ABSTRACT

The vital renewable energy in today’s world needs to be harnessed fully as in near future the
nonrenewable sources that we are using are going to get exhausted. The solar vehicle is a step in
saving these nonrenewable sources of energy. The basic principle is to use energy that is stored
in a battery during and after charging it from a solar panel. The charged batteries are used to
drive the motor which serves here as an engine and moves the vehicle in reverse or forward
direction. The electrical tapping rheostat is provided so as to control the motor speed. This
avoids excess flow of current when the vehicle is supposed to be stopped suddenly as it is in
normal buss with regards to fuel. This idea, in future, may help protect our fuels from getting
extinguished.
This paper presents a model for charging electric bus from solar energy. Research work on how
electric bus can be charged using solar energy has been going on rigorously for quite some time
now. It has been shared already on how electric bus can be charged using electricity from grid.
Hence we came up with the idea of using optimal daytime charging strategy to charge electric
bus using solar energy by virtue of solar panels and photovoltaic cells.
Keywords: D.C. Motor, Batteries, Solar panel, Inverter, Battery Cycle.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The introduction to this thesis can be divided into four major parts. Each sub section will discuss
the background of the project, problem statement, objectives and scope of the project.

1.1 Project background

There are many forms of renewable energy on earth. Solar energy is one of this many forms. The
earth receives about 3.86*1026 W of energy from the sun every year. This amount is enough to
cover the Earth's energy demand for over 1000 times. Capturing sunlight and turning them into
electricity for daily usage is a very good way to minimize expenditure and pollution. Solar
energy has proven to be a clean and safe form of energy for our daily living and is made
available naturally around most parts of the world. Solar energy can be harnessed by using a
solar cell or photovoltaic cell to convert sunlight directly into electricity. Since the development
of early photovoltaic cells, the very first photovoltaic system has been applied in Malaysia in
early 1980s. The applications of photovoltaic system were mainly concentrated on stand-alone
systems, especially for rural electrification program. However, lately we find that solar power
can be used in many devices such as water heaters, home lighting systems and even calculators.
Furthermore, smaller electrical appliances such as garden lights and street lights are also
powered by solar energy. Due to the introduction of solar energy to power small electrical
appliances, we now find that battery chargers can also utilize this source of power. In fact, one of
the cheapest forms of recharging batteries is by using a solar cell as it is simple to construct and
the energy obtained from the sun is free.
With regard to this idea we have designed an Electrical vehicle that runs on solar energy.
Electric vehicles address several problems that traditional petroleum vehicles cause: health risks
due to exhaust, dependency on foreign oil, and busbon emissions that perpetuate climate change.
Diesel exhaust contains pollutants that cause respiratory irritation, heart disease, and lung cancer,
posing substantial health risks for those frequently exposed to diesel exhaust [1]. Petroleum is
the primary fuel for transportation, and transportation accounts for 28% of energy consumption.

2
The vehicle designed is a bus that can be used for shuttle and short distances. As these vehicles
form the future of the automotive industry, we need to concentrate on improving their design and
making them cost effective. This vehicle is an initiative in this direction. This is an article of
research on how a vehicle can be made to run using solar energy directly and also s store it for
use in later hours when sun is not available. Photovoltaic cells (PVC) are installed on the Vehicle
to collect and convert solar energy into electric energy. The solar panels are made of silicon and
alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. The semiconductors absorb light and then release it,
producing a flow of electrons that generate electricity which charges the battery connected to it,
which runs the DC Motor to transmit power to drive the vehicle, using some arrangements the
motor can run directly by the power generated through solar cells.
Solar powered battery chargers are fast gaining popularity as they have been proven to be handy
in many situations especially in the outdoors. Furthermore, this battery charger is quite portable
and user friendly too as it is simple to handle. These attractive features are further enhanced by
the fact that this type of battery charger is cheap to construct and has many added advantages.
The solar powered battery charger is environmentally safe too as it purely uses renewable energy
and reduces chemical waste because it allows alkaline batteries to be reused for a certain amount
of times before being disposed. This type of battery charger also has a longer life cycle as it
requires minimal maintenance and can directly convert energy from the sun to produce
electricity.

1.2 Problem statement

We tend to use many battery powered electrical devices in our daily lives especially when we are
outdoors during hikes, camping, road trips and vacations. These electrical devices such as torch
lights, radios and walkie talkies are essential items when we are outdoors. When these electrical
devices run out of battery charge, we usually find ourselves in a lurch in locating a suitable
power source to recharge the batteries. Hence, in this situation, a solar powered battery charger
would be a more practical solution to charge these batteries.

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1.3 Objectives
There are three objectives in this project. They are as the following
(i) To develop a solar powered battery charger.
(ii) To develop a state of charge, (SOC) circuit to indicate the charging level of the batteries.
(iii) To drive a bus by means of solar power
1.4 Scope of project
Scope of this project can be narrowed down into two main areas. They are as the following
(i) To use supply purely from a solar cell. The battery charger is expected to be powered using a
12 V 350 W solar panel. This solar panel will function as the power supply to the entire circuit
with a supply current of around 0.5A when the solar panel is able to perform at its maximum
level.
(ii) Battery charger has an output of 12-18 V. The battery charger is expected to have an output
of 11-17 V of charging voltage. The charging unit is expected to be able to produce a charging
current of around 83 mA. This current will then be capable of charging one or two alkaline
batteries each with the output voltage of 12 V. Fuel expenses, Fossil Fuel Exhaustion, health
externalities, and climate change are concerns that encourage the use of electric vehicles.
Besides, Energy is one of the most vital needs for human survival on earth. We are dependent on
one form of energy or the other for fulfilling our needs. One such form of energy is the energy
from Fossil fuels. We use energy from these sources for generating electricity, running
automobiles etc. But the main disadvantages of these Fossil fuels are that they are not
environmental friendly and they are exhaustible. To deal with these problems of Fossil fuels, we
need to look at the Non-conventional sources of energy.
There are different energy sources available in India such as Hydro, Nuclear, Small hydro, Wind
Energy, Biomass power, Biogas co-generation, Biomass Gasification and Solar energy, but out
of all these energy, the solar energy is meritorious. Solar energy is independent, environments
friendly and pollution free. It works even at power cut, consumes very less energy, works day
and night, and works in summer, rainy, winter means all the year along and woks programmable.
Above all it does not have electrical hazard and it has got negligible maintenance. By utilizing
Solar energy apparatus like Emergency lamps, Lanterns, Cooker, Home lights, Street lights,
Torch, Fan, Radio, T.V, Tape, Power pack, UPS for Computers/Lap-top, Mobile charger, water
heating system, Room heaters and also Power plants can be operated successfully. The

4
Government of India reflects its vision for providing a Sustainable Urban Transport System
through the 2006 National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP). The input-oriented efforts are aimed
to contain and reduce the environmental impacts that are a consequence of traffic growth in the
cities. The Ministry of Urban Development has initiated a Sustainable Urban Transport Project
with support of Global Environment facility and the World Bank to promote environmentally
sustainable urban transport in India and to improve the usage of environment-friendly transport
modes through demonstration projects in selected cities. Many other long term plans are in place
by GOI and state governments that include policies related to vehicle emissions, promotion of
public transport (bus and rail) and promotion of electric vehicles. In an attempt to explore
sustainability through use of renewables in the transport sector, this research paper presents the
model for development of solar electric bus transport and examines the financial implications of
replacing a partial fleet of three diesel buses with three electric buses, the electricity for which
may be generated using solar power.

5
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The literature review of this thesis is divided into three parts. The first part of the literature
review begins with an introduction to solar power as a form of renewable energy. It also
concentrates on the benefits that can be obtained from using solar energy as a power source. The
second part of the literature review gives a history of the solar cell and its chemical composition.
This part also dwells on how a solar cell works. The third part is a summary of the benefits of a
battery charger in particular the solar battery charger. It also explains how solar powered battery
charger can be developed.

