PEL ELECTRON LIMITED

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SIP 2017
INTERNSHIP REPORT

Submitted To:
Engr.Faiz ul Haq
Submitted By:
Name: M Faisal Rehman
Intern ID: 134
Uni: UET LAHORE
Reg#2014me409
Department of Mechanical Engineering
(2014-2018)
 TABLE OF CONTENT
1-Itroduction to Transformer
2-Types of Transformer
3-Transformer provided by Pel
4-Parts of Transformer
5-Types of Winding
6-Tank Manufacturing
7-Project
 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that is used to either raise or lower voltages and currents in an electrical
circuit. In modern electrical distribution systems, transformers are used to boost voltage levels so as to
decrease line losses during transmission.

Theory of Operation

Transformers rely on Faraday's Law, which states that a time-varying magnetic field can induce a time-
varying voltage in a loop of wire. In a transformer, this is accomplished by wrapping multiple turns of
wire around some type of ferromagnetic material. Usually, there are two sets of windings: a primary
and a secondary. The primary winding is attached to the generator; the secondary side is attached to
the load. When a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary, a magnetic field is created inside the
ferromagnetic core. The ferromagnetic material serves to concentrate the magnetic flux within the
windings. The magnetic flux on the outside of the windings is reduced and the efficiency of the device
is increased.
The time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary winding.
The magnitude of the secondary voltage depends on the turns ratio of the primary and secondary
windings. Suppose that the secondary winding of a transformer has 100 turns, while the primary winding
has only 50 turns. The resulting secondary voltage will be twice that of the primary voltage. Likewise, if
the primary has 100 turns, and the secondary has 50 turns, the secondary voltage would be half that
of the primary.
At this point it may seem that we're getting something for nothing, but this is not the case. Recall that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed. We know that the electrical power flowing into the primary
windings is the product of the current and voltage. Similarly, the power flowing out of the transformer
must also be product of its current and voltage. Neglecting losses in the transformer core, the power
entering the transformer must also be the power leaving the transformer. This means that in order to
raise the voltage, we must decrease the current. Likewise, by lowering the voltage, we increase the
current. As with the transformer voltages, the ratios of the currents depend on the ratios of the primary
and secondary windings. However, when dealing with currents, it is important to remember that the
side with the larger number of turns has the smaller current and vice versa. Consider the transformer
mentioned above with a primary to secondary turns ratio of 1:2. A 100-A current flowing into the primary
would result in a 50-A current flowing out of the secondary.

Uses
The most obvious application of the electrical transformer is in power distribution. Recall that in an
electrical circuit, . Thus, the power consumed by a circuit element is proportional to the square of the
current flowing through it. In a transmission line, this is important because the line itself has some
characteristic impedance. In order to reduce power losses in the transmission line, it is desirable to
transmit the least amount of current possible. For a given amount of power, the best way to do this is
by increasing the voltage.
The transformer is also used for impedance matching. Given a voltage source and a transmission line
with a characteristic impedance, it is possible to use a transformer to make the load appear larger or
smaller so that the load receives maximum power. Note that maximum power is not equal to maximum
efficiency. For maximum efficiency in the use of electrical energy, the load should have extreme
resistance so that the energy lost in the rest of the circuit will be negligible. Looking into the equations,
however, the load of extreme resistance will receive negligible power (though much higher than the
rest of the circuit). For any given constant voltage across any load, the power received by the load is
given by , thus the relationship. Note again that the equation used here is the one above transformed
with Ohm's Law, and is the only appropriate since Current will drop in this case if the resistance
increases.

Types of TRANSFORMERS
1-Power Transformers
I. Laminated Core
This is the most common type of transformer,
widely used in electric power transmission
and appliances to convert mains voltage to
low voltage to power electronic devices.
They are available in power ratings ranging
from mW to MW. The insulated laminations
minimizes eddy current losses in the iron
core.
Small appliance and electronic transformers
may use a split bobbin, giving a high level of
insulation between the windings. The
rectangular cores are made up of stampings,
often in E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are
sometimes used. Shields between primary
and secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI
(electromagnetic interference), or a screen
winding is occasionally used.
Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out built into the winding, to shut-
off power at high temperatures to prevent further overheating.
 II. Torodial
Doughnut shaped toroidal transformers save
space compared to E-I cores, and sometimes to
reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring
shaped core, copper windings wrapped round this
ring (and thus threaded through the ring during
winding), and tape for insulation.
Toroidal transformers have a lower external
magnetic field compared to rectangular
transformers, and can be smaller for a given
power rating. However, they cost more to make,
as winding requires more complex and slower
equipment.
They can be mounted by a bolt through the
center, using washers and rubber pads or by
potting in resin.

III. Autotransformer
An autotransformer has one winding that is tapped at some point along the winding. Voltage is applied
across a portion of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is produced across another portion of
the same winding. The equivalent power rating of the autotransfomer is lower than the actual load
power rating. It is calculated by: load VA × (|Vin – Vout|)/Vin.[1] For example, an auto transformer that
adapts a 1000 VA load rated at 120 Volts to a 240 Volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least:
1,000VA × (240V – 120V) / 240V = 500VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally plate) must
be at least 1000 VA.
For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller, and more
efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating.[2]Large three-phase
autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for example, to interconnect 33 kV
and 66 kV sub-transmission networks

IV. Variable transformer

By exposing part of the winding coils of an
autotransformer, and making the secondary
connection through a sliding carbon brush, an
autotransformer with a near-continuously variable
turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for wide
voltage adjustment in very small increments..
 V. Induction Regulator
The induction regulator is similar in design to a wound-rotor induction motor but it is essentially a
transformer whose output voltage is varied by rotating its secondary relative to the primary—i.e.,
rotating the angular position of the rotor. It can be seen as a power transformerexploiting rotating
magnetic fields. The major advantage of the induction regulator is that unlike variacs, they are practical
for transformers over 5 kVA. Hence, such regulators find widespread use in high-voltage laboratories.

VI. Polyphase Transformer

For polyphase systems, multiple single-
phase transformers can be used, or all
phases can be connected to a single
polyphase transformer. For a three phase
transformer, the three primary windings
are connected together and the three
secondary windings are connected
together.[4] Examples of connections are
wye-delta, delta-wye, delta-delta and wye-
wye. A vector group indicates the
configuration of the windings and
the phase angle difference between them.
If a winding is connected to earth
(grounded), the earth connection point is
usually the center point of a wye winding.
If the secondary is a delta winding, the
ground may be connected to a center tap
on one winding (high leg delta) or one
phase may be grounded (corner grounded
delta). A special purpose polyphase
transformer is the zigzag transformer.
There are many possible configurations
that may involve more or fewer than six
windings and various tap connections.

VII. Grounding Transfomer

Grounding transformers let three wire (delta) polyphase system supplies accommodate phase to
neutral loads by providing a return path for current to a neutral. Grounding transformers most commonly
incorporate a single winding transformer with a zigzag winding configuration but may also be created
with a wye-delta isolated winding transformer connection.
VIII. Phase-shifting Transfomer
This is a specialized type of transformer which can be configured to adjust the phase relationship
between input and output. This allows power flow in an electric grid to be controlled, e.g. to steer power
flows away from a shorter (but overloaded) link to a longer path with excess capacity.

