SRAC Publication No.

282

Revision VI
PR
June 2009

Tank Culture of Tilapia

The popularity of live tilapia in the water. Intensive tank culture can continuous water pumping, aeration
marketplace has driven much of produce high yields, year-round, on or oxygenation is at risk of mechani-
the development of the tank-based small parcels of land. cal or electrical failure and major fish
industry in the United States. In the Tank culture also has disadvantages. mortality without the proper backup
southern region, indoor tank culture Because fish have little natural food systems. Automated alarms, oxygen
of tilapia allows year-round produc- in tanks, they must be fed a complete storage, backup generators and quick
tion and can be a good alternative to diet containing the protein, vitamins response can be critical in saving a
pond or cage culture. and minerals necessary for good crop of fish. Confining fish in tanks
Intensive tank culture offers several growth. Finishing (often referred to at high densities can create stressful
advantages over the use of ponds. The as on-growing) feed for tank culture conditions and increase the risk of
high density of fish in tanks disrupts operations generally has more pro- disease outbreaks, especially when
breeding behavior and allows male tein than that used for pond culture, water quality deteriorates.
and female tilapia to be grown togeth- usually 32 to 40 percent protein. Pond
er. If cultured together, females will culture operations, and those tank
Suitability of tilapia
be half the size of the males (0.75 lbs operations that are heterotrophic or for tank culture
vs. 1.5 lbs; 340 grams vs. 680 grams). “biofloc” systems, usually can achieve Tilapia have a number of character-
Females will not reach marketable satisfactory growth rates using feed istics that make them attractive for
size at the same time as the males un- with lower protein content because tank culture. They can tolerate the
less there is a market for the smaller fish receive a portion of their nutrition crowding and handling that is re-
fish. In ponds, mixed-sex populations from the pond biota or from the inges- quired in a tank-based facility. Their
breed so prolifically that parents and tion of bacteria. Biofloc systems main- heavy slime coat protects them from
offspring compete for food, individual tain an active suspension of bacteria abrasion and bacterial infections that
fish growth is reduced, and the popu- and algae in the culture tanks. These would adversely affect many other
lation becomes stunted. bacteria and algae control the ammo- fish. Tilapia grow well at high densi-
Using tanks allows the fish culturist nia-nitrogen concentration, while the ties in the confinement of tanks when
to manage stocks and have a good cells are kept in a constant state of good water quality is maintained, but
deal of control over environmental rapid growth and regeneration. they are also amazingly tolerant of
parameters (e.g., water temperature, In tank culture, the cost of pumping poor or variable water quality. Tilapia
dissolved oxygen concentration, water and aeration or oxygenation can be grown on diets that are high
pH, waste) that can be adjusted to increases unit production costs. The in vegetable matter, such as soy pro-
promote maximum production. In ad- filtration technology of recirculating tein, which is a more renewable and
dition, feeding and harvesting opera- systems can be complex and capital sustainable ingredient than fish meal
tions require less time and labor than intensive, and these systems require derived from wild fish catches.
in ponds. In small tanks it is practical close attention. The high densities The simplicity of breeding tilapia
and economical to treat diseases with required for profitability also create a means that fingerlings can be readily
therapeutants applied to the culture vulnerability to disaster if power out- available year-round. This character-
ages or equipment failure occur. Any istic is important to indoor facilities
North Carolina State University
1
tank culture system that relies on that produce fish steadily for the live
University of the Virgin Islands
2
market and its customers, which can waste products. Culture systems that waters with nutrients and organic
then rely upon a constant, predict- discard water after use are called matter. Under the regulatory struc-
able supply. Fillet yield of most tila- flow-through systems, while those ture of the U.S. National Pollutant
pias is 30 to 35 percent of the whole that filter and recycle water are Discharge Elimination System
body weight, so 65 to 70 percent of called recirculating aquaculture sys- (NPDES), the discharge of effluent
the processed fish is discarded if it is tems (RAS), recycling or water re-use water may require a permit, with re-
not sold as a live or whole product. systems. Each type has advantages quired periodic testing and oversight,
Therefore, the more profitable prod- and disadvantages. based on the following two criteria:
uct is the whole/live form. 1) annual production must total at
Flow-through tank systems least 100,000 pounds (45,400 kg) of
Species selection Flow-through tank systems depend product, and 2) discharge of efflu-
on constant or periodic water ex- ent water must occur for more than
A number of tilapia species have
change to flush out fish waste prod- 30 days annually. These are federal
been cultured in the U.S. With the
ucts. Exchange rates are determined rules, but states are allowed to de-
growth of the tilapia industry and
by the available water quality and termine whether one or both condi-
stocks moving from state to state,
quantity, the fish biomass, and feed- tions must be met before requiring a
there has been considerable mixing
ing rates. As a rule, the volume of wa- permit.
