ANIMALS: FORM AND FUNCTION 5.

Organ-system grade of organization

th
Integrated Principles of Zoology (17 edition)  organs work together to perform some
th
Campbell Biology (9 edition) function
 systems are associated with basic body
ANIMAL CELL TYPES AND TISSUES functions
 Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an
organism
 Physiology - the study of the biological
functions an organism performs
 The comparative study of animals reveals that
form and function are closely correlated.
 Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of
organization, each with emergent properties.

Structural Organization in Higher Forms

Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of
Unit Study
Integumentary Respiratory
Muscular Reproductive
Organ Skeletal Digestive Anatomy
System Nervous Endocrine
Circulatory Immune
Excretory
oral cavity brain
Organ pharynx eye
esophagus liver Anatomy
 Physical Laws and the environment constrain stomach kidney
animal size and shape pancreas lung
 Body plan of an animal results from a pattern of intestines anus
development programmed by the genome Somatic
- epithelial Reproductive
Tissue - connective - sperm Histology
Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity
- muscular - egg/oocyte
1. Protoplasmic grade of organization - nervous
 unicellular organisms Cytology/
 all life functions are confined within the Cell Same as in tissue Cell
boundaries of a single cell Biology
 protoplasm is differentiated into
organelles Animal Body Plans
1. Symmetry
 Refers to balanced proportions
 Correspondence in size and shape of
parts on opposite sides of median plane

Types of Symmetry
2. Cellular grade of organization a. Spherical Symmetry
 aggregation of cells that are functionally  Any plane passing through the center
differentiated divides a body into equivalent or mirrored
 a division of labor is evident halves
 Found chiefly among some unicellular
forms
 Rare in animals
 Best suited for floating and rolling

3. Cell-tissue grade of organization

 aggregation of similar cells into definite
patterns of layers, thus becoming tissue

b. Radial Symmetry
 Body can be divided into similar halves
by more than two planes passing through
the longitudinal axis
 Found in some sponges and hydras,
jellyfish, sea urchins
 Usually sessile, free floating or weakly
4. Tissue-organ grade of organization
swimming
 an aggregation of tissues into organs
 c. Biradial Symmetry  The free surface of the epithelium is exposed
 Only two planes passing through the to air or fluid
longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves  Structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia,
because of some part that is single or flagella
paired Basement membrane
 Example: comb jellies – where the cells at the base of the barrier are
attached; also called basal lamina

Types of Intercellular Links

d. Bilateral Symmetry
 Body can be divided along a sagittal
plane into mirrored portions – right and
left halves
 Much better suited for directional
(forward) movement
 Strongly associated with cephalization

1. Tight Junction
 Membranes of adjacent cells are fused,
forming continuous belts around cells
2. Segmentation  Prevent leakage of extracellular fluid
 Metamerism across a layer of epithelial cells
 Serial repetition of
similar body segments 2. Desmosomes
along the longitudinal  Fasten cells together into strong sheets,
axis of the body
much like rivets
 Segment (metamere  Reinforced by intermediate filaments of
or somite) keratin
 Attach muscle cells to each other in a
muscle
Planes of Symmetry
1. Sagittal Plane (Dorso-ventral)
3. Gap Junction
2. Frontal/ Longitudinal Plane (Antero-  Provide cytoplasmic channels between
posterior) adjacent cells
3. Transverse Plane (Medio-lateral)
 Salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other
small molecules can pass through
channels

Types of Epithelial Tissues according to Layering

Animal Cell Types

Four main categories of animal tissues
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue
 Covers the outside of the body and lines
organs and cavities within the body 1. Simple epithelium
 Cells are closely joined; compact; occurs in  Made up of a single layer of cells
sheets of tightly packed cells 2. Stratified epithelium
 Little intercellular substance  Made up of many layers of cells
 Polarized (apical and basal surface) 3. Pseudostratified epithelium
 Made up of a single layer of cells but
appears stratified

Types of epithelial cells according to shape

1. Cuboidal – like dice
2. Squamous – flat like tiles
3. Columnar – like bricks on end

Simple squamous epithelium

 Composed of flattened cells
  Form a continuous delicate lining of blood
capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces
 Permits the passive diffusion of gases and
tissue fluids into and out of cavities

Glandular epithelia
 Absorb or secrete chemical solutions
Stratified squamous epithelium Types based on how products are released:
 Consists of 2 to many layers of cells a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular) -
 Adapted to withstand mild mechanical functions in digestion, secreting enzymes
abrasion and an alkaline solution into the small
 Basal layers of cells undergo continuous intestine via a duct
mitotic divisions b. endocrine - functions in homeostasis,
 Lines the oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, secreting the hormones insulin and
vagina of mammals, skin glucagon into the blood
c. mixed (e.g., pancreas)