IX. Variable frequency Transformer

A variable-frequency transformer is a specialized three-phase power transformer which allows the
phase relationship between the input and output windings to be continuously adjusted by rotating one
half. They are used to interconnect electrical grids with the same nominal frequency but without
synchronous phase coordination.

X. Oil cooled Transformer

Large transformers used in power distribution or electrical substations have their core and coils
immersed in oil, which cools and insulates. Oil circulates through ducts in the coil and around the coil
and core assembly, moved by convection. The oil is cooled by the outside of the tank in small ratings,
and by an air-cooled radiator in larger ratings. Where a higher rating is required, or where the
transformer is in a building or underground, oil pumps circulate the oil, and an oil-to-water heat
exchanger may also be used.[7] Some transformers may contain PCBs where or when its use was
permitted. For example, until 1979 in South Africa. [8][9] substitute fire-resistant liquids such
as silicone oils are now used instead.

2-PULSE TRANSFORMER
A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimized for
transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with
fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant amplitude).
Small versions called signal types are used in digital
logic and telecommunications circuits, often for matching
logic drivers to transmission lines. Medium-
sized power versions are used in power-control circuits such
as camera flash controllers. Larger power versions are used
in the electrical power distribution industry to interface low-
voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of power
semiconductors. Special high voltage pulse transformers
are also used to generate high power pulses
for radar, particle accelerators, or other high energy pulsed
power applications.[16]
To minimize distortion of the pulse shape, a pulse transformer needs to have low values of leakage
inductance and distributed capacitance, and a high open-circuit inductance. In power-type pulse
transformers, a low coupling capacitance (between the primary and secondary) is important to protect
the circuitry on the primary side from high-powered transients created by the load. For the same
reason, high insulation resistance and high breakdown voltage are required. A good transient
response is necessary to maintain the rectangular pulse shape at the secondary, because a pulse
with slow edges would create switching losses in the power semiconductors.
The product of the peak pulse voltage and the duration of the pulse (or more accurately, the voltage-
time integral) is often used to characterise pulse transformers. Generally speaking, the larger this
product, the larger and more expensive the transformer.
Pulse transformers by definition have a duty cycle of less than 0.5; whatever energy stored in the coil
during the pulse must be "dumped" out before the pulse is fired again.

3-RF TRANSFORMER
There are several types of transformer used in radio frequency (RF) work. Laminated steel is not
suitable for RF

I. Air core Transformer

These are used for high frequency work. The lack of a core means very low inductance.
All current excites current and induces secondary voltage which is proportional to the
mutual inductance.[17] Such transformers may be nothing more than a few turns of wire
soldered onto a printed circuit board.
II. Ferrite core Transformer
Ferrite-core transformers are widely used in impedance matching transformers for RF,
especially for baluns (see below) for TV and radio antennas. Many only have one or two
turns.
III. Transmission line Transformer
For radio frequency use, transformers are sometimes made from configurations of
transmission line, sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable, wound around ferrite or other types
of core. This style of transformer gives an extremely wide bandwidth but only a limited
number of ratios (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be achieved with this technique.
The core material increases the inductance dramatically, thereby raising its Q factor. The
cores of such transformers help improve performance at the lower frequency end of the
band. RF transformers sometimes used a third coil (called a tickler winding) to
inject feedback into an earlier (detector) stage in antique regenerative radio receivers.
In RF and microwave systems, a quarter-wave impedance transformer provides a way of
matching impedances between circuits over a limited range of frequencies, using only a
length of transmission line. The line may be coaxial cable,
waveguide, stripline or microstripline.
4-IF TRANSFORMER
Ferrite-core transformers are widely used in (intermediate frequency) (IF) stages
in superheterodyne radio receivers. They are mostly tuned transformers, containing a threaded ferrite
slug that is screwed in or out to adjust IF tuning. The transformers are usually canned (shielded) for
stability and to reduce interference.

5-AUDIO TRANSFORMWE
Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits to carry audio signal. They
can be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio signal, to split or
combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between high impedance and low
impedance circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve) amplifier output and a low
impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input
of a mixing console. Audio transformers that operate with loudspeaker voltages and current are larger
than those that operate at microphone or line level, which carry much less power. Bridge
transformers connect 2-wire and 4-wire communication circuits.
Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic fields such as those
generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term commonly used to describe unwanted
signals originating from the "mains" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz).[18] Audio transformers used
for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, often include magnetic shielding to protect
against extraneous magnetically coupled signals.
Audio transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to one another
while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to
interconnect professional audio systems or system components, to eliminate buzz and hum. Such
transformers typically have a 1:1 ratio between the primary and the secondary. These can also be used
for splitting signals, balancing unbalanced signals, or feeding a balanced signal to unbalanced
equipment. Transformers are also used in DI boxes to convert high-impedance instrument signals
(e.g., bass guitar) to low impedance signals to enable them to connect to a microphone input on
the mixing console.
A particularly critical component is the output transformer of a valve amplifier. Valve circuits for quality
reproduction have long been produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output
transformer is needed to couple the relatively high impedance (up to a few hundred ohms depending
upon configuration) of the output valve(s) to the low impedance of a loudspeaker. (The valves can
deliver a low current at a high voltage; the speakers require high current at low voltage.) Most solid-
state power amplifiers need no output transformer at all.
Audio transformers affect the sound quality because they are non-linear. Harmonic distortion is added
to the original signal, especially odd-order harmonics with an emphasis on third-order harmonics. When
the incoming signal amplitude is very low there is not enough level to energize the magnetic core
(see coercivity and magnetic hysteresis). When the incoming signal amplitude is very high the
transformer saturates and adds ringing harmonics.[19] Another non-linearity comes from limited
frequency response. For good low-frequency response a relatively large magnetic core is required; high
power handling increases the required core size. Good high-frequency response requires carefully
designed and implemented windings without excessive leakage inductance or stray capacitance. All
this makes for an expensive component.
Early transistor audio power amplifiers often had output transformers, but they were eliminated as
advances in semiconductors allowed the design of amplifiers with sufficiently low output impedance to
drive a loudspeaker directly.

I. Loud speaker Transformer

In the same way that transformers create high voltage power
transmission circuits that minimize transmission losses, loudspeaker transformers can
power many individual loudspeakers from a single audio circuit operated at higher than
normal loudspeaker voltages. This application is common in public address applications.
Such circuits are commonly referred to as constant voltage speaker systems. Such
systems are also known by the nominal voltage of the loudspeaker line, such as 25-
, 70- and 100-volt speaker systems ( the voltage corresponding to the power rating of a
speaker or amplifier). A transformer steps up the output of the system's amplifer to the
distribution voltage. At the distant loudspeaker locations, a step-down transformer
matches the speaker to the rated voltage of the line, so the speaker produces rated
nominal output when the line is at nominal voltage. Loudspeaker transformers commonly
have multiple primary taps to adjust the volume at each speaker in steps.

