bhandar), PP.47-50.
BS.I, l.l;Anuvy on BS.I, 1, 4, p. 5b; Anuvy p. 31a; Visnutattva
p. 17b, Brh.Up p. 49b and Mahavijaya I, 50f; Glasenapp,
Op.Cit. ,PP. 103,158. Madhva calls Visnu with different names such
as: Hari, Narayana (Aijubhashya, Ch.1.1; S .SRaghavachSr,
Ai^ubhashya, Ch. I. Ip. 14; Puthiadam, Op.Cit.pp. 92-93;
Glassenap, O p .Cit. PP. 103-106; S .S .Ra^vachar, Anubha^sya, p. 28,
39,43,48; Banan je Govindacharya, Madhvacha^rya, p .25 .
might have been used in the canon, they are all names of
Visnu. Visnu is the one "from whom all Gods have their names.®
3 . 6 . ATTRIBUTES OF V ISN U :
The sacred texts speak of Visnu as endowed with many
qualities smd attributes such as: Svatauitrya, Vijnana, Ananda,
Aisvarya and Satyam etc. That supreme Visnu is independent and
transcends birth and death.® Madhva quotes many scared texts
to prove Visnu's Sagunatvam, his auspicious attributes and the
ocean of qualities. 'Satyam'-being, JNANAM -knowledge,
ANANDAM - bliss, etc. are the Upanisadic texts that refer to
Brahman and posit qualities to Him. Madhva teaches that we can
bring Visnu's numerous attributes under 'sat' (absolute
perfection and Nird^) , 'cit' , 'iihanda' , 'Atma' , (All-
per^rasive (a-tata) and Vi^nu's Lordship over all) which are
four leading attributes of Visnu. In his BS.Bh, Madhva speeJcs
of the conception of Vi^nu as "sarva - svatantra" (the
Absolutely Independent Being) and all the attributes of Visnu
*»
are comprehended in it.^^
Madhva considers Visjiu (Brhameui -God) not as an Abstract
principle but He is the divine person in the model of hxxman
person. Visnu's personality is the sum total of his qualities;

Rgv.X, 82, 3; Katha.Up. i .2.15; BS. £1.1.13; BS. Bh.I.l, 1;

Bh.Gi.Bh.I^I, 45; Mbh. Xi:^. 350 , 12; Bh. Gita.XI.43; B.N.K. Sharma,
Bhagavadgita Bhasya of Sri Madhvacarya, (Bangalore: Anandatirtha
Pratisthl&ia, 1989), pp.39-40, 28-29;Glasenapp, Madhva's
Philosophy of the Visnu Faith, pp.104-105; Puthiadam, Op.Cit.,

S .S .Ra^vacar ,^_VTV, Nos. 454-455, p. 94; Puthiadam, St. Thomas

Aqrinas and Sri .Madhva^carya, (Madras: University of Madras,
1978), p.52.
10
BS.Bh.I, 2, 1-2; Ch.Up.3, 14, 4; Mund.Up.3, 1, 7 etc;
S .S .Raghavachar , VT'/.No 454, p .94 ; S.S. Raghavacar, Anubhasya,
Chpts, I, II &III, PP.23, 26, 29, 31&33; AV.I.l, 100; Puthiadam,
Op.Cit., p.117, 118.
BS.Bh.Ill, 3, 18;Glasenapp, Madhva's Philosophy, p.109; S.S.
Raghavacar, Aniibhasya, Ch. I, 3, p. 17; S .S.Ra^vacar, VTV.No.457;
B .N .K .Sharma, Teaching, pp.120-121; T .P .Ramachandran, PP.76, 77.
 257

and as part of His being He isendowed with the faculties of

cognition, activity and conation. Visnu's essence is to be
conscious, to think, to will, to e^erience like the human
beings. As the divine being he controls and loves the world
through his rational purpose (Cf.B.T.I.1.18).
3.6.1.VISm IS BEING( SAT, SATYAM) :
Commenting on Brahma Sutra, 1.1.15, in his AV, Madhva
writes that Mantravarna designates Visnu alone as Satyam
(being) , ji^nam (knowledge) and anantam (endless) . Visnu is
called as Sat (Being) for He alone causes existence that is
called Sadhvava.
3.6.2.vism IS KtKMLEDCE (JNMHAM, VIJSa NAM) :
One of the clear teachings of Sruti is 'Visnu is SaurvajnaT
(Omniscient) and it is the epithet of the Lord; all other
realities except Visnu possess alphajnana (only psurtial
knowledge). The consciousness and omniscience of Visnu can be
proved because he is the sole cause for the existence of the
world. The form of Visnu is that of unmixed knowledge
(najliahamisrajf^^eQi) i.e.. He is of luminous form
(Tejorupah) .
3. 6.3. THE BLISS OF VISNU (MXRNDA) :
In his AV and BSBh, Madhva rightly calls Visnu as
'endless' (ananta), because Vignu is the fullness of bliss
(^anda) and He is the plentitude of joy(AV.197; BSBh.1.2.9;
TattvadXpika .p. 116). Visnu's infinitude (euiantatva) mecuis his
limitlessness of bliss. The Lord's greatness, perfection,

AV.I.1.190; Puthiadam, God, p.52.

BSBh. II.2.41; BSBh.II.2.41; III.2.16; BSBh, IV.2.29;
Puthiadam, God, p.53;S.S. Raghavachar, VTV.No.262-63,81,
pp.57,18)
 25X

Supremacy, and infinitude are expressed by such terms as

'Purnatva' , 'Nihsimatva' , and 'Mahatmya'
3.7.V ISm J IS ETESHAL (NITYA) AND OMNIPRESENT (SARVAGATA) :
Madhva teaches that Visnu is beginningless and endless.
He makes a distinction between the eternity of Visnu and the
eternity of other realities of beings. In his Katha. l^.Bh.
Madhva distingruishes 'anaditva' from 'amrtatva' . The world is
said to be eternal like an overflowing stream (smadi
pravahatah - pravahamitya) but Visnu is said to be deathless
(amrtah)
3. 8. THE LORDSHIP OF VlSim (AISVARYA) :
Pancar^tras system considered the Lordship (Ais'^rya) as
the quality o f Visnu but Madhva gives new meeuiing to the term.
In his opinion all the attributes find their harmony in Visnu
and they owe to his Lordhsip. (BSBh. 1 .1.15; Cf.Di.; ^p. Bh.
P.15; Cf. Bh.Gi.Bh.II. 23-25; Bh.Gi.Bh. 11.23-25). Madhva says
that Aisvarya of the Lord enables him to be active and yet
vinchangeable. Visnu posses all wonderful powers (Vicitra
Saktiman) .
3. 9. VISNU IS THE INDESTRUCTIBLE AND ALL PERVASIVE:
In Madhva's opinion Visnu is pervades the entire body and He
is indestructible; no one is able to destroy th^^unperishable
soul.
3 .1 0 . VISNU IS INVISBLE AND HAS UNIQUE POWER (AVYAKTA AND
ACHINTAYA:

