the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty.

Eppes, and Keshawartz

Optimization of Parameters for Effective Laser Welding of Aerospace

Components
Adil Widaatalla, Devdas Shetty, Tom Eppes and Saleh Keshawarz

University of Hartford
200 Bloomfield Ave., West Hartford, CT, 06117, USA

Abstract

This paper reports research results in two areas. First, it defines laser-welding processes for jet engine turbine
components and specifies the steps and parameters for that process. Secondly, it proposes an optimization routine
aimed at finding optimum welding procedures and parameters since laser welding is not commonly used in
aerospace applications. This paper proposes guidelines for laser welding of nickel-alloy sheet metal up to 0.061” in
thickness. These guidelines are based in part on processes previously reported in the literature including
comparisons with conventional welding technologies.

One area where laser welding may prove advantageous is in improving the cost and quality of combustor component
manufacturing. The results of a feasibility study of laser welding including quality, material integrity, and economic
benefits are included. Recommendations in the area of design guidelines to maximize the benefits of laser welding
in the manufacturing process are provided. This paper reports on the use of a fiber optic laser for welding using
three control factors: optical power, welding speed and minimum spot diameter for an Inconel 625 sheet. Using a
Taguchi design of experiment model, laser weld outcomes are analyzed and optimal weld porosity results are
reported.

Introduction

Inconel 625 is a nickel-based super alloy widely used in aerospace jet engines because of its high corrosion
resistance and high temperature characteristics. Laser welding of Inconel super alloys has been an area of
commercial development in recent years [1, 2]. Laser joining, especially laser welding process has improved the cost
and manufacturing quality of combustor components. (Figure 1).

There are a number of fusion welding processes appropriate for joining heavy sections [3, 4]. Among these are: gas
tungsten arc welding (GTA), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and electron beam welding (EBW). Laser beam
welding (LBW) is a competing process that offers precise, low heat input that is well-suited to manufacturing.
Figures 2 and 3 show a laser welder, YLR 1700-WC at IPG (Oxford, Mass.).

Figure 1 Jet engine combustor component

the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Figure 2 YLR 1700-WC Figure 3 YLR laser head

A laser produces an intense beam of optical energy within a narrow wavelength band. Using a focusing lens, this
beam can easily be shaped for minimum divergence and spot size prior to impinging the work-piece [5]. The work-
piece and laser beam are independently manipulated by multi-axis robotics. When absorbed by the surface of the
work-piece, the laser provides the heat source for the welding process. The focused spot size can be adjusted to
varying sizes from 0.004” to 0.040”. The smaller size is used for cutting, drilling and welding and the larger, for heat
treating [6].

Functional Specification

The specific weld joint under consideration is part of a fabricated combustor liner assembly in a jet engine turbine
used in military aircraft. An important function of the sheet metal assembly is to seal mating combustor liner
segments. Cooling air passes through the sheet metal assembly and impinges on the liner segments. This air must
be captured in a pocket formed by the sheet metal and the combustor liner segment [7]. The liner segments are
investment cast pieces approximately two inches in width with a length spanning a 40-degree arc segment of a 30”
diameter loop. They are attached to the sheet metal with threaded fasteners. The sealing is simply metal-on-metal
since it is in the ‘hot section’ of the engine. Distortion from welding must be less than 0.005” on line elements cut
through the conic section. On a weld joint with two rings, the surfaces must be aligned within the aforementioned
tolerance, and the entire surface must lie within that zone. No peaks or shallow locations from weld shrinkage are
allowed. The weld must be finished flat to within 0.005” on the mating surface and have no under fill on the
opposite side [8].

The stress on both the circumferential and radial welds is relatively low during subsequent manufacturing operations
and even engine operation. Even so, no visible defects or cracking is allowed. The entire assembly is subject to a
high temperature solution heat treat after welding is completed. The welds are expected to last the life of the engine,
up to 50,000 hours. The burner shell assembly is not a normally a serviced part during engine overhaul, but is
repaired as required when removed during a normal overhaul [9].

The subassembly is spun formed and trimmed to the proper length as the last operation. Both end faces must be
perpendicular to the centerline axis within 0.020”. The geometry and true position of the axes and end faces must
remain in the proper position after welding Figure 5.