Special terms of some epithelial tissues

1. Mesothelium – squamous cells lining serous
cavities such as peritoneal and pleural
cavities and lining of visceral organs
2. Endothelium – lining of blood and lymph
vessels
Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Short, box-like cells Connective Tissue
 Usually lines small ducts and tubules  For repair and mechanical support
 May have active secretory and absorptive  Exchange of metabolites between blood and
functions tissues
 Storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues
 Bind structures to preserve integrity of
organization
 Protection against infection
 Paucity of cells; more intercellular substance
(fibers and ground substance)
Simple columnar epithelium  The extracellular matrix generally consists of
 Like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller a web of fibers embedded in a uniform
 Found on highly absorptive surfaces such as foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid
intestinal tract and female reproductive tract
 In some organs, cells may be ciliated Amorphous ground substance
 Glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin
sulfate
 Permit diffusion of nutrients, substances,
water, gases, and wastes
 Important in areas where small blood vessels
are absent
Stratified columnar epithelium
 Consists of at least two layers of cells Types of Cells present in Connective Tissues
 Found along some areas of the anorectal A. Fixed
region and salivary duct 1. fibroblast/fibrocyte
2. mesenchymal
3. adipose
4. fixed macrophage

B. Wandering (from blood)

1. monocyte
2. lymphocyte
Pseudostratified epithelium 3. plasma cell
 Consists of a single layer of cells varying in 4. eosinophil
height and the position of their nuclei. 5. mast cell
 In many vertebrates, forms a mucous
membrane that lines portions of the Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue
respiratory tract.

Transitional epithelium
 A type of stratified epithelium
 Specialized to accommodate great stretching
 Found in the urinary tract and bladder
Three kinds of connective tissue fibers
1. Collagenous fibers (white)
 Made of collagen Chondrocyte
 Non-elastic and do not tear easily when Lacuna
pulled lengthwise
Extracellular Matrix

2. Elastic fibers (yellow)

 Long threads of elastin
 Elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality 2. Elastic cartilage
 Contains fine collagenous fibers and
3. Reticular fibers (branching) many elastic fibers
 Very thin and branched  External ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis
 Composed of collagen  Maintains a structure’s shape while
allowing great flexibility
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

Chondrocyte in Lacuna

3. Fibrocartilage
 Contains many large collagenous fibers
 Intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis,
disks of knee joint, and pads between
femur and tibia
 Absorbs compression shock

A. Fibrous connective tissue

Chondrocyte in
 Dense due to its large number of Lacuna
collagenous fibers
 The fibers are organized into parallel
bundles
 Forms tendons and ligaments

B. Loose connective tissue E. Bone

 Binds epithelia to underlying tissues  The skeleton supporting most vertebrates
 Functions as packing materials, holding  Mineralized connective tissue
organs in place
 Has all three fiber types
 Two cell types predominate in its fibrous
mesh
a. fibroblasts
b. macrophages

C. Adipose tissue
 Specialized form of loose connective tissues
that store fat in adipose cells
 Pads and insulates the body and stores fuel
as fat molecules
 Each adipose cell contains a large fat
droplet that swells when fat is stored and
shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel  Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix
of collagen
D. Cartilage  Then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate
 Has an abundance of collagenous fibers ions combine and harden within the matrix
embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a into the mineral hydroxyapatite
substance called chondroitin sulfate, a  The combination of hard mineral and
protein-carbohydrate complex flexible collagen makes bone harder than
 Chondrocytes secrete collagen and cartilage without being brittle
chondroitin sulfate
F. Blood
Types of Cartilage Made up of plasma and formed elements
1. Hyaline cartilage 1. Plasma (55%)
 Bluish white, translucent, and  Matrix consisting of water, salts, and
homogenous variety of dissolved proteins
 Has significant proportion of collagen Composition of Plasma
fibers a. Water (90% of plasma)
 Covers joint surfaces and rib ends b. Gases (𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑁)
 Present in the nose, larynx, and trachea c. Dissolved solids
 Skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all i. Proteins
vertebrates  fibrinogen (synthesized by the
 Skeletal cartilage of adult sharks & rays liver)
 Support and reinforcement  albumin (synthesized by the liver)
 globulin
 ii. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and  Composed of long cells called muscle fibers
fat-like substances, amino acids, that are capable of contracting when
salts) stimulated by nerve impulses
iii. cell products (enzyme, hormones,  Most abundant tissue in most animals
antibodies)  Muscle contraction accounts for most of the
energy-consuming cellular work in active
2. Formed elements (45%) animals
 Produced by the bone marrow
 Consists of erythrocytes, leukocytes and Types of Muscle Tissue
cell fragments called platelets 1. Skeletal Muscle
 Has cylindrical and striated cells with
multiple nuclei (syncitial)
 Occurs in muscles attached to skeleton
 Single innervation by motor nerve
 Functions in voluntary movement of body

Types of White Blood Cells 2. Smooth Muscle

1. Granular – contain granules & lobed-nuclei  Spindle-shaped cells, each with a single
a. Neutrophil (60-75%) nucleus
 2-5 or more thin lobes, connected by  Cells have no striations
slender chromatic threads  Double innervation by parasympathetic
 Fine; don’t stain well at neutral pH and sympathetic nervous system;
with either acid or basic stain involuntary
 Phagocytic  Blood vessel walls and walls of the
digestive tract functions in movement of
b. Eosinophil (2-5%) substances in lumens of body
 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like
chromatin 3. Cardiac Muscle
 Granules, coarse; stain pinkish red  Has cylindrical but branching striated
with acid stain cells, each with a single nucleus
 Against helminthic infections  Double innervation by parasympathetic
and sympathetic nervous system;
c. Basophil (0.5-2%) involuntary
 Nuclei stain very faintly, often  Occurs in the wall of the heart
obscured by cytoplasmic granules; U  Functions in the pumping of blood
or J-shaped
 Stain blue with basic dye Nervous Tissue
 Inflammatory reaction  irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and
transmits signals from one part of the animal
2. Agranular – has few or no granules and a to another
large spherical nucleus
a. Lymphocyte (20-25%)
 large, somewhat spherical with some
indentations and only slightly
concentric position
 narrow rim of cytoplasm
 smallest; antibody production

b. Monocyte (3-8%)
 nuclei vary slightly, indented ovals to
horse-shoe shaped structure
 large amount of cytoplasm
 biggest; becomes macrophage;  Neuron – functional unit of nervous tissue
phagocytic  Neurons consists of a cell body, dendrites and
axons
Muscle Tissue a. Dendrite – transmits nerve impulses from
their tips toward the rest of the neuron
b. Axon – transmits impulses toward
another neuron or toward an effector,
such as a muscle cell