of strains. Among the reasons for
ter needed for a facility is the amount
selective breeding, genetic selection, Large facilities that exceed the
required to replace 100 percent of the
and examination of hybrids has been production level of the first criterion
tank water every 90 to 120 minutes.
the improvement of growth rate, cold should try to use the effluent for crop
tolerance and fillet yield, and more Flow-through systems often are not irrigation or treat it on site and not
desirable color variations for the suitable for commercial tilapia tank discharge it off site for more than 30
marketplace. The most popular spe- culture. Tilapia are warmwater days of the year. A permit may also
cies currently cultured are the Nile fish that grow best when the water be required, at the discretion of the
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and temperature is in the low to mid-80 state regulatory agency involved,
the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus). °F range (approximately 27 to 29 if any complaint is received. It is
However, other species such as the °C). Unless incoming water is from prudent, therefore, for the prospec-
Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis a geothermal source or is warmed, it tive aquaculturist to know the rules
mossambicus) and several hybrids are will be too cool for optimum growth. of the controlling regulatory agency
also cultured. While O. niloticus can Warming large volumes of incoming during the early stages of facility
survive temperatures as low as about water is generally not economically planning and design.
10 ºC (50 ºF), O. aureus can survive feasible. Operations with a constant
to about 7 ºC (45 ºF) but has a slower source of heated water, such as a Recirculating aquaculture
growth rate. Although these tempera- geothermal or low-cost waste heat systems (RAS)
tures may be the lethal limits, water source, might be economically viable. Recirculating aquaculture systems,
temperature in the 10 to 16 ºC (50 to Using surface waters for tank cul- despite earlier failures, have become
60 ºF) range can stress tilapia, reduce ture is not advisable, although there more common and more economi-
their feeding behavior, and make may be exceptions. The quantity of cally viable because of advancements
them more vulnerable to disease. surface water available may vary that accomplish the required unit
during a drought, and its quality processes: solids removal, biologi-
Tilapias’ tolerance of lower tem-
can vary because of rainfall runoff, cal nitrification, oxygenation, and
perature may make it possible to
agricultural activity or other develop- dissolved gas management. Recircu-
overwinter stock in some areas of
ment activity in the watershed area. lating systems must be designed to
the U.S., but cold tolerance can be
Groundwater is a better source, but it accomplish these processes with less
viewed as a negative characteristic
is advisable to gather as much history new water input in an economically
by state agencies worried about the
as possible on the water quality of sustainable manner. Sand filters have
survival of escaped fish. As with
a site before developing the culture largely been replaced by better types
any aquaculture specie, it is prudent
operation. Water from shallow wells of solids removal devices such as
for the prospective aquaculturist to
may contain organic matter and un- bead filters and screen filters. Granu-
consult regulatory agencies early in
acceptable levels of ammonia or hy- lar plastic media (bead) filters have
the planning process.
drogen sulfide gas. Geothermal water undergone extensive development
Types of culture systems sources may have levels of dissolved and improvement and are readily
minerals that affect fish health. It available from commercial suppliers.
The successful tank culture of any Screen filters that use rotating drums
might be possible to treat groundwa-
fish specie is highly dependent upon or discs are also widely used. These
ter before using it, though the opera-
maintaining good water quality. This filters remove solids well, lose very
tor would need to determine whether
is accomplished by aeration, oxygen- little energy as water passes through
treatment is economically feasible.
ation, and frequent or continuous them, and discharge very little water
water exchange to renew dissolved Water discharged from flow-through
during the cleaning process.