14
BSBh. 1.2.15; Puthiadam, God, PP.53-54,125-26.
15
BSBh. II. 3.1-7; BSBh. II.3.22, 23; Puthiadam, God. PP.54-
55,129-130).
16
BSBh. II.1.29; Puthiadam, God, P.54; Visnu the Ever Free, PP.
128-129).
17
B h .Gi.II:17; B.N.K. Sharma,Bhagavatgita Bhashya, p.17.
 259
, >

Madhva interprets the Bh.Git.II:25 as' because of Visnu's

mysterious power. His nature is unman fest, unthinkable (in
IS
full) and unchangeable.
3. ll.VISN O IS THE SUPREME BEING AND ALL OTHERS ARE
E NTI RE L Y DEPENDENT O N HIM:
Commenting on the Bh.Gi.VII:7, Madhva holds that Visnu is
the highest one and there is nothing higher than Him.^®
3. 12. VISNU
t* SUPPORTS ALL,' IS EVERYWHERE,'HE IS SUPREMEAND
HE IS REALIZED BY DEVOTION:
According to Madhva, Visnu supports all; He is
everywhere. He is the supreme Lord smd He can be realized only
through BheJcti because the devotion is the highest among other
sadhanas.
3 .1 3 .V I S ^ IS ALL PERVASIVE BUT INVISIBLE:
The mediate knowledge of the Lord has been referred to by
the term 'Pratyaksavagamam' as leading to Vi^u's direct
percetion. In Madhva's opinion, though the Lord is everywhere,
yet His form is vmmanifest.
3. 14. VISNU IMPARTIAL TO ALL:
According to Madhva's teaching, one who is londer the
Lord's control without being alive to it, comes over again
under His control with full consciousness of the fact by
meditating on Him.^^
3 .1 5 .VISNU IS THE KNOWER OF ALL AND HE IS PRESENT AT THE
HEART OF ALL BEINGS:
Commeting on the Bhagavat^ta, Madhva maintains that Visnu is
situated in everyone's heart. Visnu is both within all beings

B.N.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita Bhashya,p.33.

B.H.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita Bhashya, p.160.
Bh.Gi.VII: 22; B.N.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita Bhashya,p.189.
. Bh.Gi.XI:4; B.N.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita B h ^ h y a ,p .194 .
Bh.Gi, IX: 29; XII: 323,49; B.N.K. Sharma BhagavadgTta
Bhashya,( p p .208,210-211).
 2W

and outside of them all. He cannot be coirprehended because He

is subtle. He is knowledge auid object of knowledge; and He is
the goal of knowledge.
3.16.VISNU IS THE CAUSE OF MEMORY, UNDERSTANDING AND
ILL U SIO N S; HE IS THE AUTHOR OF VEDAS AND BRAHMASUTRAS;
ALL VEDAS CONVEY HIM:
In Bhagavadgita, Krisna says, "I aun seated in everyone's
heart, and from Me come remembrance, knowledge and
forgetfulness. By all the Vedas am I to be known; indeed I am
the compiler of Vedanta, and I am the knower of the Vedas.
Madhva would explain inhis Bhagavatgita Bhashya that the
— _
Vedantas are the Brahma Mimal»»S<? Sastra, which determines the
meaning and important of the Vedas. Visnu causes the
understanding, memory and illusions of the living entities.
The entire Veda convey Him only. He Himself has written the
Brahmasutras; and He fully knows the purport of Vedas.
3 . 1 7 . I S VISNU PERSONAL GOD?
#•
Another question that is sometimes raised is whether
Visnu (God) is personal of impersonal (G.T.11-25). Madhva
teaches that God is not personal in the sense of having a
mat.erial or pr~^rta form. His personality has no physical
apparatus. But He is personal in the sense of a conscious,
willing, active personality with aparkrta form. Therefore in
Bhagavat^ta we see that the concept of God is monotheistic.
There is one Supreme and Independent God (Visnu) who governs
the entire universe in all aspects.

Bh.Gi.XIII: 15-18; B.N.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita Bhashya Adhyaya

X^Il, Texts, 15-18,p.259; K.T. Pandurangi, Essentials of
Gitabhashya and Gitataparya of Sri Madhvacarya, (Bangalore:
Akhila Bharata Madhva Maha Mandala& AnandatTrtha Pratisthaha,
1987), p.33. _
Bh.Gi.XV:15; B.N.K. Sharma Bhagavadgita Bhashya, Adhyaya,XV: 15.
p.28S.
 261

3 . 1 8 . V I § O T I S KSETRA AND KSETRAJNA:

Madhva holds that Visnu is delineated as K^etra and
Ksetrajna. Saurira is Ksetra suid he who knows it is kfetrajna
(Bh.Gi.XIII.2. the Ksetras are Laksmi, PraJcrti, jTva, Mahat,
AhAkara, Bhutas, Indriyas and their objects,the mental states
like joy, sorrow, etc, the body and mind (XIII: 6,7; X I I I :27;
G.T,XIII.27). Ksetarajfia is God (Visnu) in all contexts.^®

K.T. Pemdurangx, Essentials of Gitabhashya and Gitatapaxya, pp.^5-

37; For the ccnplete Puxushonatva (Supresiacy) of Visnu Of. Bh.Oi. XV:
1-9).
 262

CHAPTER-4

THE JIVATMANS (THOUS - SOULS)

4 . 0 . 1ntroduction:
The subject of our research here in this chapter is the
Anthropology of Madhva or in other words how Madhva looks at
man (Jiva) as man or man as concrete Body-soul composite
being. According to him man is a being conditioned by his
dependence on Brahman (God). Man is a finite, spiritual being
who exists in a body or in bodies here and now. One of the
evolutes of the matter is the body of man. He is a social
being because he lives and exists amidst other human beings in
a milieu and world in time and space. Therefore we call him as
a member of his society. He is siJbject to birth and death and
is an agent and enjoyer of the fruits of his acts. Msm has to
live in the midst of this world where social injustice, evils
euid inequalities exist. So the human situation is complicated
and human existence itself becomes all the more con5>lex one as
we try to understand man in his relationship with Brahman,
other humeui beings, living beings, and the universe. A sincere
effort is made here as to enquire how Madhva looks at maui -
soul - body relationship ajid how he answers to the problem of
man.
4 . 1 . NATURE OF MAN (THE DEFINITION OF J I V A ) :
As already mentioned above, XDan is a conposite being
composed of finite matter and spiritual siibstance. We need to
examine the nature of man's component parts. Thus we begin
with the examination of the soul's nature.B.N.K. Sharma holds
that the metaphysics deals with the 'real' and 'apparent
self' . David Hume had reduced the notion of 'self' to mere
series of ideas or experiences that cannot be said to belong
 263

to any unifying foxindation or inhering principle. The

Nairatmyavada of Buddhism too tells in the line of Hume's
conclusion. When all the sciences fail to analyse the 'self',
which is not sunendable to them, Vedanta understands the 'self'
as not open to reasoning but to the ejqserience of the
intuition. Madhva holds, it is by Saksyahvibhava, the self is
to be established. In his V.T.V 290, he defines the self as:
"He who is only cognizable as "I" is called the Jiva. It is he
that suffers amd enjoys. It is he that is bound amd that get
liberated".^ In JayathTrtha in his N ^ y a -Sudha says, " He who
enjoys the happiness amd suffers the ills of life, who is
subject to bondage and release is the Jiva. He is indeed in a
position to know himself in all his states as "I am".^ Thus
the Jiva is a permanent entity that always endures even in and
through its changing states of experiences and consciousness.
4 . 2 . ESSENCE OF SELFHOOD:
The souls are conceived in the system of Madhva as finite
centres of conscious experience, each with a unique essence of
its own. The essence of individuality is that one finite
centre of eoq>erience cannot possess, as its own immediate
experience, the experience of another(NS. P.507). Each self
has a specific content of consciousness, reality, auid bliss
and constitutes a focalization (NS. P. 633). Each soul has a
dynamic xiniquer personality endowed with the triple properties
of will, cognition and activity.^ The souls (Selves) are not
formless beings or colorless points but atomic individuals
with their own specific forms and lineaments. They have
spiritual bodies of their own with appropriate organs (BS. Iv.

