Digital Circuits

Prof. Santanu Chattopadhyay

Lecture – 02
Introduction (Contd.)

So, this is a digital signal representation so, this I gives us the flexibility, by which we
can think about digital processing of this signals from the environment. So, this analog
signals that we are getting so, if we want to process them digitally. So, we have to think
about their representation, because anything that you want to do first of all what is
required is to ha store the information that we have got from the outside world and for
storing the information. So, you have to go for this digital form only.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:50)

So, by using this binary numbers we can represent any quantity. So, we will see in our
course that this by the different number systems are possible, and in a computer system,
the number system that is used is the binary number system so, where this individual
digits are only once and 0s.

So, what we can do this we can represent 2 different state of some signal by means of
these 2 different notations 0 and 1. So, may be if it is some voltage value we can say that
this 0 is 0 volt, and 1 is 1 volt like that. Or if it is a say 0 is 0 volt, 1 is 5 volt, or it may be
0 is minus 12 volt and 1 is plus 12 volt, or the other ways 0 is minus 12 volt, sorry, 0 is
plus 12 volt and 1 is minus 12 volt. So, like that we can have different type of
conventions that we follow.

But ultimately the information that we store so, that is in some digital format. So, for
example, you can have this binary 2. So, 2 is represented by 2 bits 1 0 that could
represent a 2 volt signal. So, if we say that one binary one corresponds to a one volt
signal. So, you can say that the binary value 2, it corresponds to a 2 volt signal.

So, we generally have to agree on some sort of code. So, what that is what I was talk
talking about some time back. So, you can say that say minus 12 volt is 0 and plus 12
volt is 1, or somebody may say that the plus 12 volt is 0, and minus 12 volt is 1. So, of
them are possible so, if you look into different systems, we will see that the all these
types or different types of representations are possible.

So, we must agree on some sort of coding that we have and the dynamic range of the
signal that we want to represent. So, se whenever we are talking about some
representation of a number. So, we are dedicating certain number of bits in it, certain
number of digits for that purpose so, using that many digit. So, you cannot represent any
arbitrarily high number. So, if I say that I have a number of system, I have a space to
write only say 3 digits. So, I cannot use it for representing the number 2, 5, 5, 6 in that
system; because that requires 4 digits 4 digits space, but we have only a single digits 3
digits space so, I cannot have 4 digits there.

So, this way we can think about this range. So, this range dynamically what the what the
values that signal can peak up so, we must know that and accordingly we have to decide
the minimum number of bits that will be using for storing that information. Possible
digital representation of a pure sine wave of known frequency, for that purpose we must
choose the maximum value. So, what is the maximum peak value that we have, and
resolution or error that is at what level at what difference of values you are going to take,
ok.

So, we will take suppose you want to one volt accuracy ok. So, suppose that is the and
the maximum amplitude is minus is 50 volt. Maximum amplitude is 50 volt that is the
signal goes from say minus 25 volt to plus 25 volt in the 2 ranges.
So, if we say that the minus 25 volt, I will represent as 0, then 20 minus 24 volt, I will
represent it as 1 minus 23 volt, I will represent it as 2. So, like that if we think about this
type of levels, then ultimately for this minus 25 volt to plus 25 volt, this 50 volt range I
will have 50 different levels of the signal, that we can gave so, if we think about one volt
accuracy.

So, as a result so, this 50 different values have to be represent it, and in a binary number
system will see that it will require 6 bits to store that information. So, if you are given
less number of bits. So, you will not be a able to represent this 50 different levels. So, or
a so, you have to suffer on the accuracy side ok. So, suppose instead of say 50 different
level so, I want to store I want to have I am given only say 5 bits. So, with 5 bits so, I can
have 32 different levels possible only. So, accordingly my accuracy will be less for the
signal.

So, this way this digital signal representation itself it introduces some amount of error.
So, if we are go, if we are looking for these exact values if we are looking for exact value
when we have to go for the analog signal definitely, but as soon as we go for this
digitization process some amount of error is introduced into the system so, that is there.

But we will see that there are different types of errors that can crop up into this analog
systems, and that makes the digital systems much better from that point, but as for as the
initial quantization is concerned. So, digital signals they have got some amount of error
associated with it.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:15)

So, how can we represent digital logical functions in digital representation. So, digitals
signals they offer an effective way to execute logic. The formalism of performing logic
with binary variable is called switching algebra or Boolean algebra.

