+0)26-4 

Introduction to Welding Technology

1.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION

Welding is a process of permanent joining two materials (usually metals) through localised
coalescence resulting from a suitable combination of temperature, pressure and metallurgical
conditions. Depending upon the combination of temperature and pressure from a high tem-
perature with no pressure to a high pressure with low temperature, a wide range of welding
processes has been developed.

Classification of Welding Process

American Welding Society has classified the welding processes as shown in Fig. 1.1. Various
welding processes differ in the manner in which temperature and pressure are combined and
achieved.
Welding Processes can also be classified as follows (based on the source of energy):
1. Gas Welding
— Oxyacetylene
— Oxy hydrogen
2. Arc Welding
— Carbon Arc
— Metal Arc
— Submerged Arc
— Inert-gas-Welding
TIG and MIG
— Plasma Arc
— Electro-slag
3. Resistance Welding
— Spot
— Seam
— Projection

1
2 WeldingScienceandTechnology

— Butt Welding
— Induction Welding
4. Solid State Welding
— Friction Welding
— Ultrasonic Welding
— Explosive Welding
— Forge and Diffusion Welding
5. Thermo-chemical Welding
— Thermit Welding
— Atomic H2 Welding
(also arc welding)
6. Radiant Energy Welding
— Electron Beam Welding
— Laser Beam Welding
In order to obtain coalescence between two metals there must be a combination of prox-
imity and activity between the molecules of the pieces being joined, sufficient to cause the
formation of common metallic crystals.
Proximity and activity can be increased by plastic deformation (solid-state-welding) or
by melting the two surfaces so that fusion occurs (fusion welding). In solid-state-welding the
surfaces to be joined are mechanically or chemically cleaned prior to welding while in fusion
welding the contaminants are removed from the molten pool by the use of fluxes. In vacuum or
in outer space the removal of contaminant layer is quite easy and welds are formed under light
pressure.

1.2 CONDITIONS FOR OBTAINING SATISFACTORY WELDS

To obtain satisfactory welds it is desirable to have:
• a source of energy to create union by FUSION or PRESSURE
• a method for removing surface CONTAMINANTS
• a method for protecting metal from atmospheric CONTAMINATION
• control of weld METALLURGY

1.2.1 Source of Energy

Energy supplied is usually in the form of heat generated by a flame, an arc, the resistance to
an electric current, radiant energy or by mechanical means (friction, ultrasonic vibrations or
by explosion). In a limited number of processes, pressure is used to force weld region to plastic
condition. In fusion welding the metal parts to be joined melt and fuse together in the weld
region. The word fusion is synonymous with melting but in welding fusion implies union. The
parts to be joined may melt but not fuse together and thus the fusion welding may not take
place.
IntroductiontoWeldingTechnology 3

1.2.2 Surface Contaminants

Surface contaminants may be organic films, absorbed gases and chemical compounds of the
base metal (usually oxides). Heat, when used as a source of energy, effectively removes organic
films and adsorbed gases and only oxide film remains to be cleaned. Fluxes are used to clean
the oxide film and other contaminants to form slag which floats and solidifies above the weld
bead protecting the weld from further oxidation.

atomic hydrogen welding.........AHW gas metal arc welding.............GMAW

bare metal arc welding............BMAW –pulsed arc.........................GMAW.P
carbon arc welding..................CAW –short circuiting arc.............GMAW.S
–gas.....................................CAW.G Arc gas tungsten arc welding........GTAW
welding
–shielded..............................CAW.S –pulsed arc.........................GTAW.P
(AW)
–twin.....................................CAW.T plasma arc welding.................PAW
electrogas welding...................EGW Solid shielded metal arc welding.....SMAW
flux cored arc welding..............FCAW state Brazing stud arc welding......................SW
welding (B)
submerged arc welding...........SAW
ISSWI
coextrusion welding............CEW –series.................................SAWS
cold welding........................CW
diffusion welding.................DFW arc brazing......................AB
explosion welding...............EXW block brazing..................BB
forge welding......................FOW Soldering Welding Other carbon arc brazing.........CAB
friction welding....................FRW (S) processes welding diffusion brazing.............DFB
hot pressure welding..........HPW dip brazing......................DB
roll welding..........................ROW flow brazing....................FLB
ultrasonic welding...............USW furnace brazing..............FB
induction brazing............IB
Resistance
Oxyfuel infrared brazing...............IRB
dip soldering........................OS gas
welding resistance brazing..........RB
furnace soldering.................FS welding
(RW) torch brazing...................TB
induction soldering...............IS (OFW)
infrared soldering.................IRS
electron beam welding......EBW
iron soldering.......................INS
–high vacuum................EBW.HV
resistance soldering.............RS
–medium vacuum..........EBW.MV
torch soldering.....................TS
–nonvacuum.................EBW.NV
wave soldering.....................WS
Thermal Adhesive electrostag welding...........ESW
flash welding.....................FW Allied flow welding......................FLOW
spraying bonding
processes induction welding..............IW
projection welding.............PW (THSP) (ABD)
resistance seam welding..RSEW laser beam welding...........LBW
–high frequency............RSEW.HF percussion welding...........PEW
–induction......................RSEW.I thermit welding..................TW
resistance spot welding.....RSW
upset welding....................UW air acetylene welding......AAW
–high frequency............UW.HF Oxygen Thermal Arc oxyacetylene welding.....OAW
–induction......................UW.I cutting cutting cutting oxyhydrogen welding.....OHW
(OC) (TC) (AC) pressure gas welding.....PGW
electric arc spraying........EASP
flame spraying.................FLSP
plasma spraying..............PSP air carbon arc cutting..........AAC
carbon arc cutting...............CAC
chemical flux cutting...........FOC gas metal arc cutting..........GMAC
metal powder cutting..........POC gas tungsten arc cutting.....GTAC
Other metal arc cutting.................MAC
oxyfuel gas cutting..............OFC cutting
–oxyacetylene cutting.....OFC.A plasma arc cutting..............PAC
–oxyhydrogen cutting.....OFC.H shielded metal arc cutting..SMAC
–oxynatural gas cutting..OFC.N
–oxypropane cutting.......OFC.P electron beam cutting..........EBC
oxygen arc cutting..............AOC laser beam cutting...............LBC
oxygen lance cutting..........LOC –air...................................LBC.A
–evaporative....................LBC.EV
–inert gas.........................LBC.IG
–oxygen...........................LBC.O

Fig. 1.1 Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes

4 WeldingScienceandTechnology

1.2.3 Protecting Metal From Atmospheric Contamination

To protect the molten weld pool and filler metal from atmospheric contaminants, specially the
oxygen and nitrogen present in the air, some shielding gases are used. These gases could be
argon, helium or carbon-dioxide supplied externally. Carbon dioxide could also be produced by
the burning of the flux coating on the consumable electrode which supplies the molten filler
metal to the weld pool.