II. Output Transformer

Valve (tube) amplifiers almost always use an output transformer to match the high
load impedance requirement of the valves (several kilohms) to a low impedance
speaker
III. Small signal Transformer
Moving coil phonograph cartridges produce a very small voltage. For this to be
amplified with a reasonable signal-noise ratio usually requires a transformer to convert
the voltage to the range of the more common moving-magnet cartridges.
Microphones may also be matched to their load with a small transformer, which is
mumetal shielded to minimise noise pickup. These transformers are less widely used
today, as transistorized buffers are now cheaper.
 PELL TRANSFORMERS
Distributed transformers:
PEL distribution transformers range
includes oil immersed core type
transformers, Dry type (VP
impregnated) transformers and
autotransformers. These transformers
are tailor made for various ratings. IEC
or national standards are followed. We
offer distribution transformers voltage
up to 33 kV and ratings up to 30 MVA.
PEL offers transformer tanks with
corrugated walls, detachable radiators
and tubular arrangement. The
corrugated tanks have a better cooling
efficiency, since the fins are
expandable. Tanks are hermetically
sealed where possible. In order to
meet sophisticated requirements of
customers PEL has also started
manufacturing transformers with foil
winding. Foil winding efficiently uses
space which results in size reduction. It has better heat dissipation and also increases potential to
withstand short circuit current. PEL transformers are available for various applications:

Distribution Transformers (Pole /Pad Mounted)

Auto Transformers
Furnace Transformers
Welding Transformers
Chokes for furnace Transformers
Any other special requirement
 Power transformer:
Extensive experience and success
in manufacturing distribution
transformers led to the
establishment of power transformer
division in 2005. Since its birth the
division has produced transformers
of ratings 31/40MVA, 20/26MVA,
and 10/13MVA for ratings up to 132
KV. In order to provide its customers
the best of technology and products
of international competence, PEL
has combined its technical expertise
with GANZ, a renowned and
experienced Hungarian transformer
manufacturer.
PEL is also exporting Power
Transformer to International
customers for their special
requirements and specifications.
PEL power transformers are
equipped with best transformer
accessories like OLTC from MR
(Germany), High Voltage Bushing
from PASSONI & VILLA (Italy),
Buchholz Relay from EMB
(Germany), insulation material from
WEIDMANN (Switzerland), silicon
steel from THYSSEN (Germany), and cooling fans from SCHORMANN (Germany). Material of the
windings is usually 99.99% pure electrolytic copper. Multiple conductors as well as CTC are used in
winding. The magnetic cores are manufactured from cold rolled grain oriented (CRGO) steel sheets.
A robust clamping structure, jointing technique and cutting and mitering of laminations ensure low no
load losses. The steel sheets in the core limbs and in the yokes are clamped together by glass-epoxy
bands.

Tank is constructed with boiler steel plates welded together and a cover plate bolted on top. Strength
is ensured by stiffeners. Earthing terminals are attached to both sides of tank. Measuring Instruments
are installed on cover plate. Surface protection is done by the process of sand blasting and by
applying weather resistant paint. Tap changers are in accordance with IEC standards. Usually
motorized On-Load tap changers are provided for voltage regulation. Off- Load tap changers can be
installed on request. The diverter switch is placed in hermetically sealed oil filled chamber in order to
avoid contamination of
 PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
These are the basic components of a transformer.
1. Laminated core
2. Windings
3. Insulating materials
4. Transformer oil
5. Tap changer
6. Conservator
7. Breather
8. Cooling tubes
9. Buchholz Relay
10. Explosion vent
Of the above, the first four are found in almost all the transformers, whereas the rest are found only in
transformers that are more than 50 KVA.
 CORE:
The core is used to support the windings in the
transformer. It also provides a low reluctance path to
the flow of magnetic flux. It is made of laminated soft
iron core in order to reduce eddy current loss and
Hysteresis loss. The composition of a transformer core
depends on such factors as voltage, current, and
frequency. The diameter of the transformer core is
directly proportional to copper loss and is inversely
proportional to iron loss. If the diameter of the core is
decreased, the weight of the steel in the core is
reduced, which leads to less core loss of the
transformer and the copper loss increase. When the
diameter of the core is increased, the opposite occurs.

Interleaved Joints in Transformer Core

Interleaved joint in transformer core is the simplest form of joints. This joint is shown
in the figure. The flux leaves and enters at the joint in perpendicular to grain
orientation. Hence cross grain losses are high in this type of joints. But considering the
low manufacturing cost, it is preferable to use in small rating transformer.

WINDING:
There are two windings wound over the transformer core that are insulated from each other.
Windings consists of several turns of copper coils bundled together, and each bundle is
connected in series to form a winding.
Windings can be classified in two different ways:
1. Based on the input and output supply
2. Based on the voltage range
Within the input/output supply classification, windings are further categorized:
1. Primary windings - These are the windings to which the input voltage is applied.
2. Secondary windings - These are the windings to which the output voltage is applied.
Within the voltage range classification, windings are further categorized:
 1. High voltage winding - These are made of copper coil. The number of turns is the multiple of the
number of turns in the low voltage windings. The copper coils are thinner than those of the low
voltage windings.
2. Low voltage windings - These have fewer turns than the high voltage windings. It is made of thick
copper conductors. This is because the current in the low voltage windings is higher than that of
high voltage windings.
Transformers can be supplied from either low voltage (LV) or high voltage (HV) windings based
on the requirement.

Types of windings
1-Layer winding
Single Layer Winding
In this type of winding, the complete slot is containing only one coil side of a coil. This type of
winding is not normally used for machines having commutators. It is shown in the Fig. 1.

In single layer windings permit the use of semienclosed and closed types of slots. Also the coils
can be pushed through the slots from one end of the core and are connected during the process of
windings at the other end. Here the insulation can be properly applied and consolidated which is
advantageous in large output machines with high voltage.
The single layer windings used in high voltage machines use small groups of concentrically placed
coils. The interlinking between these coils is in such a way so as to minimize the space taken up outside
the slot and in the overhang connections.

Double Layer Winding

It is shown in the Fig. 2. It
consists of identical cols with one
coilside of each coil in top half of the
slot and the other coilside in bottom
half of another slot which is nearly
one pole pitch away.
In the Fig. 2(a) there are two
coilsides per slot while in (b) there
are eight coilsides per slot. Each
layer may contain more than one
coil side if large number of coils are
required. For placing double layer
windings, usually open slots are
used.
2-Packet winding
It is the most efficient type of winding

3-disck winding
When four to five conductors of
different sizes are connecting in
series and are placed in the axial
direction, then Continuous Disc
Winding are made

Here, ducts are placed between each

conductors to reduce eddy losses
(heating losses).

Continuous Disc Winding are used for

voltage between 33kv and 132kv and
medium current rating.

Four to five conductors are joined to

form a single turn for high mechanical
strength and to withstand of high axial
forces.

INSULATING MATERIAL:
Insulating paper and cardboard are used in transformers to isolate primary and secondary
windings from each other and from the transformer core.
Transformer oil is another insulating material. Transformer oil can actually have two functions: in
addition to insulating it can also work to cool the core and coil assembly. The transformer's core
and windings must be completely immersed in the oil. Normally, hydrocarbon mineral oils are
used as transformer oil. Oil contamination is a serious problem because contamination robs the oil
of its dielectric properties and renders it useless as an insulating medium.
 CONSERVATOR:The conservator conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight,
metallic, cylindrical drum that is fitted above the transformer. The conservator tank is vented to the
atmosphere at the top, and the normal oil level is approximately in the middle of the conservator to
allow the oil to expand and contract as the temperature varies. The conservator is connected to the
main tank inside the transformer, which is completely filled with transformer oil through a pipeline.