oxygen (DO) content and remove tank systems may pollute receiving
Recirculating systems for tilapia a relatively large, filterable size. The harvest is determined, a maximum
culture have a number of advantages. longer these solids remain in the tank, fish density is established, and as-
They can be located in areas that do the smaller they become (as they sumptions about mortality rate are
not have sufficient water resources disintegrate) and the more waste am- applied to arrive at initial stocking
for pond aquaculture. They can be monia they generate, so tanks should numbers. Maximum density dic-
located closer to markets and infra- be designed for the rapid and efficient tates the maximum daily feed rate,
structure, such as highway connec- removal of waste solids. All manner which is usually 1.0 to 1.5 percent of
tions and utilities. Indoor operations of tank shapes have been used for the biomass for market-size fish of
protect the fish stock from seasonal culturing tilapia, including square, 1.5 pounds (680 grams) each. This
variations in temperature, allowing rectangular, round, oval, octagonal biomass density (lbs/gal or kg/m3 )
year-round production that satisfies and “D-ended” or “racetrack” configu- is a design parameter that is highly
constant market demand. Depending rations. The most desirable tanks are dependent upon the type and size of
upon the manager’s adherence to good those that effectively remove solids at filtration technology used. Efficient
operating procedures and the quality an affordable cost while using valu- solids filtration makes it possible to
of incoming stock, isolating recircu- able floor space efficiently. use higher feed rates and still keep
lating tanks from each other promotes Round or octagonal tanks have a cir- the system operating within safe
biosecurity by controlling the intro- cular flow pattern that moves settle- limits of dissolved oxygen, dissolved
duction and spread of diseases or able solids toward a central drain, ammonia, pH and suspended solids.
parasitic organisms. In some states it which is usually screened to prevent Systems that rely solely on aeration,
is easier to obtain tilapia culture per- fish escape. In tanks with an internal without supplemental pure oxygen
mits for indoor, recirculating systems standpipe, the center drain can be gas, are limited to lower maximum
because there is less chance that these fitted with a larger outer pipe (sleeve) biomass densities unless solids
non-native fish will escape. with notches at the bottom to remove removal is highly efficient and the
There are also disadvantages to recir- water from the bottom of the tank suspended solids concentration is
culating aquaculture systems. Prob- where solids are concentrated. Ex- low. The general rule of thumb is
ably the greatest problem is the large ternal standpipes are easily adjusted that highly aerated systems in which
capital investment required for build- to accommodate increased water fish are fed for good growth have a
ing and starting up facilities. The flows during the culture cycle, while maximum biomass density of about
need for specialized equipment and maintaining the same water level 0.25 pound per gallon(30 kg/m3 ), al-
thermally efficient buildings signifi- in the tank. Tank drains must have though some operators report achiev-
cantly raises the cost of getting into screens, slots or some type of open ing maximum fish densities of 0.5
the business. Economic analyses for area to prevent clogging that might to 0.6 pound per gallon (60 to 72 kg/
the southern region have shown that cause the tank to overflow. Double m3 ). Vigorous aeration is necessary to
the minimum production required drains, which create an effluent flow dissolve enough oxygen in the water,
for proper cash flow is about 200,000 stream with greater solids concentra- especially in the warm water used
to 250,000 pounds of live weight tila- tion, perform well and are widely for tilapia culture. But vigorous aera-
pia annually. The cost of construct- recommended. tion re-suspends and fractures solids
ing and starting up a facility with If tilapia fecal material is not quickly that should be quickly removed
this capacity can exceed $750,000. If removed from the tank, the mucous from the tank in order to maintain
funds must be borrowed, a large debt membrane will trap gases generated good water quality conditions. In
to equity ratio may not be economi- by bacterial decay and cause the systems where supplemental oxygen
cally viable. fecal string to float. For this reason, is applied and vigorous aeration is
More detailed information about some tanks have an additional sur- not used, maximum fish density can
recommendations for the design and face drain at the center (standpipe) often exceed 0.50 pound per gallon
operation of recirculating aquacul- or on the tank sidewall to remove (60 kg/m3 ), and some system designs
ture systems can be found in SRAC surface water and floating solids. routinely use a maximum of 0.75 to
publications 450-459, available at: 1.0 pound per gallon (90 to 120 kg/
Research has shown that round or m3 ). For commercial operations, the
http://srac.tamu.edu/. octagonal tanks with flat bottoms expense of supplemental oxygen can
have better solids removal than those
Culture tank design with sloped or cone-shaped bottoms.
often be offset by the significant in-
crease in maximum biomass density.