1.2.4 Control of Weld Metallurgy

When the weld metal solidifies, the microstructures formed in the weld and the heat-affected-
zone (HAZ) region determines the mechanical properties of the joint produced. Pre-heating
and post welding heat-treatment can be used to control the cooling rates in the weld and HAZ
regions and thus control the microstructure and properties of the welds produced. Deoxidants
and alloying elements are added as in foundry to control the weld-metal properties.
The foregoing discussion clearly shows that the status of welding has now changed from
skill to science. A scientific understanding of the material and service requirements of the
joints is necessary to produce successful welds which will meet the challenge of hostile service
requirements.
With this brief introduction to the welding process let us now consider its importance to
the industry and its applications.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF WELDING AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1.3.1 Importance of Welding

Welding is used as a fabrication process in every industry large or small. It is a principal
means of fabricating and repairing metal products. The process is efficient, economical and
dependable as a means of joining metals. This is the only process which has been tried in the
space. The process finds its applications in air, underwater and in space.

1.3.2 Applications of Welding

• Welding finds its applications in automobile industry, and in the construction of build-
ings, bridges and ships, submarines, pressure vessels, offshore structures, storage
tanks, oil, gas and water pipelines, girders, press frames, and water turbines.
• In making extensions to the hospital buildings, where construction noise is required
to be minimum, the value of welding is significant.
• Rapid progress in exploring the space has been made possible by new methods of
welding and the knowledge of welding metallurgy. The aircraft industry cannot meet
the enormous demands for aeroplanes, fighter and guided planes, space crafts, rockets
and missiles without welding.
• The process is used in critical applications like the fabrication of fission chambers of
nuclear power plants.
• A large contribution, the welding has made to the society, is the manufacture of
IntroductiontoWeldingTechnology 5

household products like refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, dishwashers and other similar
items.
It finds applications in the fabrication and repair of farm, mining and oil machinery,
machine tools, jigs and fixtures, boilers, furnaces, railway coaches and wagons, anchor chains,
earth moving machinery, ships, submarines, underwater construction and repair.

1.4 SELECTION OF A WELDING PROCESS

Welding is basically a joining process. Ideally a weld should achieve a complete continuity
between the parts being joined such that the joint is indistinguishable from the metal in which
the joint is made. Such an ideal situation is unachievable but welds giving satisfactory service
can be made in several ways. The choice of a particular welding process will depend on the
following factors.
1. Type of metal and its metallurgical characteristics
2. Types of joint, its location and welding position
3. End use of the joint
4. Cost of production
5. Structural (mass) size
6. Desired performance
7. Experience and abilities of manpower
8. Joint accessibility
9. Joint design
10. Accuracy of assembling required
11. Welding equipment available
12. Work sequence
13. Welder skill
Frequently several processes can be used for any particular job. The process should be
such that it is most, suitable in terms of technical requirements and cost. These two factors
may not be compatible, thus forcing a compromise. Table 2.1 of chapter 2 shows by “x” marks
the welding process, materials and material thickness combinations that are usually compat-
ible. The first column in the table shows a variety of engineering materials with four thickness
ranges. The major process currently in use in industry are listed across the top of the table.
The information given is a general guide and may not necessarily be valid for specific situa-
tions.

1.5 WELDlNG QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE

Welding is one of the principle activities in modern fabrication, ship building and offshore
industry. The performance of these industries regarding product quality, delivery schedule
and productivity depends upon structural design, production planning, welding technology
6 WeldingScienceandTechnology

adopted and distortion control measures implemented during fabrication. The quality of weld-
ing depends on the following parameters:
1. Skill of Welder
2. Welding parameters
3. Shielding medium and
4. Working environment
5. Work layout
6. Plate edge preparation
7. Fit-up and alignment
8. Protection from wild winds during-on-site welding
9. Dimensional accuracy
10. Correct processes and procedures
11. Suitable distortion control procedures in place
Selection of Welding Process and Filler Metal:
The welding process and filler metal should be so selected that the weld deposit will be
compatible with the base metal and will have mechanical properties similar to or better than
the base metal.
Comparison of high energy density welding processes and TIG welding for plate thick-
ness 6 mm.

Parameter TIG Plasma Laser EB

Power input to 2 kW 4 kW 4 kW 5 kW
workpiece
Total power 3 kW 6 kW 50 kW 6 kW
used
Traverse 2 mm/s 5.7 mm/s 16 mm/s 40 mm/s
Speed
Positional Good Good Yes Requires
Welding penetration penetration Requires optics to mechanism to
move the beam move the beam
Distortion Nominal Nominal Small Minimum
Shrinkage Significant significant Minimum Minimum
in V-shaped in V-shaped
weld weld
Special Normal Normal Safety interlock Vacuum
Process Light Light against misplaced chambers,
Requirements Screening Screening beam reflection X-ray
Screening
Surface Underside Underside Very fine Ruffled swarf
Geometry Protrusion protrusion ripples on back face
IntroductiontoWeldingTechnology 7

QUESTIONS
1.1 Define ‘Welding’. Explain the meaning and signification of coalescence and fusion in
regard to welding. Why is it easier to obtain quality welds in space than in air?
1.2 Explain the conditions for obtaining satisfactory welds. Discuss the importance of weld-
ing and state its applications.
1.3 Discuss the factors which are considered in choosing a welding process for a specific
application.
 +0)26-4

