CHAPTER 5 Methods of Excavation Thomas R. Hester here are many reasons for carrying out arch- aeological excavations and many ways to determine the appropriate techniques to use. In contemporary archaeology, the emphasis is on area (or block) excavation, as this provides an excellent way to examine behavioral and contextual relation- ships. In this chapter a wide range of other excava- tion methods are reviewed. Some are largely outdated and have become part of archaeology’ history. But, in certain cases, variations of these techniques may be applied in modem field research. Flexibility remains a key consideration and the archaeologist should be aware of all approaches to excavation. Although consistency in field techniques is desirable, the ability to adapt methods to newly developing field problems should be paramount. As Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1956:81) said “The experienced excavator, who thinks before he digs, succeeds in reaching his objective in a majority of cases.” TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY The number and variety of implements used in archaeological investigation throughout the world are practically limitless. So many special or unusual conditions are likely to be met in the course of excavation that even a bare minimum of ‘equipment must necessarily include an assortment of tools. Subject to the limitations imposed by money, convenience of transportation, and storage in the field, the more the better is a sound general rule. There are now some companies that offer tools specialized for the archaeologist (see Appendix B). Individual, prepackaged “dig kits” can be pur- chased, a real boon to the student preparing for a field school! The “complete archaeologist” can obtain rubber kneepads (or leather felt ones if you prefer), a leather belt-pouch for your trowel, and 6970 = Ciarrer 5 METHODS OF EXCAVATION the “archaeologist’s work vest” with pockets and clips and a backpack pouch to hold the pencils, small tools, and other items that are always needed in the field. Large Tools Large or expensive tools and special equipment are usually supplied by the institution sponsoring the dig or by organizations that rent or lend them. For example, field vehicles (vans, Suburbans, pickups, and jeeps) will vary depending on the size of the project crew, the nature of the terrain, and the abil- ity of the project to support them (see Dillon 1982). Boats are sometimes used for surveys and for transporting crews and supplies to excavation locales (Meighan and Dillon 1982). For clearing the site for excavation, several kinds of tools may be needed, including weed-hooks, rakes, hoes, and machetes. A chain saw and gasoline-powered “weed-eater” will speed the process. Screening equipment, also generally supplied by the sponsor- ing institution, is discussed later (see “Screening Excavated Deposits”) In the last analysis, excavation consists of mov- ing earth; hence, the shovel is the trademark of archaeology and perhaps its most indispensable tool. Long-handled, round-point standard No. 2 excavating shovels are recommended as basic. Square-point shovels are useful in excavating sandy deposits, and many archaeologists find them valuable for cleaning excavation unit floors in the search for post molds, rodent burrows, and other features. Spades are very useful for cutting sod, especially when working in lawn-covered areas where the sod has to be replaced after excavation (this is quite common in historic archaeology); scoops can be useful in removing fill from narrow trenches, and they can come in handy for backfill- ing. Long, narrow-bladed sharpshooter shovels are useful for digging shovel tests. Ordinarily, enough shovels should be provided so that every member of the digging crew has one. Shovel handles should be sandpapered occasion- ally and treated with linseed oil. Conditions and methods for using shovels and other tools are dis- cussed in greater detail below. Heavy, sharp, stout-handled “railroad” picks are often used, though lighter-weight miner’s picks or short-handled pick-mattocks are easier to han- dle and are preferred by some archaeologists. Because picks can cause considerable damage to artifacts, they are generally used only to loosen cal- careous, highly compact, or stony deposits too hard for shovels to penetrate. They are neverthe- less essential where such deposits occur. A heavy pick swung with both hands represents consider- able force, and workers should be cautioned not to strike themselves in the foot and not to hit other workers who may be nearby, particularly behind them. Where paid labor crews are used, workers usually specialize in the use of pick, shovel, wheel- barrow, or the like, often becoming very skillful and efficient with their chosen tool Hand Tools Certain smaller implements are also considered essential (Figure 5.1). Excavators may have to fur- nish themselves with one of each because the spon- soring organization may not supply these tools. ‘Trowels are used for careful excavation, espe- cially to uncover and excavate in the immediate vicinity of artifacts or features and wherever larger tools might damage or displace materials. A 4.5- to 5-inch Marshalltown or Goldblatt brand pointing trowel is by far the best. Both brands are made of excellent steel, with the blade and stem of one piece. They are expensive but worth the invest- ment. Cheap trowels will bend and break, and more-flexible mason’s trowels and garden trowels are inconvenient. Some excavators find a rectangu- lar-bladed margin trowel (such as the 5-x-2-inch Marshalltown variety) to be a useful adjunct to the common pointing trowel. A rigid, fine-point, wood-handled ice pick is also useful, for excep- tionally delicate excavation in exposing features, recovering artifacts from hard deposits, dealing with fragile materials, and such. Sharpened and honed splints of bamboo or wood are also valuable tools in cleaning burials and features, and some archaeologists also include dental picks and tweez- ers in their tool kits. Root clippers are needed to trim the floor and walls of units.Tools and Equipment for Field Archaeology 74 Figure 51 Selected hand tools used in archaeological excavations: (2) pointing trowel, (b) margin trowel, (c) line level, (4) plumb bob, (€) whisk broom. (f) ice pick, (g) Brunton compass, (h) tape measure, (i) folding wood tule, (/) Sharpie marking pen’