Tanks for culturing tilapia can be of The slope may prevent solids from
different sizes and shapes as long as moving to the center drain. Tanks The key to a well-designed system
they allow for the effective removal of with flat bottoms also are simpler is the efficient removal of solids,
waste solids. Tilapias produce a solid and less costly to build. because this makes it easier to con-
waste that is well-suited for removal trol other water quality parameters.
from culture tanks. When fed com- System design When waste solids do not remain
mercial fish feeds, they produce fecal in the tank and break down into
System design should be approached
strings held together in a mucous increasingly finer particles, there is
in a reverse manner. The final de-
membrane that maintains the feces in less dissolved ammonia and carbon
sired fish size and total weight of the
dioxide and a lower oxygen demand. biomass and total daily feed increase, tank bottom. They produce approxi-
With lower carbon dioxide concen- water flow through the tank and mately 0.14 to 0.23 fry per square
trations, the pH of the system water filtration system must be increased foot (1.5 to 2.5/m2 ) per day. Within
is more easily maintained for proper to provide more aeration and biofil- 10 to 15 days after stocking brood
biofilter performance. tration. When the maximum flow fish, newly hatched fry can be cap-
rate or pumping capacity is reached, tured with a dip net and transferred
Tank stocking and density the tank is at its maximum carrying to a nursery unit. Fry that avoid
The tank culture of tilapia can have capacity and the fish are moved to capture prey on subsequent spawns
higher labor and energy costs for a tank or tanks with greater volume and reduce production. After 1 to 2
pumping water and heating water and a filtration system of greater months, the tank must be drained
than pond culture methods. As a capacity. to remove all juvenile fish and begin
result, the most efficient strategy for This phased approach improves another spawning cycle. Breeding
operating tanks is to keep the bio- biosecurity, disease control and feed can be better controlled when net en-
mass at or near the maximum system management throughout the growout closures (hapas) are floated in tanks.
carrying capacity and maximize feed process. Newly introduced cohorts Male and female brood fish, which
input, while minimizing the costs of fry or fingerlings can be isolated have been kept apart, are stocked
of labor and energy. The maximum from other populations within the into the hapa to begin breeding. A
carrying capacity of a tank should facility to help prevent or control the sex ratio of two females to one male
allow for maximum feed conversion introduction and spread of disease. is used to produce large quantities of
efficiency throughout the production As a growout history is developed fry. The optimum stocking density
cycle. While it is certainly possible with a cohort of fish, that cohort ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 fish per square
to grow fish using a “put and take” can be moved into other areas of the foot (5.4 to 10.8/m2 ). Small brood fish
scheme—harvesting larger fish and facility with greater confidence that (0.25 lb, 115 grams) make handling
replacing them with smaller fish— they are healthy. The phased grow- easier, although larger brood fish
this type of stock management can out strategy also improves population may be used. The brood fish are fed
be problematic in a number of ways. data collection. Fish can be sampled high-quality feed at a rate of 2.0 per-
The larger fish of a mixed popula- during the transfer process to verify cent of their body weight per day.
tion will compete with smaller fish their numbers; determine average The most efficient method when
for feed. Different size fish within weight, growth rate and feed conver- hapas are used is to collect eggs at
a population may require different sion ratio (FCR); and more accurately 5-day intervals and incubate them
size feeds. Sorting and harvesting adjust feed rates for the upcoming in hatching jars. Eggs are collected
larger fish can be labor intensive and phase. Fish transfers are opportuni- by passing a 4-inch PVC pipe float
stressful on the fish in the tank. And, ties to grade the fish and split the underneath the netting material from
it is nearly impossible to distinguish population according to average size. one end of the hapa to the other end
genetic runts from other small fish in to concentrate the brood fish in one
the mixed cohort population. Genetic Tilapia breeding end. The brood fish are captured
runts do not have potential for good and fry production individually with two small scoop
growth and should be identified and nets—a large-mesh inner net and a
Breeding tilapia is a relatively simple
removed as early in the production fine-mesh outer net. The nets are
procedure. Regularly producing
cycle as possible. held in one hand while the fish is
large numbers of high-quality fry,
The opposite extreme of tank held with the other hand, which is
however, requires greater atten-
management—stocking fry or fin- gloved to prevent injury from the
tion, good broodstock, high-quality
gerlings as a batch directly into the dorsal fin. Using a finger to open
feeds, and proper disease controls.