2.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is be categorized as energy in the form of heat and light from the sun. Energy from
the sun travels to the earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation with a wide spectrum of
frequency range. Available solar energy is often expressed in units of energy per time per unit
area, such as watts per square meter (W/m2) or watt hours per square meter (WHIm2).
The amount of energy available from the sun outside the Earth's atmosphere is approximately
1367 W/m2 [1]. At any particular time, the available solar energy is primarily dependent upon
how high the sun is in the sky and current cloud conditions. On a monthly or annual basis, the
amount of solar energy available also depends upon the location. In general, useable solar energy
is depends upon available solar energy, other weather conditions, the technology used, pollution
or geographical position and the application involved [2,3].

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2.2.1 Solar Energy as a Power Source
Electricity generation using solar cells has been of particular interest for a long time and is fast
gaining popularity among countries that lie across the Equator. Malaysia, as a country close to
the Equator, possesses a daily peak solar hours more than 4 hours. This is higher than those in
Japan. Germany and USA where solar energy, as an alternative energy, has been strongly
supported by their governments. The availability of solar energy in Malaysia makes it an ideal
source for power generation. Energy substitution is not a recent innovation as many forms of
renewable or alternative energy have been explored to date [4]. Solar energy demand has grown
at about 25% per annum over the past 15 years. This form of energy has been accepted
worldwide as a high potential alternative energy as current research and markets have shown that
solar photovoltaic (PV) is amongst the fastest growing and most promising forms of renewable
energy for electricity generation [2].
To understand how solar energy can be fully utilized, we first need to understand and useful way
by utilizing an old, well-known physical phenomenon, the photovoltaic effect, whereby some of
the sun's light is transformed directly into electricity [4]. A photovoltaic solar cell is essentially a
semiconductor which can generate as electric potential when ionized by radiation. In other
words, a solar cell can convert the radiant energy of sunlight directly into electricity with high
reliability and long life cycle.

2.2.2 Benefits of Solar Energy

Photovoltaic systems or solar cells can be utilized in many ways. Solar cells have been used to
charge various solar batteries for applications in aerospace industry, electric vehicles,
communication equipment and remote motor supplies [5]. Many different applications of PV
systems are possible and vary from water pumps to total electrification of remote villages,
serving multiple loads [4, 6] and satellite power systems [7]. In Malaysia, the potential of solar
energy has begun to be utilized in a wide range of applications such as heating, lighting and other
forms of agricultural uses as well a wide range of applications in remote and urban areas [8].
There are many benefits to be gained from using solar energy as a power source. Photovoltaic
technology has been proven to be a new and exciting energy source as its conversion method is
both novel and unique. Photovoltaic power systems do not contain any moving parts which may

7
wear out, do not contain any fluids or gasses which could leak and can operate at moderate
temperatures. Furthermore, no fuel is needed to activate this system, making it a non-polluting
and quick responding as well as almost maintenance free power source [1]. Solar energy does not
give rise for environmental concern as some other conventional energy sources which contribute
dangerous chemical emissions [8]. On the plus side, photovoltaic array can be made from silicon,
a common element found on earth. Recent technological developments in thin-film photovoltaic,
such as amorphous silicon and hybrid die sensitized/photovoltaic (PV) cells, are leading to new
generations of consumer portable solar arrays. These new arrays are lightweight, durable, and
flexible and have been reported to achieve power efficiencies of up to 10%. Commercial-off-the-
shelf arrays already exist, that have panels embedded in fabric that can be folded to dimensions
of less than 12" x 12", yet are able to produce up to 50 Watts of power at 12 V. These new
products make solar power available to hikers, campers, soldiers-on-the-move, etc., since the
arrays can now be easily carried in backpacks [9].

2.3 Solar Cell

The solar panel, sometimes called solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light
directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for
devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is
used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels,
solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. These arrays are then used during energy conversion.

2.3.1 History of the Solar Cell

The photovoltaic was first reported in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel who observed that the action
of shining light on an electrode submerged in a conductive solution would create an electric
current. Forty years later the first solid state photovoltaic device was created as the
photoconductivity of selenium was discovered. In 1894, Charles Frits prepared the first large
area solar cell by pressing a layer of selenium between gold and another metal. This paved the
way for observing early cells which were thin film Schottky barrier devices where a
semitransparent layer of metal deposited on top of the semiconductor top provides photovoltaic
action [10]. However, it was not the photovoltaic properties of materials like selenium that was

8
further researched on but its photoconductivity was given importance. The fact that the current
produced was proportional to the intensity of the incident light and related to the wavelength of
light in a definite way meant that photoconductive materials were ideal for photographic light
meters. This meant that the light meter could operate without a power supply. It was not until the
1950's however that through the development of good quality silicon wafer; potentially useful
quantities of power were produced by photovoltaic devices in crystalline silicon [10].
Further development in silicon electronics lead to the manufacturing of pn junctions in silicon.
The first silicon solar cell was reported in 1954 and was recorded to have converted sunlight with
an efficiency of six times higher than selenium. This early silicon cell introduced the possibility
of power generation in remote locations where fuel could not easily be delivered. It was also
used in satellite development where the requirement for reliability and low weight made silicon
solar cells widely developed for space application. In the 1970's, the crisis in energy supply
paved the way to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources of energy. Photovoltaic
became a subject of intense interest during this period of time and strategies for producing
cheaper photovoltaic devices and materials were explored. Routes to lower cost included photo
electrochemical junctions and alternative materials such as polycrystalline silicon, amorphous
silicon, other 'thin film' materials and organic conductors. This interest continued to expand in
the 1990's, along with the growing awareness of the need to secure sources of electricity
alternative to fossil fuels. At present, the majority of PV modules currently in use are based on
monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon. Crystalline means that the material in the PV has a
regular ordered internal structure within each grain. The electrical properties of the crystalline
PV are affected by the boundaries between grains. The PV modules made from monocrystalline
silicon offer the highest efficiencies because they have no grain boundaries, but are also most
expensive to manufacture. To contrast, the poly-crystalline PV modules are somewhat less
efficient, but are cheaper to produce. Currently two types of PV modules have very similar cost
of per watt electricity. In comparison with the crystalline silicon PV, thin film technology holds
the promise of reducing the module cost through low material and energy consumption during
the fabrication [2]. During this current period, the economics of photovoltaic is continuously
expanding and has become competitive with conventional electricity supply for remoter low
power applications such as navigation, telecommunications and rural electrification as well as for
enhancement of supply in grid- connected loads during peak usage.

9
2.3.2 How a Solar Cell Works
Solar photovoltaic conversion is a one-step conversion process which generates electrical. This
explanation relies on ideas from quantum theory. Light is made up of packets of energy, called
photons, whose energy depends only upon the frequency or color of light. The energy of metal
visible photons is sufficient to excite electrons, bound into solids up to higher energy levels
where they are freer to move [10].
Normally, when light is absorbed by matter, photons are given up to excite electrons to higher
energy states within the material, but the excited electrons quickly relax back to their ground
state. This action can be described further through Figure 2.1. The diagram on the left (a) shows
the photoelectric effect where ultraviolet light liberates electrons from the surface of a metal
[10]. However, in a photovoltaic device, as seen on the right, (b) in Figure 2. 1, when electrons
are knocked loose from their atoms, there is some built in symmetry which pulls away the
excited electrons before they can relax and feeds them to an external circuit, thus allowing them
to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells,
the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. The extra energy of the excited
electrons generates a potential difference or electromotive force (emf). This force is then
converted into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity as shown further in Figure 2.1
and drives the electrons through a load in the external circuit to do electrical work. On the whole,
the effectiveness of a photovoltaic device depends upon the choice of light absorbing materials
and the way in which they are connected to the external circuit.