Types of neurons
1. Sensory
(afferent)
2. Motor
(efferent)
3. Interneuron
 SUPPORT AND PROTECTION: Molting of arthropods
Integumentary System

Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protective wrapping
 Mechanical protection against abrasion
and puncture
 Effective barrier against bacteria
 Moisture proofing against fluid loss or
gain a. Epidermal cells divide by mitosis
 Protect underlying cells against UV b. Epidermis secretes enzyme to digest
2. Regulatory function procuticle
 Temperature regulation c. Absorption of digested materials
3. Information getting d. New epicuticle and procuticle formed
 sensory receptors e. New cuticle is thickened and calcified or
4. Excretory function sclerotized
5. Respiratory function
6. Survival Mantle
7. Behavioral interactions between
individuals

Invertebrate Integument
1. Plasma Membrane
 Unicellular protozoa
 Gas exchange and waste removal by
simple diffusion
 Uptake of dissolved nutrients
Pellicle  Pair of folds formed by the dorsal body wall
 Outer surface secretes shell

Vertebrate Integument
Skin and its derivatives
1. Epidermis
 Stratified squamous epithelium
 Devoid of blood vessels
 Cells of the basal part undergo frequent
mitosis
 Thick protein coat found in other protozoa
 As outer layer of cells are displaced upward
 Offers further environmental protection
by new generations of cells beneath,
 Semi-rigid structure that transmits the force
keratinization takes place
of cilia or flagella to the entire body as the
 Cornified cells, highly resistant to abrasion
animal moves
and water diffusion, comprise the outermost
stratum corneum.
2. Epidermis
 In most multicellular invertebrates Epidermal Layer
 Single layer of columnar epithelial cells
 Some invertebrates have cuticle over the
epidermis
 Delicate and soft in molluscs and contain
mucous glands, some of which secrete
calcium carbonate of the shell
For arthropods:

2. Dermis
 Dense connective tissue layer
 Contains blood vessels, collagenous fibers,
nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, and
fibroblasts
 Support, cushion, and nourish the
epidermis
 Macrophages and lymphocytes provide the
first line of defense
 Arthropods have the most complex of
invertebrate integuments Epidermal Derivatives
 For protection and skeletal support 1. Hairs
 Epidermal growths that function in
The arthropod cuticle may be hardened by: protection
1. Calcification – deposition of calcium  Consists of shaft, root and follicle
carbonate in the outer layers of procuticle

2. Sclerotization – protein molecules bond

together with stabilizing cross-linkages within
and between adjacent lamellae of the
procuticle
– Formation of a highly resistant and
insoluble protein, sclerotin
  Sebaceous glands, arrector pili muscle &  Restricted to armpits and pubic region
hair root plexus (touch) (humans)
 Breasts, prepuce, scrotum, external
Types of Hair auditory canals
a. Underhair – dense and soft; for insulation  Secretion is correlated with certain
b. Guard hair – coarse and longer; for activities of the reproductive cycle
protection against wear and to provide
coloration

2. Nails
 Plates of highly packed, keratinized cells
 Protection, scratching, and manipulation
 Formed by cells in nail bed called the
matrix (in area of lunula)
 Growth: 1 mm / week
 Eponychium – cuticle
3. Ceruminous glands
 Modified sudoriferous glands
 Secrete cerumen (ear wax)
 Cerumen protects the skin of the ear
canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication,
and provides protection from bacteria,
fungi and insects

4. Mammary glands
 Other epidermal Derivatives: Feathers, Scales  Secrete milk
of snake, Pelage, Hoof, Plumage  Thickening of epidermis

Dermal Derivatives
 Scales of fish, antlers, horn, caracase of
turtle, armadelum
 Antlers of the deer – shed velvet during the
breeding system
 Velvet – covering of highly vascular soft
skin

Animal coloration
 Vivid and dramatic when serving as important
recognition marks or warning coloration
 Subdued or cryptic when used for camouflage

1. Structural color
 Produced by the physical structure of the
surface tissue; tissue reflects certain light
 Teleosts’ scales arise from the dermis while wavelengths and eliminates others
the reptiles’ scales arise from the epidermis.  Phase interference effects of the
microscopic structure of feathers
Similarity of structure of integumentary derivatives  Different response depending on the
 All are built of similar combinations of epidermal direction or directionality of illumination
(keratinized) and dermal components