final growout tank—is usually not the fish’s mouth, the fish is moved
While mating can occur and fry can
recommended. A large tank requires quickly up and down in the water
be produced from ratios of one or
a large pump and filtration equip- with the nets underneath to wash out
two females per male, commercial
ment, which is an inefficient use of any eggs the fish may be incubating
hatcheries usually use four or five fe-
resources for such a small initial in its mouth. Occasionally, a fish will
males per male. Using a high ratio of
biomass. The alternative is to use expel its eggs as it is being captured.
females to males is acceptable if the
a phased approach, initially stock- With a double-net scoop net system,
males are superior, since they will
ing fry or fingerlings into smaller, the eggs fall through the large mesh
theoretically pass their genes on to
more manageable nursery tanks net and are retained by the small
many fry. These fry, however, should
with smaller volumes of water and mesh net. The large mesh net pre-
be used only for growout and not for
smaller pumps and filtration compo- vents the fish from crushing the eggs.
further selective breeding.
nents, and then growing the popula- After each fish is inspected, it can
Tilapia are commonly bred in tanks. be returned to the other end of the
tion until maximum tank capacity
Brood fish are stocked at a rate of hapa. This method produces approxi-
is reached. During that phase of
0.06 to 0.14 pound of brood fish per mately one fry per square foot
growth, average fish size and over-
square foot (0.29 to 0.68 kg/m 2 ) of (10.8/m 2 ) per day.
all tank biomass increase. As fish
Monosex culture offered. The strategy in choosing and When oxygenation is used, there is
changing feed sizes should follow the less need to adjust oxygen input to
The culture of nearly all-male popu-
goal of always offering the largest maintain optimum dissolved oxy-
lations is being conducted with good
size feed that the smallest fish of the gen levels. When dissolved oxygen
success. All-male populations have
population can consume. If feed is concentrations are low, feed conver-
better growth rates than mixed-sex
too large for the smaller members of sion ratios can be affected; when
populations because there are few
the population, their feed intake will dissolved oxygen concentrations are
slower-growing females, which con-
be reduced, their growth rate will de- high (supersaturation), oxygen is be-
vert some feed into egg production.
cline, and there will be a greater size ing wasted.
There are two methods for producing
difference within the tank popula- With hand feeding, an operator can
all-male tilapia fingerling batches: 1)
tion. And by offering the largest size observe feeding behavior and reduce
sex reversal of fry using a synthetic
feed that the fish can consume, indi- or increase feed depending upon the
male androgen (17-alpha methyltes-
vidual fish will expend less energy in reaction of the fish. Feed can also be
tosterone) administered in feed for
the feeding process. spread over the tank surface to allow
28 days post-hatch; and 2) spawning
female tilapia with tilapia males that In their natural environments, tila- more fish to feed. Should fish con-
have two Y chromosomes. A third pias are detritus feeders. They feed centrate and feed in one area, feed
method, using interspecific hybrid- by “grazing,” and for longer periods can be applied in a different area to
ization of female Oreochromis niloti- than predator fish that pursue and attract those fish that were crowded
cus and male Oreochromis aureus, capture prey. Therefore, it is possible out. Trained feed applicators can
has been described in the scientific to use an extended feeding regime also become skilled at identifying
literature and is sometimes used in for tank-cultured tilapia, feeding a changes in water quality from the
countries where chemical sex rever- daily ration over a period of 10 to 12 feeding behavior of the fish. As feed-
sal is prohibited. It is not widely used hours or longer. Some researchers ing slows, feed application can be
in commercial production in the U.S. have reported that better feed conver- decreased or stopped to reduce the
sion will result if tilapia are not fed amount of uneaten feed.