2.4 Battery Charger

Battery chargers are generally used to recharge rechargeable batteries. Some common types of
rechargeable batteries are nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium ion
(Li-ion). However in some cases, disposable alkaline batteries can also be recharged. The idea of
recharging alkaline batteries is not new. Although not endorsed by manufacturers, ordinary
alkaline batteries have been recharged in households for many years. Recharging these batteries
is only effective, however, if the cells have been' discharged to less than 50 % of their total
capacity. The number of times a battery can be recharged depends on many factors. These
include the discharging drain load or depth of discharge, the frequency of use, the length of time
in a discharged state, charge temperature and conditioning with each recharge, the amount of

10
capacity the cell can hold is reduced. Recharging batteries reduce the ecological impact as for a
same quantity of energy produced; rechargeable batteries have up to 32 times less impact on the
environment than disposable batteries. When batteries are improperly disposed of in household
and workplace waste, they can leak toxic heavy metals into the environment as batteries leach
heavy metals slowly into the soil and ground and surface water. When batteries are incinerated,
certain metals may be released into the air or concentrated in the ash that has to be disposed.
Heavy metals from batteries can make it into the food chain where they pose health impacts on
humans. Mercury was phased out of certain batteries starting in 1996 with the signing of the
Battery Act, but other heavy metals such as cadmium are still used, which are very toxic [11].
Recycling of batteries through the proper collection and disposal at a municipal collection
location will greatly reduce their impact on the environment. Using rechargeable batteries
reduces the manufacturing levels of heavy metals and greatly reduces disposal requirements. It
also lessens the impact on air pollution, global warming, air acidification and water pollution. In
short, by recharging batteries, we are reducing waste [11]. Hence, when a battery charger is
combined with a solar panel as its power supply, it creates an environmental friendly battery
charger. A solar battery charger is also simple and inexpensive method for recharging batteries.
It may be applied for small power battery charging or for direct solar power supplies such as in
calculators, signs and lightings etc. [5].
One obvious specialty of the solar battery charger is that we do not need a power outlet for it to
function. The solar battery charger fully relies on the sun alone for its charging energy and can
be used in any location where sunshine is available. Since an external electrical source is not
required to recharge batteries, the solar battery charger offers freedom of movement. This type of
charger can be fully portable, lightweight and user friendly. However, most solar chargers
require a longer period of time to charge a set of batteries compared to other conventional
chargers [12]. This is because even in bright sunlight, most solar cells currently in production are
only about 10 percent efficient, which makes them slower than chargers that plug into a wall
outlet.

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2.5 Solar Powered Battery Charger Development
A simple solar battery charger is generally made up of four parts. A common solar powered
battery charger is shown in Figure 1, with the various possible subsystems that comprise it [2].
The solar PV array is the source which generates electricity when exposed to sunlight, thereby
producing DC power. The solar array is made with multiples of solar cells. The solar cells are
connected in a series-parallel configuration to match the required solar voltage and power rating
[7].
As shown in Figure 2, the solar PV array is then connected to the voltage regulation subsystem.
The voltage regulator maintains the system's voltage between low and high voltage limits when
power is available from the array and creates a constant-current constant-voltage charge.

Fig 2.1 (solar power battery layout) [13]

To understand the concept of a constant-current constant-voltage charge, we must first realize

that there are several techniques used in the conventional approach to charging a battery. The
first and the most common in consumer products is the constant current trickle charge. These
chargers provide a very low, constant current rate to the battery and rely on the user to stop the
charge when the battery has returned to full capacity [13]. A deviation on the constant current
charge approach is the constant— current constant-voltage charge profile. Under this
arrangement, a constant current is applied until battery voltage rises to a predetermined value, at
which point the charging voltage is held constant and the current is reduced. When the current

12
has reached a minimum value, the charging stops. In some applications, the solar battery charger
is a stand-alone system which includes a power converter which is used to control the solar array
voltage into desired voltage. This power controller is usually either a buck converter which
steps-down the input voltage or a boost converter that steps-up the voltage. In short, the power
converter plays an important role in the voltage regulation of the charger [7].
The voltage from the regulator then is channeled to a diode as shown in Figure 2.2. The blocking
diode controls the direction of the flow of energy between the array and the system to prevent
discharge of the energy storage system through the solar array and subsequent loss of energy or
damage to the array.
Also, Electric vehicles (EVs) are one of the most promising technologies in the transportation
sector to reduce GHG emissions in the post 2020 timeframe (IPCC 2012; IEA 2013). The main
benefit associated with the battery electric vehicles is that they emit no tailpipe emissions and
have potentially very low fuel-production emissions. This makes them highly environmentally
sustainable. Besides, their drive train efficiency is also usually higher as compared to internal
combustion engine. According to study by Wu et al. (2015), EV is more efficient when driving
on in-city routes than driving on freeway routes. This makes them better for adoption in urban
road transport. However, it has not been easy to implement the electric bus due to the multiple
challenges associated with the vehicle and the development and management of associated
infrastructure. Tran et al (2013) observe that the emergence and wide spread adoption of EVs are
faced with challenges as in development of new technologies, support infrastructure and
investments. Presently, the battery electric vehicles have a limited driving range. High storage
batteries are required for mobility of the electric bus, which requires high recharging time and
are expensive. Besides, these high storage batteries required for pure electric buses are not
indigenously manufactured. There is also a dearth in the nature of charging equipment associated
with the batteries. The International Energy Agency 2011 report also highlights the constraint of
consumer understanding and expectations towards adoption of EVs. Sierzchula (2014) studied
the factors influencing purchase decisions of US and Dutch fleet organizations that adopted EVs.
The major influential factors according to this study were:
(a) Attempting to test new technology
(b) Lowering the environmental impact
(c) Government grants and

13
(d) Improving the organization’s public image.
The most significant finding of this research was that the expansion of EV fleet was motivated
by firm specific rationales as opposed to cost reduction. As an attempt to support EV diffusion,
Sierzchula has recommended
(a) Pilot projects for testing EVs
(b) High purchase price reduction and
(c) Provision of charging infrastructure.
Hong Kong was the first place in the world to implement a trial scheme to convert all public light
buses (PLBs) on the road from diesel to alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) including EVs. Loo et
al conducted a stated preference (SP) survey to solicit the preferences of PLB operators on eight
commercial vehicle attributes and seven forms of government support. They have used
multinomial logic model for analysis. On analysis, Loo et al. find that the significance given by
PLBs for the eight vehicle attributes is in the order of fuel type, fuel price, no. of seats, vehicle
life, horsepower, shortest refueling distance, range and vehicle price. They concluded that unless
the government provides further incentives or the market situation changes (for example, the
diesel price goes up), voluntary fuel conversion is unlikely to succeed in the PLB industry. A
second SP study seeked views of public transport operators on the most desirable package of
government support. The findings in order of importance were reducing distance to refueling
stations, long-term fuel price subsidy, attributes of allowing more seats on PLBs and providing
low interest loan; financing R&D to powerfully represented. Overall, the government support
utility model suggested that the government should work harder towards providing better
infrastructural support. An advanced vehicle simulator model called ADVISOR has been
developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA to allow system-level analysis
and trade-off studies of advanced vehicles. Lajunen (2014) used this simulator for evaluating
energy consumption of hybrid and electric city buses. The simulation results indicate that the
energy efficiency of the city bus can be significantly improved by hybridization and
electrification. This improvement depends strongly on the degree of electrification thus how
much electrical energy can be used for the operation. Lajunen et al have conducted the cost-
benefit analysis of hybrid and electric city buses. The variables taken into account in the life
cycle cost calculation are: (a) capital costs: purchase costs of buses & charging equipment if
needed (b) operating costs: diesel and electricity consumption and maintenance costs (general