Skin Glands
1. Sebaceous (oil) glands 2. Color due to pigments
 Usually connected to hair follicles  Biochromes – pigments produced by
 Fats, cholesterol, proteins, salts, and cell chromatophores
debris  Reflect light rays
 Moistens hair and waterproofs skin  Chromatophores or pigment cells:
a. Melanophores/melanocytes (melanin)
2. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands b. Xanthophores (carotenoid)
a. Eccrine sweat glands c. Iridophores (crystals of purine →
 Water, salt, wastes silvery ormetallic)
 Hairless regions, scattered over the
body
 Function is to cool the body

b. Apocrine sweat glands

 Larger than eccrine glands
 Associated with hair follicles
 More viscous – fatty acids and proteins
 SUPPORT AND PROTECTION:  Composed of large vacuolated cells
Skeletal System surrounded by elastic and fibrous sheaths
 Stiffening device
Functions of the Skeletal System  Except in jawless vertebrates, surrounded or
 Support : Provides rigidity to the body replaced by the back bone during embryonic
 Protection for vulnerable body organs development
 Movement: Surfaces for muscle attachment
 Mineral depot (calcium etc.)
 Blood synthesis from bone marrow
Types of Skeleton
1. Hydrostatic Skeleton
Functions
 Supports body form
 Provides resistance for the contraction of
muscles to act against
Source
 Some organisms use their fluid-filled Cartilage
gastrovascular cavity (e.g. hydra)  Major skeletal element of some vertebrates
 Others use their fluid-filled coelom/ body  Soft, pliable tissue that resists compression
cavity (e.g. earthworm)  Jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs have
purely cartilaginous skeletons
Muscular hydrostats
 Like hydrostatic skeletons, these work The Bone
because they are composed of  Living tissue having significant deposits of
incompressible tissues that remain at calcium salts in the extracellular matrix
constant volume 1. Endochondral or replacement bone
 Muscles arranged in complex patterns  any bone that develops in and replaces
cartilage
2. Cancellous or spongy bone
 bone composed of thin intersecting
lamellae, usually found internal to
compact bone
3. Intramembranous bone
 any bone that develops without any
associated cartilage
4. Compact bone
 bone substance that is dense

 Medullary cavity – filled with yellow bone

2. Rigid Skeleton marrow (fat storage)
 Consist of rigid elements  Spongy cavity – filled with red bone marrow
 Usually jointed
 Muscle attachment Structure of a compact bone

Types of Rigid Skeleton

1. Exoskeleton - external skeleton
a. Molluscs - composed of calcium
carbonate
b. Arthropods - composed of chitin
Function: protection and locomotion

2. Endoskeleton - internal skeleton

 Echinoderms and vertebrates Bone Growth and Renewal
 Mineralized bone and cartilage  Cartilage structures in early development act as
 Support, protection, and reservoir of models for future bones
calcium and phosphorous  Calcium salts deposited in matrix by
 Grows as the animal grows cartilage cells and later by osteoblasts
 does not limit space for internal  Endochondral ossification
organs  Osteoclasts
 supports greater weight  break down bone
 remove worn cells
 deposit calcium in the blood
 work with osteoblasts to heal broken
bones
 Role of hormones
 somatotropin, calcitonin, parathyroid
hormone

Notochord Stages of Intramembranous Ossification

 Semi-rigid supportive axial rod of proto- 1. An ossification center appears in the
chordates and all vertebrate larvae and fibrous connective tissue membrane
embryos
 Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells  provides resistive foundation for muscles
cluster and differentiate into osteob lasts, forming to act against
an ossification center. B. Bones store calcium and phosphate ions
C. Certain bones produce red blood cells

2. Some matrix (osteoid) is secreted within

the fibrous membrane
Osteob lasts b egin to secrete osteoid, which is
mineralized within a few days.
Trapped osteob lasts b ecome osteocytes.

3. Woven bone and periosteum form.

Accumulating osteoid is laid down b etween the The Skull
emb ryonic b lood vessels which form a random The skull consists of cranium and mandible.
network. The result is a network (instead of  Cranium – set of bones enclosing the brain
lamellae) of trab eculae. and some sense organs.
Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the  Mandible – lower jaw
external face of the woven b one and b ecomes the
periosteum.

4. Bone collar or compact bone forms and

red marrow appears.
Trab eculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, Vertebral Column
forming a woven b one collar that is later replaced Functions:
with mature lamellar b one.
Spongy b one (diploe), consisting of distinct  Supports the head
trab eculae, persists internally and its vascular and trunk
tissue forming red marrow.  Protects the spinal
cord and roots of
spinal nerves
Segments (from superior
to inferior)
a. Cervical – neck
b. Thoracic – chest
c. Lumbar – small
Stages of Endochondral Ossification of back
d. Sacral –
sacrum/pelvic

Rib Cage
 Protects the heart and lungs, and assists
breathing
 Support by the thoracic vertebrae
 Twelve pairs of ribs
a. True ribs
 Connect directly to sternum
 Seven pairs anterior to false ribs
b. “False” ribs
 Do not connect directly to sternum
 Five pairs posterior to true ribs

Plan of the vertebrate skeleton

Two main divisions
1. Axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column,
sternum, and ribs)
2. Appendicular skeleton (limbs, fins, wings,
pectoral and pelvic girdles)