Review of Conventional Welding Processes

In the following paragraphs distinguishing features, attributes, limitations and comparisons

where applicable will be discussed for the commonly used welding processes. This introduction
to the welding processes will help the modern welding engineers to consider alternative proc-
esses available for the situation. This aspect may otherwise be overlooked. A major problem,
frequently arises when several processes can be used for a particular application. Selection
could be based upon fitness for service and cost. These two factors, sometimes, may not be
compatible. Process selection is also affected by such factors as:
(a) production quantity, (b) acceptability of installation costs, (c) joint location, (d) joint
service requirements, (e) adaptability of the process to the location of the operation, (f) avail-
ability of skill/experience of operators.
In this review of conventional welding processes we shall be discussing Gas Welding,
Arc Welding, Shielded Metal Arc, Submerged Arc, Tungsten Inert Gas, Metal Inert Gas, Metal
Active Gas Welding, Resistance Welding, Electroslag Welding, Spot, Seam and Projection
Welding, Flash Butt and Upset Butt Welding, and high Frequency Welding.
Advanced welding processes such as Electron Beam welding, Laser Beam Welding,
Plasma Arc Welding, Explosive Welding, Friction Welding, Ultrasonic Welding and Underwater
Welding are discussed in chapter 4. Now let us start to review the conventional welding
processes, starting with gas welding.

2.1 GAS WELDING

Gas welding includes all the processes in which fuel gases are used in combination with oxy-
gen to obtain a gas flame. The commonly used gases are acetylene, natural gas, and hydrogen
in combination with oxygen. Oxyhydrogen welding was the first commercially used gas proc-
ess which gave a maximum temperature of 1980°C at the tip of the flame. The most commonly
used gas combination is oxyacetylene process which produces a flame temperature of 3500°C.
This process will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
1. Oxyacetylene welding flame uses oxygen and acetylene. Oxygen is commercially made
by liquefying air, and separating the oxygen from nitrogen. It is stored in cylinders as

8
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 9

shown in Fig. 2.1 at a pressure of 14 MPa. Acetylene is obtained by dropping lumps of

calcium carbide in water contained in an acetylene generator according to the following
reaction.
CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Calcium carbide + Water = Slaked lime + Acetylene gas

Tank pressure gage

Tank valve
Line pressure gage
All fittings on oxygen
Acetylene regulator cylinder have right
hand threads
Pressure gages Regulator

Tank valve
To welding torch

1.4 m

All fittings 1m Oxygen tank 2

have left hand pressure 1550 N/mm (max.)
threads for
Acetylene cylinder
175 N/mm2 (max.)

Fig. 2.1 Cylinders and regulators for oxyacetylene welding [1]

2. Concentrated heat liberated at the inner cone is 35.6% of total heat. Remaining heat
develops at the outer envelope and is used for preheating thus reducing thermal
gradient and cooling rate improving weld properties.
3. 1 Volume O2 is used to burn 1 Volume of acetylene, in the first reaction. This oxygen
1
is supplied through the torch, in pure form 1 Volume of additional oxygen re-
2
quired in the second reaction is supplied from the atmosphere.
4. When oxygen is just enough for the first reaction, the resulting flame is neutral. If
less than enough, → the flame is said to be reducing flame. If more than enough
oxygen is supplied in the first reaction, the flame is called an oxidizing flame.
5. Neutral flame has the widest application.
• Reducing flame is used for the welding of monel metal, nickel and certain alloy
steels and many of the non-ferrous, hardsurfacing materials.
• Oxidising flame is used for the welding of brass and bronze.
10 WeldingScienceandTechnology

Reducing valves Torch and

or regulators mixing device Flame

Combustible
gas
Gas
supply
Hoses Manual control Tip
Oxygen valves

Torch tip

3500 C 2100 C 1275 C

Oxyacetylene
mixture
Inner Luminous cone: 1st reaction Outer envelope (used for pre-heating): 2nd reaction

C2H2 + O2 ⎯→ 2 CO + H2 2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + 570 kJ/mol of acetylene

1
Total heat liberated by 1st reaction H2 + O = H2O + 242 kJ/mol
2 2
(227 + 221) = 448 kJ/mol C2H2 Total heat by second reaction = (570 + 242) = 812 kJ/mol of C2H2
Total heat supplied by the combustion = (448 + 812) = 1260 kJ/mol of C2H2
Fig. 2.2 Schematic sketch of oxyacetylene welding torch and gas supply [1].

Advantages:
1. Equipment is cheap and requires little maintenance.
2. Equipment is portable and can be used in field/or in factory.
3. Equipment can be used for cutting as well as welding.
Acetylene is used as a fuel which on reaction with oxygen liberates concentrated heat
sufficient to melt steel to produce a fusion weld. Acetylene gas, if kept enclosed, decomposes
into carbon and hydrogen. This reaction results into increase in pressure. At 0.2 N/mm2 pres-
sure, the mixture of carbon and hydrogen may cause violent explosion even in the absence
of oxygen, when exposed to spark or shock. To counter this problem, acetylene is dissolved in
acetone. At 0.1 N/mm2 one volume of acetone dissolves twenty volumes of acetylene. This
solubility linearly increases to 300 volumes of acetylene per one volume of acetone, at
1.2 N/mm2.
An excess of oxygen or acetylene is used depending on whether oxidising or reducing
(carburizing) flame is needed.
Oxidizing (decarburizing) flame is used for the welding of brass, bronze and copper-zinc
and tin alloys, while reducing (carburising) flame is used for the welding of low carbon and
alloy steels monel metal and for hard surfacing. Neutral flame is obtained when the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1. Most welding is done with neutral flame. The
process has the advantage of control over workpiece temperature, good welds can therefore be
obtained. Weld and HAZ, being wider in gas welding resulting in considerable distortion.
Ineffective shielding of weld-metal may result in contamination. Stabilised methyl acetylene
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 11

propadiene (MAPP) is replacing acetylene where portability is important. It also gives higher
energy in a given volume.

Inner cone

No acetylene NEUTRAL
feather (most welding)

Inner cone
2/10th shorter

OXIDIZING
(brass, bronze,
x Cu, Zn & Sn alloys)
5x
Inner cone
1/2 of outer
cone REDUCING
Acetylene (LC + Alloy
feather two steels, monel)
x times the
inner cone

2x

Fig. 2.3 Neutral, oxidizing and reducing flames

2.2 ARC WELDING

An arc is a sustained electric discharge in a conducting medium. Arc temperature depends
upon the energy density of the arc column. Arc could be used as a source of heat for welding.