14
repair & spare parts) and (c) Costs of the energy storage system replacements. Below findings
are deducted:
• On an average, more no. of electric buses are required for various routes (simulated by
ADVISOR) due to the time consumed in battery charging.
• Hybrid buses have almost the same life cycle cost than the diesel city bus. Due to the high
capital cost and expensive battery replacements of the electric city bus, it is the most expensive
choice in all the routes.
• The results also show that if the capital costs of hybrid buses are 40% higher than conventional
diesel bus, the hybrid buses could have lower life cycle costs in certain operation routes. The
variation is very large for the electric bus meaning that it should be carefully evaluated in which
kind of operation electric buses are used.
• The replacement costs for the energy storage system seemed to play an important role for plug-
in hybrid and electric bus as these costs are about 25% of the total operating costs for the plug-in
hybrid and more than 50% for the electric bus.
• Also 25% higher fuel costs reduce the life cycle costs of the electric vehicle configuration.
• The 25% reduction to the capital cost reduces significantly the life cycle costs of each bus
configuration and would make them more profitable in terms of life cycle cost than the
conventional diesel bus.
• The most efficient way to increase the cost efficiency of the hybrid and electric city buses is to
reduce capital and energy storage system costs.
• Also, the cost-benefit analysis shows that the variation of the life cycle cost is large between
the different operation routes. This underlines the importance of choosing the alternative
technology on the basis of the operation.

2.6 Human and world energy consumption

After this somewhat abstract definitions we will look at the human energy consumption. The
human body is at a constant temperature of about 37°C. It hence contains thermal energy. As the
body is continuously cooled by the surroundings, thermal energy is lost to the outside. Further,
blood is pumped through the blood vessels. As it travels through the vessels, its kinetic energy is
reduced because of internal friction and friction at the walls of the blood vessels, i.e. the kinetic
energy is converted into heat. To keep the blood moving, the heart consumes energy. Also, if we

15
want our body to move this consumes energy. Further, the human brain consumes a lot of
energy. All this energy has to be supplied to the body from the outside, in the form of food. A
grown up average body requires about 10 000 Kilojoule every day. We can easily show that this
con- 1The energy content of food usually is given in the old-fashioned unit of kilocalories (kcal).
The conversion factor is 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ. An average male human assumption corresponds to
an average power of the human body of 115.7 W. We will come back to this value later.
In modern society, humans do not only require energy to keep their body running, but in fact we
consume energy for many different purposes. We use energy for heating the water in our houses
and for heating our houses. If water is heated, its thermal energy increases, and this energy must
be supplied. Further, we use a lot of energy for transportation of people and products by cars,
trains, trucks and planes. We use energy to produce our goods and also to produce food. At the
moment, you are consuming energy if you read this book on a computer or tablet. But also if you
read this book in a printed version, you implicitly consumed the energy that was required to print
it and to transport it to you place. As we mentioned already above, energy is never produced but
always converted from one form to another. The form of energy may change in time, but the
total amount does not change. If we want to utilize energy to work for us, we usually convert it
from one form to another more useable form. An example is the electric motor, in which we
convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Modern society is very much based on the capability of us humans to covert energy from one
form to another form. The most prosperous and technologically developed nations are also the
ones which have access to and are consuming the most energy per inhabitant. Table 1.1 shows
the primary energy consumption per capita and the average power consumed per capita for
several countries. We see that the average U.S. citizen uses an average power of 9 319 W, which
is about 80 times what his body needs. In contract, an average citizen from India only uses about
800 W, which is less than a tenths of the U.S. consumption. Many people believe that tackling
the energy problem is amongst the biggest challenges for human kind in the 21st century. It is a
challenge because of several problems: The first challenge the human kind is facing is a supply-
demand problem. The demand is continuously growing. The world population is still rapidly
growing, and some studies predict a world population of 9 billion around 2040 in contrast to the
7 billion people living on the planet today. All these people will need energy, which increases the
global energy demand. Further, in many countries the living standard is rapidly increasing like

16
China and India, where approximately 2.5 billion people are living, which represents more than a
third of the World’s population. Also the increasing living standards lead to an increased energy
demand. According to the IEA World Energy Outlook 2013, the global energy demand will grow
about one third from 2011 to 2013 [4]. The increasing demand in energy has economic impact,
as well. If there is more demand for a product, while supply does not change much, the product
will get more expensive. This basic market mechanism is also true for Energy. As an example we
show a plot of the annual averaged price for an oil barrel, normalized to the value of the 2008 US
Dollar in Fig. 1.1. We see that prices went up during the oil crisis in the 1970s, when some
countries stopped producing and trading oil for a while. The second era of higher oil prices
started at the beginning of this millennium. Due to the increasing demand from new growing
economies, the oil prices have been significantly increased. A second challenge that we are
facing is related to the fact that our energy infrastructure heavily depends on fossil fuels like oil,
coal and gas. Fossil fuels are nothing but millions and millions of years of solar energy stored in
the form of chemical energy. The problem is that humans deplete these fossil fuels much faster
than they are generated through the photosynthetic process in nature. Therefore fossil fuels are
not a sustainable energy source. The more fossil fuels we consume, the less easily available gas
and oil resources will be available. Already now we see that more and more oil and gas is
produced with unconventional methods, such as extracting oil from tar sands in Alberta, Canada
and producing gas with fracturing such as in large parts of the United States. This new methods
use much more energy to get the fossil fuels out of the ground. Further, off-shore drilling is put
regions with ever larger water depths, which leads to new technological risks as we have seen in
the Deep water Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. A third challenge is that by
burning fossil fuels we produce the so-called greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO 2).
Hence, it seems very clear that the increase in carbon dioxide is responsible for the global
warming and climate change, which can have drastic consequences of the habitats of many
people. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, mankind is heavily dependent on fossil
fuels. Within a few centuries, we are using solar energy that was incident on Earth for hundreds
of millions of years, converted in to chemical energy by the photosynthetic process and stored in
the form of gas, coal and oil. Before the industrial revolution, the main source of energy was
wood and biomass, which is a secondary form of solar energy. The energy source was
replenished in the same characteristic time as the energy being consumed. In the pre-industrial

17
era, mankind was basically living on a secondary form of solar energy. However, also back then
the way we consumed energy was not fully sustainable. For example, deforestation due to
increasing population density was already playing a role at the end of the first millennium.

Fig 2.2 (Primary Links) [14]

18
2.7 Methods of Energy Conversion
Figure shows different energy sources and the ways we utilize them. We see that usually the
chemical energy stored in fossil fuels is converted to usable forms of energy via heat by burning,
with an efficiency of about 90%. Using heat engines, thermal energy can be converted in to
mechanical energy. Heat engines have a conversion efficiency of up to 60%. Their efficiency is
ultimately limited by the Carnot efficiency limit that we will discuss in Chapter 10. The far
majority of the current cars and trucks works on this principle. Mechanical energy can be
converted in to electricity using electric generators with an efficiency of up to 99%. Most of the
World’s electricity is generated with a turbo generator that is connected to a steam turbine, where
the coal is the major energy source. This process is explained in more detail in our discussion on
solar thermal electric power in Chapter 20. Along all the process steps of making electricity out
of fossil fuels, at least 50% of the initial available chemical energy is lost in the various
conversion steps. Chemical energy can be directly converted into electricity using a fuel cell. The
most common fuel used in fuel cell technology is hydrogen. Typical conversion efficiencies of
fuel cells are 60%. A regenerative fuel cell can operate in both directions and also convert
electrical energy into chemical energy. Such an operation is called electrolysis; typical
conversion efficiencies of hydrogen electrolysers of 50-80% have been reported.

Fig 2.3 (method of energy conversion) [12]

19
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN ASPECTS

3.1 Basic anthropometrics and ergonomic requirements

Basic anthropometric study to create a minimum dimensional requirement for sitting and
standing. Volumetric requirement for batteries instrumentation and other mechanical parts.