The Human Skeletal System

A. Functions
 Supports and protects the body
 Permits movement of the body
The Appendicular Skeleton MOVEMENT:
Consists of; The Muscular System
 The bones within the pectoral and pelvic
girdles Three principal kinds of movement:
 The attached limbs 1. Amoeboid
Pectoral girdle – bones of the shoulder 2. Ciliary and flagellar
 Anterior 3. Muscular
 Supports the arms and hands
Pelvic girdle – bones of the pelvis Amoeboid Movement
 Posterior  Amoebas and other unicellular forms
 Supports the legs and feet  White blood cells
 Embryonic mesenchyme cells
Bones of the Pectoral Bones of the Pelvic  Other mobile cells
Girdle, Arm, and the Hand Girdle, Leg, and the Foot

Consensus model to explain extension and withdrawal

of pseudopodia and amoeboid crawling:

Classification of Joints
1. Fibrous Joints (synarthroses)
 Immovable
 Between cranial bones, tibia & fibula,
radius & ulna

1. Hyaline cap appears

2. Endoplasm flows toward hyaline cap
3. Actin subunits attach to regulatory proteins
4. Endoplasm fountains out to the periphery
5. Actin subunits released and polymerized
6. Microfilaments cross-linked
2. Cartilaginous Joints (amphiarthroses) 7. Ca2+ activate actin-severing protein
 Slightly movable 8. Myosin associate with and pull on
 Between vertebrae microfilaments

Ciliary and Flagellar Movement

The Cilia
 Minute, hairlike, motile processes
 Occur in large numbers
 Ciliate protistans
 Found in all major groups of animals
 Move organisms through aquatic environment
 Propel fluids and materials across surfaces

The Flagella
3. Synovial Joints (diarthroses)  Whip-like
 Freely movable  Present singly or in small numbers
 Bones separated by a cavity  Occur in unicellular eukaryotes
 Ball and socket, hinge joints  Animal spermatozoa

Both cilia and flagella have the same ultrastructure

 A core of microtubules sheathed by the
plasma membrane
 “9 + 2” pattern
  Flexible “wheels” of proteins connect outer The Muscle Cell
doublets to each other and to the core  Sarcomere – the functional unit of a myofibril
 Outer doublets are connected by motor
proteins
 Anchored in the cell by a basal body
 The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by
the arms of a motor protein, dynein.
– Addition to dynein of a phosphate group
from ATP and its removal causes
conformation changes in the protein.
– Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and
release the outer microtubules.  Z-Line: partitions within a muscle fiber that
– Protein cross-links limit sliding and the section it into sarcomeres. Thin myofilaments
force is expressed as bending. attach to these.
 A-Band: comparatively dark area entirely within
 A flagellum has an undulatory movement a sarcomere; composed of thick filaments and
– force is generated parallel to the thin filaments; does not shrink during muscle
flagellum’s axis contraction.
 I-Band: the lighter areas alternating with A-
Bands; straddle the Z-line and are composed of
thin myofilaments. During contraction, it shrinks
in size.
 The M line is in the center of the A band and,
thus, it is in the center of the sarcomere

 Cilia move more like oars with alternating Sliding Filament Model
power and recovery strokes.
– Generate force perpendicular to the
cilia’s axis

Actin filaments at both ends of sarcomere

 One end of each filament attached to a Z-
Invertebrate Muscle
plate at one end of the sarcomere
Bivalve molluscan muscles
 Other end suspended in sarcoplasm
Two kinds of fibers:
1. Fast muscle fibers: striated, can contract
rapidly
2. Smooth muscle: capable of slow, long-
lasting contractions

Insect flight muscles (fibrillar muscle)

 Wings of small flies operate at 1000 beats/sec
 Limited extensibility; shorten only slightly

Myosin filaments suspended in between Z-plates

 Myosin filaments contain cross-bridges which
pull the actin filaments inward
 Causes Z-plates to move toward each other
 Shortens sarcomere
 Sarcomeres stacked together in series and
cause myofiber to shorten
Working muscles require ATP
 Myosin breaks down ATP
 Sustained exercise
– Requires cellular respiration
Vertebrate Muscle – Regenerates ATP
Types of Vertebrate Muscle
1. Striated muscle Muscle Innervation
2. Smooth muscle Neuromuscular junction
3. Cardiac muscle

Structure of Striated Muscle

 The synaptic contact between a nerve fiber

and a muscle fiber
 Nerve impulses bring about the release of a
neurotransmitter that crosses the synaptic
cleft
 Signals the muscle fiber to contract
 – When one muscle contracts, it stretches
its antagonistic partner
 A muscle at “rest” exhibits tone (minimal
contraction)
 A muscle in tetany is at maximum sustained
contraction

Muscle Performance
Slow oxidative fibers (red muscles)
 For slow, sustained contractions without
Excitation-contraction coupling in vertebrate fatigue
skeletal muscle  Contain extensive blood supply
 High density of mitochondria
 Abundant stored myoglobin
 Important in maintaining posture in
terrestrial vertebrates

Fast fibers
1. Fast glycolytic fiber (white muscles)
 Lacks efficient blood supply
 Pale in color
 Function anaerobically
 Fatigue rapidly

2. Fast oxidative fiber

 Extensive blood supply
 High density of mitochondria and
myoglobin
 Function aerobically
 For rapid, sustained activities