^ s. S . R a g U & V a Carr
VTV. No. 290. P. 64.
B.N.K.Sharma,Philosophy. P. 253;NS.P. 507; T.P.Ramachandran,
Op.Cit.,p.85-86.
\ NS. P.26; BT XI.23.54 - B.N.K Sharma, Philosophy, PP.253-254.
 2r>4

4.10, 16 and BSPG. Vol. Ill, PP.790-94) and have names and
forms which are beyond the knowledge of those still in
bondage .*
4 . 3 . THE BODY OF MAN:
The soul which is caught up in the human situation has
both a gross and a subtle body. The external, sensible body
which is born and that grows and dies is a gross body. The
gross body principally is composed of earth. The other
elements that are the products of matter are also found in the
gross body. It has both external sense organs and faculties of
action. According to Madhva, the soul possesses a new gross
body at each of its birth according to the state of its past
Karma (BSBH. II.4. 22, 23;). Hence, the situation of man as
man arises when the finite spirittial soul, gross body and
subtle body join together to form a single unit as man that is
covered by positive ignorance.
4 . 4 . MAN THE COMPOSITE BEING:
The soul, though before its liberation is somehow
beginninglessly connected with matter (Prakr^ti), it can exist
in itself without any relation to the body which neither
affects the intrinsic nature or the existence of the soul
because the soul by itself is a complete s\jbstance. The soul
has its role to play in the formation of the body and the
subtle body can be some sort of a link between the spiritual
soul and the gross body in Madhva philosophy.
4 . 5 . THE SOUL I S ATOMIC IN SIZE:
In his B S B h , Madhva teaches that the soul is atomic in
size and it dwells in the heart (BSBh. II. 3.19, 24;
BSBh. I I .2.34) . The soul does not change its size when it
passes from one body into anther body because if the soul

B.N.K. Sharma, Philosophy, p.258.

 265

changes its size then through such a change we make the soul
perishcQjle (BSBh-II.2.35) . The soul is not devoid of size,
because what is devoid of size cainnot exist. Thus what do&s
not have size has no essence (svarupa) and what does not have
essence has no reality at all (BSBh .I I .2.36).
4. 6. THE S E L F (jYVA) A S THE KNOWER, D O E R A N D ENJOYER:
Madhva teaches that the Jiva is the subject of knowledge
called Jnata, agent of action called Karta and enjoyer of its
fruit of action called bhokta. These three as real
characteristics are present in the soul even at the time of
its release from its bondage. The statements such as I (aham) ,
'I know this' , 'I know that' , indicate that the Jiva as a
knower expresses itself through these statonents. The conmon
expression " I know myself", is a clear evidence to maintain
that the self knows itself. At this jvincture the self is both
subject and object because of the presence of V i ^ s a s . The
self-knowledge becomes possible and this is self - luminosity
(G.T.XIII.13).
4 . 7 . PLURALITY OF SOULS AND THEIR SVARUPA-BHlbA OR
SVARUPA-VISESAS:
As a pluralist and realist Madhva holds tliat the souls
have the difference as regards their nuadber 8tnd character are
concerned. Our daily earthly life shows us that every human
being is ijnique in his own way though he may have some
similarity with others. There is the intrinsic difference in
the spiritual essence of all souls; and because of this type
of difference among souls the souls perform actions that lead
to the accumulations of varying variations in enjoyments,
sufferings, character traits in their sai^ara. This type of
basic or innate nature (svarupa-bHeda) of soul will persist in
the state of soul's liberation as well. Because of this
 266

Svarupa -bheda, souls' numerical plurality, qualitative

diversity eind freedom of will aure possible. Every soul as the
reflection (pratibimba) of Vi^nu has in him a modicum of
essential features of Visnu in varying degrees only in bondage
and liberation.®
4 . 8 . THE THREEFOLD HIERARCHY OF J I V A S , SVARUPA-TRAIVIDHYAM:
Madhva classifies the souls under three broad types on
the basis of their intrinsic svarupa or nature, based on their
varying degrees of knowledge, power and b l i s s . This type of
classification is known as svarupa-traividhya based on the
'Svarupabhedavada or Svarupataratamya. The three broad types
or the tripartite classification of jivas or jTvatraividhya
aure: 1. Muktiyogya (salvable) souls; 2. Nitya s a m s M i n (Ever -
transmigrating) souls; 3. Tamogya (Damnable) souls.®
4 . 9 . GODS & DEMONS:
The gods are finite spiritual substances who, immediately
because of their 'karma' and mediately because of their nature
have become gods. The gods themselves belong to different
classes such as Braham, Sesa, Vayu, Gandharva, etc* to
different castes since there are, 'Brahmin, Ksatriya, Vais‘S
a n d Sudra gods. They play a subordinate part in the work of
'creation; they have a presiding function to perform in the
world. Many gods preside over man's senses and the objects of
knowledge; cind they also indwell in the medicinal herbs. Visnu
is the inner controller of all the g o d s . One caui conteii?>late
Visnu in them in a special way; it is a sin to worship them
because they should never be worshiped in themselves. The gods
too themselves must seek and work of liberation. Between the
gods and man the relationship is of 'guru' amd disciple
(AV.III, 4.248). At the order of Vasudeva, they enter into the

5
B.N.K. Sharama, Philosophy, p.282.
®. Ibid., PP.300-304.
 267

souls of men and induce them to do good and evil (deeds) in

accordance with their past deeds.
The demons are also finite spiritual beings and are not
fit to reach liberation. They possess extraordinary powers and
they can influence human life by possessing man etc. Usually
their bodies are invisible, though they can take on human
forms in order to lead bad man astray.^
4 . 1 0 . THE RATIONAL B A SIS FOR THE DOCTRINE OF SVARUPABHEDA
tS ^ vtamya a n d TRAIVIDHYA:
There are conplex variations smd differences that exist
in the psycho-physical, spiritual suid mental lives of beings
(souls). Madhva explains about the empirical differences of
selves (human, animal, plant, aquatic, amd other species of
life).® The final solution for difference of intrinsic nature,
evils, inequalities in the world at all levels of beings, can
only be found in the Madhva's theory of Svarupabheda Taicatamya
(dehinam svabhavaja) .® In his AV.Madhva maintains that this
cosmic schemeof gradation among souls is omnipenetrative
rvinning up c«id down the scale - from the highest of the gods
to the vilest of friends (Cf, AV.iii, 4.41). And it is in
relation to this theory of Traivlc^am of M a d hv a , the Hindu
doctrine of Karma has force amd roeeuiing.^°
4 . 1 1 . SELF- LUMINOSITY OF JIY A S:
Madhva admits that the individual jiva as a sentient
being is self-l\iminous or Svipraka^. It is both knower
(jnatr) and of knowledge (jnanasvarT]^a) . The self-luminosity
of jiva is dependent on God and this makes the bondage
possible (Gt.Xiii. 13) . The soul (Atama) must be self-

Puthiadam, Visnu the Ever Free, PP.326-328.