BREATHER:
The breather controls the moisture level in the transformer. Moisture can arise when temperature
variations cause expansion and contraction of the insulating oil, which then causes the pressure
tochange inside the conservator. Pressure changes are balanced by a flow of atmospheric air in and
out of the conservator, which is how moisture can enter the system.
If the insulating oil encounters moisture, it can affect the paper insulation or may even lead to internal
faults. Therefore, it is necessary that the air entering the tank is moisture-free.
The transformer's breather is a cylindrical container that is filled with silica gel. When the atmospheric
air passes through the silica gel of the breather, the air's moisture is absorbed by the silica crystals.
The breather acts like an air filter for the transformer and controls the moisture level inside a
transformer. It is connected to the end of breather pipe.
TAPE CAHAGER:
The output voltage may vary according to the input voltage and the load. During loaded conditions,
the voltage on the output terminal decreases, whereas during off-load conditions the output voltage
increases. In order to balance the voltage variations, tap changers are used. Tap changers can be
either on-load tap changers or off-load tap changers. In an on-load tap changer, the tapping can be
changed without isolating the transformer from the supply. In an off-load tap changer, it is done after
disconnecting the transformer. Automatic tap changers are also available.

COLLING TUBE:
Cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The transformer oil is circulated through the
cooling tubes. The circulation of the oil may either be natural or forced. In natural circulation, when
the temperature of the oil rises the hot oil naturally rises to the top and the cold oil sinks downward.
Thus, the oil naturally circulates through the tubes. In forced circulation, an external pump is used to
circulate the oil.
Buchholz Relay:
The Bochholz Relay is a protective device container
housed over the connecting pipe from the main tank to
the conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults
occurring inside the transformer. It is a simple relay
that operates by the gases emitted due to the
decomposition of transformer oil during internal faults.
It helps in sensing and protecting the transformer from
internal faults.

EXPOSION VENT:
The explosion vent is used to expel boiling oil in the transformer during heavy internal faults in order
to avoid the explosion of the transformer. During heavy faults, the oil rushes out of the vent. The level
of the explosion vent is normally maintained above the level of the conservatory tank .
 TANK MANUFACTURING
TYPES
1-CORRUGATED PANEL TANK

2-TUBELER TANK
PROCESS:
FINNS PANELS;
A thin roll of MS Steel is mounted on CNC machine which is hydraulically operated. Finns panels of
required size are formed on that machine.

BAR CUTTING:
Round Bar for these Finn panels are cut
there for proper spacing of fins panels.
These bars are cut on a specific cutting
machine which is manually operated.

PUNCHING MACHINE:
A CNC punching machine is used to make a specific
dimension Holes in the metal sheets. This machine is used
to make hole in the cover plate of transformer tank.
SHARING MACHINE:
Sharing machine is used to cut the large sheet metal
in to specific dimension. The machine is
hydraulically operated. Sheet metal can be cut at a
specific angle. It is manually operated.

FLAME CUTTING:
Flame cutting method is used to cut the metal sheets
to cut the specific parts for tank manufacturing.

TIG WELDING
Tig welding is used to weld the outer of fins.(details are below)

MIG WELDING:
MiG welding is used to join panels to frames.(details are below)
ARC WELLDING:
Arc welding is used to connect these bars to fins panels.(details are below)

BOTTOM OF TRANSFORMER
Bottom is formed by bending a steel plate on a BENDING machine then weld.
COVER PLATE:
Cover plate is formed by making required holes through PUNCHING machine.
SHOT BLASTING;
Shot blasting is done to remove oil on the frame.
PAINT:
Electrostatic technique is used to paint the tank. Powdered is sprayed first than passed it through
oven at 230 degree centigrade.

INSPECTION:
Finally tank is inspected to check the leakage in the tank due to welding.

PROJECT
How to prevent oil leakage in tank due to welding.
Here are some details that will help to prevent oil leakage in
Transformer tank.
TYPES OF WELDING PRACTICE IN PEL

TIG welding
DEFINE:
Tungsten Inert gas Welding Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert
gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
produce the weld. The weld area and electrode is protected from oxidation or other atmospheric
contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though
some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power
supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly
ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.
 GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such
as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over
the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding,
allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A
related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused
welding arc and as a result is often automated GTAW weld area.

WORKING:
TIG welding requires three thing, heat, shielding, and filler metal. The heat is produced by electricity
passing through the tungsten electrode by creating an arc to the metal. The shielding comes from a
compressed bottle of gas that flows to the weld area to protect it from air. The filler metal is just a wire
that is dipped by hand into the arc and melted. The way these three things come together is pretty
simple. First the welder turns on the gas flow, many times by a valve on the TIG torch itself. The gas
begins to flow and starts protecting the weld area from the air. The torch is held over the weld joint
just far enough for the torch not to touch the metal. Then the welder presses a foot pedal and the TIG
torches tungsten electrode starts an arc. Once the arc is started the two pieces of metal begin to melt
by creating a puddle of metal. Once the puddle is established the welder with the other hand starts
filling the joint by manually dipping a welding wire into the arc to fill the joint. Ultimately this process
creates a single piece of metal.
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding method, due to the coordination
required by the welder. Similar to torch welding, GTAW normally requires two hands, since most
applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while
manipulating the welding torch in the other. Maintaining a short arc length, while preventing contact
between the electrode and the workpiece, is also important.
To strike the welding arc, a high frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil) provides an electric
spark. This spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows
the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.5–3 mm
(0.06–0.12 in) apart.
Once the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool, the size
of which depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of current. While maintaining a
constant separation between the electrode and the workpiece, the operator then moves the torch
back slightly and tilts it backward about 10–15 degrees from vertical. Filler metal is added manually to
the front end of the weld pool as it is needed.
Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch forward (to
advance the weld pool) and adding filler metal. The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each
time the electrode advances, but it is always kept inside the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its
surface and contamination of the weld. Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting
temperature, such as aluminum, require that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while
staying inside the gas shield. If held too close to the arc, the filler rod can melt before it makes contact
with the weld puddle. As the weld nears completion, the arc current is often gradually reduced to
allow the weld crater to solidify and prevent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld
SHIELDING GASES:
Shielding gases for TIG welding are used to protect the weld area from any air that will contaminate
the weld. The two most commonly used gasses to TIG weld are:

• Argon / Ar (typically used)

• Helium / He

TIG Welding Techniques:

When it comes to TIG welding techniques many of the standard patters still apply. What really
changes is the way the filler rod is added and the fact that you need to use both hands at the same
time. When adding the filler rod the filler rod should always be kept in the shielded gas area to avoid
contaminating the filler wire. Most of the other changes have to do with how the arc is started. With a
high frequency start, the starting of an arc is not an issue. With manual or scratch start there can be
some trouble. The main problem with scratch start is that the tungsten may contaminate the weld and
loose its shape in the process. The way most TIG welds are done is with a side to side motion of the
TIG torch. As long as your amperage is set properly and you see the weld puddle wash into the sides
of the weld you should be fine. Just like any other welding process there is not a single pattern or way
to make a good weld. TIG welding works well in all positions on almost any metal. The only
differences between a flat, horizontal, vertical and an overhead weld is how you mentally approach
the task. Most of it comes down to a positive mind set and practicing! The end result is you want a
smooth uniform bead that has washed into the joint properly.
Forehand vs. Backhand
When it comes to forehand vs’ backhanded welding it does not make much of a difference. Since TIG
welding uses a filler metal added by hand, the arc is what determines the weld penetration. As long as
the puddle washes into the metal smoothly it makes no difference how you travel. With other welding
processes the angle of the travel is unforgiving! TIG welding on the other hand is very forgiving when
it comes to torch angle and travel direction as long as the gas coverage is good.