So, when we talk about algebra so, the term algebra means that there will be some values
that you can that that individual variables can peak up so, that is there. And I can do
some operations on that, on those values. So, there are certain there will be some axioms
or fixed accepted norms for that particular system, and then on that we can build up the
total set of computations.

So, in case of digital signals, so, we will seed that, this Boolean algebra or switching
algebra. So, that makes the basic foundation stone for developing the system. And may
be knowing that this Boolean algebra. So, this was the discovered long below these
digital circuits came into existence, and that that time it was pure mathematical interest,
but once this digital systems got introduced, then this again this Boolean algebra got it is
importance back.

So, this digital electronics when we are talking about it combines 2 important properties.
One is the ability to represent functions by coding the information in digital form. So,
that is one one property. And the other property is that it can control a system by a
process of manipulation and evaluation of digital variables is in switching algebra. So,
you can do some computation you can find out, you can have a set of conditions for
which certain signal said to be turned on.

For example, if you if you in a plant control so, there are may be different conveyor belts
moving. Then items are being put on to conveyer built, then they apart from the there
may be some fires safety system so, if you have smooch detector is sending signals. So,
like that there may be a large number of signals the inputs that you can get from the
plant, and accordingly you may have to do a set of other operations.

So, in this process they can be represented by means of some logical equation or logical
functions, and those logical functions or those controls functions they can be
implemented by means of this they can be represented by means also switching algebra.
And once you have represented them using switching algebra so, you can implement
them using digital circuits.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:02)

So, digital signals so, this is the next we going to why digital signals are preferable. So,
digital signals can be transmitted received amplified and retransmitted with no
degradation. So, why do I say so, because if you are transmitting some digital value. So,
you know that the ultimately, what is transmitted is a bit 1 or 0. So, when you are
transmitting a bit as 1 or 0 at the receiving station.
So, if I say that 1 in my system, 1 is represented by plus 12 volt and 0 is represented by
minus 12 volt. So, at the receiving station, if you get some intermediary value; say,
minus 5 volt. So, you can say that the minus 5 volt is close to minus 12. So, that is that
can be taken as 0. So, that way we can we can say that even if I have got some values
degraded, but digitally the value is the not degraded digitally the, we can still take it back
to 0.

So, this binary numbers so, there they are natural method for expressing this logic
variable. And complex logic functions can be easily expressed as binary functions. So,
we will as I was telling that, in a plant there may be different inputs coming from
different regions. And then we can have the overall plant function specify the in terms of
this control operations that it is doing, and that may be a set of logic functions, and they
are represented as binary function and from there we can get the function implemented in
digital circuits. So, we can achieve arbitrary levels or dynamic range that is the ratio of
the largest possible signal to the smallest one can be distinct that can be distinguished
above the background noise.

So, what happens is that so, whenever you are transmitting a signal there is always some
amount of noise that we will get added into the systems. So, if you are transmitting some
analog signal so, you can say that the analog signal say suppose I am transmitting a value
of say 12 volt. And due to the this noise so, this value becomes degraded to say 7 volts;
say, there is a noise introduced of minus 5 volt and at a some instant, and it becomes 7
volt.

So, at the receiving end I do not know whether value was a value is really 7 volt or it is 6
volt or it is 12 volt or something is intermediaries so, that way we cannot find out the
thing. But if we say that in case of in case of digital one so, if I know that plus they one
will be transmitted as 12 volt, and 0 will be transmitted at minus 12 volt. So, we can
safely say anything above 0 is possibly 1 and anything below 0 0 volt so, it is possibly a
bit 0. So, this is the amount of that the noise margin the noise immunity that we have in
the digital system. So, it is going to be much more compare to the analog system.

So, digital and the last point is the digital information it can be easily and inexpensively
stored. So, we can store this values in the; so, with the advancement of this DRAM
technique tech technology and all, SRAM technology and all. So, we store large amount
of information digitally in the system, and the quality is also much better than the analog
storage.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:26)

So, so, what you mean by this analog signal or digital signal? So, the first diagram that
you see here so, this is an analog signal. So, for the time so, this the it may be a voltage
signal or a current signal. So, it is varying like this so, this is the analog signal. So,
analog signals take on continuous value so, there is you cannot say that at difference
there is nothing like at different. So, this is normally is specified into terms of some
function over time or maybe a say differential equation and all, but ultimately this is a
continuous function of time. So, typically a current or voltage may be representing an
analog signal.