®. B.N.K Sharma, ‘philosophy, PP. 282-285.
*. Bh.Glta.V.14; B.N.K.Sharma, Philosopy, PP.297-298.
B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, PP. 298-299.
 268

intuiting. Through the agency of Vis^a Madhva divides

consciousness from itself. The self-luminosity of jiva cannot
be disputed, as there is the indubitable experience of the
Self as 'I aun' . This cannot be explained away as aun experience
by the mind, as the Logicians do. The Srutis also establish
"Atman to be an active knower, en^^loying terms like Vijnatr
with the suffix (tr) in the active sense.
4 . 1 2 . J I V A - V I S N U RELATION:
Madhva teaches that the relationship of soul to Brahman
is that of Similarity and of Dependency. The soul possesses
the attributes such as existence (Sat), consciousness (Cit)
and bliss of God sind in this way it is similar to Him. It is
completely dependent on God through its three aspects of Being
(satta), knowing (pramiti) and acting(pravrtti). The two-fold
relationship of soul with God is employed with the figure of
reflection called pratibimbatva thus is called Bimba-
pratibimba-bhava (reflection of the reflected) (RV.Vii,47,18) .
There are two kinds of reflections: l.The conditioned
reflection or reflection through a medium called
Sopadhipratibimba (Exsunple of our face reflection on the
surface of a mirror), 2. The unconditioned reflection or a
medivimless reflection called Nirupadhi-pratibimba (The
rainbow)
Concerning the essential nature of the Jiva as the
reflection of God, Madhva teaches three truths. They are:
l.The Jiva is similar (Samya) to God, 2.The Jiva is distinct
from God and 3.The Jiva is dependent (adhina) on God. Because
the Jiva is the reflection (reflex) or an image- of God, it is
indestructible aund eternal.

TP.i.1.1; VTNt, p.96b; B .N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, pp.265-267.

BS.Bh.ii, 3 .50 ;T .P .Ramachandran, Op. Cit., PP.87-89 .
Bh g I , II, 19;Glasenapp, O p .Cit.,PP.136, 167.
 269

Just as the rainbow is completely dependent on the Sun,

so also the soul is completely dependent on God, as the parts
eure dependent upon the whole. Madhva uses the metaphor as
souls are sons, brothers or friends of God (BSBh.II, 3, 43).
On accoiant of the soul's similarity to God, Madhva calls them
as parts (a^a) of God.^* The soul-God relationship can be
expressed through the images of the Father and Son; king and
subjects, a ^ a - aihsi relationship (Cf.NS.ii; GB, ii, 24).
Madhva interprets, 'I am Brahman (Aham Brahmasmi) and
'that thou art (tat tvam asi) and holds that the jiva is
similar to Brahman as 'tvami tadiya asi' and interprets that
this text should be interpreted in relation to the inner ruler
(antaryt^ioin) of the soul who is Brahman amd the sacred texts
proclaim this difference between Brahman and jiva (BSBh.II.4,
16) . Though Visgu is the auitarySni of the jiiva, He is not
touched by the evil that is attached to Jiva(Cf. BSBh.III, 1,
17) .
4 . 1 3 . THE COMPLETE DISTINCTION BETWEEN VINSU AND THE
JIV A S:
The reality of Jiva, which though it is similajr to Visnu,
is ccunpletely distinct from Visnu. In his VTV, Madhva says,
"Nowhere do we see differences being generated by iinreal
adjuncts. Madhva clearly assigns opposing attributes to
Brahman and the Soul - "The supr^e Self is absolutely
independent, all knowing, all powerful, supremely blissful cuid
ultimate. But the individual self is dependent on him, knows a
little, has limited power, is miserable and is finite.

Bh.Gita tatp XV, 7, p.37b; Anuv;^p.37a; BhG.XV, 7. Glasenapp,

Op.Cit., PP.135, 167.
16
S .S .Rag^vachar, VTV. Nos.366-367, p.77; Kath. T^.Bh.PP.14,
15.17; AV.I.1.96, 97, 100, 101; BSBh. I .2.8.lletc.VTV.no. 275.
n Ibid.,VTV.P.60.
 270

All the examples given by the father teach in fact the

reality of this distinction (VTV. No. 224 the Jiva and God are
different and are distinguished always by differences of
essential nature.^®
4 . 1 4 . THE jfvA'S DIFFERENCE FROM GOD AND MATTER:
Madhva maintains that Jiva (Purusa or "Atman) as the
spiritual as well as the active, positive, eternal aind
conscious reality (substance) is dependent on one infinite,
conscious being that is Visnu. Both Visnu and Jiva are
completely distinct from each other. The soul is different
from matter and similar to God. Jiva belongs to the same class
of Bradiman namely, sentient substance (cetana dravya) . But the
Jiva is similar to Brahman only in kind, and not in degree.
The Jiva has a form constituted of bliss and consciousness;
and it occupies subtle and gross b o di e s , which are products of
matter, or prakrti. In the state of bondage the natural bliss
of the soul is mixed up with a lot of pain.^®
4.15. jfVATMAN AND THE BODY OR JIV A S AND BODIES:
The Jivas are clothed with the material bodies when they
cu:e caught up in sai^ara. The Jivas have two types of bodies
such as, the grosser body (sthula S ^ x r a ) and the body that is
formed from the finer material (svikma or lingasarlra) . The
b ody of the first type is the external or sensible body and it
can be perceived with the sense organs; this type of body
comes into existence at the time of birth and perishes at
death. The body of the second type (sthula ^ r i r a) is
principally formed of crude elements.