3.1.1 Ergonomics
Study of how people sit and how people get in and get out of a Maruti versus tall boy like
WagonR. Forces acting on a person while standing in a train or a bus. Most comfortable position
and dimensions in a half standing position which aids in easier ingress and egress to and from the
vehicle. Supports required to get in and get out and while in motion.

3.1.2 Design Implications

Layout -

Fig 3.1 (Layout of Bus)

Minimum side paneling, good view of the outside from most of the sides.
-Minimum opaque surfaces.

20
-Position of seating or standing in which getting up and getting out frequently is easy.
-Enough headroom.
-One step ground clearance.
-Non slippery and sharp edges of flooring (possible nosing or beading)
-“Rightful” placement of supports and grips (study of postures part of anthropometric study)
Both in motion and static

3.2 CHASSIS
A chassis is the framework of an artificial object, which supports the object in its construction
and use. An example of a chassis is a vehicle frame, the underpart of a motor vehicle, on which
the body is mounted; Chassis is the main support structure of the vehicle which is also known as
‘Frame’. It bears all the stresses on the vehicle in both static and dynamic conditions. In a
vehicle, it is analogous to the skeleton in living organisms. The origin of the word Chassis lies in
the French language. Every vehicle whether it is a two-wheeler or a car or a truck has a chassis-
frame. However, its form obviously varies with the vehicle type.

The Chassis has the following functions. It

1. Supports or bears the load of the vehicle body

2. Provide the space and mounting location for various aggregates of vehicle
3. Supports the weight of various systems of the vehicle such as engine, transmission etc.
4. Supports a load of passengers as well as the luggage
5. Withstands the stresses arising due to bad road conditions
6. Withstands stresses during braking and acceleration of the vehicle

21
Chassis Frame:

A typical Chassis frame in the image below:

Fig 3.2 (Chassis Frame)

Looking at our vehicles

Similarity in function, weight and size (basic dimension), number of passengers they carry

Fig 3.3 (Basic shape of bus)

22
3.3 Design brief
Technical specifications which are followed from the existing prototype are: The basic chassis
structure with permissible modification in the size of the wheelbase. Over all mechanics of the
vehicle constituting parts like motor, battery, controller and instrumentation remains unchanged.

Minimum surface area of the solar panels to be 2 square meters. The solar panels are currently
100cm x 200cm and a total number of panels used is three. (Each panel containing minimum 36
cells).
Minimum surfaces and skinning. In order to increase higher visibility from inside to outside.
Light weight vehicle, which means under 950 kg kerb weight to be maintained approximately.
Designing a solar powered vehicle for locomotion in areas like nonacademic in campus,
entertainment parks, safari parks and exhibition areas, to be used by tourists, middle class
families, executives and workers.
An ergonomically designed vehicle to accommodate 4 people.
Possibility of storage space or collapsible area to generate extra storage floor area.
Safety of passengers Safety here does not imply emphasis on collision safety rather safety of
passenger from slipping due to inertia while moving and breaking and arresting the person in the
sitting position if the vehicle topples.
Strong and distinct visual identity
Simple interface and minimal interior elements

3.4 Concept Development three level

1) “Inside out to outside in” approach form well integrated with material and structure and
complimentary to the overall functional requirements, interior elements with certain level of
flexibility, innovation and convenience

2) Exploring attributes like unconventional sporty, light, dynamic, extrovert,

3) Experiments with lighter materials like metal sections (m.s and aluminum), fiber reinforced
plastics and aluminum sheets keeping in mind the main constraint of accommodating surfacing
surface area of 4’x 7’(14 sq. ft.)

23
CHAPTER 4

SPECIFICATIONS

Motor

Power 6hp
Speed 1000rpm
Battery

Voltage 12v
Current 100ah x 3
Solar panel

Number of cells 36 x 3
Capacity 350watt each
Tire

Diameter 19 inch
Width 190 mm
Load capacity 440kg each

24
CHAPTER 5

SOLAR PANEL

5.1 History
In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first
observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel.[3] Though the premiere solar panels were too
inefficient for even simple electric devices they were used as an instrument to measure
light.[4] The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when Willoughby
Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this
discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on
selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. [3][5] In
1881, Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as
"continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim,
diffused daylight."[6] However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to
coal-fired power plants. In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many
modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941. [7] In 1954, this design was first used by Bell
Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cells.

5.2 Theory and Constructions

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-
film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the
back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules
are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells must be
connected electrically in series, one to another.
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output interface.
Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Also, USB power interface can be used.
Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in

25
parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting wires that take the
current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition
metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading,
to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such
as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes,
and troughs to better support the panel structure.

Fig 5.1 (Solar Panel)

26
5.3 Technology

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made
of multicrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon accounted for more
than 90 percent of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the overall market is made up
of thin-film technologies using cadmium telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon.

Emerging, third generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar technologies. Also,
high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are preferably
used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram
lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs)
and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells
is concentrator photovoltaic (CPV).

5.4 The Film

In rigid thin-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in
situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an
encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in
this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon
has a sunlight conversion rate of 6–12%

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing
the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is
an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a
conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled
into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side
(typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other
side.

27
5.5 Maintenance

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by dust, grime, pollen,
and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its
power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran,
associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for Nano
Energy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.

Paying to have solar panels cleaned is often not a good investment; researchers found panels that
had not been cleaned, or rained on, for 145 days during a summer drought in California, lost only
7.4% of their efficiency. Overall, for a typical residential solar system of 5 kW, washing panels
halfway through the summer would translate into a mere $20 gain in electricity production until
the summer drought ends—in about 2 ½ months. For larger commercial rooftop systems, the
financial losses are bigger but still rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On
average, panels lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.

5.6 Connectors

Outdoor solar panels usually includes MC4 connectors. Automotive solar panels also can
include car lighter and USB adapter. Indoor panels (including solar pv glasses, thin films and
windows) can integrate microinverter (AC Solar panels).

5.7 Applications

There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaic. It can first be
used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to
refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used
in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:

Photovoltaic power stations

Rooftop solar PV systems

Standalone PV systems

Solar planes

Solar-pumped lasers

Solar vehicles

28
CHAPTER 6

MECHANICAL VEHICLE COMPONENTS

6.1 Ackermann steering System

Ackermann steering System is a geometric arrangement of linkages in the steering of a car or

other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on the inside and outside of a turn needing
to trace out circles of different radii.

It was invented by the German carriage builder Georg Lankensperger in Munich in 1817, then
patented by his agent in England, Rudolph Ackermann (1764–1834) in 1818 for horse-drawn
carriages. Erasmus Darwin may have a prior claim as the inventor dating from 1758.

Fig 6.1 (Steering system)

29
6.1.1 Advantages

The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyres to slip sideways when
following the path around a curve. As the rear wheels are fixed, this centre point must be on a
line extended from the rear axle. Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well
requires that the inside front wheel be turned, when steering, through a greater angle than the
outside wheel.

Rather than the preceding "turntable" steering, where both front wheels turned around a common
pivot, each wheel gained its own pivot, close to its own hub. While more complex, this
arrangement enhances controllability by avoiding large inputs from road surface variations being
applied to the end of a long lever arm, as well as greatly reducing the fore-and-aft travel of the
steered wheels. This was achieved by making the linkage not a simple parallelogram, but by
making the length of the track rod (the moving link between the hubs) shorter than that of the
axle, so that the steering arms of the hubs appeared to "toe out". As the steering moved, the
wheels turned according to Ackermann, with the inner wheel turning further. If the track rod is
placed ahead of the axle, it should instead be longer in comparison, thus preserving this same
"toe out".

6.2 Disc brake

A disc brake is a type of brake that uses callipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or
"rotor"[1] to create friction.[2] This action slows the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle,
either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted
into waste heat which must be dispersed.

Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor
vehicles, but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft.