Freehand
The freehand technique for TIG welding is exactly that, freehand. It’s pretty simple, just start a puddle
and start adding filler metal with the other hand. Keep repeating!

Freehand TIG welding stainless steel railing on the Carnival Spirit cruise ship.

Walking the Cup

Walking the cup is a welding technique that gives the welder much more control then free hand
welding! When comparing freehand welding to walking the cup there is a huge difference in weld
quality and appearance! A weld that was done by walking the cup is almost robot like with the bead
pattern very uniform and consistent. This is because the cup of the TIG torch is always leaning on the
weld joint and the arc length is kept the same. Arc length is the key when it comes to TIG welding
bead appearance. To walk the cup you need to place the TIG torch cup on the weld joint and set the
tungsten so that it is just above the weld joint. Then simply walk the cup and add or hold your filler
wire in the joint. The cup gets its forward travel speed by moving the TIG torch handle in a way that
creates a forward travel motion. There are many ways to walk the cup but the ultimately it keeps the
welder’s hands steady by providing a something to lean on at all times with a consistent arc length!
DEFECTS, CAUSES AND PREVENTIONS:
WELD POROSITY;

Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused by the freezing in of gas
released from the weld pool as it solidifies. The porosity can take several forms:

• distributed
• surface breaking pores
• wormhole
• crater pipes
Cause and prevention

Distributed porosity and surface pores

Distributed porosity (Fig. 1) is normally found as fine pores throughout the weld bead.
Surface breaking pores (Fig. 2) usually indicate a large amount of distributed porosity

Fig. 1. Uniformly distributed porosity

Fig. 2. Surface breaking pores (T fillet weld in primed plate)

Cause

Porosity is caused by the absorption of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the molten
weld pool which is then released on solidification to become trapped in the weld metal.
Nitrogen and oxygen absorption in the weld pool usually originates from poor gas
shielding. As little as 1% air entrainment in the shielding gas will cause distributed
porosity and greater than 1.5% results in gross surface breaking pores. Leaks in the gas
line, too high a gas flow rate, draughts and excessive turbulence in the weld pool are
frequent causes of porosity.

Hydrogen can originate from a number of sources including moisture from inadequately
dried electrodes, fluxes or the workpiece surface. Grease and oil on the surface of the
workpiece or filler wire are also common sources of hydrogen.

Surface coatings like primer paints and surface treatments such as zinc coatings, may
generate copious amounts of fume during welding. The risk of trapping the evolved gas
will be greater in T joints than butt joints especially when fillet welding on both
sides (see Fig 2). Special mention should be made of the so-called weldable (low zinc)
primers. It should not be necessary to remove the primers but if the primer thickness
exceeds the manufacturer's recommendation, porosity is likely to result especially when
using welding processes other than MMA.

Prevention

The gas source should be identified and removed as follows:

Air entrainment

- seal any air leak

- avoid weld pool turbulence

- use filler with adequate level of deoxidants

- reduce excessively high gas flow

- avoid draughts

Hydrogen

- dry the electrode and flux

- clean and degrease the workpiece surface

Surface coatings

- clean the joint edges immediately before welding

- check that the weldable primer is below the recommended maximum thickness
Elongated pores or wormholes

Wormholes

Characteristically, wormholes are elongated pores (Fig. 3) which produce a herring bone
appearance on the radiograph.

Cause

Wormholes are indicative of a large amount of gas being formed which is then trapped in the
solidifying weld metal. Excessive gas will be formed from gross surface contamination or very
thick paint or primer coatings. Entrapment is more likely in crevices such as the gap beneath the
vertical member of a horizontal-vertical, T joint which is fillet welded on both sides.

When welding T joints in primed plates it is essential that the coating thickness on the edge of
the vertical member is not above the manufacturer's recommended maximum, typically 20µm,
through over-spraying.

Prevention

Eliminating the gas and cavities prevents wormholes.

Gas generation

- clean the workpiece surfaces at and adjacent to the location where the weld will be made

- remove any surface contamination, in particular oil, grease, rust and residue from NDT
operations

- remove any surface coatings from the joint area to expose bright material

- check the primer thickness is below the manufacturer's maximum

Joint geometry

- avoid a joint geometry which creates a cavity

Crater pipe
A crater pipe forms during the final solidification of the weld pool and is often associated with
some gas porosity.

Cause

This imperfection results from shrinkage on weld pool solidification. Consequently, conditions
which exaggerate the liquid to solid volume change will promote its formation. Extinguishing the
welding arc will result in the rapid solidification of the weld pool.

In TIG welding, autogenous techniques, or stopping the welding wire entering the weld pool
before extinguishing the welding arc, will effect crater formation and may promote the pipe
imperfection.

Prevention

Crater pipe imperfection can be prevented by controlling the rate at which the welding arc is
extinguished or by welder technique manipulating the welding arc and welding wire

Removal of stop

- use run-off tag to enable the welding arc to be extinquisehd outside the welded joint

- grind out the weld run stop crater before continuing with the next electrode or
depositing the subsequent weld run
 MIG WELDING
Definition
MIG welding is an arc welding process in which a continuous solid wire electrode is fed through a
welding gun and into the weld pool, joining the two base materials together. A shielding gas is also
sent through the welding gun and protects the weld pool from contamination. In fact, MIG stands for
"Metal Inert Gas." The technical name for it is "Gas Metal Arc Welding" (or GMAW), and the slang
name for it is "wire welding."

The MIG process enables the home-hobby, artist, farmer/rancher, motorsports enthusiast or DIY
welder to make most types of fabrication and maintenance/repair welds on material from 24-gauge up
to 1/2-in. thick. In addition to flexibility, many people turn to MIG welding because they've heard that
it's an easy process to learn. Some claim it's "no harder to use than a glue gun." While not quite that
simple, it is true that most people can become competent MIG welders by following some basic
advice.

WORKING
Safety First :

Before tackling any welding project, you need to make sure you have the proper safety
apparel and that any potential fire hazards are removed from the welding area. Basic welding safety
apparel includes leather shoes or boots, cuff-less full length pants, a flame-resistant, long sleeve
jacket, leather gloves, a welding helmet, safety glasses and a bandana or "skull cap" to protect the
top of your head from sparks and spatter.

Metal Preparation :

Unlike Stick and Flux-Cored electrodes, which have higher amounts of special
additives, the solid MIG wire does not combat rust, dirt, oil or other contaminants very well. Use a
metal brush or grinder and clean down to bare metal before striking an arc. Make sure your work
clamp connects to clean metal, too; any electrical impedance will affect wire feeding performance.

To ensure strong welds on thicker metal, bevel the joint to ensure the weld fully penetrates to the
base metal. This is especially important for butt joints.
Equipment Preparation:

• Check your cables: Before striking an arc, check your welding equipment to make sure all of
the cable connections are tight fitting and free of fraying or other damage.
• Select electrode polarity: MIG welding requires DC electrode positive, or reverse polarity. The
polarity connections are usually found on the inside of the machine.
• Set gas flow: Turn on the shielding gas and set the flow rate to 20 to 25 cubic feet per hour. If
you suspect leaks in your gas hose, apply a soapy water solution and look for bubbles. If you
spot a leak, discard the hose and install a new one.
• Check tension. Too much or too little tension on either the drive rolls or the wire spool hub can
lead to poor wire feeding performance. Adjust according to your owner's manual.
• Inspect consumables. Remove excess spatter from contact tubes, replace worn contact tips
and liners and discard the wire if it appears rusty.