Electrode
Arc stream
Extruded coating
Molten metal
Gaseous shield
Slag
Base metal
Crater
Penetration

Fig. 2.4 Diagrammatic sketch of arc flame

Arc welding is a group of welding processes that use an electric arc as a source of heat to
melt and join metals, pressure or filler metal may or may not be required. These processes
include
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Submerged arc Welding (SAW)
• Gas metal arc (GMA, MIG, MAG)
• Gas tungsten arc (GTA, TIG)
12 WeldingScienceandTechnology

• Plasma arc welding (PAW)

• Electroslag/Electrogas Welding
Arc is struck between the workpiece and the electrode and moves relative to the
workpiece, manually or mechanically along the joint.
Electrode, may be consumable wire or rod, carries current and sustains the arc be-
tween its tip and the work. Non consumable electrodes could be of carbon or tungsten rod.
Filler metal is separately supplied, if needed.
The electrode is moved along the joint line manually or mechanically with respect to the
workpiece. When a non-consumable elecrode is used, the filler metal, if needed, is supplied by
a separate rod or wire of suitable composition to suit the properties desired in the joint. A
consumable electrode, however, is designed to conduct the current, sustain the arc discharge,
melt by itself to supply the filler metal and melt and burn a flux coating on it (if it is flux
coated). It also produces a shielding atmosphere, to protect the arc and weld pool from the
atmospheric gases and provides a slag covering to protect the hot weld metal from oxidation.

2.2.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

It is the most commonly used welding process. The principle of the process is shown in Fig. 2.4.
It uses a consumable covered electrode consisting of a core wire around which a flux coating
containing fluorides, carbonates, oxides, metal alloys and cellulose mixed with silicate binders
is extruded.
• This covering provides arc stabilizers, gases to displace air, metal and slag to support,
protect and insulate the hot weld metal.
• Electrodes and types of coating used are discussed in more detail in chapter 4. The
electrodes are available in diameters ranging from 2 mm (for thin sheets) to 8 mm
(for use at higher currents to provide high deposition rates). Alloy filler metal compo-
sitions could be formulated easily by using metal powders in the flux coating.
• This process has some advantages. With a limited variety of electrodes many welding
jobs could be handled. Equipment is simple and low in cost. Power source can be
connected to about 10 kW or less primary supply line.
• If portability of the power source is needed a gasoline set could be used. Solid-state,
light weight power sources are available which can be manually carried to desired
location with ease. It, therefore, finds a wide range of applications in construction,
pipe line and maintenance industries.
• The process is best suited for welding plate thicknesses ranging from 3 mm to 19 mm.
Greater skill is needed to weld sections less than 3 mm thickness.
• Hard surfacing is another good application of this process.
SMAW is used in current ranges between 50-300 A, allowing weld metal deposition
rates between 1-8 kg/h in flat position.
• Normally a welder is able to deposit only 4.5 kg of weld metal per day. This is because
usually in all position welding small diameter electrodes are used and a considerable
electrode manipulation and cleaning of slag covering after each pass is necessary.
This makes the labour cost quite high. Material cost is also more because only 60% of
the electrode material is deposited and the rest goes mainly as stub end loss.
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 13

• Inspite of these deficiencies, the process is dominant because of its simplicity and
versatility. In many situations, however, other more productive welding processes
such as submerged arc and C02 processes are replacing SMAW technique.
Brief details regarding electrode flux covering, its purpose and constituents are given
below:
SMA Welding uses a covered electrode core wire around which a mixture of silicate
binders and powdered materials (e.g. carbonates, fluorides, oxides, cellulose and metal alloys)
is extruded and baked producing a dry, hard concentric covering.
Purpose of covering: 1. stabilizes arc 2. produces gases to shield weld from air, 3.
adds alloying elements to the weld and 4. produces slag to protect and support the weld 5.
Facilitate overhead/position welding 6. Metallurgical refining of weld deposit, 7. Reduce spat-
ter, 8. Increase deposition efficiency, 9. Influence weld shape and penetration, 10. Reduce
cooling rate, 11. Increase weld deposition by adding powdered metal in coating.
Coating constituents:
$""%"" &
1. Slag formers: SiO2, MnO2, and FeO. Al 2 O 3 (sometimes).
2. Improving Arc characteristics: Na2O, CaO, MgO and TiO2.
3. Deoxidizers: Graphite, Al and woodflour.
4. Binders: Sodium silicate, K-silicate and asbestus.
5. Alloying elements: to enhance strength: V, Ce, Co, Mo, Al, Zr, Cr, Ni, Mn, W.
Contact electrodes have thick coating with high metal powder content, permit DRAG
or CONTACT welding and high deposition rates.

Excessive granular flux

Consumable electrode
Fused flux shield
Solidified Flux feed tube
weld
Granular flux

Fig. 2.5 Submerged arc welding-working principle

2.2.2 Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is next to SMAW in importance and in use. The working of the
process is shown in Fig. 2.5. In this process the arc and the weld pool are shielded from atmos-
pheric contamination by an envelope of molten flux to protect liquid metal and a layer of
unfused granular flux which shields the arc. The flux containing CaO, CaF2 and SiO2 is sintered
to form a coarse powder. This flux is then spread over the joint to be made.
• Arc is covered. Radiation heat loss is eliminated and welding fumes are little.
• Process is mechanized or semi-automatic. High currents (200–2000 A) and high depo-
sition rates (27-45 kg/h) result in high savings in cost.
14 WeldingScienceandTechnology

To automatic wire feed

Welding electrode
Flux feed tube
Electrode lead

Fused flux
Finished weld surface
Granulated Solidified slag
flux
V-groove

Weld metal Base metal

Weld pool
Work lead (Ground)
Weld backing elding
Direction of w

Fig. 2.5 Submerged arc welding process

• Power sources of 600-2000 A output, automatic wire feed and tracking systems on
mechanized equipment permit high quality welds with minimum of manual skill.
Welding speeds up to 80 mm/s on thin gauges and deposition rates up to 45 kg/h on
thick sections are major advantages of this process.
• Plate thicknesses up to 25 mm could be welded in a single pass without edge prepara-
tion using dcep.
• Process is commonly used for welding all grades of carbon, low alloy and alloy steels.
• Various filler metal-flux combinations may be employed to obtain desired weld de-
posit characteristics to suit the intended service requirements. Nearly one kg of flux
is consumed per kg of filler wire used.
• The process is ideal for flat position welding of thick plates requiring consistent weld
quality and high deposition rates.
• Constant voltage dc power supply is self regulating and could be used on constant-
speed wire feeder easily. It is, therefore, commonly used power source and is the best
choice for high speed welding of thin gauge steels.