30
 Fig 6.2 (Disc Brake)

6.3 Axle
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be
fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around
the axle.[1] In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where
the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the
wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the
latter type axle is referred to as a spindle.

Fig 6.3 (Axle)

31
6.3.1 Vehicle Axle

Axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a live-axle suspension
system, the axles serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position
of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. The axles in this system must also
bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in
heavy duty trucks and some two-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, and serves
only as a suspension and steering component. Conversely, many front-wheel drive cars have a
solid rear beam axle.

In other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the
wheels; the position and angle of the wheel hubs is an independent function of the suspension
system. This is typical of the independent suspensions found on most newer cars and SUVs, and
on the front of many light trucks. These systems still have differentials, but will not have
attached axle housing tubes. They may be attached to the vehicle frame or body, or integral in
a transaxle. The axle shafts (usually constant-velocity type) then transmit driving torque to the
wheels. Like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front-wheel drive independent
suspension system do not support any vehicle weight

6.4 Chain and Sprocket

A sprocket is a toothed wheel that fits onto a shaft. It is prevented from rotating on the shaft by a
key that fits into keyways in the sprocket and shaft.

A chain is used to connect two sprockets. One sprocket is the driver sprocket. The other sprocket
is the driven sprocket. Motion and force can be transmitted via the chain from one sprocket to
another, therefore from one shaft to another. Chains that are used to transmit motion and force
from one sprocket to another are called power transmission chains.

32
 Fig 6.4 (Chain and Sprocket)

There are 6 major groups of power transmission chains:

 standard general purpose roller chains, widely used in industry

 high performance roller chains, these roller chains are stronger than general purpose
roller chains
 lube-free chains, these chains can be used without lubrication
 environmentally resistant chains with special corrosion resistance
 Specialty chains, Type 1. used as bicycle chains, motor cycle chains, automotive chains
 Specialty chains, Type 2. Including miniature chains, leaf chains and inverted tooth
chain, i.e. silent chains.

Most of these chains are the roller type, i.e. they are composed of link plates, pins that join the
link plates and also rollers and bushes.

33
6.4.1 Advantage of chain drives

An advantage of chain drives over most belt drives is that the chain cannot slip on the sprocket,
so the chain and sprocket provides a positive, non-slip drive, i.e. the chain cannot slip on the
sprocket because the sprocket teeth prevent the chain from slipping.

Some belt and pulley drives also have teeth. These toothed belt and pulley drives are used in
applications where it is important that the belt does not slide on the pulley, e.g. timing belts in
internal combustion engines and the drive belts that replace the chain on some motorcycles.

6.4.2 Disadvantage of chain drives

The disadvantage of the chain and sprocket drive is that it can be noisy and more expensive than
a belt and pulley drive system.

Chain and sprocket drives are not used on some applications such as drilling machines and lathes
precisely because the chain and sprocket drive does not allow slip. For safety reasons, belt and
pulley drives are used on many machines so that in the event of something jamming in the
machine, under great pressure, the belt can slip on the pulley rather than damaging the machine
as would happen with a no-slip chain and sprocket drive.

Chain and sprocket drives are used in applications where slipping should not occur, e.g.

 bicycles and motor cycles

 cam shaft drives in internal combustion engines
 fork lift trucks
 Elevators and escalators.

6.5 Tyre

A tire (American English) or tyre (British English; see spelling differences) is a ring-shaped
component that surrounds a wheel's rim to transfer a vehicle's load from the axle through the
wheel to the ground and to provide traction on the surface travelled over. Most tires, such as
those for automobiles and bicycles, are pneumatically inflated structures, which also provide a

34
flexible cushion that absorbs shock as the tire rolls over rough features on the surface. Tires
provide a footprint that is designed to match the weight of the vehicle with the bearing strength
of the surface that it rolls over by providing a bearing pressure that will not deform the surface
excessively.

The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire,
along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They consist of a tread and a body. The
tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air.
Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal fitted around
wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic).
Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles,
including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires
are still used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber (or other polymer) tires are still used
in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers,
and wheelbarrows.

Fig 6.6 (Tire)

35
6.5.1 Components

 Tread

The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion that is in
contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact patch. The tread is a thick rubber, or
rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of traction that does not
wear away too quickly. The tread pattern is characterized by the geometrical shape of the
grooves, lugs, voids and sipes. Grooves run circumferentially around the tire, and are needed to
channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread design that contacts the road surface.
Voids are spaces between lugs that allow the lugs to flex and evacuate water. Tread patterns
feature non-symmetrical (or non-uniform) lug sizes circumferentially to minimize noise levels at
discrete frequencies. Sipes are slits cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the grooves,
which allow the water from the grooves to escape to the sides in an effort to
prevent hydroplaning.

Treads are often designed to meet specific product marketing positions. High-performance tires
have small void ratios to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction, but
may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears quickly. Mud and
snow (M&S) tires are designed with higher void ratios to channel away rain and mud, while
providing better gripping performance.

 Bead

The tire bead is the part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is typically
reinforced with steel wire and compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The bead
seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without
leakage. The bead fit is tight to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel
rotates. The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics
of an automobile, because the rim supports the tire's profile.

 Sidewall

The sidewall is that part of the tire, or bicycle tire, that bridges between the tread and bead. The
sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile
strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure and transmits the torque applied by

36
the drive axle to the tread to create traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is
clear from the total collapse of the tire when punctured. Sidewalls are molded with
manufacturer-specific detail, government mandated warning labels, and other consumer
information, and sometimes decorative ornamentation, like whitewalls or tire lettering.

6.5.2 Associated Components

 Wheel

Tires are mounted onto wheels that most often have integral rims on their outer edges to hold the
tire. Automotive wheels are typically made from pressed and welded steel, or a composite of
lightweight metal alloys, such as aluminium or magnesium. These alloy wheels may be
either cast or forged. The mounted tire and wheel assembly is then bolted to the vehicle's hub. A
decorative hubcap and trim ring may be placed over the wheel.

 Rim

The beads of the tire are held on the rim, or the "outer edge" of a wheel. These outer edges are
shaped to obtain a proper shape on each side, having a radially cylindrical inclined inner wall on
which the tire can be mounted. The wheel's rim must be of the proper design and type to hold the
bead of the appropriately sized tire. Tires are mounted on the wheel by forcing its beads into the
channel formed by the wheel's inner and outer rims.

 Inner tube

Most bicycle tires, many motorcycle tires, and many tires for large vehicles such as buses, heavy
trucks, and tractors are designed for use with inner tubes. Inner tubes are torus-shaped balloons
made from an impermeable material, such as soft, elastic synthetic rubber, to prevent air leakage.
The inner tubes are inserted into the tire and inflated to retain air pressure.

Large inner tubes can be re-used for other purposes, such as swimming and rafting (see swim
ring), tubing (recreation), sledding, and skitching. Purpose-built inflatable tori are also
manufactured for these uses, offering choice of colors, fabric covering, handles, decks, and other
accessories, and eliminating the protruding valve stem.

37
  Valve stem

The valve stem is a tube made of metal or rubber, through which the tire is inflated, with a check
valve, typically a Schrader valve on automobiles and most bicycle tires, or a Presta valve on
high-performance bicycles. Valve stems usually protrude through the wheel for easy access.
They mount directly to the rim, in the case of tubeless tires, or are an integral part of the inner
tube. The rubber in valve stems eventually degrades, and, in the case of tubeless tires,
replacement of the valve stem at regular intervals or with tire replacement reduces the chance of
failure. Some may notice that their valve stem is all metal with a nut retaining it (as opposed to
the typical rubber stem with brass threads). Most modern passenger vehicles are now required to
have a tire pressure monitoring system which usually consists of a valve stem attached to an
electronic module. The module is hidden inside and is only visible when the tire has been
removed from the wheel.