A digital signal so, they appear at some discrete levels. So, usually we use the binary
signals that it only 2 levels like here you see that we can have a low level and a high
level. So, this may be for this for this much of time the signal was low. Then for the this
range of time the value is 1, then again for this range the value is 0 again it is 1. So, one
level is refer to as logic 1, and the other level is refer to as logic 0.

So, of course, the it is not mandatory that this high level should be one and low level
should be 0. Somebody may say that my high level is 0 and the low level is 1 that is very
much possible. But what is what is required is that there are 2 distinct level. So, one of
them is called logic 0, another one is called logic 1. So, we have got different this is a
digital signals. So, they are going to be discrete in terms of level so, it is not a continuous
function like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

So, with that so, if we have got an analog signal. So now, I cannot have information’s
told for every time instance in my digital system. Like so, analog signals are continuous
in time and voltage or current. So, like say so, we can so, or charge so, that way we can
have this analog signals represented over time, but when you do a digitization.

So, at every point we basically do a sampling. So, at some regular intervals of time so,
we sample these digital signal, and then what we get is over the time intervals after
separated by time intervals we get some signal samples. So, the after digitization this
continuous analog signal it becomes a set of discreet values only. So, they are typically
separated by this fixed time interval. So, which is known as the, which is this is a
typically this is known as the sampling interval after this sampling intervals, the value is
a sampled again and this values are stored.

So, ultimately for digital signal so, what we will need to do is that we need to store the
values of the signals at this discreet points only. So, if you are willing to do a good
approximation of the analog signal the, we have to do a sampling at a much higher rate,
and if you are not so, then you can do where sampling at a lower rate also. And from the
communication theory you can find out like what is the minimum rate at which we have
to do the sampling and all for periodic signals etcetera for the construction purpose.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:41)

The important modules that we have in this process, one is the digital to analog
converter so, or DSC. So, digital to analog converter will come when this after doing this
digital processing. So, we are trying to give some signal to the environment. So, the and
the environment is analog so, we have to give some analog signal.

So, these in bit digital value, that is coming as input to these digital to analog converter
module so, it produces a voltage level. So, you can say that if this in general. So, it is ah,
if we FS is the voltage the full scale voltage we say VFS 0 to VFS are the values. Then
based on these values that we have got so, if all these b 1 b 2 bn. So, if all these bits are
0s, then what you get is 0 at the output. So, if you are giving a all 0 here you are getting a
0 output here.

On the other hand if you are giving all these bits as 1, so, you will getting a very close,
you will be getting the expression V o will be very close to VFS, ok. It is be just slightly
less than this VFS so, which is basically because of so, that that way you will get a value
which is very close to VFS so, you can say that. This is the voltage level that you are
getting so, that you are getting the full scale range.

So, that way this digital to analog converters; so, they are useful for converting the
digital value that we have got, after processing into some analog signal for said to be
send to the environment. So, what is the smallest possible voltage change? So, since this
is a this is a. So, change the value can you can vary this bits, and since this quantity b n
into 2 power minus n.

So, these has got the minimum contribution so, if you are going to change from the
smallest possible change that you can do is by changing this flipping this particular bit
bn. And that way this minimum change that is possible is the 2 power minus n into VFS.
So, this we called the least significant bit or LSB.

So, that is the 2 this nth bit is the significant bit or the LSB. So, by changing this LSB,
we can get this much of change so, this is the quantum this is the quantization level. So,
you cannot represent voltage change which is finer than these 2 power minus n into VFS.
So, you cannot get better than that. So, so, that way this will have the error part.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

Similarly we have so, this is another, this is the commercial d some commercial DAC.
So, this is Tis 20 bit sigma delta DAC, then this is an 8 channel d DAC from cirrus. So,
like that so, essentially what is happening is; so, this light colored signal. So, this is the
analog signal that we have so, and these are the samples.

So now, if you are if you are doing a digitization so, this is basically getting
approximated like this. And then so, so, this is digital values that we have. So, that is
converted into levels like this. So, this signal that we are getting is a close approximation
of what we actually want. So, that way we say that these digital to analog converters are
doing the conversion.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:11)

The other component the opposite if this is the analog to digital conversion. So, where
on this analog side some value is coming, and then we want to convert it into some
digital value. So, like a say one conveyor belt is moving, and you are just trying to see
what is the speed at which it is moving.