The sex reversal of fry can be con-
continuously, but are given a rest pe- Tank-cultured tilapia can have very
ducted only by special permit from
riod, during which their metabolism efficient feed conversion ratios (FCR).
the federal government. The use of
decreases. The method of feeding The time period for FCR can be
breeding males with two Y chromo-
used, by hand or by automatic feeder, days, weeks, the length of the tank
somes is a patented method; brood-
determines whether a feeding sched- production cycle, or a year. FCRs
stock is available to licensees from
ule can be extended. Each method in the range of 1.4:1 to 1.8:1 are
the patent holder.
has advantages and disadvantages. common with tilapia and are some
Feeds and feeding Feeding manually over longer peri- of the best in animal agriculture.
ods of time increases labor cost but While FCR is one of the most im-
One of the characteristics that make allows feeding to be monitored. Using portant benchmarks for measuring
tilapias suitable for simple hatchery mechanized feeders makes it easier to the efficiency of an operation, FCR
production is that new fry do not schedule feed delivery to individual alone does not give a true measure of
need specialized live feeds such as tanks throughout a daily cycle. production. An artificially low FCR
Artemia, rotifers or microalgae. They
In both flow-through and water can be created by underfeeding, so it
can be given commercial dry feeds,
reuse systems, extending the feeding is important to consider the growth
size 00 or 0, after they have absorbed
schedule over a longer period also rate also.
their yolk sacs. The fine powder
spreads out the impact of feed on wa- The cost of feed is a large part of an
form allows some of the feed to float,
ter quality parameters. Feed can be operating budget so it must be used
encouraging surface feeding. Fry this
delivered to the system at more even wisely. Table 1 contains guidelines
size may eat as much as 20 percent of
intervals to moderate the high and for feed sizes and feeding rates for
their body weight (biomass) per day.
low variations of these parameters. tank culture of tilapia.
At this stage, fry can be given special
feed to reverse their sex. This special
feed, which must be prescribed by Table 1. Suggested feed size and feeding of tank-cultured tilapia.
and produced under the direction of a
Average weight Standard feed size Range of feeding rate
veterinarian, contains a small concen- (grams) (% biomass/day)
tration of male androgen. For up to 28
Post-hatch – 0.5 #00, #0, #1 Crumble 20 – 15
days post-hatch, this feed is offered to
the quickly growing and sexually un- 0.5 – 5 #2 Crumble 15 – 10
differentiated fry. Properly adminis- 5 – 18 #3 Crumble 10 – 5
tered, this feed produces populations
18 – 75 #4 Crumble (1 mm) 5–3
of more than 90 percent male fish.
75 – 150 1
⁄ 8 inch (3 mm) 3 – 1.5
As the fry and fingerlings grow,
progressively larger feeds should be 150 to market 3
⁄ 16 inch (5 mm) 3 – 1.5
To achieve projected weekly weight enough quality to allow daily mea- pH — Tilapia can survive a wide
gains, the corresponding total amount surements, so that daily readings can range of pH, from 5 to 10, but are
of feed must be fed and consumed be compared to determine the effect said to grow best at pH 6 to 9. In
by the fish population during that of increased feed and fish biomass tank systems, dissolved carbon
week. In systems that are not prop- on water quality from one day to the dioxide causes pH to decline because
erly designed for good solids removal, next. of the formation of carbonic acid
biofiltration, dissolved gas stripping, Strict water quality parameters for (H2CO3 ) in solution. Low pH is not
and aeration or oxygenation, poor tilapia culture are difficult to define. as serious a problem in flow-through
water quality often occurs before Experience at one site may not reflect systems as in water reuse systems,
the required daily ration is fed. This the same results as those reported in which a minimum pH of 6.8 is
is especially true near the end of in a scientific publication or from suggested as the lower limit of toler-
the growing period when biomass another system at another location. ance for the nitrifying bacteria of
is nearing maximum. When this There are variables that influence the the biofilter. Due to the presence of
occurs, the manager can 1) reduce effect a particular parameter, such dissolved carbon dioxide, high pH is
or suspend feeding or 2) begin water as ammonia concentration, has on generally not a problem in tank sys-
exchanges. various fish. Water quality variables tems. (See also Carbon dioxide.)
To ensure that targeted growth rates interact in complex and often poorly Ammonia (NH3) — Ammonia exists
are achieved for a given week, the understood ways. Variables such as in two forms in the tank environ-
manager will estimate the begin- water temperature, pH, hardness, ment, un-ionized NH3 (highly toxic)
ning and ending biomass of the tank general fish health, feeding history, and ionized NH+4 (less toxic). Avoid
based upon estimated growth rates, and sound and light stressors all concentrations of un-ionized ammo-
assume a realistic FCR, and calculate have a role in determining whether nia greater than 1.0 mg/L. Consult
the total amount of feed required for the lethal level of a particular param- other sources to understand the rela-
that week. For example, if a growth eter has been reached. tionship between pH and the toxicity
rate of 5.0 grams per day per fish The following water quality guide- of Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN),
is expected and the tank contains lines are based on published infor- un-ionized ammonia and ionized
10,000 fish, a total of 350,000 grams mation as well as the authors’ experi- ammonia.