2.2.3 Tungsten inert gas (Tig) Welding

• In TIG welding an arc is maintained between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
and the work-piece, in inert gas medium, and is used as a heat source. Filler metal is
fed from outside. The principle of operation of the process is shown in Fig. 2.6.
• Direct current is normally used with electrode negative polarity for welding most
metals except aluminium, magnesium and their alloys, because of the refractory oxide
film on the surface which persists even when the metal beneath melts. With electrode
positive, cathode spots form on aluminium surface and remove oxide film due to ionic
bombardment, but excessive heat generates at the electrode.
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 15

Direction of Current
welding conductor

Shielding
gas in
Gas
nozzle Nonconsumable
tungsten
Electrode
Gaseous shield
Welding wire Arc

Optional copper backing bar

Fig. 2.6 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding

• Welding aluminium is best achieved by using alternating current. Large heat input
to the workpiece is supplied during the electrode negative half of the cycle. During
electrode positive half cycle the oxide film is removed. Since a high reignition voltage
is required when the work is negative various means are used to compensate for this
effect. Oxide fails to disperse if such means are not used.
• Electrode material could be pure tungsten for d. c. s. p. Thoriated tungsten or zirconated
tungsten can work with a.c. as well as with d.c. welding. In a. c. welding, heat input to
the electrode is higher, the tip invariably melts. Electrodes containing thoria or zirconia
give steadier arc due to their higher thermionic emissivity compared to the pure
tungsten electrode.
• Shielding gases used are: argon, helium, and argon helium mixtrure. For very reac-
tive metals welding should be done in an argon filled chamber to obtain ductile welds.
In open-air welding with normal equipment some contamination with argon always
occurs. Deoxidants are added to the filler metal as a consequence when welding rim-
ming or semi-skilled carbon steel, monel metal, copper, cupro-nickel and nickel.
• Copper can be welded with nitrogen as a shielding gas. Nitrogen reacts with liquid
tungsten and not with copper. Thoriated tungsten electrode with straight polarity
should be employed. With nitrogen atmosphere anode heat input per ampere is higher
compared to argon atmosphere. It is good for high conductivity metal as copper.
• The process is costly and is used only where there is a definite technical advantage
e.g. welding copper, aluminium, magnesium and their alloys up to 6 mm thick; alloy
steels, nickel and its alloys up to 2.5 mm thick, and for the reactive metals.
• Argon spot welds could be made with a torch having the nozzle projecting beyond the
electrode tip; it is held against the work, arc is struck and maintained for a preset
time and argon is cut-off after a delay. A molten pool forms on the top sheet and fuses
into the sheet underneath, producing a plug/spot weld. This welding is ideal for
situations having access to one side of the joint only. The equipment required is light
16 WeldingScienceandTechnology

and portable. Process is slow and not adaptable to fully mechanised control as spot
welding.

2.2.4 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

In MIG welding the arc is maintained between a consumable electrode and the workpiece in
inert gas medium. It is used as a heat source which melts the electrode and thus supplies the
filler metal to the joint. The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 2.7. The apparatus consists
of a coil of consumable electrode wire, a pair of feed rolls, a welding torch having a control
switch and an inert gas supply. Consumable wire picks up current while it passes through a
copper guide tube.

Solid
electrode
Shielding wire
gas in

Current
conductor

Wire guide and

Direction contact tube
of welding
Gas nozzle
Welding Gaseous
electrode shield
Arc

Weld metal

Base
metal

Fig. 2.7 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

• Electrode wire diameter is between 1 .5 mm to 3.0 mm and current used is between

100 to 300 A for welding aluminium, copper, nickel and alloy steels (current density
is of the order of 100A per mm square: thus projected transfer occurs). The arc projects
in line with the wire axis and metal also transfers in the same line.
• Projected transfer occurs within a range of current. Below the lower limit the trans-
fer is gravitational and above the upper limit, for aluminium, the metal flow is unsta-
ble resulting in the formation of dross, porosity and irregular weld profile.
• Welding may be done below the threshold current and conditions could be adjusted to
get short-circuit transfer. Wires of 0.75 mm diameter or less with wire reel directly
mounted on the gun itself could be used with short circuit or dip transfer. Such a
welding is called fine-wire welding and is suitable for joining sheet metals.
• Dcrp is commonly used and a power source with flat characteristics is preferred for
both projected and short circuiting transfer, as it gives more consistent arc-length.
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 17

Welding of aluminium is only possible with dcsp. Drooping characteristic power sources
may also be used with a choke incorporated in the circuit to limit the short circuit
current and prevent spatter.
• Shielding gas is normally argon, but argon-oxygen mixtures (oxygen: 20%) are some-
times used for welding austenitic stainless steels in order to impove weld profile.
Similarly 80% Ar + 20% CO2 improves weld profile of carbon steel and sheet metal
and is cheaper and better than pure argon. CO2 shielding can also be used.
• The process is suitable for welding high alloy steels, aluminium, copper, nickel and
their alloys. it is complementary to TIG, being particularly suited to thicker sections
and fillet welds.
• MIG spot welding gives deeper penetration and is specially suitable for thick materi-
als and for the welding of carbon, low alloy and high alloy steels.

2.2.5 Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding

This process differs from MIG in that it uses CO2 instead of inert gases (argon or helium)
both the normal and fine-wire machines could be used. The differences are: metal transfer
mode, power source, cost and field of application. The process is schematically shown in Fig. 2.8.