6.6 Suspension

Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects
a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. [1] Suspension systems must
support both road holding/handling and ride quality,[2] which are at odds with each other. The
tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for the suspension to
keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or
ground forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension
also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of
front and rear suspension of a car may be different.

6.6.1 Types

Suspension systems can be broadly classified into two subgroups: dependent and independent.
These terms refer to the ability of opposite wheels to move independently of each other.

A dependent suspension normally has a beam (a simple 'cart' axle) or (driven) live axle that holds
wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle. When the camber of one wheel

38
changes, the camber of the opposite wheel changes in the same way. De Dion suspensions are
also in this category as they rigidly connect the wheels together.

An independent suspension allows wheels to rise and fall on their own without affecting the
opposite wheel. Suspensions with other devices, such as sway bars that link the wheels in some
way are still classed as independent. A third type is a semi-dependent suspension. In this case,
the motion of one wheel does affect the position of the other but they are not rigidly attached to
each other. A twist-beam rear suspension is such a system.

6.6.2 Dependent suspensions

Dependent systems may be differentiated by the system of linkages used to locate them, both
longitudinally and transversely. Often both functions are combined in a set of linkages.

Examples of location linkages include:

 Satchell link
 Panhard rod
 Watt's linkage
 WOB Link
 Mumford linkage
 Leaf springs used for location (transverse or longitudinal)
o Fully elliptical springs usually need supplementary location links and are no
longer in common use
o Longitudinal semi-elliptical springs used to be common and still are used in
heavy-duty trucks and aircraft. They have the advantage that the spring rate can easily be
made progressive (non-linear).
o A single transverse leaf spring for both front wheels and/or both back wheels,
supporting solid axles, was used by Ford Motor Company, before and soon after World
War II, even on expensive models. It had the advantages of simplicity and low unsprung
weight (compared to other solid axle designs).

39
In a front engine, rear-drive vehicle, dependent rear suspension is either "live axle" or deDion
axle, depending on whether or not the differential is carried on the axle. Live axle is simpler but
the unsprung weight contributes to wheel bounce.

Because it assures constant camber, dependent (and semi-independent) suspension is most

common on vehicles that need to carry large loads as a proportion of the vehicle weight, that
have relatively soft springs and that do not (for cost and simplicity reasons) use active
suspensions. The use of dependent front suspension has become limited to heavier commercial
vehicles.

6.6.3 Independent suspensions

The variety of independent systems is greater and includes:

 Swing axle
 Sliding pillar
 MacPherson strut/Chapman strut
 Upper and lower A-arm (double wishbone)
 Semi-trailing arm suspension
 Swinging arm
o Transverse leaf springs when used as a suspension link, or four quarter elliptics on
one end of a car are similar to wishbones in geometry, but are more compliant. Examples
are the front of the original Fiat 500, the Panhard Dyna Z and the early examples
of Peugeot 403 and the back of the AC Ace and AC Aceca.

Because the wheels are not constrained to remain perpendicular to a flat road surface in turning,
braking and varying load conditions, control of the wheel camber is an important issue. Swinging
arm was common in small cars that were sprung softly and could carry large loads, because the
camber is independent of load. Some active and semi-active suspensions maintain the ride
height, and therefore the camber, independent of load. In sports cars, optimal camber change
when turning is more important.

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Wishbone and multi-link allow the engineer more control over the geometry, to arrive at the best
compromise, than swing axle, MacPherson strut or swinging arm do; however the cost and space
requirements may be greater. Semi-trailing arm is in between, being a variable compromise
between the geometries of swinging arm and swing axle.

6.6.4 Semi-independent suspension

In a semi-independent suspensions, the wheels of an axle are able to move relative to one another
as in an independent suspension but the position of one wheel has an effect on the position and
attitude of the other wheel. This effect is achieved via the twisting or deflecting of suspension
parts under load. The most common type of semi-independent suspension is the twist beam.

6.7 Leaf Spring

A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles.
Originally called a laminated or carriage spring, and sometimes referred to as a semi-
elliptical spring or cart spring, it is one of the oldest forms of springing, appearing on carriages in
England after 1750 and from there migrating to France and Germany. [1]

A leaf spring takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross-
section. In the most common configuration, the centre of the arc provides location for the axle,
while loops formed at either end provide for attaching to the vehicle chassis. For very heavy
vehicles, a leaf spring can be made from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several
layers, often with progressively shorter leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating and to some
extent damping as well as springing functions. While the interleaf friction provides a damping
action, it is not well controlled and results in striction in the motion of the suspension. For this
reason, some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs.

A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or attached directly at one
end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a short swinging arm. The
shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate when compressed and thus makes for
softer springiness. Some springs terminated in a concave end, called a spoon end (seldom used
now), to carry a swivelling member.

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The leaf spring has seen a modern development in cars. The new Volvo XC90 (from 2016 year
model and forward) has a transverse leaf spring in high tech composite materials, a solution that
is similar to the latest Chevrolet Corvette. This means a straight leaf spring that is tightly secured
to the chassis and the ends of the spring bolted to the wheel suspension, to allow the spring to
work independently on each wheel. This means the suspension is smaller, flatter and lighter than
a traditional setup.

Fig 6.8 (Leaf Spring)

6.7.1 Characteristics

The leaf spring acts as a linkage for holding the axle in position and thus separate linkages are
not necessary. It makes the construction of the suspension simple and strong.

Because the positioning of the axle is carried out by the leaf springs, it is disadvantageous to use
soft springs i.e. springs with low spring constant.

Therefore, this type of suspension does not provide good riding comfort. The inter-leaf friction
between the leaf springs affects the riding comfort.

Acceleration and braking torque cause wind-up and vibration. Also wind-up causes rear-end
squat and nose-diving.

The inter-leaf friction damps the spring's motion and reduces rebound, which until shock
absorbers were widely adopted was a great advantage over helical springs.

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CHAPTER 7

ELECTRIC VEHICLE COMPONENT

The solar electric vehicle that we made has following main components: solar panel, motor,
wheels, shaft, battery, wood for frame, washers, screws, clamps, pins, insulated wires, etc. The
design is made simple for economical reason and for user friendly operation. Some of the key
components are explained as under:

Fig 7.1 (3D model of the Solar Bus)

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7.1 Batteries

The solar panels will collect energy from the sun and convert it into usable electrical energy,
which in turn will be stored in the lead acid batteries to be supplied to the motor when necessary.
The batteries mainly store the excess power from the solar panels to give backup for night hour’s
use. They also supply the initial torque to start the motor. The batteries are 12 Volt Exide sealed
traction, deep discharge batteries.

Fig 7.2 (Battery)

7.1.1 Charge Controller

The batteries are connected to a charge controller which will ensure healthy life of the batteries
by preventing it from over charging and over discharging. A microcontroller inside the charge
controller is programmed to detect the voltages at the battery terminal and/or the solar panel
terminals and accordingly determine what charging current the battery needs to be supplied is not
enough sunshine due to fog, cloud or rain. This provision for an external plug-in system to
charge the batteries from the conventional AC power supply will allow the bus to increase its
overall utility.

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7.2 Motor
The motor used is a DC motor which is rated at 12V, 0.5A and 1000rpm. This DC-series motor
is sufficient to get the bus up and running as will be shown in details later. The motor controller
is designed to control the speed of rotation of the motor as well as the direction of its rotation. In
other words, it determines the bus speed and forward/reverse direction of motion of the wheels.
These four components make up the mechanical part of the solar bus. Front wheel steering is
used as it tends to be more stable and safe. The suspension used is sophisticated enough to allow
the user a stable ride and to protect the bus and panels from sudden shocks and blows. A drum
braking system as in conventional buss is used to provide the safety features of the bus while
travelling. The wheel selection is dependent upon the rolling resistance which would determine
how far the solar bus can travel with the available energy.