So, the speed is coming as an analog quantity a some analog or some transducer will be
there, and it will be coming as a analog signal. And that analog signal we want to convert
digital values so, that we can do some processing we can either increase or decrease it
like that. So, that way we can have the analog to digital converter on that side. So, this
analog input voltage vx so, it will be converted to nearest n bit number.

So, again the same thing that for a 4 bit converter so, 0 represent the vx so, the so, if you
0 to vx. So, that will input yield 0 0 0 0 to 1 1 1 1 digital output. So, when you give a 0 as
input so, you will get 0 0 0 0. When you give the maximum value vx as input so, you get
1 1 1 1 as the digital output. So, that is the design principle of this analog to digital
converter.

So, we will see later in our course how to design this ADC’s and DAC’s in different
ways. But however, ultimately this is the thing that we want so, if we give a 0 voltage.
So, it should 0 0 0 0 if we give vx the maximum possible voltage, then it should give all
one.

So, output is again approximated approximation of the input data, to the due to the
limited resolution of this n bit output. So, error that we have so, this is the actually the vx
that we want to represent, but what we actually get is this one. So, these bits that are
coming. So, if all these bits are one then you will be getting a value which is very close
to VFS, but this value is VFS.

So, this VFS minus that approximation that gives the amount of error that you have in
the process. So, this way we can have the analog to digital conversion so, this DAC and
ADC they are 2 very important modules that we have in a digital system when it is
interfaced with the analog domain. So, we will see that due code sometime.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:38)

So, if you look into this analog and digital signal so, it seems that we are we live in
analog worlds. So, things like we make the statements like louder quieter hotter colder
longer shorter. So, this is the sliding scale so, may be if I say that make it louder. So, you
just increase you will not turn the knobby bit, and may be the may be unsatisfied that is
ok or, I say the no, no reduce it a bit. So, make it quieter so, like that so, that is an analog
signal.
When your recording some sound on a tape recorder. So, we are putting the analog signal
on to the tape, the and digital signals are not on a on a sliding scales so, they are either on
or off like switches. So, the either the switch is on or the switch is off there is nothing
like a light is turned half on. Of course, if there may be intensity control of the light so,
that maybe if they are may be some on some analog some sliding scale may be there.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:39)

So, if we just look into some of the signal and try to see whether it is analog digital. So,
this volume control on a radios so, this is an analog signal traffic lights. So, they are
either on or off so, they are digital. So, this green red and yellow, either they are on or
they are off. Motor bike throttle, the amount of fuel injected into the system. So, that is
going to be an analog signal, because with the place of the as we turn this accelerator. So,
it puts in more and more fuel.

The dimmer switch; so, if we you can control the amount of illumination. So, that is also
an analog signal whereas, a light switch with just turn on or off the light. So, that is going
to be a digital signal. Water tap so, this is again an analog signal ok, we can turn the tap
as much as you want and accordingly the amount of water passing will vary. Music on a
CD is a digital signal. So, CD is the compact disc, they store information on a digital
format. And music on a tape so, that is going to be an analog signal. Because they are
uses analog principle to store the information.
So, this way different different signals so, you can think about them in digital or a
analog, but most of the signals or the most common signals that we have so, they are all
analog in natures. So, we have to pass them to an analog to digital convertor to get the
corresponding digital versions. And if we are trying to produce an analog signal through
some digital processing, we have to produce a, we have to have digital to analog
convertor for converting the digital value to analog.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:24)

So, this is another typical example of analog and digital signals so, a security floodlight.
So, it switches on when you approach so, it may be it has got an analog input. So, it
senses the infrared the amount of infrared that it sees from you. And produces a digital
output so; floodlight is either turned on or off. So, when it is doing that sensing of this
infrared component.

So, that is an analog signal, it is an analog input, but when it is producing this floodlight,
once it is turned on it is either turned on or turned off so, that is going to be a digital
signal. So, we can call it an analog to digital converter in that sense, ok. So, so that is one
way of the ADC that you can see.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:06)

What is the problem with analog signal is the noise. So, the lot of noise gets introduced;
like, if you are the further sound, they are may be a that get introduced. Or if it is an
image or picture these speckly dots may get introduced into the picture due to these
errors, the or the, that got introduced you from the noise.

So, when we are sending a signal over a long distance the signal will get weaker because
of losses, and we need to boost the signal; otherwise, you have transmitted as I was
telling so, you transmitted as I was telling. So, you are transmitted 12 volt and over the
length. So, it got reduced maybe so much that you get a very low voltage there. So, that
way a you need to amplify in between, ok.