IS
S .S .Ra^vachar, p. 49; VTV.nos. 210, 181-188, PP. 46, 40-41;
VTV.no.266, p.59; B.N.K.Sharama, Philosophy, p.177;
BSBh.11.31; Puthiadam, Visnu the Ever Free, PP.232-236.
19
T .P .Ramachandran, Dvaita Vedanta, p .83.
20
Glasenap, Vis^u Faith, p.133; BS.II, 4, 23; BS.II, 4, 22,
23; III, 1, 25*.
 271

The connection between the soul cmd matter is

beginningless (BSBh.II.4.22, 23). Madhva admits that a body
may have more thsui one soul (abhimahijiva) (BSBh.III. 1.25,
26) . The positive ignorance (avidya) is a third material
entity or body (kaxeuia -s'arira) , which is connected with the
soul from beginningless time till the time of release and it
is a part of the 'tamoguna' of matter which conceals the real
knowledge of Brahman from Jiva; it enchains the soul to the
state of bondage. positive ignorance too is ultimately under
the control of V i ^ u and it is He who causes it to arise to
enchain the soul to the bodies. Hence, the situation of man as
man arises when a finite spiritiial soul, gross body auid fine
body join together to form a single ijnit and when this whole
composite is 'covered over' by ignorauice.
4 . 1 6 . THE UNION OF jf^ AND MATTER:
Madhva eiffirms that the Jiva in itself is knowledge,
being euid bliss emd because of its past karma it itself gets
united to the body (matter) . In his BSBh, Madhva teaches that
the union of Jiva with that of matter is beginningless (anadi)
(BSBh.II.3.39) . Jivas depend for their bondage, karma on
Vi^nu. So, Vi^nu alone is the reason and cause for the Jiva's
union with matter. Thus Visnu's lila or the divine play in the
abundcuice of His bliss causes the jiva's bondage. Visnu causes
their bondage for the betterment euid good of the Jivas and to
save all the good jives. Jivas (souls) possess the karmic
bodies since the beginningless (ariadi) time. Visnu is the
primary cause of human existence auid situation; and karma and
the nature of Jiva is the secondary cause of hvanan existence.
In the material life, the soul has its seat in the heart.

Puthiadam, Visnu the Ever Free, PP.237-238.

Ibid. ,p.239.
BS.II.3, 24 f .; Glasenapp, Visnu Faith, p.135.
 272

4 . 1 7 . T H E O RY O F B O N D A G E O F JIVAS (SVABHAVAJNANAVADA):
Madhva teaches that the Jiva is in the state of its
experience of duhkha or misery according to its innate nature
that is called bandha or bondage. The Jiva's experience of
misery (duhkha), its bondage (bandha) is all real. The
immediate cause of the Jivas' misery or bondage is its
ignorance (avidya-ajnaha) about its relationship with its all-
powerful Visnu. The Jivas, in their ignorance, look upon
themselves as self-derived which is called Avidya.^^
Jivatman becomes slave to body, senses, intellect and to
their attractions, which is known as bondage. Madhva has
therefore, held that the theory of Jiva jnahavada or what may
be called SvabhavajnahaviTda has to be accepted as the right
explanation of the fact of bondage. According to it, finite
selves are, in the last smalysis, subject to the bondage of
Prakrti by the Will of God from time immemorial. This bondage
is a reality and is by no means imaginary (avidycJcalpita) . It
exits by the Will of God and is terminable by His Will.
Without the grace of God there can be no Moksa for any one in
the world even with all the power and potency of
Hence, this ignorauice or avidya of the relationship of
jiva to God, leads it to its bondage; emd this is called
Svabhava- ajffaha -vada (the theory that bondage is due to the
jiva's ignorance of its nature as a being entirely dependent
on the one independent reality, namely Brahman.
Because of the wrong sense of self-conceit or abhimana or
independence, the Jiva is made to shrink or flinched of its
personality; and the outcome is that it identifies itself with

B.N.K. Sharma, Teachings, p.99.

NS.p.26; B .N .K .Sharama, The Brahmasutras and their Principal
Commentaries - A Critical Exposition,(Hew Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal,1986),pp.56- 59.
T .P .Ramachandran, Op.Cit.,p.90.
 273

the physical body or matter resulting in its bondge of

miseries. Only true knowledge of the soul's relation to God
that can r e d e ^ it from this bondage.
The all-powerful Visnu, through his mysterious power
called 'Maya''
(the mysterious will of the Lord: BSB 1.4.25)
dupes the Jiva. 28
4.18. DOCTRINE OF S A LVATION - VISNU IS THE GIVER OF
LIBERATION:
Madhv's doctrine maintains
Visnu
#•» that
is the Creator,'
Supporter of the Universe and He is the Cause for the Jiva's
union to matter and its veiling by ignorauice. In the same
manner the work of Visnu is to free the Jiva from the Shakles
»»
(fetters) of its transmigration (Cf. BSBh. I.1.2;AV. 1.12). "He
alone is, therefore, competent to release the souls (Cf.
Kath.Up.i, 2.23;AV.i.l.l) .In his AV, Madhva has argued a
strong case for holding Divine grace to be the ultimate of
Moksa
• for Jivas's attainment of moksa.^^
m
Correspondingly liberation or removal of bondage will
imply two elements such as: l.Jniima (knowledge); 2.Mvikti
(liberation) that free the Jiva from its bondage to the
-matter. Madhva teaches that eunong the eight activities of
Visnu the first four are cosmic in character, such as,
Creation, Support, Government, aaid dissolution of the World;
and the other four 'activities are personal in character that
affects the finite spiritual beings, such as, l.Vi§nu veils
the jivas by ignorance; 2. He binds the jivas to body

”. NS.p.26; B.N.K. Sharma, Philosophy, PP.273-274.

B.N.K. Shazaa, Teachings, PP.97-98; Ibid.,p.100;T.P.
Ramachandran, Op.Cit.,PP.91-92.
B.N.K. Sharama, The Brahmasutras and their Principal
Commentaries, pp.58- 59.
 274

(matter); 3. He grants Jn^na (knowledge) and 4. He frees the

jivas from the bondage of matter.^®
By the invocation and rembrance of Visnu (Hari) Jiva can
•V
be purified itself. Final release of jTvas('Svarga') stands
for temporary release; mukti or moksa stands for final
release. Thus temporary release may not free the jiva once for
all or finally from its jiva-body union. Here, it may mean
that the Jiva, which accximulated merits in its past lives,
takes birth in one of the worlds above and remains till it
exhausts all the accumulated merits (BSBh.Ill.1.8.10). Thus
once the merits are exhausted the jiva comes back to its
earthly existence.

4 . 1 9 . LIBERATION IN MADHVA:
Liberation is the highest and ultimate end; and unmixed
good of Jiva. Madhva says in his VTV, "Dharma, artha and kama

are not abiding, only moksa is abiding".^*

In liberation, the Jiva attains its original and real
nature (knowledge and bliss— — “— Jnana and ananda) in all
its purity and fullness through the favour (prasada) of Visnu
(Cf.Tat.Pr.BSBh.il.3.31; BSBh.II.3.31 cf. B S B h .I I .3.31).
_ r
The Jiva at the state of its release attains the
similarity to God when He removes the veil of ignorance from
jTva; and the jFvas enjoys when it approaches the blissful
O n e .”