Fig 7.3 (Motor)

7.3 Speed Controller

A simple DC controller connected to the batteries and the DC motor. If the driver floors the
accelerator pedal, the controller delivers the full 96 volts from the batteries to the motor. If the
driver take his/her foot off the accelerator, the controller delivers zero volts to the motor. For any
setting in between, the controller "chops" the 96 volts thousands of times per second to create an
average voltage somewhere between 0 and 96 volts.

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7.4 WORKING MECHANISM OF SOLAR ELECTRIC BUS
The main component of a solar bus is its solar array, consisting of photovoltaic cells, which
collect the energy from the sun and converts it into usable electrical energy. The energy from the
solar panel is passed to the battery for storage through an electric connection by using wires.
Then the stored power is passed to the motor, causing the drive shaft to turn. The drive shaft
causes the wheel to spin. The spinning wheel moves the bus forward.

7.4.1 ADVANTAGES AND RESTRICTIONS

 Eco – Friendly Vehicle
Our vehicle is totally environment friendly vehicle in all respect. The materials used in the
overall manufacturing of the vehicle is made of recyclable materials. The vehicle doesn’t emit
any hazardous polluting gases. I neither uses electricity for charging of the vehicle since
indirectly electricity production also causes lots of environmental issues. It charges the vehicle
directly through solar power on the Go. Efficient use of solar energy radiated to Earth. A lot of
sun’s rays are emitted to earth surface and atmosphere. Most of these rays and energies are
wasted due to no use of them. By running our vehicle directly via solar energy give a best way of
optimum utilization of this solar energy for running our vehicles.

 Awareness towards a clean, green & sustainable future

Our next but most important motive is to get a clean green and sustainably future. If we preserve
our no renewable conventional sources of energy now, the only it is useful for future generations.
Despite the advantages electric vehicles provide, electric vehicles face several limitations that
prevent them from widespread implementation. Barriers include battery cost, vehicle range, and
availability of charging stations. It has been found that battery cost discourages potential buyers.
Also adoption of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles would not occur unless there were significant
decreases to battery costs (or significant increases in gasoline prices) [11]. Also, batteries require
several hours to fully charge and have driving ranges that are typically less than a petroleum
vehicle’s range. This requires electric vehicle drivers to adjust driving habits and refueling
behavior [12]. Furthermore, charging stations are less abundant than gas stations, requiring

46
drivers to plan their routes ahead of time. The aforementioned limitations for electric vehicles are
relevant particularly for private vehicle owners.

 Not ideal for long rides

One of the demerits of this vehicle is that it is not manufactured for very long-distance rides
since its design is neither that comfortable for long rides nor it is suitable keeping in mind the
weather and constant need of solar power. We can easily switch to battery mode which is being
charged on the go with those solar panels and is stored for use when the intensity of the solar
power is not enough for driving the vehicle. Thus we get a limit to the power stored in the
batteries which limits from not suitable for very long rides

 Performance varies with weather conditions

As discussed earlier our vehicle runs directly through solar power effectively. We have another
limitation in terms of the climatic conditions. As we know that sun ray’s intensity is not uniform
throughout the day time and is absent in the night time. So that limits our vehicle’s performance
at different time of the day. Also, the vehicle is not effective at times of cloudy environment or
raining season.

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CHAPTER 8

DETAILED COST ANALYSIS

Inventories are valued at lower of cost and net realizable value ascertained on the following
basis:

 Stores, spares, consumable tools, raw material and components.

 Cost includes taxes and duties, cost of fuel

Major value items in inventory

1. Motor
2. Rear Axel
3. Front Axel
4. Battery
5. Controller
6. Steering Assembly
7. Front Structure
8. Tire
9. Frame
10. Solar Panel
11. Body

Cost Analysis of Solar Bus (Electrical Component)

NO. OF COST OF EACH

COMPONENT COMPONENT COMPONENT TOTAL COST
Motor 1 15000 15000
Battery 3 24000 24000
Controller 1 3000 3000
Solar Panel 3 3500 10500
Light 2 200 400
Charging Unit 1 800 800
Switch & Accessories - 700 700
Total Cost - - 54400

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 Cost Analysis of Solar Bus (Mechanical Component)

NO. OF COST OF EACH

COMPONENT COMPONENT COMPONENT TOTAL COST

Chassis 1 22000 22000

Frame 1 6000 6000
Tire, Rim 4 5000 20000
Body - 8000 8000
Steering 1 7000 7000
Axle 2 4000 8000
Brake 1 6000 6000
Suspension - 14000 14000
Total Cost - - 91000

Total costs of the solar electric bus: - 91000 + 54400 = 145400/-

Other transportation and manufacturing costs: - 15000/-

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CHAPTER 9

FUTURE ASPECTS

 You might not recognize solar panels in 20 years

Solar panels of tomorrow might look very different from the ones we use today. Researchers at
Michigan State University have developed transparent solar panels that could be applied to just
about anything. The researchers have suggested that their clear solar panels could be affixed to
vehicles, buildings, windows, and even mobile phones. .

At only five percent efficiency, the panels are far less efficient than traditional solar panels,
which operate with an average efficiency rate of around 15 percent. But the technology is still in
its infancy and will only improve in the coming decades.

 Use of solar power will expand dramatically

As the fight against climate change accelerates, so too will demand for sources of renewable
energy. Solar power will play a major role in mitigating climate change around the world.

Globally, solar energy accounts for just 1 percent of electricity production, but that figure is
expected to rise to 16 percent by 2050. Analysts have suggested that while rooftop solar will
increase, the most important expansion of solar energy will occur at the utility scale, which could
reach the multi-terawatt level (equal to several trillion watts) by mid-century.

 Solar technology will be better

To facilitate this expansion, government subsidies for the solar industry will become increasingly
generous. Solar manufacturers will need these grants to invest in research and development that
could improve solar panels’ stability, efficiency, and ease of manufacture. These advances will
ensure that solar remains both affordable and efficient.

But with or without perovskite, efficiency rates will also continue to creep up just as they have
for several years. While today’s average panel efficiency rate hovers around 15 percent, analysts
predict that by 2027, most premium solar panels will be at least 25 percent efficient.

50
  China will continue to lead the world in solar production

China has long been an industry leader in the production of solar panels and hardware. Today,
China controls 70 percent of the global trade in solar panels and leads the world in deployment
of solar energy. Much of China’s advantage has to do with its large reserves of rare earth
elements like tellurium and indium that are crucial to the production of solar panels. Even though
its reserves of these metals are running low, China is heavily invested in research and
development of solar technology, and will likely turn to substitutes or tap new reserves in Africa
or elsewhere before 2038.

 Solar energies future in India

India, with its booming economy and humongous population of over 1 billion, has always faced
shortage of energy. Even though the country is among the largest producers of electricity in the
world, it is hardly ever able to meet the electricity requirements of its ever-so-rapidly increasing
population. At present, almost 53% of India’s energy requirements are met with coal; going by
the predictions, the coal reserves of the country will not last beyond 2050. [Coal power plant]. It
is common knowledge that over 72% of the population of this third world country still resides in
villages, with only about half of its rural population getting access to electricity. It is high time
India moved to renewable ways to feed its population its fair-share of electricity.

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CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION

The solar vehicle solves many problems related to the environment and is the best pollution free
method. We need to make use of them so that we can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.
Solar vehicles do have some disadvantages like small speed range, initial cost is high. Also, the
rate of conversion of energy is not satisfactory (only 17%). But these disadvantages can be easily
overcome by conducting further research in this area; like the problem of solar cells can be
solved by using the ultra-efficient solar cells that give about 30-35% efficiency. As this field of
automobiles will be explored the problems will get solved. The solar automobiles have a huge
prospective market and we should start using them in our day to day life. We have already
completed making a solar vehicle prototype as our project and the vehicle is running successfully
on solar power.

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%20of%20Solar%20Energy.pdf
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