Energy for Contraction

 ATP, immediate source of energy
 Glucose broken down during aerobic
metabolism
 Glycogen stores can supply glucose
1. An action potential spreads along the  Muscles have creatine phosphate, an
sarcolemma and is conducted inward to the energy reserve
sarcoplasmic reticulum by way of T-tubules. Ca  Slow and fast oxidative fibers rely heavily on
ions released from sarcoplasmic reticulum glucose and oxygen
diffuse rapidly into the myofibrils, binding to  Fast glycolytic fibers rely on anaerobic
troponin molecules on the actin filament. glycolysis
Troponin and tropomyosin molecules are  Muscles incur oxygen debt during anaerobic
moved away from the active sites. glycolysis
2. Myosin cross bridges bind to the exposed
active sites.
3. Using the energy stored in ATP, the myosin DIGESTION AND NUTRITION:
head swings toward the center of the The Digestive System
sarcomere. ADP and a phosphate group are
released. Dietary categories
4. The myosin head binds another ATP molecule; 1. Herbivores – plant-eating animals
this frees the myosin head from the active site 2. Carnivores – meat-eating animals
on actin. 3. Omnivores – animals that eat both plants
5. The myosin head splits ATP, retaining the and meat
energy released as well as the ADP and the 4. Saprophagus – animals that feed on
phosphate group. The cycle can now be decaying organic matter
repeated as long as calcium is present to open
active sites on the actin molecules. Feeding Adaptations
1. Suspension
The Human Muscular System Feeders – sifts
Skeletal muscles through food
particles in the water

 Bivalve molluscs use their gills as feeding

devices

 Herring and other suspension-feeding

fishes use gill rakers to strain plankton

 Attached to the skeleton by cable-like fibrous

connective tissue called tendons
 Arranged in antagonistic pairs
– Can only contract, cannot push
  Whalebone whales filter out plankton,
mainly large crustaceans called krill, with
whalebone or baleen

 An elephant’s tusk is a modified upper incisor

2. Deposit feeder – eats its way through dirt or
sediments and extract – Used for defense, attack, and rooting
partially decayed  A male wild boar has modified canines that are
used as weapons
organic material
(detritus) consumed
along with the soil or Dentition and Diet
sediments
 Carnivores have highly
3. Substrate feeder – developed canine and
incisors used to kill
lives in or on its food
source, eating its way prey and tear off pie-
through the food ces of flesh
 Herbivores have highly
4. Fluid feeder – sucks developed molars and
nutrient-rich fluids pre-molars for chewing
and grinding tough
from a living host and
is considered a plant material
parasite  Omnivores like humans
have all types of teeth;
5. Bulk feeder – eats 32 teeth for adult human
relatively large pieces
Types of Digestive System
of food
1. Incomplete – there is only one opening; no
anus
 Cephalopod molluscs like
squid and octupus have
beak-like jaws which
serve as tearing devices.

 Chewing mouthparts adapted for seizing and 2. Complete – there is a mouth opening and an
anus
crushing food

 Mandibles are strong, toothed plates whose

edges can bite or tear
 Maxillae hold the food and pass it toward the
mouth Four Main Stages of Food Processing
1. Ingestion – the act of eating
For Avians: 2. Digestion – breaking food down into
 Birds lack teeth but they have bills that are often molecules small enough for the body to
provided with serrated edges absorb
 In some, the upper bill is hooked for seizing and 3. Absorption – small molecules are taken in
tearing prey by the animal’s cells
4. Elimination – undigested material passes out
of the digestive compartment

Digestion in a hydra
Digestion begins in the
gastrovascular cavity and is
completed intracellularly after
small food particles are engulf-
ed by specialized cells of the
gastrodermis.

 Four types of teeth found in mammals:  Digestion is entirely intracellular in protozoa and
a. Incisors, for biting, cutting, and stripping sponges
b. Canines, for seizing, piercing, and tearing  Radiates, turbellarian flatworms, and ribbon
c. Premolars, for grinding and crushing worms (nemerteans) practice both intracellular
d. Molars, for grinding and crushing and extracellular digestion
  In extracellular digestion, certain cells lining the RECEPTION AND CONDUCTION: Human Mouth
lumen of alimentary canals form digestive and Esophagus
secretions; other cells function in absorption  Food is called bolus if it passes through the
 For arthropods and vertebrates, digestion is esophagus.
almost entirely extracellular.

Gut Movement
1. Segmentation
 Alternate constriction of rings of
smooth muscle of the intestine
 Constantly divide and squeeze
contents back and forth
 For mixing of food The top one-third of esophagus
is surrounded by skeletal muscle as
well as smooth muscle, so the act of
swal- lowing is voluntary until the food
has traveled past this upper region.

a. Tongue pushes moistened food towards the

pharynx
b. Nasal cavity closes reflexively by raising the
soft palate
2. Peristalsis c. As food slides into pharynx, epiglottis tips
 Waves of contraction of circular down over the trachea, nearly closing it
muscle behind the gut and relaxation d. In esophagus peristaltic contraction of
in front of bolus esophageal muscles forces food smoothly
 Sweeps food down the gut towards the stomach

STORAGE AND EARLY DIGESTION: Human

Stomach

Metazoan alimentary canals can be divided into five

major regions as shown below

 Stomach provides initial digestion as well as

storage and mixing of food with digestive
juices
 Cardiac sphincter – opens reflexively when
food arrives at the stomach to allow food to
enter.
 Closes to prevent regurgitation back into
the esophagus
 Churning – most vigorous at the intestinal
end where food is steadily released into the
duodenum (1st region of small intestine)
 Gastric juice – secreted by deep tubular
glands in the stomach wall

Types of cells that line these glands:

 Crop – extension of the stomach for temporary
storage before digestion to allow mild
fermentation of food before it is regurgitated to
feed nestlings.
 Cecum – Digestive diverticula – blind tubules or
pouches arising from the main passage often
supplement stomachs of many invertebrates.