Wire Selection

For steel, there are two common wire types. Use an AWS classification ER70S-3 for all-purpose
welding. Use ER70S-6 wire when more deoxidizers are needed for welding on dirty or rusty steel. As
for wire diameter, .030-in. diameter makes a good all-around choice for welding a wide range of metal
thicknesses in home and motorsports applications. For welding thinner material, use a .023-in. wire to
reduce heat input. For welding thicker material at higher total heat levels, use .035-in. (or .045-in. wire
if it's within your welder's output range).

Gas Selection

• A 75 percent argon/25 percent CO2 blend (also called "75/25" or "C25") works as the best "all
purpose" shielding gas for carbon steel. It produces the least amount spatter, best bead
appearance and won't promote burn-through on thinner metals.
• 100 percent CO2 provides deeper penetration, but also increases spatter and the bead will be
rougher than with 75/25.

Voltage and Amperage

How much voltage and amperage a weld requires depends on numerous variables, including metal
thicknesses, type of metal, joint configuration, welding position, shielding gas and wire diameter
speed (among others). Miller provides two tools to simplify setting proper voltage and amperage:

1. A convenient reference chart, located on the inside of the door housing the wire feed system.
2. Miller's unique Auto-Setä function, found on four Millermatic models. Simply select the wire
diameter you're using (a blue light will show that Auto-Set is on) and dial in the thickness of
metal on which you plan to weld. Auto-Set then selects the proper voltage, amperage and wire
feed speed for you.

Wire Stick-out

Stick-out is the length of unmelted electrode extending from the tip of the contact tube, and it does not
include arc length. Generally, maintain a stick-out of 3/8 in. and listen for that "sizzling bacon" sound.
If the arc sounds irregular, one culprit could be that your stick-out is too long, which is an extremely
common error.
Push or Pull?

Travel Angle

Travel angle is defined as the angle relative to the gun in a perpendicular position. Normal welding
conditions in all positions call for a travel angle of 5 to 15 degrees. Travel angles beyond 20 to 25
degrees can lead to more spatter, less penetration and general arc instability.

Work Angle

Work angle is the gun position relative to the angle of the welding joint, and it varies with each
welding position and joint configuration.

HOW TO USE:
This is a basic guide on how to weld using a metal inert gas (MIG) welder. MIG welding is the
awesome process of using electricity to melt and join pieces of metal together. MIG welding is
sometimes referred to as the "hot glue gun" of the welding world and is generally regarded as one of
the easiest type of welding to learn.

Step 1: Background

MIG welding was developed in the 1940's and 60 years later the general principle is still very much
the same. MIG welding uses an arc of electricity to create a short circuit between a continuously fed
anode (+ the wire-fed welding gun) and a cathode ( - the metal being welded).

The heat produced by the short circuit, along with a non-reactive (hence inert) gas locally melts the
metal and allows them to mix together. Once the heat is removed, the metal begins to cool and
solidify, and forms a new piece of fused metal.

A few years ago the full name - Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding was changed to Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) but if you call it that most people won't know what the heck your talking about - the
name MIG welding has certainly stuck.

MIG welding is useful because you can use it to weld many different types of metals: carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, silicon bronze and other alloys.

Here are some advantages to MIG welding:

• The ability to join a wide range of metals and thicknesses

• All-position welding capability
• A good weld bead
• A minimum of weld splatter
• Easy to learn

Here are some disadvantages of MIG welding:

• MIG welding can only be used on thin to medium thick metals

• The use of an inert gas makes this type of welding less portable than arc welding which requires no
external source of shielding gas
 • Produces a somewhat sloppier and less controlled weld as compared to TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas
Welding)

Step 2: How the Machine Works

A MIG welder has a couple of different parts. If you open one up you will be able to see something that looks
like what is pictured below.

The Welder

Inside the welder you will find a spool of wire and a series of rollers that pushes the wire out to the welding
gun. There isn't much going on inside this part of the welder, so it's worth it to take just a minute and familiarize
yourself with the different parts. If the wire feed jams up for any reason (this does happen from time to time)
you will want to check this part of the machine out.

The large spool of wire should be held on with a tension nut. The nut should be tight enough to keep the spool
from unraveling, but not so tight that the rollers can't pull the wire from the spool.

If you follow the wire from the spool you can see that it goes into a set of rollers that pull the wire off of the big
roll. This welder is set up to weld aluminum, so it has aluminum wire loaded into it. The MIG welding I am
going to describe in this instructable is for steel which uses a copper colored wire.

The Gas Tank

Assuming you are using a shielding gas with your MIG welder there will be a tank of gas behind the MIG. The
tank is either 100% Argon or a mixture of CO2 and Argon. This gas shields the weld as it forms. Without the
gas your welds will look brown, splattered and just generally not very nice. Open the main valve of the tank and
make sure that there is some gas in the tank. Your gauges should be reading between 0 and 2500 PSI in the tank
and the regulator should be set between 15 and 25 PSI depending on how you like to set things up and the type
of welding gun you are using.
Once the wire passes through the rollers it is sent down a set of hoses which lead to the welding gun. The hoses
carry the charged electrode and the argon gas.

The Welding Gun

The welding gun is the business end of things. It's where most of your attention will be directed during the
welding process. The gun consists of a trigger that controls the wire feed and the flow of electricity. The wire is
guided by a replaceable copper tip that is made for each specific welder. Tips vary in size to fit whatever
diameter wire you happen to be welding with. Most likely this part of the welder will already be set up for you.
The outside of the tip of gun is covered by a ceramic or metal cup which protects the electrode and directs the
flow of gas out the tip of the gun. You can see the small piece of wire sticking out of the tip of the welding gun
in the pictures below.

The Ground Clamp

The ground clamp is the cathode (-) in the circuit and completes the circuit between the welder, the welding gun
and the project. It should either be clipped directly to the piece of metal being welding or onto a metal welding
table like the one pictured below (we have two welders hence two clamps, you only need one clamp from the
welder attached to your piece to weld).

The clip must be making good contact with the piece being welded for it to work so be sure to grind off any rust
or paint that may be preventing it from making a connection with your work.
Step 3: Safety Gear

MIG welding can be a pretty safe thing to do so long as you follow a few important safety precautions. Because
of MIG welding produces lots of heat and lots of harmful light, you need to take a few steps to protect yourself.

Safety Steps:

• The light that is generated by any form of arc welding is extremely bright. It will burn your eyes and your
skin just like the sun will if you don't protect yourself. The first thing you will need to weld is a welding
mask.
• Wear gloves and leathers to protect yourself from molten metal splattering off of your work piece.
• Do not wear open toed shoes or synthetic shoes that have mesh over the top of your toes.
• Weld in a well ventilated area. Welding produces hazardous fumes which you shouldn't breathe in if
you can avoid it. Wear either a mask, or a respirator if you are going to be welding for a prolonged
amount of time.

Step 4: Prep for Your Weld

Before you start welding make sure things are properly setup at both the welder and on the piece you
are about to weld.