30
S.s. Raghavachar, VTV.No.105, p.25; AV.15.
31
PuthiadM, Viqpu the Ever Free, p.275.
32
S. S. Ra^vachar, VTV, Nos, 103-104, P-25. _
33 Kath.Up. p.l7;BSBh.III.2.18; S. S. Ra^vachar, VTV, Nos. 277,
279, p.61; BSBh, IV. 4.10;BSBh.IV.4.15; I .Puthiadam, Visnu the
Ever Free, p.277.
 275

Mukti or liberation is Jiva' s complete attainment of

Visnu like an arrow that cleaves to its object; in the state
of its release the Jiva reposes itself in Hari (Visnu)
Mukti is positive and the suprane bliss is not the mere
absence of pain. The Jiva hears and only through Brahman
e ^e r iences everything" (BSBh. Ill.3.33) . Madhva takes into his
system the Samkhya idea of 'Kaivalya' and says in VTV, that
Vi^iju alone is the liberator.“
Through the anthropomoirphic way, Madhva teaches the
theistic view of release of soul's \anion with the Supreme
Being.
4 . 2 0 . PROBLEM OF EVIL IN MADHVA:
Madhva, through his doctrine of Svarupatiuatamya or
Traivic^am, accepts the existence of evil and inequality in
the world- such as sxxffering, pain, and sin (pi^a) . Though
there is the difference among souls, some souls sure good and
some are basically wicked or evil by their very nature
(svciri^a) ; the wicked souls aure incapable of reaching
liberation (mukti-ayogya) . This is the only and the ultimate
solution for the problem of evil that the Madhvites propose ;
smd according to them, this type of theory is very essential
for true theism.
4 . 2 1 . CRITICISM OF MADHVA THEORY OF THE PROBLEM OF EV IL:

^ y __
34
B.N.K.Shazma, The Bhagavad^ta Bhai^ya of Sri Madhvacarya,
Adhyaya XII, 5, 6, 7, PP.246-252; Kath.Dp. Bh. P.19; Cf. also,
BSBh.IV.4.4; BSBh.Ill.3.33.
S. S. Ra^vachar, VTV.No. Ill, p.27.
**. Puthiadam, Visnu the Ever Free, PP.279-280.
Tapasylhanda, Sri Madhvacaxya, His life, Religion and
Philosophy,(Madras: ^i Ramakrishna Math),pp.72-73 ;
B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy of Sri Madhvacarya. _footnote, e.8,
p. 294; see also, pp. 359-369;Tapasylhanda, ^ i Madhvacarya,-
li£e-Religion-Philosophy,p.73; TapasyShanda, Bhakti Schools of
Vedanta, p.179.
 276

From the above explanations it is clear that some souls

by nature are good and others wicked, incapeOsle of reaching
mukti. Since actions proceed from the nature of beings it is
clear that evil suid wickedness flow from the wicked spirits
(souls). But the question is, Are not the mukti-ayogya souls
too eternally dependent on Visnu? So, CcUi we say that
ultimately the svarupa of beings explain the evil in this
world? Moreover, it is a basic belief of Madhvism that God is
the principal agent in all beings smd induced by Vi^nu all
beings act. Madhva explicitly accepts that at the command of
the Lord, Siva auid others composed the durlTgamas (bad
scriptures) in order to keep the wicked souls in ignorance. If
this were the case, is it not God himself the cause of evil?
No religious mein can ea'sily accept such a position. God is not
paurtial; He is goodness itself. So when faced with the problem
of evil Madhva can only shift from karma to svarupabheda cund
then back to karma. Yet at the same time he will have to hold
on to the total dependence of all things on God and to God's
caussLlity in all the activities of finite beings. Such being
the case Madhva seems to be silently accepting the fact that
the problem of evil cannot be satisfactorily solved at the
level of our thinking.
4 . 2 2 . OUR CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF MADHVA*^VAITA:
Madhva's doctrine of Bimbapratibimbabhava (relation
between God smd Soul) is a new concept that goes beyond all
contemporary attenpts to solve the problem of God-man (Jivas)
relationship. Through the concept of BheHa (difference) Madhva
does not opine a sense of pure exclusion between soul and God.
The relationship between God sind Jiva is not merely external
master-and-servant relation (Jayatirtha, Taytl-- p.29) in

Puthiadam, God, p. 81.

 277- 1 1 '%

in the Supreme Lord. Only through the (symbolic) relation of

BiafcaqaratibimbabKava the soul has its relation with God. In
■ok^a, the soul's consciousness is not extinct but it is
placed in sublimation with the Infinite Lord (BSBh.iii.2.19) .
This concept of Madhva touches mysticism at in^jortant points.
Madhva affirms that the BimbapratibimbabHava relation
between God and Soul is a sacred and inviolable relation. In
moksa the soul is similar (in some respects) to God. The
"Pratibimbatva" is the truest, most beautiful and permanent
bond of soul with the Supreme Lord.^’ Madhva's approach to
certain philosophical problems such as, Svarv^cibheda-
Taratamya-Traividhya, freedom-free will that exists among
jTvas, is aun unique contribution to the concepts of the
problem of Evil that is much appreciated. Madhva's doctrine of
Traividhya may not promise Sarvamukti to all souls. But in
Madhva's clarification, his theory of Jiva-traividhya is
logically drawn conclusion and much drived from sacred
scriptures. His doctrine goes beyond the commonly accepted
explcuiations of the theory of karma in Vedanta, as the last
explcuiation of the inequalities of life in the world. Madhva's
doctrine believes that the theory of Karma, which is supposed
to explain the inequities of the world, must in the last
analysis take recourse to certain basic differences that exist
in the nature (svabhava) of the souls themselves. The doctrine
of karma csmnot profusely explain the origin of evil and
suffering because it involves sm infinite regression as
expressed in the terma 'anadi' .

B.N.K. Shanna, Philosophy,PP.45, 46 & 307.

Sivaswami Ayyar, Kamala Lectures, p.143.
 279

CHAPTER-5

THE WORLD-JAGAT

5 . 0 . G E N E R A L INTRODUCTION:
In Madhva,' the eternal Visnu
e. • is the eternal Lord of the
eternal realities, viz., the Jivas (Souls), Prakrti etc.
Visnu's attributes and He as the primary purport of every word
(Visnu's Sarvanamata) should only be understood in relation to
this Universe. Madhva starts his realistic metaphysics from
Sense-perception (pratyaksa), Saksyanubhava, and inference and
interprets the truths of Scripture in accordance with the
authority of Sak^i-pramana and l^ajivya-praniana. Visnu is said
to be Svatantra who occupies the central position, with matter
and souls keeping their legitimate positions under Him. Madhva
expresses this reality in a system of fivefold distinction
(pancabheda) that gives it its philosophical designation of
'Prapanca. The valuable fivefold difference is called
'Prapanca'. In his VTV. Madhva, writes, "That which consists
of the great (pra) five kinds of differences (panca) is
'prap«mca' .^
In his VTV. Madhva writes, "The Parama-s^ti says: 'The
universe consists of five differences. They eu:e the difference
between God and the individual self, that between God and
insentient matter, that among individual selves, that between
insentient matter and individual self and that among the
material entities themselves. This is real and unoriginated.^

\ S.S.Ra^vachar, VTV.No.325, p.71.