The Human Digestive System

1. Goblet cells – secrete mucus

2. Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen
 Pepsinogen – precursor of pepsin, a
protease (protein-splitting enzyme) that is
produced from pepsinogen only in an
acid medium
3. Parietal/oxyntic cells – secrete HCl
 HCl converts pepsinogen into pepsin

 Rennin – milk-curdling enzyme found in the

stomach of ruminant animals
 Slows movement of milk through stomach
by clotting and precipitating milk proteins
  Food is called chyme after it passes through  Contains Peyer’s patches
the stomach. – Organized lymphoid tissues
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase – Protects the intestinal lumen from
are secreted in inactive form by the pancreas pathogenic bacteria
– The intestinal enzyme, enteropeptidase,
converts inactive trypsinogen into active WATER ABSORPTION AND CONCENTRATION OF
trypsin SOLIDS: Human Large Intestine
– Active trypsin then activates the other
two

 The colon recovers water that has entered the

alimentary canal as the solvent to various
digestive juices
TERMINAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION:  The large intestine harbors a rich flora of
Human Small Intestine mostly harmless bacteria (e.g. E. coli)
 The terminal portion of the colon is called the
rectum, where feces are stored until they can
be eliminate

Secretions of a mammalian alimentary canal with the

principal components and pH of each secretion

 Villi – minute fingerlink projections to absorb

digested food
 Microvilli – lines each cell in the intestinal
cavity; increases surface area of intestinal
walls
 Pyloric sphincter - regulates flow of food into
the intestine (duodenum) and prevents
regurgitation into the stomach
 Relaxes at intervals to allow entry of
acidic stomach contents
 Two secretions in this region:
1. Pancreatic juice Chemical Digestion in Human Digestive System
2. Bile (Produced in liver)

 Food is called chyle once it is in the small

intestine

Made up of three regions:

1. Duodenum From Digestion to the Bloodstream

 Nearest to the stomach; 26 cm in length
 With Bruner’s glands
 Produce mucus-rich alkaline secretion
with bicarbonates to;
a. Protect the duodenum from the
acidic content of chyme;
b. Provide alkaline condition for the
intestinal enzymes to be active;
c. Lubricate the intestinal walls
2. Jejunum
 Next to duodenum; 2.5 m in length
3. Ileum
 Last segment of the small intestine; 3.5
m in length
Regulation of Digestion

Nutritional Requirements
A nutritionally adequate diet satisfies three needs:
Gastrin – hormone produced by endocrine cells in the
a. fuel (chemical energy) for all the cellular work
pyloric portion of stomach.
of the body
 Secreted in response to stimulation by
b. organic raw materials animals use in
parasympathetic nerve endings (vagus
biosynthesis (carbon skeletons to make many
nerve), and when protein food enters the
of their own molecules)
stomach.
c. essential nutrients
 To stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion from
parietal or oxyntic cells and to increase gastric
 If the diet of a person or other animal is
motility
chronically deficient in calories,
undernourishment results
Secretin – produced in the duodenal wall.
 An animal whose diet is missing one or more
 Secreted in response to food and strong acid
essential nutrients is said to be malnourished
in the stomach and small intestine.
 Marasmus, general undernourishment from a
 To stimulate release of an alkaline pancreatic
diet low in both calories and protein
fluid that neutralizes stomach acid as it enters
 Kwashiorkor, protein malnourishment from a
the intestine.
diet adequate in calories but deficient in protein
 Also aids for fat digestion by inhibiting gastric
 Overnourishment or obesity results from
motility and increasing production of an
excessive food intak e
alkaline bile secretion from the liver
In mammals, a hormone called leptin, produced by
CCK – secreted in the walls of the upper small
adipose cells, is a key player in a complex feedback
intestine in response to the presence of fatty acids
mechanism regulating fat storage and use.
and amino acids in the duodenum.
Three distinct functions:
Appetite-regulating hormones
a. Stimulates gallbladder contraction and thus
1. Ghrelin (stomach wall)
increases the flow of bile salts into the
intestine  Triggers feelings of hunger as mealtimes
approach
b. Stimulates an enzyme-rich secretion from the
2. Leptin (adipose tissue)
pancreas
c. Acts on the brain stem to contribute a feeling  Suppresses appetite
3. PYY or peptide-tyrosine-tyrosine (small
of satiety after a meal, particularly rich in fats.
intestine)
 The length of the vertebrate digestive system is  After meals
 Appetite suppressant; counters ghrelin
also correlated with diet.
4. Insulin (pancreas)
 A rise in blood sugar level after a meal

 Animals require 20 amino acids to make proteins

 Essential amino acids must be obtained from
food in prefabricated form
 Eight amino acids are essential in the adult
human (phenylalanine, lysine, isoleucine,
leucine, valine, methionine, tryptophan,
and threonine) with histidine and arginine
essential for normal growth of children

 Protein deficiency from a vegetarian diet can be

avoided by eating a combination of plant foods
The koala’s intestines are much longer, enhancing the that complement each other to supply all
processing of fib rous, protein-poor eucalyptus leaves essential amino acids
from which it ob tains virtually all its food and water.