The Welder

Check to make sure that the valve to the shielding gas is open and that you have around 20ft 3/hr

The Metal

While you can pretty much just take a MIG welder, squeeze the trigger and and touch it to your work
piece to weld you won't get a great result. If you want the weld to be strong and clean, taking 5
minutes to clean your metal and grind down any edges that are being joined will really help your weld.

First start laying beads about an inch or two long. If you make any one weld too long your work piece
will heat up in that area and could become warped or compromised, so it's best to do a little welding
in one spot, move to another, and then come back to finish up what's left in between.

Step 6: Welding Metal Together

Once you've got your method tested out a bit on some scrap, it's time to do the actual weld. In this
photo I am doing just a simple butt weld on some square stock. We've already ground down the
edges of the surfaces that are going to be welded so that the seem where they meet makes a small
"v".

We are basically just taking the welder and making our sewing motion across the top of the seem. It's
ideal to weld from the bottom of the stock up to the top, pushing the weld forward with the tip of the
gun, however that isn't always comfortable or a good way to start learning. In the beginning it's
perfectly fine to weld in whatever direction/position that is comfortable and that works for you.
Once we finished welding the pipe we were left with a big bump where the filler came in. You can
leave that if you like, or you can grind it flat depending on what you are using the metal for. Once we
ground it down we found once side where the weld didn't penetrate properly.

Step 7: Grind Down the Weld

If your weld isn't on a piece of metal that will show, or if you don't care about how the weld looks, then
you are done with your weld. However, if the weld is showing or you are welding something that you
want to look nice then you will most likely want to grind down your weld and smooth it out.

Step 8: Common Problems

It can take a good amount of practice to start welding reliably every time, so don't worry if you have
some problems when you first stop. Some common problems are:

• No or not enough shielding gas from the gun is surrounding the weld. You can tell when this happens
because the weld will start splattering little balls of metal, and will turn nasty colors of brown and green.
Turn up the pressure on the gas and see if that helps.
• Weld is not penetrating. This is easy to tell as your weld will be weak and won't be fully joining your two
piece of metal.
• Weld burns a while right through your material. This is caused by welding with too much power. Simply
turn down your voltage and it should go away.
• Too much metal in your weld pool or the weld is globy like oatmeal. This is caused by too much wire
coming out of the gun and can be fixed by slowing down your wire speed.

Step 9: Wire Fuses to Tip/Change the Tip

Sometimes if you are welding too close to your material or you are building up too much heat the tip
of the wire can actually weld itself onto the tip of your welding gun. This looks like a little blob of metal
at the tip of your gun and you'll know when you have this problem because the wire won't come out of
the gun anymore. Fixing this is pretty simple if you just pull on the blob with a set of pliers.
If you really scorch the tip of your gun and fuse the hole closed with metal then you need to turn the
welder off and replace the tip. Follow the steps and the overly detailed photo series below to see how
it's done.

Step 10: Replace Wire Feed to Gun

Sometimes the wire gets kinked and won't advance through the hose or the gun even when the tip is
clear and open. Take a look inside of your welder. Check out the spool and the rollers as sometimes
the wire can become kinked in there and need to be re-fed through the hose and the gun before it will
work again

Step 11: Other Resources

Some of the information in this Instructable was taken from an online Mig Welding Tutorial from the
UK. A bunch more of the info was gathered from my personal experience and from an Instructables
Intern welding workshop that we held at the beginning of the summer.
DEFECTS:
some of the most common weld defects are porosity, lack of fusion and burn through, with aluminum
presenting a few more welding challenges than steel. Aluminum conducts heat about six times faster
than steel, plus it has excellent thermal conductivity coupled with a low melting point, making it
extremely susceptible to warping and burn-through. Additionally, aluminum wire has less tensile
strength, which can pose wire feeding issues and lead to weld defects if the correct equipment is not
used. We'll highlight the differences here.

Porosity:
Shielding gas protects the molten weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere, which would otherwise
contaminate the weld. Figure 1 shows how the lack of shielding gas on steel can cause porosity
(pinholes) in the weld bead are formed in the face and weld interior in the absence of shielding gas.
Lack of shielding gas can be caused by improper setting on the equipment, a hole in the gun liner or
wind blowing the shielding gas away.

Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion can occur when the voltage or wire feed speed is set too low, or when the operator's
travel speed is too fast. Because aluminum conducts heat much faster than steel, it is prone to lack of
fusion at the start of a weld until enough energy is put into the weld. Some welding equipment
addresses this by automatically ramping up the current at the start of a weld and then decreasing it to
avoid too much heat build up.

Craters
With aluminum, craters can form at the end of a weld. If they are not filled in, they create a stress
point, which can lead to cracking. This requires the user to quickly trigger the gun again to fill in the
crater, although some welding machines offer a crater timer that will fill in the crater when the gun
trigger is released.

Burn Through
Too much heat input can be caused by setting voltage or wire feed speed too high or by too slow of a
travel speed. This can lead to warping or burn through especially on the thinner materials found in the
sign industry, aluminum being more prone to the effects than steel. Generally aluminum requires a
faster travel speed than steel to avoid heat build up.

Feeding aluminum
Because of its low columnar strength, feeding aluminum wire has been likened to pushing a wet
noodle through a straw. "Birdnesting," or the tangling of the wire between the drive roll and the liner is
a common, time-consuming and costly problem. Clearing it requires the operator to stop welding, cut
the wire, discard the wire in the gun, and refeed new wire through the liner. It also may require
cleaning or changing the contact tip because of the burnback caused when the wire stops feeding.

There are several ways to feed aluminum wire: Push only, spool gun, push-pull system and
continuous feed push only system.

Push only:
Feeding aluminum wire through a push only system can be difficult, but it can be done on a limited
basis. It requires u-groove drive rolls to provide more surface contact with the wire, a Teflon liner,
adequate drive-roll pressure, the ability to keep the gun cable straight and a high tolerance for pain.

Spool Gun:
A spool gun, such as the Spoolmatic® 15A or 30A, eliminates the possibility of birdnesting by putting
a 4-inch (1-lb.) spool on the gun, so the wire only feeds a few inches. Spool guns can accommodate
aluminum wire diameters from .023 to 1/16-inch and allow the operator to use longer cables (15'-50').

A spool gun needs to have the roll changed after every pound of wire is used, compared with the 8-
or 15 lb spool on a push-pull system.

Push-pull gun:
With a push-pull gun, a motor in the gun pulls the wire through the liner, while the motor in the welder
or feeder control becomes an assist motor. By maintaining consistent tension on the wire, the push-
pull system helps eliminate birdnesting. It is more ergonomic than the spool gun, since the weight of
the spool is not in the operator's hands.

Also, the spool needs to be changed less often than on a spool gun and allows the purchase of larger
spools. However, remember that aluminum builds up an oxide layer after being exposed to air for a
while. If you only go through a pound or two of aluminum a week, the smaller spool may be a better
choice.

Choosing the right equipment

Choosing the right equipment can address many of these problems before they occur. AutoSetTM
technology, as found on many of Miller's Millermatic welders, relieves the operator of having to dial in
parameters when welding steel. With Auto-Set, the operator simply dials in the thickness of the steel
and the diameter of the wire being used, and the machine sets the optimal voltage and wire feed
speed.
SOLUTION/REMEDIES:

Porosity Problem #1: Improper Surface Conditions

The most common cause of weld porosity is an improper surface condition of the metal. For example,
oil, rust, paint or grease on the base metal may prevent proper weld penetration and hence lead to
porosity. Welding processes that generate a slag such as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) tend to tolerate surface contaminates better than GMAW since
components found within the slag help to clean the metal’s surface. In GMAW, the only contamination
protection is provided by the elements which are alloyed into the wire.