So, normally what we do is that we put some periodic amplifiers on the path, and then
the amplifier amplifies the signals a boosts up the signal so that at receiving end you get
reasonably correct signal.

So, the problem is that we end of boosting the noise as well the process. So, in the if we
have got a boosting station so, a previous to that in the previous segment some noise got
introduced. So, that noise will also get boost up in the process. So, this noise also gets
amplified or noise also get booster. So, that is the problem with the analog signal.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:29)

So, if we on the on the other hand, the digital signals if we convert the signal to the
digital form and then send it, still gets weaker, and noise will still noise still creeps in.
Because that is the ultimately what we transmit is some analog voltage values. So, that
will be that will make the signal weaker and the noise will come. So, there is no doubt
about it, but it is like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:55)

If you read the text yourself, the software in your brain can reconstruct the text, because
you know that ah. So, because you can the, that the later shapes are suppose to be even
though they are blurred. So, like if you do a photocopy of a page with the page which is
not very clear ok. So, if you do a photocopy so, after copy we will get a even worse page.

But if you do it like this if you read the text from the page. So, possibly you will be able
to figure out those blurrings of the different laters that we have on the page, and we can
just correct it. So, this is just what this digital thing does. So, will maybe the voltage
value has reduced a bit, but it is not that much degraded and still possibly we can figure
out that this was a on and this was a 0. We can reconstruct the signal and then again in
transmit. So, that away the amount of noise that we got introduce so, that may get
reduced further.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:56)

So, analog signal the suffer from noise, but do not need such complex equipment. On the
other hand, the digital signals need fast clever electronics, but we can get rid of any such
noise. So, this is the so, that tells the summarize is the analog and digital signals.

So, one of the very basic components when we are doing this the digital switching and
digital circuits so, is the is a transistor and the most recent transistor that is being used in
the digital industry today.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:22)

So, they are CMOS transistors so, in CMOS transistor so, we will discuss in detail later
just to tell you how it works.

This is a semiconductor block, so, so that so, normally. So, this is on that semiconductor
block we have got 2 dedicated region one is called a source another is called drain. So,
they have got some type of diffuse, they are some amount of some type of diffusion
basically. So, if this semiconductor block that we have. So, if this is of say p type
semiconductor then on this 2 regions so, we put some n type diffusions. So, one region is
called source, other region is called drain.

So, the region in between so, it is covered by some silicon dioxide layer, and on top of
that we put a another layer of policy we can get. Now normally what happens is the if we
apply a voltage on to this gate positive voltage on to this gate so, it will it will attract the
electrons from this from the substrate, we call it a substrate. So, the it will call the it will
attract this electrons into this into this channel between the source and drain, and now if
there is a potential difference between source and drain.

So, if we apply a battery between the source and drain, then these electrons will move
through this channel they will go from source to drain or drain to source depending on
the polarity of the signals.
So, you get a current flow through the through the device if we apply a positive voltage
here. So, it will attract electrons turning the channel between source and drain into a
conductor. So, this region will behave as a conductor. So, that is why it is called a
semiconductor so, will be. So, if turn for turning of the connect conduction so, you just
make the get a 0. And so, this is track this channel will go. So, there is no conduction,
and if you want this channel to be on so, you just apply a voltage here. So, this channel
will become on.

So, pictorial it is represented like this. So, we have got source and drain at the 2 ends,
and there is a gate control. So, if you apply logic high here, high voltage here, then the
channel will come to existence as a result you can see that the as if this transistor is now
open. So, transistor is now on so, you can get a conduction from this side of the transistor
to this side of the transistor through the channel.

The other hand if you put a logic 0 here a low voltage here or you withdraw the voltage
that you are apply. So, this channel will low will not exist as a result, this transistor will
behave as if the transistor is open. So, this is this is this will behave like a open switch.

So, in one case it is working as a closed switch, when this when this gate is high so, this
will act as a closed switch. So, you will get connection from here to here, and another
case you will getting an getting an open situation where there is no connection from get
to drain to source. So, this way this transistor will behave in the form of a switch.

So, we will come back to these transistors again later, but what I essentially means is that
these are the, these small transistor. So, they are the tool by which we represent this
switches in the digital circuits. So, they will be used again and again for when in the
circuit design.