S. S.Rl^vachar, VTV.No. 340, p. 73;B.N.K.ShazzDa, Teachings,
p.78).
 280

The eternal relation between the Brahman,

' Prakrti
# and Jiva is
tJ»e pra-panca - the tiniqpjely five.’
5 , 1 . REALITY OF THE WORLD EXPERIENCE:
Madhva Metaphysically brings in the reality of the World
ouid its value under the three valid pramaijas (means of valid
knowledge) viz.. Perceptual, Rational, Scriptural knowledge;
amd the doctrine of Saksi. The physical world is presented to
perception (pratyaksa), which is a means of valid knowledge
and which operates xander the iinerring principle of S^sin.
There is no reason to doubt the veracity of pratyaksa. There
are texts in the Upeuiisads, ‘which describe the evolution of
the real world; and by being the object of perceptual
knowledge, the world is real.*
The reality of the world follows from the doctrine of
self-validity of knowledge (AV.iii.2.3). Sense -perception
cannot, therefore, be deprived of its validity, except by a
more valid perception (VTN) . If, the reality of the world is
denied, then, ethics altogether ceases to have any
ixoportance".^ Thu s , it is on this rock of SiDcsipratyaksa that
Madhva has built his edifice of Dvaita-Vedanta.^
^.2.V ISO T, THE CAUSE OF THE ORIGIN, SUPPORT AND
DESTRUCTION OF THE WORLD:

In accordance to the Vedahtic tradtion, Madhva holds that

Vis^u alone is the cause of the Production (Srsti), Support
(Sthithi) and Destruction or Dissolution (Sainhara) of this
Universe; aind the Sacred tradition teaches this truth
(AV.I.1.90; BSBh.I.1.2). The very first verse of the AV says:

Swami Tapasyananda, Sri Madhvacarya His Life, Religion &

Philosophy, p. 56.
T.P. Ramachandran, Op.Cit.,p.96.
*. Indian Thougbt and Its Develapntent, p. 60).
*. B.N.K.Sharama, Philosophy, PP.202-207).
 2SI

'he from whom the origination etc. , of the universe' are, is

Visnu (AV.I.1.90; AV.I.1.2). From V i ^ u proceed 'origination
or Creation (srsti); Sustenance or Support (Sthithi),
Dissolution (Saufihara) ; Control or government (niyaunana) ;
Obscuration or ignorance (ajnaha); Enlightenment or knowledge
(jnaha); Bondage (bandha); and finally Release or liberation
(moksa)
• (BSBh. 1 .1.2) . This is the definition of Visnu.
90
According to MadOhva, innijmerable VSdic passages reveal this
truth.’ "That, verily, whence beings here are born, that by
which when born they live, that into which on deceasing they
enter".®
5 . 3 . THE M E A N I N G A N D N A T U R E O F CREATION:
There are two orders of causes in Madhva system, namely:
1.Material cause (Upadana Karana) and 2. The Efficient cause
(Nimitta Karana)
•
. The material cause is Prakrti and Visnu
• »
the 9

efficient cause. It is the material cause (Upadana Karaina)

that undergoes transformation and acquires (apti) new V i ^ s a s
called specifications. The Independent Visnu is the active
power who transforms Prakrti. Therefore the acquiring of new
specifications (Vis^sas) depends on another called Pauradhina
who is Visnu. Thus according to Madhva, the origination of the
world takes place through the co-operation of these two causes
namely Upadana (Prakrti) and Nimitta.®
5 . 4 . T H E DOCTRI N E O F P A R A D H I N A - V I S E S#A P T I :
In the system of Madhva there are 'eternal' entities
called Nityapadarthas or Anadinitya such as, TdLme, Space,

^ BSBh.I.1.2; BS.I.1.2. Rg.V.X.125.1-8;ibid.I.164;Tait.Dp.

III.1.
R.E. Hume, p.290; Puthiadam, Vi^i>u the Ever Free, PP. 153-
154) .
®. D v a d a » stotra, iv.3; Madhva's commentary orr>-CW— up. V±rj7
NS.i.4.p.200; Taitt Up.ii.8; B.N.K. Shrama, P h l l ^ o ^ j ^ p.
Puthiadam, Vi^iju the Ever Free, PP. 167-168: POtSiiadam, God,
PP.77-78; B.N.K. Shrama, Philosophy,pp.220-221.
 282

Matter suid Souls (Jivas) auid VeHas as well; there are also
n o n - et e m a l entities called 'Anitya' entities which come into
being and undergo change in their nature and also perish.
Madhva introduces his new theory of "Eternal Creation" or
'creation of eternal entities through Paradhina-Vis^apti.
According to Madhva there are two types of changes:
5 . 4 . 1 . SUBSTANTIAL CHANGE (ABHUTVA BHAVANAM) :
The change here is that which trauisforms the basic
nature of a s\obstance. Example: Milk changes into curd.
Herein, the complete change is effected in the substance, a
total chcuige or to a new auid a different one; it is called
"Abhutva bhavouiam".
5 . 4 . 2 . PARADlimAVI^SAPTI:
In this type of change, the substratum suid most of its
essential features are intact,but certain additional traits
come in the process of change; this is called 'Paradhina-
Visesapti' ( it is acquiring a new trait or complexion that
depends on 'Other"(God's will). More concretely this means the
“apti (acquiring) of a new traits or sxjbsidiary characteristics
called Visifas that depend on (the will of) the 'other' (GSod-
Visnu) who is ParacSiina.
5.5.VISNO IS ONLY THE EFFICIENT CAUSE AND NOT THE
MATERIAL CAUSE OF THE WDRLD:
We find in Purnaprajnadarslmam, 1.2.23; 1.2.22&
Madhvasidhwtaisarah, p.44-50, that Brahameui is the efficient
cause of the iiniverse euid not the material cause. He rules the
universe, but does not create it. He is the only independent
reality, eveirythii'g is dependent on Him. The primordial
Prakrti is the material cause of the universe. Prakrti is also

B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, pp.226-227.

Ibid.,p.227;Tapasyahanda, Bhakti schools of Vedanta, PP.155-
156.
 2X3

dependent on the Lord and she has two aspects - the

unmaunifested and the inanimate p r a k r t i, and the conscious
prakrti. Brahman creates the universe out of non-intelligent
prakrti, which is composed of three gxmas- stva, rajas, and
t^asa. When the Supreme self wills to create, then He
disturbs the equilibrium of the Prakirti and the process of
creation begins. There are different stages of creation.
Visnu is unchangeable for He is undivided or He has no
parts (BSBh. I I .3 .7) . unchangeaible Visiju effects the changeable
realities (entities) in the world. Visnu is the power, but He
himself has no parts (BSBh.II.i i i .9). Visnu is merely the
instxrumental cause who creates the world from Prakrti
(primordial matter) . The gulf between spirit (God) and matter
is so great that it is impossible for a spirit to evolve dlnto
a material being. Hence the Brahma-parinanwi-vada amd
vivartavada are rejected. ^^-15 Visnu's causality is not like
the one (father) who is the cause for his son's body but like
the soul of a seed (bijajiva).
5 . 6 . THE THEORY OF SAD-ASAT-KMIYA -VADA IN DVAITA:
The theory of Causality or Creation (srsti) is said to be
Sad-Asat-Karya-Vaiia in the Dvaita system of thought. It meams
that the effect (product) before its existence in some way
pre-exists (sat- existent) with respect to its cause and it
does not (non-existent) pre-exist (asat) in the cause with
respect to its state as effect (product) . In other words, it
is existent after its existence as an effect (product) amd
non-existent as the Cause. The Dvaitins by no means affirm
that the effect is totally non-existent in the cause (material