(350 kg) of weight should be gained ence in the tank culture of tilapia. Nitrite (NO2-) — Avoid concentra-
for the week. Assuming an FCR of For further information, the follow- tions greater than 5 mg/L nitrite-
1.7:1, the manager would need to ing texts are recommended: nitrogen if chloride (Cl–) is low
feed 595 kg of feed for the week (less than 10 mg/L). Add rock salt
(1.7 x 350 kg = 595 kg). The daily C. Lim and C.D Webster (eds). 2006.
Tilapia—Biology, Culture, and Nutri- to maintain chloride concentration
feed rate would have to average at of 150 to 200 mg/L under normal
least 85 kg (595 kg ÷ 7 days/week tion. New York: The Haworth Press.
operating conditions, and increase
= 85 kg). If that feed rate cannot be M.B. Timmons and J.M. Ebeling chloride concentration when nitrite
reached, the manager should look for (eds). 2007. Recirculating Aquacul- is elevated. The chloride ion allevi-
an explanation so the problem can be ture. NRAC Publication No. 01-007. ates nitrite toxicity and can be added
remedied. Often poor water quality Ithaca, New York: Cayuga Aqua as sodium chloride (NaCl) or calcium
is the cause of the problem. The fish Ventures. chloride (CaCl2 ).
may not be eating aggressively due to Temperature — Optimum growth
the stresses of high ammonia levels, Nitrate (NO3-) — Nitrate toxicity
for tilapia is achieved at 81 to 84 °F can occur if levels in water reuse
nitrite toxicity, low dissolved oxy- (27 to 29 °C), but acceptable growth
gen, high levels of carbon dioxide, or systems exceed the 300 to 400 mg/L
rates are reported at 77 to 90 °F (25 nitrate-nitrogen range. Normal water
other water quality problems. to 32 °C). Temperatures in the ex- exchanges during filter backwashing
treme upper range make it more dif-
Water quality requirements ficult to maintain dissolved oxygen
or solids removal generally control
nitrate concentrations. Water ex-
Tilapia are some of the hardiest fish concentration. change or a denitrification process
being cultured; they can withstand Dissolved oxygen — Operating may be required.
water quality conditions and physical levels of between 5.0 and 7.5 mil-
handling that would create serious Carbon dioxide (CO2) — Main-
ligrams per liter (mg/L) are recom- tain at less than 40 mg/L. Elevated
challenges for other species. How- mended. Growth and feed conversion
ever, tank culturists need equip- carbon dioxide levels cause lethargic
will be affected by chronically low behavior or slow feeding response in
ment that analyzes the minimum DO concentrations below 3.5 mg/L.
basic water quality parameters of fish. While tilapia can tolerate a wide
Survival and recovery are possible range of pH, dissolved carbon diox-
dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, with short-term exposure (less than
ammonia, nitrite, alkalinity, chloride ide gas stripping is required in water
10 minutes) to DO concentrations as reuse systems to keep pH above 6.8
concentration, and calcium hardness. low as 0.8 mg/L.
The equipment should be of good and promote conditions favorable to
nitrifying bacteria in the biofilter.
Calcium hardness — Maintain ing tanks during transport to market. comfortable and safe for harvesters.
between 50 and 100 mg/L. Dissolved Purging time varies and is influenced A depth of about 50 inches (127 cm)
calcium in the water aids in osmoreg- by water quality conditions, the is workable if fish are not so crowded
ulation and relieves stress in fish. It type of feed and its ingredients, and that they jump excessively and risk
is usually added as calcium chloride the preferences of the marketplace. injury to themselves or workers.
(CaCl2 ), which dissolves readily and Withholding feed for 3 to 5 days Close attention should be paid during
also increases chloride (Cl–). before harvesting and marketing is the draining and crowding process
Chloride (Cl–) — Maintain between common. During that time, water so that dissolved oxygen levels of
100 and 300 mg/L. See description should be exchanged to improve wa- 4.0 mg/L or greater are maintained.
under Nitrite. Also see the Harvest- ter quality and reduce temperature. Stressing fish and causing mortality
ing and Marketing section. Lowering the temperature to about at this stage risks the resources that
72 °F (22 °C) slows the activity have been invested in the operation.