The type of weld currently being used is a butt joint which is an excellent candidate for laser welding. The laser
beam is aligned to impinge straight along the mating edges of the materials to be joined. Since the laser beam is
focused in a narrow area, the gap between the mating surfaces must be in the order of 1/20th of the spot size
diameter. The resulting gap should be less than 0.001” which is achievable since both parts are trimmed while on the
forming fixture. A welding fixture is used to constrain the rings and provide a modest axial force that pushes the
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

mating faces together. Weld shrinkage allowance has been considered in the axial direction only. Further refinement
is needed based on additional laser weld process experience.

Optimization Techniques

In laser welding, a number of parameters may be varied to achieve an optimized and robust welding process. Since
laser welding is an automated process, some parameters can easily be controlled, e.g. optical power, focal position,
welding speed, shielding gas type and volume. Other parameters can be changed but require equipment
modifications, e.g. laser wavelength, split beam welds and focused spot size. Surface and joint preparation can also
be optimized through machining, and preparation changes without any additional change or investment to the laser
equipment. Optimization based on these parameters defines the welding procedure and is normally done in relation
to what is a “good” as opposed to a “bad” weld. This determination involves sectioning welds to measure cross-
sections and shapes as well as metallurgical and micro-structural properties. Mechanical testing is also used to
define the range of acceptable welding outcomes.

Research Methodology

In its early years, laser welding was used mainly in applications where no other welding processes were suitable.
Today, laser welding is an integral part of the welding industry, regularly producing welds for a myriad of
components. Nonetheless, some manufacturing engineers do not seriously consider laser welding as an alternative.
Some reasons are: unfamiliarity with the operation and its capabilities, relatively high initial costs, and concerns
with safety in a manufacturing environment.

Laser welding is a viable alternative to many aerospace processes, such as resistance welds (spot or seam),
submerged arc, RF induction, high-frequency resistance, ultrasonic and electron-beam. While each of these
techniques has established an independent niche in manufacturing work cells, laser welding is a viable economic
alternative. In some cases, the welding system can be used to perform other functions, such as cutting, drilling,
scribing, sealing and serializing [10].

Industry observers state that there are currently 2,000 laser machine tools in use for cutting, welding and drilling.
That the number is forecasted to reach 30,000 over the next 15 years as manufacturing engineers become more
aware of the capabilities of lasers. The flexibility of lasers to supply energy to hard-to-reach spots, vary their output
energy over a wide range, and inject a minimum of heat into a part makes them ideal for many flexible
manufacturing operations.

To appreciate the potential of laser welding, one must re-define the traditional approach to viewing energy
conversion ‘efficiency’. The laser is a relatively inefficient converter of electrical energy to optical output, with the
best lasers yielding 2 to 15 percent energy conversion. However, most of this output energy can be delivered to a
spot size of a few thousandths of an inch [10]. As a result, lasers efficiently apply thermal energy to small areas
better than conventional welding.

Being able to select and vary the optical energy offers some distinct metallurgical advantages; narrow heat affected
zone due to minimum heat input on welded metal. However, since the surface heating generated by the optical
energy relies on the material's heat conductivity to produce the weld, penetration is usually limited to less than 2
millimeters [11]. Using a technique known as keyholing, higher power lasers (>10E6 W/cm²) can make deeper
penetrations. The major benefit of keyholing is a faster weld speed, and thick material can be welded with one pass
from only one side of the joint.
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The amount of energy put into the metal per unit length of weld line is called the energy input and is computed as
follows:

P
H= (1)
V
Where H = energy input in J/mm
P = total absorbed optical power in watts
V = travel velocity in mm/s

If a laser beam of absorbed power P is focused to a spot of diameter d, the irradiance (often referred to as the power
density) is:

P
PD = (2)
⎛πd2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Where PD = power density in watt/mm2
P = absorbed optical power in watts
d = focused spot size in mm

Within the industry, irradiances are usually reported in units of W/cm2 even though this is not an SI unit.

