A Rulebook for Arguments

Chapter 1: Short Arguments – some general rules

* 1. Identify premises and conclusion
What are you trying to prove and what is your conclusion. The conclusion is the statement for which
you are giving reasons. The statements that give your reasons are your premises.
* 2. Develop your ideas in a natural order
Put the conclusion first, followed by your reasons or the other way around. Make sure each sentence
prepares the way for the next one. You can use the word ‘therefore’ to mark you conclusion.
* 3. Start from reliable premises
No matter how well you argue from premises to conclusion, your conclusion will be weak if your
premises are weak.
* 4. Be concrete and concise  avoid abstract, vague and general terms
* 5. Build on substance, not overtone  offer actual reasons
Do not try to make your argument look good by using emotionally loaded words to label the other
side. Generally, people advocate a position for serious and sincere reasons.
* 6. Use consistent terms
Short arguments normally have a single theme or thread. Couch your idea in clear and carefully
chosen terms. Mark each step by using the same terms again, but don’t use thesaurus.

Chapter 2: Generalizations
Some arguments offer one or more example in support of a generalization. Rules for assessing
arguments.
* 7. Use more than one example
A single example can be used as an illustration, but does not support a generalization (not enough)
and more than one example is needed.
* 8. Use representative samples  not just people you know or from your surroundings
* 9. Background rates may be crucial
It is not enough to show the success but also your misses / how many times it went wrong or failed.
Also the number of tries/ratio is important to know.
* 10. Statistics need a critical eye
Numbers take as many critical thinking as any other evidence. They may offer incomplete evidence
and are easy manipulated.
* 11. Consider counterexamples (examples that contradict your generalization)

Chapter 3: Arguments by analogy

Arguments by analogy are an exception on rule 7 (use more than one example). Arguments by
analogy, rather than multiplying examples to support a generalization, argue from one specific
example to another, reasoning that because the two example are alike in many ways, they are also
alike in a further specific way.
The first premise of an argument by analogy makes a claim about the example used as an analogy.
The second premise in arguments by analogy claims that the example in the first premise is like the
example about which the argument draws a conclusion.
* 12. Analogies require relevantly similar examples
Chapter 4: Sources
* 13. Cite your sources
* 14. Seek informed sources
Sources must be qualified to make the statements they make, sources are qualified when they have
the appropriate background and information. As you explain your source’s qualification, you can also
add more evidence to your argument. So, look critical at the background of your source.
* 15. Seek impartial sources
Impartial sources are people or organisations who do not have a stake in the immediate issue, and
who have a prior and primary interest in accuracy. Be sure that your sources are genuinely
independent and not just interest groups masquerading under an independent sounding name.
* 16. Cross check sources
Consult and compare a variety of sources to see if other, equally good authorities agree.
* 17. Use the Web with care

Chapter 5: Arguments about causes

* 18. Causal arguments start with correlations
The evidence for a claim about causes is usually a correlation – a regular association between two
events or kind of events e.g. between your grades in a class and where you sit in the classroom.
* 19. Correlations may have alternative explanations
The problem is that any correlation may be explained in multiple ways. First, some correlations may
simple be coincidental. Second, when there is a connection, the correlation by itself does not
establish the direction of the connection. Third, some other cause may underlie and explain both of
the correlates. Finally, multiple or complex cause may be at work and they may move in many
directions at the same time.
* 20. Work towards the most likely explanation
The challenge for a good correlation-based argument is to find the most likely explanation. Try to fill
in the connections in this way not just for the explanation in your favour, but also for alternative
explanations. To decide which is the most likely explanation, you need more information (is there
other evidence?)
* 21 .Expect complexity

Chapter 6: Deductive arguments

Deductive arguments differ from the sorts of arguments in which even a large number of true
premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Properly formed deductive arguments are
called valid arguments.
* 22. Modus ponens (‘the way of putting’)
If p then q  p.  Therefore q
* 23. Modus tollens (‘the mode of taking’)
If p then q  not q  Therefore, not p
* 24. Hypothetical syllogism
If p then q - if q then r.  Therefore, if p then r
* 25. Disjunctive syllogism
p or q  Not p  Therefore, q.
* 26. Dilemma
p or q  If p then r.  If q then s.  Therefore, r or s
 * 27. Reductio ad absurdum (or indirect proof)
To prove: p
Assume the opposite: Not p
Argue that from the assumption we’d have to conclude: q.
Show that q is false.
Conclude: p must be true after all.
* 28. Deductive arguments in several steps p45-47

Chapter 7: Extended arguments

In a argument your must work out a more detailed line of thought, in which the main ideas are laid
out clearly and their own premises in turn are spelled out and defended.
* 29. Explore the issue
Do thorough research and try to look at the other point of views.
* 30. Spell out basis ideas as arguments
A basic argument can be worked out a little further. Don’t try to keep your argument too basic.
* 31. Defend basic premises with arguments of their own
Once you have your basic idea as an argument, it needs defense and development with arguments
on their own. For the defense it is important to find appropriate evidence for each argument and add
some concrete examples, then you’ll have yourself a fine argument overall.
* 32. Consider objections
Too often, we only look at the pro side of our argument. You should also consider objection, so what
are the best arguments against your conclusion. This may lead to rethink your proposal or argument.
* 33. Consider alternatives
It is not enough to show that your proposal will solve a problem, you must also show that it is better
than other ways of solving that same problem.

Chapter 8: Argumentative essays

* 34. Jump right in
Launch straight into the real work, get to your point.
* 35. Make a definite claim or proposal
Begin by stating your claim or interpretation simply, be forthright and clear.
* 36. Your arguments is your outline
The main body of your essay is your argument. First, summarize it to give the reader the big picture.
Each paragraph should start with a re-statement of the premise and continues by developing and
defending it. Clearly connected premises become the parallel sentence or phrases that hold the
whole essay together.
* 37. Detail objections and meet them
Detailing and responding to objections in your essays helps to make your views more persuasive to
your reader, and attest that you have thought carefully about the issue. Also, spell out the reasons
behind the objection.
* 38. Get feedback and use it
Feedback is what makes your essay go.
* 39. Modesty , please!
Don’t claim more than you’ve shown.

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