Anita Nag, Six Systems of Vedahta Philosophy, (Calcutta:Sanalcrit

Pus talc Bhandaz, 1986) ,PP.81-83.
Puthiadazn, God, PP. 76-76;B.M.K.Shamia, Philosophy ,p.173 .
'*-15 Ch.Up. Bh.Vl.8; AV.1.4.71ff) .
 284

cause) . The effect in some way pre-exists (sat) and does not
pre-exist (asat) in the cause.
5 . 7 . THE PURPOSE OF CREATION (S R S T I) :
What was Visnu's motivation to create this world or what
eo
induced Him to create the same? is a question legitimately
rsLised. First of all
Visnu
^o engages himself in creating and
cuihilating this world out of play (lila) . This sport of Visnu
is rooted in the bliss of Visnu.
«• He creates this world out of
His lila, not for the sake of gaining even a 'particle' of
profit or prayojana (BSBh.II.1.34; BS B h .1 .1.14) . . Therefore
Madhva often says that this \oniverse arises out of the ahanda
(bliss) or sukaha of Visnu. The free Lord acts because such is
His blissful nature amd His activity of creation is nothing
more than an act of willing-iccha (AV. I I .1.108) . What Visnu
intends for the effects is the liberation of the good and the
damnation of the wicked.
God creates new worlds not on accovint of egoistic
motives, but on account of love to the souls who can fulfill
their mission smd reach their goal (salvation, mukti etc) only
by tsUcing part in the world process.
.5.8.E V O L U T IO H OF THE WORLD IM MADHVX:
Madhva elaiborates the concept of the 'Evolution of the
world' through cosmogenic myths emd also depends on the
Pcuicaratra view (it teaches that the evolution of the world is
from Visnu) , the Samkhya idea of evolution of the world and
Upanisadic m yt h s , Epics, P u r ^ a s , Mal^bh?rata, the B h ^ a v a t a ,
^ Id
Sruti texts and others.

16 Puthiadam, Vi^pu the Ever Free, pp.177-180.

n Ibid.,PP.184-185.
Glasennap, Madhva's Riilosophy of the Visnu Faith, PP.120,
162;Puthiadam, Visnu the Ever Free, PP.180-183).
IS Ibid.,p.185-186; B.N.K. Shanna, Philosophy, p.232.
 285

Madhva's reports on creation often deviate strongly from

one another auid cannot always be really harmonized.
According to him the PraJcrti (the primordial material stuff)
is indestructible auid eternal. The srsti (world- creation),
pralaya (dissolution of the world) regularly happens in a
constant recurring rotation. Thus as it is written in Bhagavad
Gita, Kri^na says to Arjuna, "at the end of the millennium
every material manifestation enters into my nature, and at the
beginning of another millennivjm, by My potency I again
create".
Thus every world-creation is perpetually followed by the
end of the world. There follows after a long respite (interval
of rest or cessation) a New World creation. Therefore the
events like creation (evolution-srsti) and reabsorption
(involution) have taken place countless number of times since
times immemorial and which will take place again euid again in
eternity cuid that too forever in a manner established once for
all (happening countless tim es eternally)He comments on
these texts according to his deep faith in Visnu; and so there
is 'Vaisnavaisation' in his system wherein he wants to confirm
the absolute sxipremacy of Visnu.
5 . 9 . VISNU
• •
AND THE REALITY OF THE WORLD:
In Madhva, the production of the world is the effect of
the 'Creative activity' of Vi^nu. This world is as real as
Visnu (Brahman) Himself. The reality of the world and the
reality of Visnu are intimately related to each other. Thus
the denial of the reality of the world is a blasphemy against
the Absolute cause of a l l . The material causality of the world

B.N.K.Sharma, Philosophy, p.232.

Bh.Git.Ch.9.Text.7, PP.454-455.
Glassennap, Visnu Faith, p.121.
 286

i.e., Prakrti (primordial matter) is always sijbservient to the

will (iccha) of V i ^ u .
S .I O .V IS ^ -D IS S O L U T I O N (REABSORPTION) (PRAIAYA) OF THE

WORLD:
Madhva's Philosophical concept of 'Vi«ju amd the
dissolution (pralaya) of the world' is that just as Visnu is
the cause of the origination of the world (or evolution and
preservation) and its supportive cause and ruler, so also He
is the cause of its dissolution -reabsorption (pralaya).
Therefore the Blessed Lord (Krsna) said to Arjuna, "Time I am,
destroyer of the worlds, auid I have come to engage all
people".Vifnu is the destroyer of all. When something is
destroyed it is destroyed by God and the human or other agency
is only an instrument of God.^*
The world's annihilation Cem be either partial or total.
Madhva maintains that when a day of Brahma (dainandino-
pralaya) or a Manu -period (Manu-pralaya) comes to an end then
the partial world annihilation occurs regularly. The pcurtial
pralaya (reabsorption) extends only to the three worlds such
as; Bhu, Bhuva auid Svarl5ka and not to the gods inhabiting
this world. At the "great prcd.aya" cad.led 'nahS^ralaya' there
will be a complete reabsorption-dissolution of the world. ^ As
Madhva says, we never experience total destruction, i.e., a
destruction, which does not leave some residue behind. So we
are not entitled to speak of a total absence of reality at the
time of dissolution. Thus dissolution of the universe does not
mean total annihilation at all.^®

23
Bh.Git.Ch.il.Text.32, 33, p.563. _ _ _
K.T. Pandurangi, Essentials of Gitabhashya and Gitatatparya,
p.32;B.N.K. Sharma, Bhagavad^ta Bhashya, AdhySya, XI. 32-33,
p.235) .
25
Glassenap, Philosophy PP.129-130, 165.
26
Puthiadam, Visnu the Evsr, Free, p.214-215.
 287

5 . 1 1 . THE AGES OF THE WORLD:

These seem to be the mythological eaiplanations of Madhva for
the problon of the 'ages of the world' . Like the prime matter
(prakrti), the time (kala) is an eternal world principle as a
wh o le .
At the time of world-existence the four world -ages
follow one another in regular rotation: Krta-Yuga(honesty was
very common), the Treta-Yuga (in which virtue suffered a loss
and in which people began to bring sacrifices to attain
certain goals); the D-rapara-Yuga (in which the decay of real
belief increased further)and finally the bad Kali-Yuga in
which we live now and in which wickedness and Godlessness
reaches its climax) . The four yugas together, i.e. 4320000
years are called mahayuga. 1000 mahayugas make a kalpa and
they form one day of Brahma.
5 . 1 2 . CREATION AND THE USE OF ^ H A N A S (INSTRUMENTS) :
The sacred texts prove that Visnu uses various means or
sadhanas like praJcrti, space, euid time in the work of his
world -creation; and He creates human beings according to
their past karma. He uses these meains to create the universe;
and their power to be sadhemas come from Him alone. Madhva,
says in his Bhagavad Gita Bhashya that Lord makes the use of
Prakrti to create only by way of sport-just as a person strong
enough to walk by himself (without support) sometimes carries
a stick, while walking". Visnu though takes karma of the
souls (jivas) in to consideration while creating the world,
yet karma falls xjnder the sovereign will (iccha) of Visnu.*®

Glasennap, Madhva's Philosophy of the Visnu Faith, pp.166,

130-132. _ " ^_
B.N.K. Shanna, Bhagavad Gita Bhashya of Sri Madhvacarya,
Adhyaya, IX.8, p.195.
Nyaya Sudha II.i .37;BSBh.ii.39; AV. II.92;BSBh.ii.94.