Metals are generally very good reflectors of light. This problem is compounded by the fact that most industrial lasers
emit infrared light, which metals reflect even better than visible light. As a result, most of the incoming optical
energy is reflected. Since metals are also good conductors of heat, the power that does perform useful work is
rapidly conducted away from the spot being heated. The actual amount of energy absorption can be determined as
follows:

1/ 2 3/ 2
⎡r⎤ ⎡r⎤ ⎡r⎤
η l = 0.365⎢ ⎥ − 0.0667 ⎢ ⎥ + 0.006 ⎢ ⎥ (3)
⎣λ ⎦ λ
⎣ ⎦ ⎣λ ⎦
Where ηl = absorptivity at temperature, T, fraction
r = resistivity, ohms-m
λ = wavelength, m

A typical range of energy absorbed is 10-20% of the incident optical radiation. Note that the wavelength of the laser
has a large affect on the amount of energy absorbed, so the smaller the laser wavelength, the better the absorption of
energy into the metal.

By heating a spot on the work-piece above the boiling point of the metal, a vaporized hole is formed. It is filled with
ionized metallic gases that are an effective absorbent, trapping about 95 percent of the laser energy into a cylindrical
volume, known as the keyhole. Temperatures in the keyhole can reach as high as 25,000°C making this technique
very efficient [10].

Instead of heat being conducted mainly downward from the surface, it is conducted radially outward from the
keyhole forming a molten region around the vapor [11]. Some of the light is absorbed by the vapor, while the rest
reflects multiple times inside the channel and delivers some energy on each reflection. The keyhole technique allows
lasers to produce welds that are deep and narrow. The aspect ratio (depth/width) of keyhole laser welds can be as
high as 8:1 but are more commonly around 4:1.

At irradiances above 10E6 W/cm2, the above events occur within a microsecond in materials such as steel. Keyhole
welding is a threshold process and when the irradiance is low, very little power is absorbed. Once the irradiance is
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

high enough to form a keyhole, most of the power is absorbed into the work-piece. Small power changes near the
keyhole threshold can cause dramatic changes in the welding process.

When the laser beam moves along the work-piece, molten metal fills in behind the keyhole and solidifies to form the
weld. This technique permits welding speeds of hundreds of centimeters per minute depending on laser size [12].
Adjacent to the weld metal is the heat-affected zone (HAZ), the portion of the base metal that is not completely
melted, but whose microstructure or mechanical properties have been altered by the heat. The width of the HAZ is a
function of the heat input which varies with different welding processes as well as the parameters of the process.

The HAZ is also where distortion takes place. With laser welding, the low total heat input results in almost no
distortion. Lower heat input has other benefits, such as being able to use fixtures that do not need to withstand large
thermal expansion forces or to act as heat sinks. The width of the HAZ can be found once the heat input has been
determined, using the material properties of the work-piece. Using the following formula, one can find the peak
temperature at a distance from the weld.

1 2π e ρ ChY 1
= + (4)
Tp − To H net Tm − To

Where Tp = peak temperature in ºC

To = initial plate temperature in ºC
Tm = melting temperature of material in ºC
ρ = density in kg / mm3
C = specific heat in J/kg-K
h = thickness in mm
Y = distance from fusion area to Tp edge
Hnet = heat input in J/mm

Chemical reactions, such as oxidation or nitrating with atmospheric gases at high temperatures can pose problems.
This is particularly true when the oxides or other elements formed have disassociation temperatures far above the
melting point of the metal. The result is brittle, porous welds. Covering the welding area with an inert gas such as
argon or helium minimizes these reactions in most cases. For some materials, it is necessary to perform the welding
in a sealed chamber to prevent outside contamination.

Economic Factors

A key determinant in choosing a welding technology is return-on-investment (ROI). One means to create an
acceptable ROI is to minimize labor costs through automation. This is particularly true in the aerospace industry
where cost and performance advantages are keys to future business. One example is shown in Figures 4-6 that
provide a detailed progression from the turbine engine to a welded area on the combustor.

Figure 4 Gas turbine laser applications

the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Figure 5 Combustor x-section

Figure 6 Welded area on combustor

Over time, laser welding processes have gradually supplanted traditional manual welding operations. Most
manufacturing engineers have read about the advantages of laser welding over more conventional techniques. So,
why has the adoption rate by manufacturing industries not been faster [13, 14]? A likely cause is that the industrial
user sees no benefit from publicizing the cost savings realized with a laser welding system. Most manufacturers treat
their usage of lasers as proprietary.