Alkalinity — This is the measure of and the metabolism of the fish and Minimizing the number of times the
the pH buffering capacity of water, increases the dissolved oxygen in the fish are handled between the time
and should be maintained at 100 to hauling tanks. Fish grown in recircu- they are captured in the culture
250 mg/L by adding a soluble car- lating systems often develop off- tank and released into the live haul
bonate or bicarbonate source. So- flavor, which is thought to be caused tank will significantly improve their
dium bicarbonate is commonly used by the fish feed or bacterial content survival when they reach the fish
because it is readily available, highly of the culture system. Purging helps dealer’s facility. Scooping the fish in
soluble, and safe to handle. Dissolved reduce off-flavor problems and may the same basket in which they are
carbon dioxide reduces pH, so higher cause the fish to begin utilizing fat weighed and carried to the live haul
alkalinities must be maintained if reserves where the compounds that tank reduces handling and the abra-
CO2 stripping is poor. Choosing a cause off-flavor may be concentrated. sion and removal of the fish’s slime
water source with higher alkalinity coat.
reduces operating expenses because Rock salt or non-iodized salt should
less supplemental alkalinity will be be added to the hauling tank to help Harvesters should wear protective
needed. alleviate stressful conditions. Food eyewear or face shields, gloves, and
grade salt that contains the anti- chest waders or long pants to protect
Further water quality guidelines for caking agent yellow prussiate of soda themselves from injury.
recirculating aquaculture systems (sodium ferrocyanide) should not
can be found in SRAC publication All parties involved—the fish pro-
be used, because this cyanide-based ducer, the live hauler and the fish
452, Recirculating Aquaculture Tank compound is toxic to fish. Although
Production Systems: Management of dealer—should regard the live fish as
it is not currently approved for food a sensitive item, worthy of great care
Recirculating Systems. fish, rock salt is classified as Low and proper handling, so that all are
Regulatory Priority (LRP) by the
Harvesting and marketing rewarded with the reputation of pro-
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ducing and delivering a high-quality
In the southern U.S., tank culture Dissolving salt in the transport water product.
of tilapia is carried out primarily for brings the salt concentration of the
the live fish market. The harvesting hauling water up to the salt con- Conclusion
of tilapia requires a certain amount centration of the fish’s blood. Rates
of preparation and special handling. Much has been learned about the
of about 6.5 pounds of salt per 100
The generally accepted size for the tank culture of tilapia since the early
gallons of water are recommended.
live tilapia market is approximately days of production. Successes and
This equates to a salinity of about 7.8
1.5 pounds (680 g), although fish failures have added to our knowledge
parts per thousand (ppt). With ap-
weighing as little 0.75 pound (340 g) of system design, species selection,
propriate preparation, live tilapia can
and as much as 2.0 pounds (908 g) stock management and nutrition.
be transported by truck for 18 hours
will find acceptance in some areas. There are a number of recurring
or more with little mortality, and can
As the average weight of the stock short courses, workshops and confer-
be held for live sale for up to 1 week
in a tank approaches market size, ences where prospective tank aqua-
after harvest.
buyers, harvest crews and live haul culturists can learn to plan, design,
Proper handling of fish during the build and operate facilities with
transporters should be coordinated.
harvesting stage enhances survival confidence. Before putting significant
Tilapia are usually prepared for sale and ensures that strong fish will be capital at risk, it is to your advantage
by purging them, or withholding available to the buyer in the event to use these resources, along with
feed for a period before harvest and that fish must be held in a live resources available on the Web and
transporting. This allows the fish to facility before sale. Tanks should from your state Cooperative Exten-
rid their digestive systems of wastes be drained to a water depth that is sion Service.
and improves conditions in the haul-
SRAC fact sheets are reviewed annually by the Publications, Videos and Computer Software Steering Committee. Fact sheets are revised
as new knowledge becomes available. Fact sheets that have not been revised are considered to reflect the current state of knowledge.

The work reported in this publication was supported in part by the Southern Regional Aquaculture Center through Grant No. 2007-
38500-18470 from the United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service.