Note: Sometimes a water Wire

circulator is used reel

Gas
supply
Wire
Shielding gas drive

Controls for
governing wire
drive, current.
Gas flow and cooling
Welding water, if used
machine Contactor

Fig. 2.8 Schematic diagram of MIG/MAG (CO2) welding

• In CO2 welding there is no threshold current to change transfer mode from gravita-
tional to projected type. At low currents the free flight transfer is of repelled type and
there is excessive scatter loss. This situation is quite common in fine wire welding but
can be overcome by adjusting welding parameters to obtain short-circuiting mode of
transfer (the drop comes in contact with the weld pool and is detached from the wire
by surface tension and electromagnetic forces before it can be projected laterally). If
the current is excessive during short-circuiting, detachement will be violent and will
cause spatter.
• To get rid of this problem the power source is modified either by adjusting the slope of
a drooping characteristic machine or by inserting a reactance in the circuit of a flat
18 WeldingScienceandTechnology

characteristic machine. Thus the short circuit current is limited to a suitable level. At
currents in excess of 200 A using 1.5 mm or thicker wires the process is sufficiently
regular permitting free flight transfer but welding is to be done in flat position only.
• At arc temperature carbon di-oxide dissociates to carbon monoxide and oxygen. To
save metal from oxidation, deoxidized wire for welding carbon steel is essential,
otherwise 40% of the silicon and manganese content may be lost.
• This process finds its main application in the welding of carbon and low alloy steels.

2.2.6 Atomic Hydrogen Welding

In atomic hydrogen welding a single phase AC arc is maintained between two tungsten
electrodes and hydrogen gas is introduced into the arc. Hydrogen molecules absorb heat from
the arc and change into atomic hydrogen. This atomic hydrogen when comes in contact with
the plates to be welded recombines into molecular hydrogen, liberating a large amount of
intense heat giving rise to a temperature of 6100°C. Weld filler, metal may be added using
welding rod as in oxy-acetylene welding. It differs from SMAW in that the arc is indendent of
base metal (work) making electrode holder a mobile without arc getting extinguished. Thus
heat input to the weld could be controlled by manually to control weld metal properties. The
process has the following special features:
1. High heat concentration.
2. Hydrogen acts as a shield against oxidation.
3. Filler metal of base composition could be used.
4. Most of its applications can be met by MIG process, it is, therefore, not commonly
used.

Tungsten
electrodes

Trigger for separating

electrodes

Fig. 2.8 Atomic hydrogen welding torch

2.3 RESISTANCE WELDING

In the following proceses, ohmic resistance is used as a heat source.
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 19

2.3.1 Electroslag Welding

The electroslag welding is used for welding thick plates. The plates have square edge prepara-
tion and are set vertically up with about 25 mm gap in between as shown in Fig. 2.9. A starting
piece is provided at the bottom. Some flux and welding wire electrodes are fed into the gap
between the edges. Arc starts and the slag melts. Molten slag is conductive, the arc is short
circuited and heat is generated due to the passage of heavy currents through the slag. The slag
agitates vigorously and the parent metal and the filler metal melt, forming a liquid metal pool
covered by a layer of liquid slag. This pool is retained by water cooled copper dams. A little flux
is added from time to time to maintain a slag pool of constant depth. A number of electrodes
could be used depending upon the plate thikness.

Filler wires
(electrodes)

Direction
of welding

Electrode
Slag pool
Water- Weld pool
cooled
dam
Weld metal
Weld

Section of
Starting electroslag weld
piece

Fig. 2.9 Electroslag welding set-up

Power source could be a. c. but d. c. is preferred for alloy steel welding. Welding speed is
low and weld pool is large, the cooling rates are, therefore, slow. The microstructure of weld
metal and HAZ shows coarse grains. To obtain good impact resistance, carbon and low alloy
steels need normalizing treatment.
Slow cooling combined with low hydrogen content of weld metal greatly minimizes the
risk of cracking of welds on low alloy steels. As the weld pool is properly protected from atmos-
pheric contamination, the use of deoxidized wire is not essential.
Electroslag welding is used for the vertical welding of plate and sections over 12 mm
thick in carbon and low alloy steels and has been used for the welding of high alloy steels and
titanium.

2.3.2 Spot Welding

• In this process, the parts to be joined are normally overlapped and the metal at the
interface fuses due to resistance heating. The principle of operation of the process is
shown in Fig. 2.10. The workpieces are clamped between two water cooled copper
electrodes. On the passage of a high transient current the interface melts over a spot
20 WeldingScienceandTechnology

and forms a weld. The cooling of the electrode limits the size of the spot. A very high
current (10,000 amp or more) is used for a short duration (fraction of a second) to
complete the weld. The interfaces to be joined are initially cleaned by various meth-
ods: grinding, scratch brushing or vapour degreasing. A spot weld normally contains
small porosity (due to shinkage) in the weld center which is usually harmless.

Electrodes

Fig. 2.10 Principle of resistance spot welding

• If a series of spots are to be welded, a higher current is necessary in view of short

circuiting provided by the previous weld.
• Cooling of the weld is rapid and steels having more than 0.15% carbon and low alloy
steels may require softening of hard structure by passing a second, less intense currect
pulse after the welding pulse.
• Electrodes should have high electrical an thermal conductivity and should have re-
sistance to wear. Copper alloys (e.g. Cu– 0.5% Cr, sintered tungsten copper compacts)
have been developed which retain hardness even when exposed to welding heat.
• Power source for resistance welding should give a low voltage high current output for
steel and nickel alloys to be spot welded. Silver, aluminium, copper and their alloys
pose problem in welding due to high electrical and thermal conductivity necessitat-
ing high current pulses for short duration.
• Cracking and expulsion of molten metal occurs from excessive welding current and
may be avoided by correct adjustment of welding variables.

2.3.3 Projection Welding

Projection welding is a variation of spot welding. Projections are formed on one of the pieces to
be joined, usually by pressing the parts between flat copper electrodes. A current pulse makes
the weld at the tip of the projection leaving clean surfaces without indentations. Schematic of
the set-up is shown in Fig. 2.11.

Before welding After welding

Fig. 2.11 Projection welding

ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 21

2.3.4 Seam Welding

Seam welding is a continuous spot welding process where overlapped parts to be welded are
fed between a pair of copper alloy (roller disc shaped) electrodes (Fig. 2.12).