Evaluating Laser Welding Systems

The most popular lasers being used for welding are CO2 and Nd: YAG or Nd: Glass. The CO2 laser uses a
combination of carbon dioxide, helium and nitrogen. This gas mixture circulates through a bank of electrodes,
which is the energy source. CO2 lasers have been developed with outputs as high as 25 kilowatts. This high output
is possible since the CO2 gas mixture can be efficiently cooled. An Nd: YAG laser, by contrast, emits from a
neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet crystal. Cooling the crystal is critical and difficult which limits its
maximum output power to several thousand watts.

Nd: YAG lasers have found widespread application in the electronic/electrical industries for spot welding and beam
lead welding of integrated circuits. One advantage of Nd: YAG or solid state laser is its ability to transmit the beam
down a fiber optic cable allowing easier manipulation of the beam to remote and complex locations, e.g. the end of
a robotic arm. Figure 7 shows the compact size offered by a fiber delivered laser welder.
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Figure 7 Fiber-delivered laser welder

Fiber lasers show great promise for wide range of application because they are truly solid-state with a minimum of
exposed optical interfaces, have very high efficiency and are capable of excellent beam quality. The gain medium in
fiber laser is based on a Yb, Nd, or Er-doped core in an optical fiber. Both the pump and signal beams propagate
along the length of the fiber. Advantages of fiber lasers over other laser technologies are (12):

1. High electrical-to-optical efficiency (39%), an order of magnitude higher than conventional solid-state lasers
2. High-gain (50 dB) and low-threshold operation
3. Diffraction-limited beam quality that is insensitive to thermal or mechanical fluctuations, optical power level, or
aging of the laser system.
4. Continuous tunability
5. Broad wavelength coverage in the near-IR by selection of various rare-earth dopants
6. Pumping with low-cost, reliable diode lasers
7. Low heat dissipation and facile thermal management
8. Scalable to high power
9. Efficient nonlinear conversions to visible and ultraviolet wavelengths

Quality Evaluation

Weld quality relates directly to the integrity of the weldment, and also includes design considerations. Each
weldment should be:

1. Adequately designed to meet the service life.

2. Fabricated in accordance with design standards.
3. Operates within stress, fatigue, and corrosion limits.

Both economic and safety considerations influence weld quality. Economic considerations require that a product be
competitive in the market, while safety requires that the product function without being a hazard to people or
property. The safety aspect is by far the primary goal in the aerospace field. Cost is important, but quality is
paramount.

The term used to describe a defect in a weldment is a discontinuity. A discontinuity is an “interruption of the typical
structure of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics”
[18]. Discontinuities commonly associated with laser beam welding are: porosity, incomplete fusion, incomplete
joint penetration, and cracks. Quality problems can often be traced back to the base material; however, in the
aerospace industry, all material must be flight quality certified prior to use. The base metal used in this study has
been recommended by an aerospace engine manufacturing company.
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Experiments Performed

The welding tests were carried out on Inconel 625 coupons 0.061 inch thick. Using fiber laser (YLR 1700-WC),
operating in continuous wave, with maximum out power of 3 kW. The fiber diameter was 100 microns with a
collimator focal length of 83 mm. The beam was focused on the surface of the work-piece for all test runs, and all
samples were shielded by a coaxial flow of helium.

A series of bead-on-plate welds were performed on 3” x 2” Inconel 625 coupons. They were performed by varying
key process parameters: optical power, welding speed and the spot diameter. The Taguchi method was used to
design the parameter matrix. A nine element orthogonal array with three levels of control was used as shown in
Tables 1 and 2.

Experiment Power Speed Spot Porosity

Reference (watt) (in/min) size (mm2)
(µm)
A 1 1 1 0.041587
B 1 1 2 0.153369
C 1 1 3 0.056748
D 2 2 1 0.153369
E 2 2 2 0.016625
F 2 2 3 0.098757
G 3 3 1 0.016735
H 3 3 2 0.020143
I 3 3 3 0.039247

Table 1 Nine-element parameter matrix

Control Factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Power (watts) 500 700 900
Speed (in/min) 100 150 200
Spot size (µm) 100 150 200

Table 2 Control factor levels

Pictures of the laser welds for each of the nine experiments are shown in Figures 8-A through 8-I.