Remedies
To control porosity, use a deoxidizer within the wire such as silicon, manganese or trace amounts of
aluminum, zirconium or titanium. Wire chemistry can be determined by referring to the American
Welding Society (AWS) wire classification system.

Porosity Problem #2: Gas Coverage

The second leading cause of porosity in welds is a problem with the shielding gas coverage. The
GMAW process relies on the shielding gas to physically protect the weld puddle from the air and to
act as an arc stabilizer. If the shielding gas is disturbed, there is a potential that air could contaminate
the weld puddle and lead to porosity.

Remedies
Shielding gas flow varies depending on wire size, amperage, transfer mode and wind speed. Typical
gas flow should be approximately 30-40 cubic feet per hour. Using a flow meter, check that the
shielding gas flow is set properly. There are a variety of flow meters on the market today ranging from
simple dial gauges to ball flows all the way up to sophisticated, computerized models. Some
operators mistakenly think that a pressure regulator is all that is needed, but the pressure meter will
not set flow.

A pure carbon dioxide shielding gas requires the use of special flow meters designed specifically for
carbon dioxide. These special flow meters are not affected by the frosting that may occur as the
carbon dioxide changes from liquid form to a gas.

Porosity Problem#3: Base Metal Properties

Another cause of weld porosity may be attributed simply to the chemistry of the base metal. For
instance, the base metal may be extremely high in sulfur content.

Remedy
Unfortunately, if the problem with porosity lies within the base metal properties, there is not much that
can be done. The best solution is to use a different grade of steel or switch to a slag-generating
welding process.

Improper Bead Problem #1: Insufficient Heat Input

A convex or “ropy” bead indicates that the settings being used are too cold for the thickness of the
material being welded. In other words, there is insufficient heat in the weld to enable it to penetrate
into the base metal.
Remedies
To correct a problem with running “too cold,” an operator must first determine if the amperage is
proper for the thickness of the material. Charts are available from the major manufacturers, including
Lincoln Electric, that provide guidelines on amperage use under varying conditions.

If the amperage is determined to be high enough, check the voltage. Voltage that is too low usually is
accompanied by another telltale sign of a problem: a high amount of spatter. On the other hand, if
voltage is too high, the operator will have problems controlling the process and the weld will have a
tendency to undercut.

Improper Bead Problem #2: Technique

A concave or convex-shaped bead may also be caused by using an improper welding technique. For
example, a push or forehand technique tends to create a flatter bead shape than a pull or backhand
technique.

Remedy
For best bead shapes, it is recommended to use a push angle of 5-10 degrees.

Improper Bead Problem #3: Inadequate Work Cable

Problems with the work cable can result in inadequate voltage available at the arc. Evidence of a
work cable problem would be improper bead shape or a hot work cable.

Remedy
Work cables have a tendency to overheat if they are too small or excessively worn. In replacing the
cable, consult a chart to determine size based on length and current being used. The higher the
current and longer the distance, the larger the cable needed.

Lack of Fusion
If the consumable has improperly adhered to the base metal, a lack of fusion may occur. Improper
fusion creates a weak, low quality weld and may ultimately lead to structural problems in the finished
product.

Remedies
To guarantee correct fusion, ensure that voltage and amperage are set correctly. If the operator is still
having problems after making those adjustments, it may require a change in the welding technique.
For example, changing to a flux-cored wire or using the spray arc transfer method instead. In spray
arc transfer, the arc never goes out so cold lapping and lack of fusion are not issues. Spray arc
welding takes place at amperages high enough to melt the end of the wire and propel the droplet
across the arc into the weld puddle.

Faulty Wire Delivery Problem #1: Contact Tip

There is a tendency among operators to use oversized tips, which can lead to contact problems,
inconsistencies in the arc, porosity and poor bead shape.

Remedy
Make sure that the contact tip in the gun is in working order and sized appropriately to the wire being
used. Visually inspect the tip and if it is wearing out (becoming egg-shaped), it will need to be
replaced.
Faulty Wire Delivery Problem #2: Gun Liner
A gun liner, like the contact tip, must be sized to the wire being fed through it. It also needs to be
cleaned or replaced when wire is not being fed smoothly.

Remedy
To clean the liner, blow it out with low-pressure compressed air from the contact tip end, or replace
the liner.

Faulty Wire Delivery Problem #3: Worn Out Gun

Inside the gun are very fine strands of copper wire that will eventually break and wear out with time.

Remedy
If the gun becomes extremely hot during use in one particular area, that is an indication that there is
internal damage and it will need to be replaced. In addition, be certain that the gun is large enough for
the application. Operators like to use small guns since they are easy on the hand, but if the gun is too
small for the application, it will overheat.

Faulty Wire Delivery Problem #4: Drive Roll

Drive rolls on the wire feeder periodically wear out and need to be replaced.

Remedies
There are usually visual indications of wear on the grooves of the rolls if replacement is necessary.
Also, make sure that the drive roll tension is set properly. To check tension, disconnect the welding
input cable from the feeder or switch to the cold feed option. Feed the wire and pinch it as it exits the
gun with the thumb and forefinger. If the wire can be stopped by pinching, more drive roll tension is
needed. The optimum tension will be indicated by feeding that is not stopped while pinching the wire.
If the drive roll tension is too high, it may deform the wire leading to birdnesting (tangling) and a burn
back (when the arc climbs the wire and fuses the wire to the contact tip).

Make sure that the drive rolls and the guide tube are as close together as possible. Next, check the
path from where the wire leaves the reel to where it enters the drive rolls. The wire must line up with
the incoming guide tubes so there is no scrapping of the wire as it goes through the tube. On some
wire feeders, the wire spool position is adjustable -- align it so that it makes a straight path into the
tube.

Faulty Wire Delivery Problem #5: Wire Coming Off Reel and Tangling
Some wire feeding problems occur because the inertia from the wire reel causes it to coast after the
gun trigger is released.

Remedy
If the reel continues to coast, the wire on the reel will loosen and the wire may come off or become
tangled. Most wire feeding systems have an adjustable brake on the wire reel. The brake tension
should be set so that the reel does not coast.
 ARC WELDING
Definition:
It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC)
current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.

Consumable electrode methods:

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also
known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike an
arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode rod is made of
a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives
off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld
area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a
separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and
inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must
be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-automatic or
automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler
metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site
from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with
GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well. With continuously fed filler
electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however the more complicated equipment
reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for
welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically
applied to steels

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually a fine
metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes
used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere.
The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck
beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the
atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and,
combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions
are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is
produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products.[10] As the arc is
not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet),
and 1G (flat groove) positions.
Non-consumable electrode methods:
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process
that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a
separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a
stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be
accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most
often applied to stainless steel and light metals

A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make
the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical
and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current,
the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is
much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated
welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A Other arc welding processes
include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and
stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues:
Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminium, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to
hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water
decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material,
causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are
delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but
when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at 450 to
550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven.

Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion. When
subjected to temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a time, chromium reacts with carbon
in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing
their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion
in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This
kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.

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