Force

Current
Force

Fig. 2.12 Sketch of seam welding

2.3.5 Flash Welding

It is classified as a resistance welding process as the heat is generated at the faying surfaces of
the joint by resistance to the flow of electric current, and by arcs across the interface. A thin
layer of liquid metal forms at the faying surfaces. When the parts are forced together to form
a joint, the layer of liquid metal on the faces alongwith the impurities is expelled, the hot
metal upsets and forms a flash. No external filler metal is added during welding. Welds can be
made in sheet and bar thicknesses ranging from 0.2 to 25 mm (sheets) and 1 to 76 mm (bars).
Machines are available in capacities ranging from 10 kVA to 1500 kVA. The distance by which
the pieces get shortened due to upsetting is called flashing allowance. The process is used for
joining rails, steel strips, window frames, etc.

2.3.6 Butt (Upset) Welding

The principle of the process is shown in Fig. 2.13. Here the workpiece temperature at
the joint is raised by resistance to the passage of an electric current across the interface of the
joint. The parts to be joined (wires or rods usually) are held in clamps, one stationary and the
other movable which act as conductors for the low voltage electric supply and also apply force
to form the joint. Force is applied only after the abutting surfaces reach near to the melting
temperature. This causes up-setting. Uniform and accurately mating surfaces are desirable to
exclude air and give uniform heating.
22 WeldingScienceandTechnology

Power source

1. Light contact – Flash welding

2. Solid contact – Upset butt welding
Solid contact 3. Airgap – Percussion welding

Bar stock Force or impact

Clamps or dies

Fig. 2.13 Sketch of resistance butt welding

2.3.7 Percussion Welding

This process makes butt welds at incredible speed, in almost any combination of dissimilar
materials and without the flash formation (Fig. 2.14). It relies on arc effect for heating.

Trigger
Fixed clamp Sliding clamp
Work

Spring

Power
supply

Fig. 2.14 Principle of percussion welding

The pieces to be joined are kept apart, one in a stationery holder and the other in a
moveable clamp held against a heavy spring pressure. When the movable clamp is released
the part to be welded moves towards the other part. Arcing occurs when the gap between the
pieces to be welded is 1.6 mm. The ends to be welded are prepared for accurate mating. An
extremely heavy current impulse flows for a short duration (0.001 to 0.1 second) across the gap
between the pieces forming an arc. The intense heat developed for a very short duration
causes superficial melting over the entire end surfaces of the bars. Immediately after this
current pulse, the pieces are brought together with an impact blow (hence the name percussion)
to complete the weld.
The electric energy for the discharge is built-up in one of two ways. In the electrostatic
method, energy is stored in a capacitor, and the parts to be welded are heated by the sudden
discharge of a heavy current from the capacitor. The electromagnetic welder uses the energy
discharge caused by the collapsing of the magnetic field linking the primary and secondary
windings of a transformer or other inductive device. In either case intense arcing is created
which is followed by a quick blow to make the weld.
Special Applications:
• Heat treated parts can be joined without affecting the heat treatment.
• Parts having different thermal conductivities and mass can be joined successfully.
For example stellite tips to tool shanks, copper to alluminium or stainless steel. Silver
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 23

contact tips to copper, cast iron to steet, zinc to steel. These welds are produced without
flash or upset at the joint.
Limitation:
The limitation of the process is that only small areas upto 650 mm2 of nearly regular
sections can be welded.

2.3.8 High Frequency Resistance Welding

In high frequency resistance welding shown in Fig. 2.15, welding current of 200–450,000 Hz
frequency passes between the electrodes in contact with the edges of a strip forming a tube
when it passes through forming rolls. The rolls also apply welding pressure. The amount of
upset is regulated by the relative position of the welding electrodes and the rolls applying the
upset force. The required welding heat is governed by the current passing through the work
and the speed of tube movement.

Butt weld
Force

Force

High
frequency
current

Fig. 2.15 Sketch of high frequency resistance welding

2.4 SOLID PHASE WELDING

This group of welding processes uses pressure and heat (below the melting temperature) to
produce coalescence between the pieces to be joined without the use of filler metal. The proc-
esses under this category include: Diffusion Bonding, Cold Welding, Explosive Welding, Fric-
tion Welding, High Frequency Pressure Welding, Forge Welding, Hammer Welding, Ultra-
sonic Welding, etc. The important ones will now be discussed.

2.4.1 Friction Welding

Friction heat between two sliding/rotating surfaces is employed in this process to form a joint.
The principle of working of the process is shown in Fig. 2.16. The pieces to be joined are clamped
in chucks. One chuck rotates against a stationary one. Pressure is used to generate enough
heat to reach a bonding temperature within a few seconds. At this stage the rotation is stopped
and pressure is retained or increased to complete the weld. To accomodate awkward or very
long parts, an intermediate slug or disc is rotated in between the sections to be joined.
24 WeldingScienceandTechnology

Stationary chuck

Rotating chuck

Thrust cylinder
(A) Brake

Motor

Direction of rotation

Start

Thrust applied

Stage 3 begins
(B)

Forge and brake

Fig. 2.16 Friction welding (A) Equipment (B) Stages

2.4.2 High Frequency Pressure Welding

This process differs from H.F. resistance welding in that the current is induced in the surface
layer by a coil wound around the workpiece. This causes surface layer to be heated. Weld is
formed by a forging action of the joint (Fig. 2.17). It is used in the manufacture of tubes. The
process is also termed as H.F. Induction Welding.
Force

Coil
carrying high-
frequency current
Joint area heated
by induced eddy
currents

Force
Fig. 2.17(a) Using a high-frequency current to heat the interface in pressure welding
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 25

Weld point
Weld seam
Weld rolls
Current
Vee

Induction coil

be
Tu el
v
tra

Impeder

Fig. 2.17(b) Sketch of high-frequency pressure welding

2.4.3 Ultrasonic Welding

• Ultrasonic process of welding is shown in Fig. 2.18. The core of magnetostrictive
ultrasonic vibrations generator (15-60 kHz) is connected to the work through a horn
having a suitable shaped welding tip to which pressure is applied. The combination
of ultrasonic vibrations with moderate pressure causes the formation of a spot weld
or seam weld (with modified apparatus). The deformation caused is less than 5 percent.