A B

C D
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E F

G H

I
I
Figure 8 Photographs of laser welds
The optical power, speed and spot sizes used in the nine experiments are shown in Table 2, the control factors levels
were obtained by using laser welding software SOAR ‘Sandia Optimization and Analysis Routines.

Material Composition

The chemical composition of Inconel 625 is shown in Table 3.

Nickel 58.0 min.

Chromium 20.0-23.0 max.
Iron 5.0 max.
Molybdenum 8.0-10.0
Niobium (Plus Tantalum) 3.15-4.15
Carbon 0.10 max.
Manganese 0.50 max.
Silicon 0.50 max.
Phosphorus 0.40 max.
Sulfur 0.015 max.
Aluminum 0.40 max.
Titanium 0.40 max.
Cobalt 1.0 max.

Table 3: Chemical Composition of IN 625

the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Samples Preparation

A 0.12 inch diamond blade (Leco) was used in a small automated cutoff machine (Struers Accutom) to make cross
sectional cuts across each laser weld. The pieces containing the welds in cross section were then hot mounted using
powder mounting compound (Buehler Epomet) and a mounting press (Leco PR-30).

Rough and fine grinding was performed using silicon carbide paper at decreasing grit size from 320 to 4000.
Polishing was performed using suspensions of six, three, and one-micron diamond at approximately 5 minutes per
step. An etchant containing 15 mL HCl, 10 mL acetic acid, and 10 mL nitric acid was used to reveal the weld
microstructure [20]. This etchant was swabbed across the mounted sample with a cotton tip for approximately 30
seconds or until a reaction was initiated.

Results

In the Taguchi method, the factors that affect the mean and the variation in the process for a series of designed
experiments are investigated. Using an orthogonal array design, variations caused by environmental and/or
uncontrollable factors are minimized. Control factors are those that within the experiment can easily be set and held
relatively constant. Noise variables are factors the experiment either overlooks or chooses not to control directly.

It has been previously reported that Inconel has a tendency towards porosity when laser-welded. In some of the
microstructure pictures, we noticed the presence of porosity as well. Figures 9-a through 9-f show pictures of six
weld cross-sections including labeling and measurement of the porosity defect sites.

a
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e
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f
Figure 9 Photographs of weld cross-sections

The results were analyzed using the statistical software MINITAB [17]. Figure 10 shows the optimum combination
for the control factors studied.
C1 Power C2 Speed
0.08 Main Effects Plot (data means) for Means

0.06

0.04
Mean of Means

0.02
1 2 3 1 2 3
C3 Spot Diameter
0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
1 2 3

Figure 10 Optimal values for the control factors

S/N ratios measure the effect of the noise, and the results are shown in Figure 11. The higher values for the control
factors indicate less sensitivity of defect to noise factor.

Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

C1 Power C2 Speed
45
40
35
30
Mean of SN ratios

25

1 2 3 1 2 3
C3 Spot Diameter
45
40
35
30
25

1 2 3
Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better

Figure 11 S/N ratios for the control factors

After analyzing these results, the combination and levels for the control factors that minimize weld porosity is
shown in Table 5. These same values also maximize the insensitivity to the noise factors.
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Figure 12: Spectral Analysis of the Base Metal

Table 5 Optimal control factor levels

Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)

Elemental analysis was carried out in using an energy dispersive spectroscope mounted on a SEM. The base metal
and the weld area of the sample shown in Figure 9d were analyzed. The gold peak shown in the EDS output is the
coating material and not part of the metal itself. The percent area occupied by each elemental peak is shown in
Figure 14. As it is obvious from the EDS output and Figure 14, there is not much discernable difference between
elemental composition of the base material and the weld area. The crystalline structure of the metal in weld area has
not been affected appreciably by heat treatment as a result of weldment.