 Ruminants (deer, cattle, and sheep) have the

most elaborate adaptations for a herbivorous diet

The stomach of a ruminant has four chambers.

Because of the microb ial action in the chamb ers, the diet
from which a ruminant actually ab sorb s its nutrients is
much richer than the grass the animal originally eats. In
fact, a ruminant eating grass or hay ob tains many of its
nutrients b y digesting the mutualistic microorganisms,
which reproduce rapidly enough in the rumen to maintain
a stab le population.  Vitamins are organic molecules required in the
diet in small quantities
 – 13 vitamins essential to humans have been  Most efficient are internal gills of fishes and
identified arthropods. Fish gills are thin filamentous
– Water-soluble vitamins generally function as structures, richly supplied with blood vessels
co-enzymes arranged so that blood flow is opposite to the
flow of water across the gills.

GAS EXCHANGE: How a fish ventilates its gills?

The Respiratory System
 Cellular respiration, oxidative processes
within cells
 External respiration, exchange of O2 and
CO2 between the organism and its environment

Gas Exchange Surfaces

 For diffusion to be effective, gas-exchange
regions must be:
 Moist
 Thin
 Relatively large Water flows over the gills in a steady stream, pulled
 Effectiveness of diffusion is enhanced by and pushed b y an efficient, two-valved, b ranchial pump
vascularization composed of the mouth and opercular cavities. Gill
ventilation is often assisted b y the fish’s forward movement
Respiratory Organs through the water with its mouth open.
1. Cutaneous respiration (direct diffusion) Through the action of two skeletal muscle pumps, one
in the mouth cavity, the other in the opercular cavity, water
is drawn into the mouth, passes over the gills, and exits
through the gill covers.

The Countercurrent flow/exchange

2. Tracheal systems (branching system of tubes)

Provides the greatest possible extraction of oxygen from

water; Gas moves from higher to lower concentration, it has
to encounter high gradient before lower gradient for greatest
possible extraction of oxygen.
It is a branching system of tubes (tracheae)
4. Lungs (invaginations)
that extends to all parts of the body. The smallest
end channels are fluid-filled tracheoles that Lungs of frogs
terminate in close association with the plasma  Frogs ventilate their lungs by positive pressure
membranes of body cells. Air enters and leaves breathing.
the tracheal system through spiracles that may  After drawing air from their external nares, they
be closed to reduce water loss close it. Then, they raise their buccal cavity to
drive air into the lungs.
3. Gills or branchia (external or internal)
 Gills may be simple external extensions of the
body surface, such as dermal papulae of sea
stars or branchial tufts of marine worms and
aquatic amphibians.

Papulae (dermal b ranchiae Branchial tufts (gills) in

or skin gills) in sea star marine worm

Lungs of birds
 Birds contain a pair of lungs and numerous air
sacs where no gas exchange happens.

Gills in axolotl (Amb ystoma Parapodia in ragworm

mexicanum) (Nereis spp.)
 On inspiration, about 25% of incoming air passes  Most animals transport most of the O2 bound to
over the lung parabronchi (one-cell-thick air capillaries) special proteins called respiratory pigments.
where gas exchange occurs. The remaining 75% of a. Hemocyanin – has iron
incoming air bypasses the lungs to enter the air sacs. At b. Hemoglobin – has copper
expiration some of this fresh air passes directly through the
lung passages and into the lung parabronchi. Thus the
parabronchi receive nearly fresh air during both inspiration  O2 diffuses into pulmonary capillaries
and expiration.  Most O2 combines with hemoglobin in red blood
cells to form oxyhemoglobin
Lungs of Mammals

Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure

breathing. The diaphragm significantly helps in this
mechanism by contracting to pull air into the lungs.
 CO2 diffuses out of pulmonary capillaries
 Most CO2 is transported in the form of
bicarbonate ion
 Some CO2 combines with hemoglobin to form
carbaminohemoglobin

Transport of Carbon dioxide in the blood

The Human Respiratory System

 When the control center registers a slight drop in

pH, it increases the depth and rate of breathing,
and the excess CO2 is eliminated in exhaled air

a. Air enters through nostrils and passes through a

nasal chamber, lined with mucus secreting
epithelium.
b. Air moves towards pharynx where pathways of
digestion and respiration cross
c. Inhaled air leaves the pharynx by passing into a
narrow opening, the glottis.
d. Glottis opens to the larynx or voice box and then
into the trachea or windpipe.
Carb on dioxide rather than oxygen has the
e. The trachea branches into two bronchi, one to
greatest effect on respiratory rate b ecause under
each lung normal conditions arterial oxygen does not decline
f. Within the lungs each bronchus divides and enough to stimulate chemical receptors (chemorecep-
subdivides into small tubes (bronchioles) that tors) in the medulla of the b rain.
lead via alveolar ducts to the air sacs (alveoli)
g. The single-layered endothelial walls of the alveoli  Cooperative oxygen binding and release is
and alveolar ducts are thin and moist to facilitate evident in the dissociation curve for hemoglobin
gas exchange between air and adjacent blood  A drop in pH lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for
capillaries. O2, an effect called the Bohr shift

 The volume of air an animal inhales and exhales

with each breath is called tidal volume
– It averages about 500 mL in resting humans

 The maximum tidal volume during forced

breathing is the vital capacity
– About 3.4 L and 4.8 L for college-age
females and males, respectively