Transducer
Applied
force

Welding tip

Anvil

Motion of
welding tip

Fig. 2.18(a) Ultrasonic welding

• Friction between the interface surfaces, along the axis of the welding tip, causes the
removal of surface contaminants and oxide film exposing the clean metallic surface
in contact with each other which weld together due to applied pressure. Weld pro-
duced is as strong as parent metal.
• Some local heating may occur and some grains may cross the interface but not melting
or bulk heating occurs.
The process is briefly discussed in the following paragraphs:
1. It is solid state joining process for similar or dissimilar metals in the form of thin
strips or foils to produce, generally lap joints.
26 WeldingScienceandTechnology

2. H.F. (15000 – 75000 Hz) vibratory energy gets into the weld area in a plane parallel
to the weldment surface producing oscillating shear stresses at the weld interface,
breaking and expelling surface oxides and contaminants.
3. This interfacial movement results into metal-to-metal contact permitting coalescence
and the formation of a sound welded joint.

Clamping
force

Coupling system
R-F excitation coil
Transducer

Sonotrode
tip
Polarization
coil

Vibration (H.F.)
(15000 – 75000 Hz)
Anvil

Fig. 2.18(b) Ultrasonic welding (detailed sketch)

4. Before welding the machine is set for clamping force, time and power and overlapping
plates are put on the anvil sonotrode is then lowered and clamping force is built to
the desired amount (a few Newton to several hundred Newton) and ultrasonic power
of sufficient intensity is then introduced. Power varies from a few watts for foils to
several thousand watts for heavy and hard materials and is applied through the
sonotrode for a pre-set time. Power is then automatically, cutoff and weldment
released, time taken is less than 1 sec.
5. Continuous seams can also be produced using disc type rotary sonotrode and disc
type or plain anvil.
6. Machine parameters are adjusted for each material and thickness combination.
7. Materials from very thin foils and plates upto 3 mm thickness can be welded.
8. Advantages and applications include.
(a) The process is excellent for joining thin sheets to thicker sheets.
(b) Local plastic deformation and mechanical mixing result into sound welds.
(c) Ring-type continuous welds can be used for hermetic sealing.
(d) Many applications in electrical/electronic industries, sealing and packaging, air
craft, missiles, and in fabrication of nuclear reactor components.
ReviewofConventionalWeldingProcesses 27

(e) Typical applications of the process include: welding of ferrous metals, aluminium,
copper, nickel, titanium, zirconium and their alloys, and a variety of dissimilar
metal combinations. It is applicable to foils and thin sheets only.
(f) Other applications include: almost all commonly used armatures, slotted
commuters, starter motor armatures, joining of braded brush wires, to brush
plates, and a wide variety of wire terminals.
(g) With newly developed solid-state frequency converters, more than 90% of the
line power is delivered electrically as high frequency power to the transducer.
(h) In the case of ceramic transducers as much as 65 – 70% of the input electrical
line power may be delivered to the weldmetal as acoustical power.
Energy required to weld
Energy required to weld a given meterial increases with material hardness and thick-
ness. This relationship for spot welding is given by
Ea = 63 H3/2 t1.5
where Ea = acoustical energy in joules
H = Vicker’s microhardness number
t = material thickness adjascent to active in inches.
This equation is valid for Aluminium, Steel, Nickel and Copper for thicknesses upto
0.81 mm.

2.4.4 Explosive Welding

Explosive welding is a welding process that uses a controlled application of enormous pressure
generated by the detonation of an explosive. This is utilized to accelerate one of the compo-
nents called the flyer to a high velocity before it collides with the stationary component. At the
moment of impact the kinetic energy of the flyer plate is released as a compressive stress wave
on the interface of the two plates. The pressure generated is on the order of thousands of
megapascals. The surfaces to be joined must be clean. The surface films, if any, are liquefied,
scarfed off the colliding surfaces leaving clean oxide free surfaces. This impact permits the
normal inter-atomic and intermolecular forces to affect a bond. The result of this process is a
cold weld without a HAZ. Combination of dissimilar metals, copper to stainless steel, alu-
minium to steel or titanium to steel can be easily obtained by this process. EW is well suited to
cladding application. The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 2.19.

Detonator Explosive
Rubber spacer
Flayer plate
Gap.
15–24° contact angle
= 1 to 1 of
4 2 Target plate
flayer plate
thickness Weld
Anvil
interface

Fig. 2.19 Principle of operation of explosive welding

28 WeldingScienceandTechnology

The main features of the process are listed below :

1. It joins plates face-to-face.
2. One of the plates called the target plate is kept fixed on anvil. The other plate called
the flayer plate is kept at an angle of 15 – 24° to the target plate. The minimum gap
1 1
is to the flayer plate thickness.
4 2
3. A layer of explosive charge is kept on the flayer plate with intervening layer of rub-
ber spacers.
4. When explosive charge is detonated the flayer plate comes down and hits the target
plate with a high velocity (2400 – 3600 m/s) and the plates get welded face-to-face.
5. The process can be used to join dissimilar materials and the weld interface is seen to
be wavy as shown in figure.
6. The various oxides/films present on metal surfaces are broken up or dispersed by the
high pressure.
7. Areas from 0.7 to 2 m2 have been bonded by this process.
8. Process is simple, rapid and gives close thickness tolerance.
9. Low melting point and low impact resistance materials cannot be welded by this
process effectively.
10. Explosive detonation velocity should be approx 2400 – 3600 m/s. The velocity depends
on the thickness of explosive layer and its packing density.
11. Low melting point and low impact resistance materials cannot be welded effectively
by this process.

2.5 HIGH ENERGY DENSITY WELDING PROCESSES

2.5.1 Electron Beam welding

• Electron beam welding uses the kinetic energy of a dense focussed beam of high velocity
electrons as a heat source for fusion. In the equipment for this process, electrons are
emitted by a cathode, accelerated by a ring-shaped anode, focussed by means of an
electromagnetic field and finally impinge on the workpiece as shown schematically in
Fig. 2.20. The operation takes place in a vacuum of about 10–3 mm of mercury.
Accelerating voltages are in the range of 20-200 kV and welding currents are a few
milliamperes, the total power is of the same order of magnitude as in SMAW, except
that in this process power concentrations of 1–100 kW/mm2 are routinely achieved
and upto 10 MW/mm2 can be obtained.
• As the accelerating voltage is increased, the intensity of the X-rays emitted from
anode increases. In high voltage equipment means are used to limit X-ray emission
within permissible limits.
• Focussing coils can concentrate the beam on a spot of a few micron in diameter. With
such a concentrated spot there is a threshold voltage above which the beam penetrates