Figure13: Spectral Analysis of the Weld

the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

60

50

40

Peak A rea, % o f Total

Base Metal
30
Weld

20

10

0
Ti Cr Fe Ni Nb Mo
Element Present

Figure 14: Peak intensity

Conclusions

The work described in this paper was aimed at developing a procedure for optimizing the laser parameters for
welding applications in aerospace industry. A combination of welding software and Taguchi method used in this
study to design and determine the optimum set of parameters required for laser weld application. Metallographic
work revealed the weld defects on the welded samples and the results were analyzed by statistical software
MINTAB. Scanning Electron Analysis for the weld and the parent material proof that the weld has not lost the
alloying elements which is gives laser weld advantage over conventional procedures especially for the combustor
part which is undergoing heat treatment after the weld is performed.

The expanded use of laser welding in the aerospace industry must address perceptions of both cost and
manufacturing compatibility. Capital investment is an issue for any industry when deciding on a manufacturing
method. Maximizing hours on the equipment as soon as it is put into service can justify the cash outlay and show a
return on investment.

References

[1] American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on definitions, 2001, Standard welding terms and Definitions,
AWS A3.0:2001, Miami: American Welding Society p.27.

[2] From “Welding Processes for Aeronautics” Patricio F. Mendez and Thomas W. Eagar, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology

[3] Yessik, M. and Schmatz, D.J., "Laser Processing and Ford," Metal Progress, May 1975

[4] Simpson, G., "Laser Welding the Large MIC - A New Approach to Hermetic Sealing," Microwave Journal,
November 1984.
[5] Zavecz, T.E., Salfi, M.A. and Notis, M., "Metal Reflectivity Uncer High Intensity Optical Radiation," Applied
Physics Letters 26(4):000, 15 February 1985

[6] Elza, D., "Lasers Take to the Factory Floor," Photonics Spectra, March 1985

[7] Darchuk, J. and Migliore, L.R., "The Basics of Laser Welding," Lasers & Applications, March 1985.
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

[8] Laser Welding, Walter W. Duley, John Wiley & Sons, 1999

[9] Duhamel, R.F. and Banas, C.M., "Laser Welding of Steel and Nickel Alloys," Lasers in Material Processing,
American Society of Metals, 1983.

[10] Miller, C.B., “Laser Welding Article”, www.uslasercorp.com

[11] Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C., "Conduction of Heat in Solids," Oxford University Press, 1959.

[12] Welding Handbook Ninth Edition Volume 1, American Welding Society

[13] Belforte, D.A., "Why Doesn*t Industry Use More Lasers?," Lasers & Applications, February 1983.

[14] Welding/Brazing/Soldering Spotlight, "It*s a Dirty Job, But Nobody Has To Do It," Modern Applications
News, February 1985.

[15] Werth, D., "Laser Welding of Thermally Sensitive Alloys," Lasers & Applications, March 1985.

[16] From “Industrial Laser Review” July 1998, Leonard Migliore

[17] MINITAB Release 14, Statistical Software.

[18]www.metallography.com/bboard/messages/1999/2308.html

[19] Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering Ross Phillip J.

[20) http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/viewArticle.php

Meet the Authors

ADIL WIDAATALLA is a graduate student in the Masters of Engineering program in the Mechanical Engineering
Department at the University of Hartford. He received his Bachelor of Technology degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the Sudan University of Science and Technology.

DEVDAS SHETTY is the Dean of Research and Vernon D. Roosa Professor of Manufacturing Engineering at the
University of Hartford. He is also the Director of Engineering Applications Center, which conducts research
projects with high technology companies.

TOM EPPES is an Assistant Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering in the College of Engineering,
Technology, and Architecture at the University of Hartford. He holds Bachelor and Master of Science degrees in
Electrical Engineering from Texas A&M University and a PhD in Electrical Engineering from the University of
Michigan.

SALEH KESHAWARZ is an Associate Professor in Civil and Environmental Engineering in the College of
Engineering, Technology, and Architecture at the University of Hartford. His expertise is in the areas of water
resources, geo-technical and civil engineering structures.
the Technology Interface/Spring 2007 Widaatalla, Shetty. Eppes, and Keshawartz

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution by Dr. Karl Prewo, Dr. Terri Marsico and Paul Denny of
the CCAT Laser Laboratory. The weld experiments were conducted at IPG photonics (Oxford, Massachusetts).
Metallographic samples were prepared at the Institute of Materials Science and the University of Connecticut.